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ABSTRACT
The influence of long-term corona on the degradation of non-ceramic composite insulator (NCI)
housing materials was studied. Polymer samples were obtained from full-scale NCI, employ-
ing three different housing materials, namely silicone rubber (SIR), ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM) rubber and a blend of EPDM with silicone rubber. The effect of relative
humidity and externally applied mechanical stress as acceleration factors was assessed. Sev-
eral modes of degradationwere observed, namely, cracking, roughening, and discoloration. In
general, the severity of degradation increased with the relativehumidity level and application
of mechanical stress. Periodic monitoring of corona discharge magnitude and pulse repeti-
tion rate allowed for a simplistic computation of the energy needed for initiation of surface
changes. A comparison of these calculated values with expected conditions in the field was
made. It is postulated that even under severeoperating conditionsover a period of many years,
degradationof the housing materials evaluated due to water droplet corona is highly unlikely.
1 INTRODUCTION bodies on the NCI surface will play a major role on degradation.
ECENTLY, several experimental studies have focused on the evalu- The continuous exposure of a specific NCI surface area to corona al-
R ation of NCI housing material degradation due to corona occurring lows for a cumulative effect of the electrical discharges and their side
under clean and wet conditions. Conclusions drawn from such stud- reactions to be studied. The time that a single water droplet (or set
ies seem to indicate that water droplet triggered corona can provoke of droplets) remains at the same place on the insulator surface is im-
degradationof the NCI surface, especially on the shank of the insulator portant. Under the influence of gravity a water droplet deposited on
[l].Permanent loss of the NCI housing hydrophobicity has also been the NCI shank will be displaced downwards. Additionally, if the elec-
reported to occur [l,21. From theoretical calculations also, it was shown tric field generates within a water droplet, charge magnitudes in excess
that the local enhancement of the electric field at the edges of the wa- of the Rayleigh limit, electrohydrodynamic instability will take place
ter droplets can be high enough to generate corona. It is of practical thus promoting droplet deformation and coalescence [5]. In the event
interest to quantify the energy required to cause water droplet corona of corona discharges being already triggered at the NCI surface-water
material degradation, and also to understand the mechanisms involved droplet-air interface, the interaction of such discharges with the poly-
in such a process. Information on these aspects is insufficient at this mer will render the initially water repellent surface hydrophilic. Conse-
time. quently, water filming on the NCI surface will be promoted and a drastic
The work performed hitherto, on the study of dynamics of water change in water droplet size and shape can be expected. Both chemi-
droplets subjected to high ambient electric fields, serves as a basis from cal and electrophysicalphenomena have been reported to influence the
which some initial inferences may be drawn [3-61. For instance, Wind- mechanism of hydrophobicity loss [&lo].
mar [5] has identified that the threshold value of the ambient electric It can be seen that for understanding the degradation modes asso-
field required for initiation of water droplet corona lies between 5 to ciated to corona triggered by water droplets, a series of events seem-
7 kV/cm for single and multiple droplets aligned in the same direction ingly having inherent self-opposing characteristics should be consid-
as that of the applied electric field. Several other processes related to ered. Such processes can inhibit the rate of degradation. Poorly de-
water droplet triggered corona may also occur. It is known that damage signed insulatorhardware (including corona rings) can promote corona
to a polymer surface from corona is dependenton both the intensity and even under dry conditions, and this could be a continuous source of
duration of the discharge. In the case of water droplet triggered corona, discharges. In the presence of condensed moisture, water droplets may
these two discharge parameters are influenced by the water droplet size create discrete sources of corona, randomly distributed along the in-
and shape [l,5,7]. Therefore, the actual dynamic behavior of aqueous sulator. Assessment of the corona performanceof the housing and its
45 Em
500kv 1.5 sm 7-
NCI are shown. It can be seen that electric field magnitudes equal to spectively). The average sample thickness was 0.5 cm. All the samples
or in excess of the theoretical threshold values for water droplet corona contained a large quantity of fumed silica and/or alumina trihydrate as
initiation can occur in the sections closest to the energized end of the inorganic fillers.
insulator even under dry conditions. The tangential E component gen-
erates stress magnitudes on the insulator shank in the range established 3.2 TEST EQUIPMENT
-
for water droplet triggered corona. In the 345 kV NCI case, such a high
electric field region extends to 10 cm from the energized end. For -
A point/plane electrode configuration was used in these experi-
ments. The point electrode (tip radius 0.02 cm) served as the corona
-
the 500 kV rated NCI, such E magnitudes are observed to distances
18 cm away from the line end.
It is noteworthy to mention that the simulation results presented
source. The measuring back-electrode consisted of a central brass disc
(diameter= 2 cm) and an aluminum guard ring (inner diameter = 4 cm,
outer diameter = 5 cm). A PTFE insert was used to electrically isolate
above do not take into consideration the effect of environmental fac- both the central and guard electrodes. The distance between the corona
tors such as humidity, pressure, and contamination, which are known electrode and the sample surface was maintained at 0.1 cm. The point/
to have a noticeable influence on E. The results obtained from this plane electrode setup was enclosed in an acrylic chamber with dimen-
analysis are deemed good enough to provide an indication of corona sions 45x45~120cm3 (height x depth x width, respectively).
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 8 No. 1, February 2001 119
High voltage
trwrfomer
120 : 7200/15000V Circuit component -
considered to be reached if cracks extended beyond
and 10 pm in width.
- 100 pm in length
hiao 5kVA values
1u) ; 0.140 v c I I I cc= l0OpF To h m voltage p o w r rupply To PDmearunngcraIt
3.3 TEST METHOD Micrographs periodically taken on the samples over the entire test
time allowed monitoring of the progress of degradation to be per-
Samples were exposed to corona discharges under both low (35 to formed. In Figure 5, the surface state after 145 h of testing of samples
40%) and high (95 to 100%) relative humidity conditions for 500 h. evaluated under high humidity conditions with application of mechan-
A heating resistance fog generator was used to create the high rela- ical stress is illustrated. Various degrees of material degradationcan be
tive humidity environment by boiling de-ionized water (conductivity identified. The early stage of crack formation on blend samples can be
= 5 p S/cm, pH = 6.5). A constant fog input rate (500 gm3/h) was observed in Figure 5(a). On blend samples, crack formation at this stage
employed for all high relative humidity evaluations. Care was taken of the degradation process seems to be at least partly promoted by the
to avoid fog from directly hitting the specimens under test, thus pre- formation of a filler-based lattice on the sample surface. The cracks al-
venting the sample surface from experiencingundesirable temperature ready visible on the surface of the blend sample initiate at and develop
along the branches of such filler-based lattice. In contrast, degradation
-
increase. The average temperature increase inside the test cell due to
the fog input was measured to be 3 to 5C above the ambient tem-
perature. ac voltage (7.2 kV,) was applied to the corona electrode
observed on EPDM samples was mainly characterized by gradual ero-
sion of the sample surface. Two distinctive stages of the degradation
throughout the test period. For comparison purposes, samples were mechanism identified on the EPDM samples are shown in Figure 5@).
tested with and without application of mechanical stress by employing The lower section of the picture illustrates the presence of a thin de-
the arrangements shown in Figure 4. Samples tested under low rela- graded layer of the material. The upper section of the picture, which
tive humidity conditions were evaluated only without application of corresponds to the surface of the sample directly exposed to corona
mechanical stress. The samples were removed from the cell at specific impingement, evidences the removal of the degraded polymer layer.
times along the test period in order to perform surface condition in- This observation, consistent with findings reported by Xu et al. [U],
spection, weight measurements and FTIR analysis. Evolution with time may be attributed to an initial roughening of the sample surface result-
of the degradation process was thus monitored, and the time at which ing from loss of polymer, which uncovers an underlying layer of filler
deep cracking first was identified on the samples, was recorded corre- [12]. Once the layer of unbound filler becomes exposed, the mechani-
spondingly,For the purposes of this study, a crack formation stage was cal impact of the subsequent discharges may remove this layer hence
120 Moreno et al.: Effectof Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators
-
of the test period. On SIR samples evaluated under high humidity con-
-
ditions and mechanicalstress application, cracks extending 6 to 7 mm
in length and 3 mm in depth often were observed. Such intensive
blend samples, is deemed the primary process leading to degradation
on EPDM samples tested under low humidity conditions. Unlike the
EPDM samples evaluated in high humidity conditions, chain scission on
crackingwas accompaniedby increased amounts of unbound filler with the EPDM samples tested in a low humidity environment was largely
respect to the quantities observed at earlier stages of the test period (see evidenced by the formation of a seemingly higher number of cracks on
also Figure 8(b)). the sample surface. Such increased number of surface cracks showed,
The surface condition at the end of the test period (500 h) of samples however, a shallower profile as observed in Figure 10. Figure 11illus-
evaluated in a low humidity environment without applying external trates the pattern of degradation identified on SIR samples evaluated in
mechanical stress is illustrated in Figurges 9 to 11. By comparing these a low humidity environment. In general, such degradation process was
test results with those of samples evaluated under high humidity con- characterized by features similar to those already discussed for tests
ditions and application of external mechanical stress, some differences conducted under high humidity conditions. Formation of the filler-
in both the apparent nature and the rate of degradation seem to be evi- based lattice eventually gave rise to initiation of small cracks in and
dent. On blend samples, the filler-based grid formed as a consequence along the lattice branches. Larger amounts of filler accumulated along
of polymer degradation showed a more densely connected pattern with the grid branches, to the point where the loss of mechanical properties
respect to that observed on samples exposed to higher humidity con- of the damaged polymer surface further promoted crack growth. In the
ditions (see Figure 9(a)). The amounts of unbound filler present on the absence of externally applied mechanical stresses, only those arising in
sample surface, however, were similar in both cases (low and high hu- the material itself from internal strain forces can be accounted for as a
midity conditions). This behavior could have been mainly determined factor determining the progress of cracking.
by the absence, in the low humidity tests, of the externally applied me- The reduced degree of polymer deterioration identified from low
122 Moreno et al.: Effect of Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators
Figure 9. Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the Figure 10. Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the
testing time (500h) on blend samples evaluated without applicationof testing time (500h) on EPDM samples evaluatedwithout applicationof
mechanical stress under low relative humidity conditions (35 to 40% mechanical stress under low relative humidity conditions (35 to 40%
RH). RH).
humidity tests with respect to those from high humidity tests for all of Table 1. A summary of evaluationresults as observed for each mate-
the evaluated materials may be attributed at least partly to the afore- rial group under every test condition adopted in this study.
mentioned condition. However, the lack of higher levels of moisture, Test rnndition IMaterial I Observations
which can act as a catalytic element for chemically induced polymer High relative humidity SIR Deep cracking (- 3 mm in depth),
degradation processes, also could have been responsible for the trends (95-loo%),mechanical stress surface whitening
in material damage referred to before. The effect of humidity, in terms EPDM Surface darkening, shallow cracking
of degradation rate, manifested itself in generally somewhat shorter blend Deep cracking, (- 1.5 mm in depth),
surface whitening
times required to crack formation on tests run under high humidity con- High relative humidity SIR Deep cracking (-- 2 mm in depth),
-
EPDM Surface darkening, slight roughening
and longer, times to cracking in a high humidity environment were
blend Shallow cracking (-- O S mm in depth),
found to range between 130 to 150 h. A summary of the varying surface whitening
levels of degradation observed on every material group with respect to Low relative humidity Deep cracking ( w 2.5 mm in depth)
each test condition adopted in this study is presented in Table 1. (35-40%), no mechanical
stress
4.2 FTIR ANALYSIS
The results obtained from the FTIR analysis performed on the tested
samples are presented in this section. Two main aspects of the observed
corona induced degradation are to be highlighted: The dependence of material sample, individual FTIR readings were taken on each 'degrada-
polymer damage on the relative intensity of corona according to the tion ring' surface where varying levels of degradation were seemingly
ring-patterned degradation marks identified on every material group, observed. Accordingly, each spectrum shown in Figure 12 for every
and the correlationof FTIR spectra evolution with time and the varying material is labeled as (a) through (d) from the center of the sample to-
degrees of material degradation. ward its outer section. The changes identified in the FTIR spectra for
In Figure 12, typical FTIR spectra recorded after 500 h on EPDM, every material are determined mainly by the relative position of the
SIR and blend samples tested under high humidity conditions are com- analyzed surface with respect to the corona electrode. The reduction in
pared graphically with those corresponding to new samples. For every the spectral peak heights identified through FTIR analysis for each ma-
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 8 No. 1, February2001 123
EO
(bl
(Cl
60
E
E 40
c
20 New d)
3 :
0 EPDM
4000 3000 2000 1000
100 la1
ibl
BO
(Cl
2 80
n id1
p 40
20
0
4000 3000 2000 1000
Wavenumbers (cml)
Figure 12. Typical FTIR spectra (500h test time) of samples evaluated
Figure 11. Typical degradation patterns observed at the end of the under high humidity conditions as a function of distance to corona
testing time (500 h) on SIR samples evaluated without application of electrode.
mechanical stress under low relative humidity conditions (35 to 40%
RH). be due to actual changes in the chemical composition of the polymer, as
well as surface physical changes (for instance, increased surface rough-
terial group shows a decreasing trend with the distance from the center ness) [17]. From the FTIR analysis results shown in Figure 12, it can also
of the sample (curve a). be deduced that corona degradation provoking complete lost of poly-
mer integrity was restricted only to surface locations within a certain
On blend and EPDM samples, absence of the absorption bands due distance from the HV electrode (curves a and b). This observation can
to CH3 (2950 cm-' and 1460 cm-') on the sample surfaces closest to the be confirmed by the degradation patterns illustrated in Figures 6 to 8.
corona electrode (curves a and b) can be identified. Only a reduced Under the test conditions adopted in this study, such locations were
absorption peak at 1020 cm-' due to the ATH filler is observed in these usually situated not beyond 1 to 2 mm from the vertical axis of the
N
spectra. Because the FTIR point locates farther away from the corona corona electrode.
electrode (curves c and d), the intensity of both CH3 and ATH-related Regarding the time required for the polymers to undergo a complete
absorption bands correspondinglyincreases. On these sections of the loss of integrity and to show, in turn, a filler-based powdery surface,
sample, absorption due to surface degradation products can now be
only a slight variation among the three evaluated materials was ob-
identified. Particularly, the presence of highly oxidized carbons (C=O,
served. In general, the first traces of an unbound filler layer building
ketone carbonyl)at 1718cm-' is detected. The absorption peak observed
up on the surface of blend and SIR samples were detected after 130 to N
at 1640 cm-' is attributed to hydroxyl (OH) groups in water [15,16].
180 h of exposure to corona under high humidity conditions. Slightly
On the SIR FTIR spectra (Figure 12), a similar pattern of peak height longer times were required by EPDM samples to reach a comparable
reduction as that found on blend and EPDM can be seen. Predominantly, degradation stage. Tests performed under low humidity conditions
absorption due to ATH at wavenumbers 1020 cm-' and lower is identi- yielded somewhat longer times for all samples to show evidence of a
fied on the sample sections closest to the corona electrode. A strong re- powdery surface. In this latter case, the difference in times required
duction in the intensity of absorptionbands attributed to OH due to the by all three materials to develop an unbound filler layer on their sur-
ATH filler (3300 cm-l), CH3 (2960 cm-') and Si-CH3 (1270 to 1255 cm-')
groups, is observed also (curves a and b). Unlike the trends identified
on blend and EPDM samples, no absorption due to polymer degrada-
face was almost negligible. Intensive surface polymer degradation and
exposure of underlying filler were detected after 200 to 250 h of test-
ing. Results obtained from FTIR analysis on samples evaluated under
-
tion products is detected on sample sections located farther away from low humidity conditions seem to agree with the observations described
the corona electrode (curves c and d). Only a weak absorption peak above.
due to OH in water can be seen at wavenumber 1640 cm-' [15,16]. In Figure 13, the evolution with time of FTIR spectra of material
It is well known that changes in the IR absorption peak heights may samples exposed to corona in a low humidity environment is depicted
124 Moreno et al.: Effect of Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators
0.4/ EPDM
2
L4 ---SiR
, . Blend
OL
4000 ~
L, ..... ...... .., ._.._
3000 2000 1000
Figure 13. Typical FTIR spectra of samples evaluated under low hu-
midity conditionsas a function of corona exposure time. (a) 100 h, (b)
200 h, (c) 300 h, (d)500 h. Spectra taken at the area directly undemeath Ofc I I I I I
-
ticed clearly. Moisture uptake on samples tested under this latter con- and its corresponding repetition rate. PD repetition rate was obtained
dition resulted to be 2x that of tests performed under low humidity in a straightforward manner from the oscilloscopefrequency readings
conditions. by setting the trigger level above that of the background noise. Average
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 8 No. 1, February 2001 125
10
a
c
e
P)
>
-
9
3
5
5
0
0
100 200 300 400 50C 0 100 200 300 400 500
*
I
i
- - . -- Neg
- .
F IO
a
100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
15
Total
- - - Pos. a - - - Total
Pos.
- - . --Neg.
-
1
_ _ _ _ _ -Neg. f2 I
Time t o crack formation
-130 h
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
(cl Test time (h) Test time (h)
Figure 16. Typical cumulative charge values for material samples Figure 17. Typical cumulative charge values for material samples
tested under high humidity conditions (95to 100%RH). Positive, neg- tested under low humidity conditions (35 to 40% RH). Positive, neg-
ative and total cumulative charge values are plotted as a function of ative and total cumulative charge values are plotted as a function of
test time: (a)blend, @) EPDM, (c) SIR. test t h e (a) blend, @) EPDM, (c) SIR.
3. The previous remark further supports the postulation of chemically correspondingly indicated. From Table 1, it can be observed that m-
(acidic)triggered mechanisms as the predominantfactor in water droplet der the test conditions adopted in this study the evaluated SIR mate-
corona related degradation of insulator housings. rial performed less satisfactorily compared to the rest of the materials.
4. For metal point/dielectric surface plane electrode configurations, it has Therefore, in attempting to assess an expected field corona performance
been observed that suppression of corona discharges due to charge for the polymer housings included in this evaluation, the SIR material
accumulation processes may take place [23,26,27]. From a practical is considered as the analysis case. In the following Section, the sig-
standpoint, given the nature of the mechanisms seeminglydetermining nificance and correlation between the values of cumulative charge and
corona exposed material degradation, such an inhibiting discharge be- the observed increasing degree of sample degradation up to the time
havior would be desirable. This applies particularly to positive corona. of crack formation are discussed, and their extrapolation to a practical
In terms of potential practical applications, a deeper and more detailed
case is performed.
analysis of this issue might be worthwhile.
5 DISCUSSION
Included in the cumulative charge plots of Figure 16 are the times
for crack formation as recorded for the respective blend and SIR sam- Under the test conditions adopted in this study, similar degradation
ples. For the EPDM sample, the time required for surface chalking is patterns were identified on both blend and SIR samples. In terms of
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 8 No.I , February 2001 127
corona degradation rate, these two materials also showed the less sat- crack initiation identified for the SIR material corresponded to 3.45
N
isfactory electrical performance. Weight gain measurements indicate to 4.5 C (- 130 to 150 h of testing, respectively)for samples evaluated
that the highest moisture uptake levels corresponded to the materials under high humidity conditions and application of external mechanical
referred to above. Consequently, it may be speculated that the observed stress. Therefore, the expected time to crack formation may be inferred,
trends in material degradation are closely related to both the kind and/ in a simplistic form, as
or amount of filler present in the formulation of each polymer and its PD magnitudexPD frequencyxTimeto cracking x 3.45 to 4.5 C (1)
respectivemoisture absorption characteristic [28]. Given the strong cor-
If time to crack formation is to be determined in years, the respective
relation between degradation and moisture absorption characteristics,
multipliers are to be included in the previous expression. Performing
an additional source of material deteriorationmight be ascribed to me-
the respective computations, it is found that
chanicalexpansion forcesdue to boiling of water absorbed during sam-
ple evaluation, as already suggested by Kumagi et al. [29]. In the range Time to crack formation M 7.3 to 9.5 yr (2)
of corona currents recorded during these tests (w 5 to 10 PA), tem-
N This estimates, when compared to the most commonly reported
peratures rising above the water boiling point are likely to be achieved field experiences,may not seem to provide a reliable indication of NCI
at the tip of the corona discharge [30]. housing degradation-free operating time expectancy, However, it is im-
It is well known that the interaction of electrical discharges and portant to recall the fact that the humidity conditions adopted in this
moisture causes the generation of acid liquid byproducts, in addition experiment are much more severe than those usually found in the field
to volatile species such as ozone [21,25,31].By assuming occurrenceof during normal NCI operation. Gorur and Bernstein [33] identified, dur-
NCI housing, chemical attack derived from such mechanisms as those ing field monitoring of cable terminations installed in several locations
described above, the increased degrees of degradation identified on throughout the USA, that significant levels of leakage current activity
samples tested under high humidity conditions can satisfactorilybe ex- can be expected for a period of about one hour per day at a vast majority
plained. Application of external mechanical stresses is a factor adding of operation sites. The above figure is strongly related to the humidity
to the greater amounts of material degradation observed on samples conditions present at every service location. If its inclusion in the esti-
tested under such Conditions. mation of the time to cracking of NCI housing materials was effected,
theaew calculated values would yield very long times (1OOt yr). lime
On the other hand, formation of a filler-based grid on the sample to cracking values obtained by averaging both extreme results, how-
surface as identified during this study suggests that thermally activated ever, will provide more realistic estimates.
processesmay have taken place as well. At a macroscopic level, the en-
ergy released by corona discharges (as detected, for instance, through Field experienceindicates that the condition where corona discharge
infrared thermography) may not seem high enough as to acknowledge continuously impinges on the surface of an NCI housing is a rather
the occurrenceof thermal processes on the sample surface. At the mi- uncommon event, and has been linked with sharp edges at poorly de-
croscopic level, however, the tip of the discharge might constitute a signed hardware and/or arc damaged metal fittings. In addition, the
localized source of heat releasing energy high enough as to possibly above presented calculation assumes as a critical point the approximate
break the weakest bonds in the polymer matrix. Thus, the effect of ther- time at which the first traces of crack formation were detected. If the
mal processes on corona provoked degradation may not be ruled out time for cracks to develop toward the sample bulk to a depth of 3 mm
completely, (a typical NCI housing thickness),is taken instead as the worst case sce-
nario, longer times for degradation from water droplet corona will be
From a practical standpoint, lifetime prediction for NCI remains an
obtained correspondingly,Once taken into consideration, these factors
issue of significant controversy, Recent discussions on the damaging
will affect significantlyboth the crack formation times initially derived
effect of wet corona on the long-term performance of NCI have raised from the experimental results of this study and the times when cracking
additional concerns on the already debated issue of polymer insulation may have reached the NCI fiberglasscore.
long-term reliability [2]. Based on the results obtained from this ex-
perimental work, the authors have attempted to find a correlation of 6 CONCLUSIONS
these with expected NCI field operating conditions and performance.
In developing such assessment, some assumptions regarding the PD
parameters that characterize the corona discharge activity have corre- A summary of the results obtained from a study aimed at assessing
degradation-free operating times for NCI housing materials when
subjected to corona and varying humidity and mechanical stressing
spondingly been made. These assumed values are based on experimen-
tal results previously reported by the authors [32]. By simulating the conditions has been presented.
source of corona with a point electrode attached to the energized end Humidity was found to play a major role on degradationundergone
of a NCI, PD magnitudes ranging between 15 and 70 pC and PD repeti- by the NCI housing materials evaluated in this study. The role of hu-
tion rates from 0.06 to 125 kHz were recorded. For the purposes of the midity was not only limited to determining the amount of degradation
present analysis, the SIR material evaluated in this study is considered observed on the samples at the end of the test period, but it also influ-
as a reference case. The reasons for including the SIR in this analysis enced the nature of the degradation mechanisms occurring under every
have been already discussed in Section 4.4 of this paper. test condition adopted in this evaluation.
On the basis of the experimental results reported in [32],an average It has been estimated that even under the assumption of extremely
PD magnitude of 15 pC and PD repetition rate of 1kHz are assumed as severe weather conditions to be present during field operation, the NCI
conservative estimates of NCI PD activity, From Figure 16, the time to housing time to crack formation figures derived from this analysis,
128 Moreno et al.: Effect of Corona on Non-Ceramic Insulators
which are attributable to water droplet corona degradation amount to [ l a D. Birthwhistle, l? Blackmore, A. Krivda, G. Cash and G. George, Monitoring the
many years. Condition of Insulator Shed Materials in Overhead Distribution Networks, IEEE
Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 612-619, Oc-
It is deemed that fairly reasonable results have been obtained by the tober 1999.
authors from their approach to the estimation of times to crack forma- [18] F. Gustavino and l? Eemblo, Models for Life Prediction in Surface PD on Polymer
tion associated to water droplet corona on NCI housing materials, It Films, IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 4, NO.2, PP.
189-196, April 1997.
is considered, therefore, that similar computations may be performed
[191 A, contin, E, Gulski, M. Cacciari and G. c,Montanari, ,,Inference of pD in
properly for any NCI housing material formulation. Insulation by Charge-height Probabilitv Distribution. Diagnosis of Insulation Svs-
tem Degradkon,iEEE ?ramactions i n Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol.
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