Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866

Experiences on pollution level measurement in Mexico

Gerardo Montoya-Tena, Ramiro Hernandez-Corona , Isaas Ramrez-Vazquez
Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas, Reforma 113 Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico

Received 4 March 2004; received in revised form 6 April 2005; accepted 11 April 2005
Available online 7 July 2005

Abstract

The pollution on overhead insulators is influenced by the pollutant type as well as by the climate of the site. In Mexico, due to its orography
and diversity of lands, there are several areas where the failures on the overhead insulation are mainly caused by the pollution. Since the
decade of 1980s, various studies have been performed to solve or at least alleviate such transmission and distribution power line pollution-
related problems. This paper presents a description of several studies conducted by the Mexican Electrical Research Institute Instituto de
Investigaciones Electricas (IIE) together with the Mexican electrical utility Comision Federal de Electricidad (CFE), from the elaboration
of a contamination map to the development of a system for measuring leakage current, which is used as a tool for the in-service diagnostic of
insulators installed on lines of transmission.
2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ing material, as the flashover withstand voltage. The flashover

Since the second half of the 20th century, demand for
electrical energy has grown more quickly than generation. In
order to satisfy the demand of the user, electrical companies
had to implement several measures to improve the efficiency
of their electrical systems. Some of these measures were the
nominal voltage increase on both transmission and distribu-
tion systems and the reduction of the failures on the overhead
insulators used in lines and substations. With the application
of these measures, several problems arose. One of these prob-
lems was the effect that overhead insulators undergo due to
the action of polluted environments. In fact, the first investi-
gations defined the contamination as one of the most frequent
causes of failure on overhead insulators [1]. At present, con-
tamination is one of the main failure causes on the electrical
systems of most countries.
The contamination mechanically degrades the insulators
and affects some of the electrical characteristics of the insulat-
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: gmontoya@iie.org.mx (G. Montoya-Tena),
rhc@iie.org.mx (R. Hernandez-Corona), iramirez@iie.org.mx
(I. Ramrez-Vazquez).
withstand voltage of a contaminated insulator is lower than
that of a clean insulator, under the same climate conditions,
so the flashover risk increases.
The problems of contamination on electrical insulators
take place when the environment that surrounds them con-
tains diverse substances, especially saline and industrial ones,
which are deposited on insulators, forming a polluting layer
on their surface. In dry conditions, this layer does not cause
great problems, but under the presence of light rain, humid-
ity, dew or fog, the dielectric characteristics of the insulator
surface are decreased, allowing the flow of leakage current
(LC) between the insulator electrodes (Fig. 1).
The LC can increase itself until causing a failure on the
high-tension electrical system. The probability and speed
of this failure type depends on the type and material of
the insulator, the climate of the area, the type and level of
contamination, as well as the voltage under which the insu-
lator is working. Other effects that the contamination causes
are the corrosion and the erosion of the insulator. On poly-
meric insulators, other phenomena, both from the formation
of dry bands and the establishment of the pyrolysis effect,
must be taken into account to analyze the insulator perfor-
mance.

0378-7796/$ see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2005.04.003
 G. Montoya-Tena et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866
Fig. 1. Contaminated insulator showing leakage current marks on its surface.
2. Alternatives considered around the world
Around the world, different research works about the pol-
lution flashover process on insulators have been developed.
From these works, alternatives to decrease the effects caused
by the pollution on insulators have been obtained. The inves-
tigation lines for solving the pollution problem have mainly
been focused on the search for new materials, coatings or
insulator profiles [24].
For controlling the pollution problem, two alternatives
have been established: design and maintenance (Fig. 2). In
the first alternative, the insulator type and material are cho-
sen according to the pollution level in the area in which
the insulator is to be used. In the second alternative, effi-
cient maintenance plans are designed. These alternatives vary
depending both on the type and amount of pollutant deposited
on the insulator and on the feasibility of their application.
Nowadays, due to the necessity of a greater efficiency on
the application of resources, the diagnostic of insulator in
real time has great relevance, since excessive maintenance
Fig. 2. Investigation lines.
59
is avoided, and consequently, the maintenance is only per-
formed before a failure on the insulator may occur. It is clear
that the selection of the methodology for the diagnostic must
carefully be selected and be validated. In Mexico, the LC as
a tool for diagnostic on transmission lines is used [5].
2.1. Insulator material and design
The design of insulators for use under contaminated envi-
ronments has been based on the properties of the insulating
materials as well as on knowledge and experience gained
during the development of the electrical industry.
2.1.1. Porcelain and glass
Initially, glass and porcelain, also known as ceramic insu-
lations, were the most commonly used materials for manufac-
turing of insulators. Both their dielectric characteristics and
ease of molding resulted in all insulators being made from
these materials for many years. The problem with this type
of insulation is that the leakage distance (LD) of a ceramic
insulator is fixed and depends on its profile. Therefore, when
a longer LD is required for polluted areas, there are two possi-
bilities to meet such requirement: one is adding insulator units
to the insulator string and another is increasing the specific
leakage distance (SLD) by using another insulator profile,
as for example, super-anti-fog insulator instead of standard
one. However, both alternatives cause the insulator to become
increasingly heavier, which sometimes imposes a mechanical
restriction on the application of ceramic insulators in exist-
ing transmission structures. Another disadvantage of ceramic
insulators, especially those manufactured of glass, is their low
resistance to vandalism.
There are zones where contamination is so heavy that
it requires heroic solutions in order to maintain continu-
ity of electrical service. In these zones, a SLD of about
60 G. Montoya-Tena et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866

Fig. 3. Polymeric insulator.

60 mm/kV for the insulator is usually recommended. In most

of cases, this recommendation is applied at substations by
increasing the length of the insulator string, namely adding
insulator units, in order to obtain the required SLD. In oth-
ers cases, when it is not possible to increase the length
of the insulator string, using insulators with very large LD
(super-anti-fog profiles) is the most viable option, as it
is carried out on transmission lines with vertical insulator
strings.
2.1.2. Polymeric insulators
Polymeric insulators were first installed in Germany in
the mid-1960s. Polymeric insulators are also known as non-
ceramic or synthetic insulators and have several advantages
over ceramic insulators, such as lightweight, good perfor-
mance under contamination conditions, facility of handling
and installation, higher resistance to vandalism and a high
mechanical resistance having less weight. The main disad-
vantage of these insulators is that their aging directly affects
their in-service life. For this reason, in some countries these
insulators have not been used as a general practice. There-
fore, their specifications and criteria of selection are not well
defined.
To date, there are several very mature technologies for
the manufacture of polymeric insulators, placing the applica-
tion of these insulators in a more solid position. Currently, the
experience in the market has shown the development of poly-
meric insulators into three main areas: suspension insulators
(transmission), distribution insulators and post-type insula-
tors for line (Fig. 3).
One of the main properties of polymeric insulators is
superficial hydrophobicity, which has an important effect on
their performance. On a hydrophobic surface, water forms
drops and hence it does not allow a continuous film of water to
form on the insulator (Fig. 4). This property reduces the leak-
age current magnitude flowing on the insulator surface and
the probability of formation of dry bands is also decreased.
Fig. 4. Hydrophobicity effect on polymeric insulators.
For this reason, polymeric insulators may have longer life
and better performance than ceramic insulators, in wetted
and polluted conditions.
2.1.3. Composite grease and hydrophobic coatings
The performance of ceramic insulators in a contaminated
environment can considerably be improved by the use of
hydrophobic coatings, mainly made from silicone, either in
the form of grease or film, applied on the conventional insu-
lator. This practice has been satisfactorily used in order to
decrease the flashover risk by contamination for more than
30 years. However, this alternative is relatively expensive
and requires periodic maintenance to remove and reapply the
coating. The frequency of this activity can vary from months
to several years, depending on the type and level of contami-
nation and the environmental conditions. At the present time,
the use of grease has practically been replaced by the appli-
cation of films.
2.2. Maintenance
In many cases, a good insulator profile design may reduce
the number of outages caused by pollution. Nevertheless, in
areas with severe contamination environments or low rain
probability, maintenance of the insulators is required. This
maintenance is normally made into one of the following
ways:
(a) periodic washing of live or dead line;
(b) periodic cleaning done by hand on dead line;
(c) periodic cleaning, using dry abrasive material on live or
dead line;
(d) massive replacement of insulators.
 G. Montoya-Tena et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866
Fig. 5. Insulation washing on live line.
2.2.1. Insulator washing
Washing by water jet has shown itself to be the most eco-
nomic method to remove pollution from the insulator surface.
Washing is very effective when the pollutant deposited on the
insulator is either dust, salt, dirt or acid, because these pol-
lutants do not adhere strongly themselves to the insulating
surface. In some areas, the natural washing performed by
rain is sufficient in order to prevent flashover on the insulator
due to contamination. Nevertheless, in regions where rain is
not frequent, it is necessary to wash the insulator during the
dry seasons.
The frequency of washing depends on the contamination
level, the environmental conditions and the insulator profile.
Where frequent washing is required, mainly in substations, it
is economically recommended to install a system of pipes in
towers or systems with permanent nozzles to facilitate wash-
ing (Fig. 5).
The insulators must be washed before they accumulate
critical contamination levels. This can be determined by
means of:
(a) experience of pollution flashover occurred over the last
years;
(b) measurements of equivalent salt deposit density (ESDD)
on witness insulators installed near the transmission line;
(c) surface discharges observed on the insulator during crit-
ical conditions;
(d) presence of radio interference;
(e) measurements of leakage current on the insulators
installed on the transmission line.
2.2.2. Cleaning done by hand
Cleaning insulators by hand is effective in removing con-
tamination deposits from insulator surface. However, it is
a tedious, time-consuming and expensive process. Further-
more, in most cases this process requires de-energization of
the transmission or distribution line. In Mexico and other
countries, this practice is normally used on insulators where
washing by water jet cannot be performed, because the water
jet system may be near energized equipment, where the access
61
is difficult or where the pollutant is strongly adhered to the
insulator surface. For washing done by hand, biodegradable
solvents have been used to remove easily the contaminant
accumulated on the insulator over a period of up to several
years.
2.2.3. Cleaning using abrasive material
The insulator cleaning on either live or dead line by means
of abrasive material jet is also effective, efficient and eco-
nomic, in order to remove from the insulator surface pollutant
deposits or hardened composite greases. Abrasive materials
used commonly are fine lime dust, milled cob and nut peel,
which are sufficiently abrasive for cleaning the insulator with-
out damaging its surface.
The technicaleconomic part for every insulator cleaning
alternative must be analyzed. For the case of polymeric insu-
lators, the cleaning alternative must be discussed with the
insulator manufacturer, since the insulator surface may be
damaged if water jet pressure is too high or a solvent is used.
2.3. Diagnostics of insulators in polluted zones
The complexity of the contamination problem requires
monitoring the surface state of the insulator at the normal
conditions under which it operates. At present, different in-
service diagnostic techniques are being applied to the practice
in order to measure directly or indirectly the pollution sever-
ity on insulators. Then, this pollution severity is correlated
with the pollution flashover risk. If there is flashover risk,
insulation replacement or maintenance activities are carried
out.
Different techniques for determining the contamination
severity on insulators have been developed and applied for
many years in different countries. Some of these techniques
are: ESDD, surface conductance, leakage current and surface
resistance.
Selection of the diagnostic technique depends on pollu-
tant kind, insulator type and, mainly, cost associated with
the diagnostic equipment. The ESDD technique is very well
known and has been used by the IIE in several projects in
order to determine the pollution levels on insulators installed
in different zones of the country. This technique is expensive
and requires much time and, furthermore, it cannot be used
for some pollutant types.
The surface resistance technique considers that it is possi-
ble to determine the flashover risk as a function of the value of
the surface resistance on a witness insulator energized at low
voltage and exposed to the same pollution and environmental
conditions as the insulators of the transmission line. Based
on laboratory results, it has been established that insulators
naturally polluted on transmission lines have a high flashover
risk if the surface resistance decreases to some hundreds of
kilo-Ohms. One disadvantage of this method is the variabil-
ity of results obtained, which depend on the pollutant type
and the hardware used to connect the witness insulator at low
voltage.
62 G. Montoya-Tena et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866
Fig. 6. Leakage current system.
On the other hand, pollutant accumulation depends on the
magnitude of the electric field distributed on the surface of
the insulator. This effect is practically null on an insulator
energized at low voltage (hundreds of volts).
Due to the disadvantages of the method of surface resis-
tance, a diagnostic methodology to determine the critical
contamination condition on insulators at nominal voltage was
developed. This methodology is based on the measurement
of leakage current on the transmission line insulator, namely
on insulator strings energized at line voltage. In Mexico, this
technique has been validated by the IIE both in field and lab-
oratory.
A system to record the number and magnitude of the
peaks of leakage current was designed and developed by the
IIE. The system was evaluated at the salt fog chamber of
the laboratory using different insulator profiles. Later, it was
installed on some transmission lines having pollution prob-
lems. The results obtained from laboratory and field show
that, as the number of the peaks of leakage current increases,
the flashover risk also increases. Hence, the technique can be
used to monitor the operational state of the insulator under
pollution and moisture conditions. At present, the Mexican
electrical utility CFE has installed 39 leakage current systems
on its 115 kV, 230 kV and 400 kV transmission lines (Fig. 6).
According to the analysis of the leakage current data
recorded by the system, it helps to determine when main-
tenance works must be performed on the transmission line
insulators, in order to avoid an outage by pollution.
3. Studies carried out in Mexico
The severity of the contamination level directly depends
as much on the climatology as on the type of pollutant of the
region. Consequently, in Mexico there are different pollution
types and levels, due to its orography and diverse climates.
For this reason and according to failures statistics, pollution
is the second cause of transmission line outages in Mexico.
Since the 1980s, the IIE, together with the CFE, has
conducted several research projects about the pollution phe-
nomenon on overhead insulators. One of the first projects
performed was the development of a guide to optimize the
selection and use of overhead insulators exposed to contam-
inated conditions. Twenty test stations were built in several
locations throughout the country to continuously monitoring
insulators used on distribution and transmission lines. One
of the main results obtained was the elaboration of a pollu-
tion map of the Mexican Republic. Another important result
was the establishment of the advantages and disadvantages
of methods used for measuring the contamination level [6]:
method of ESDD for insulator evaluation in field and method
of the clean fog chamber for insulation evaluation in labora-
tory [7]. The method of dust collectors was also considered
in this project.
In 1993, eight new test stations were built, using only
distribution type insulators [8]. In this project, the surface
resistance method was evaluated as a tool to determine the
pollution level on the overhead insulators. A mathematical
model to compute the surface resistance value of the polluted
layer during the following 4 h, from the measured values,
was developed [9]. The disadvantage of this methodology is
that the surface resistance is measured on a witness insulator
energized at low voltage, and not on insulator holding to high
voltage conductor of the distribution line (Fig. 7).
In 1995, a measurement system of leakage current
(SIPICO) for diagnosing state of the insulator installed on
transmission lines was designed and developed. By apply-
ing this system, maintenance tasks are only carried out when
values of leakage current representing a flashover risk are
measured [10,11]. From this way, continuity of the electrical
service is maintained. During the years in which the system
has been working, it has demonstrated its effectiveness for
the diagnostic of insulators (Fig. 8).
In 1996, research projects to evaluate the performance of
hydrophobic coatings, new insulator profiles and polymeric
materials in polluted conditions were developed [12]. In these
projects, it was concluded that the standardized tests cannot
Fig. 7. Measurement of surface resistance.
 G. Montoya-Tena et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866 63

Fig. 8. System of leakage current installed on a transmission line.

be used to determine the long-term performance of polymeric

insulators, and therefore, it was necessary to develop a test
method to evaluate the aging on such insulators.
Also, an insulating support made of silica-filled epoxy
resin (polymeric concrete) was designed and manufactured,
in order to replace the pin usually used by insulators on dis-
tribution networks (Fig. 9). The results obtained from the
prototype tests showed that this new insulation design pro-
vides excellent performance. Nowadays, this technology has
been transferred to a company that commercializes this prod-
uct. Fig. 9. Base made of polymeric concrete.
In 1998, the IIE found that leakage current depends not
only from the ESDD but also on the non-soluble deposit
damaged insulators in a relatively short time with respect to
density (NSDD) of the pollutant layer [13]. A preliminary
the test time of 5000 h recommended by IEC 61109. This
correlation between the leakage current and the NSDD and
means that is necessary to modify the standard continuous
ESDD for a pin post-type insulator was obtained, as shown
5000 h salt fog test to determine the long-term performance
in Fig. 10. Each curve shows the performance of the insulator
of polymeric insulators.
for different NSDD values as a function of the ESDD values.
It can be observed that the LC values increase as the NSDD
values increase.
In 1999, the leakage current monitoring system was modi-
fied according to experience gained in field. The new version
of the system can monitor 16 insulator strings instead of 8
strings, display graphs of leakage current in real time and
show the number of the peaks of leakage current classified
by magnitude range. Therefore, this version is more adequate
for performing tests in laboratory.
During 2000, the IIE developed a methodology to evaluate
accelerated aging of polymeric insulators. The methodol-
ogy is mainly based on polluting the insulators with several
substances, such as kaolin, lime, fertilizer and natural field
pollutants. Once the insulators are polluted, they are evaluated
inside a salt fog chamber by applying cycles of salt fog, clean
fog, drying and constant voltage [14]. The results showed
clear evidence of tracking, erosion, chalking and puncture on Fig. 10. Correlation between leakage current (LC) and equivalent salt
the insulators (Fig. 11). Flashover takes place on the early deposit density (ESDD), for different non-soluble values (NSDD).
64 G. Montoya-Tena et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866
Fig. 11. Cracks formed on different zones of one insulator evaluated by the method developed by the IIE.
In 2003, the IIE applied visual corona and electrical field
techniques to check out the operational state of the polymeric
insulators installed on 230 and 400 kV Mexican transmission
lines [1518]. These techniques were applied live using the
following equipment: DayCor II Corona Camera for visual
corona and Polymeric Insulator Tester for electrical field [18].
The camera DayCor II shows the position, type and mag-
nitude of corona activity, which may mean degradation or
damage on the insulator. The insulator tester graphically illus-
trates the position in which the electric field distribution along
insulator string is changed by a damage or conductive defect
on the insulator.
The obtained results from the visual corona and electri-
cal field measurements showed that the polymeric insulators
were in good operational conditions, because no corona was
observed and electrical field distribution was normal. Based
on these results, it was concluded that both techniques may
be applied to periodically monitor the operational state of the
polymeric insulators.
4. Alternatives used in Mexico
In Mexico, the reliability of transmission lines under pol-
luted conditions has been maintained by means of some of
the alternatives used all around the world, which were already
described in this paper. Nevertheless, there is no unique and
definitive solution for the different pollutant levels and types
that may be found in certain places. Hence, sometimes, it is
necessary to combine alternatives for solving the pollution
problem.
The most common alternatives that have been applied
in Mexico are insulator profiles having longer LD (anti-fog
type), insulation washing or replacement and application of
silicone greases. During the last few years, in zones with
extremely severe pollution problems, other alternatives have
been used, as for example, aerodynamic insulator profiles
(flat type), hydrophobic coatings and polymeric insulators.
The application of this last alternative has decreased both the
number of line outages from pollution and the need for pre-
ventive maintenance. All these actions have been monitored
by means of the leakage current system.
4.1. Insulators with longer LD
The alternative of profiles with longer LD is used on
several Mexican transmission lines. Since the performance
of these insulator types depend on their geometry and on
weather conditions, it was necessary to evaluate different pro-
files having the same leakage distance, in order to choose the
best one.
The evaluations were carried out at the IIE laboratory,
using a pollutant similar to that found at the zones where
the insulators would be installed. Four insulator types were
evaluated: standard, flat, anti-fog and super-anti-fog. The per-
formed tests allowed the establishment of the specific leakage
distance required by the insulator for the pollution level of
each zone simulated in the laboratory. For example, for the
Monterrey zone, an insulator with 50 mm/kV specific leakage
distance is required.
4.2. Hydrophobic coatings
In Mexico, hydrophobic coating application on ceramic
insulators (glass and porcelain) increased transmission line
reliability and decreased maintenance costs, because washing
was not required for a longer time. Although this alterna-
tive has shown to be effective during many years and has
 G. Montoya-Tena et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2005) 5866
been the most frequent used along the country, its applica-
tion is very expensive. Another disadvantage is that the useful
life of the coating is unknown, so the coating is periodically
replaced, and therefore, the associated costs of this alternative
are increased.
4.3. Polymeric insulators
In the 1970s and early 1980s, the first generations of
polymeric insulators installed on Mexican transmission lines
caused many outages, due to deficient design of the insula-
tors. For this reason, from 1981 to 1995, polymeric insulators
had not been considered as an alternative solution for the pol-
lution problem.
During the 1990s, the technology of polymeric insulators
matured. The application of this new insulator generation in
the field all around the world has shown good performance,
mainly in very polluted zones where conventional insulation
either has presented failures or cannot be used due to its phys-
ical limitations.
Based on the mentioned above, in 1995 the IIE together
with CFE started a project to install silicone rubber poly-
meric insulators on a 230 kV transmission line exposed to
exceptional pollution. This was because the transmission line
located in Lazaro Cardenas, Michoacan, was requiring that
its conventional insulators were washed two times per month
during 9 months in order to maintain electrical service con-
tinuity. Hence, it was decided to replace the conventional
insulators with polymeric ones. After 2 years of service, it
was not necessary to make any maintenance, however, it was
observed a strong degradation on several polymeric insula-
tors caused by aging. These insulators were removed and
replaced by others having a better profile design. To date, all
the insulators have been working very well for more than 5
years without having been washed. This is an example of how
a polymeric insulator can be a good alternative to improve
transmission line performance in very polluted zones, and to
decrease maintenance costs.
As seen, polymeric insulators may improve transmission
line performance and save maintenance costs in a significant
way during the time in which the insulators do not fail. There-
fore, their application must be determined both by means of
technicaleconomic and cost-benefit analyses
Based upon the good obtained results, in 1998 sev-
eral polymeric insulators made by five manufacturers were
installed on a 400 kV transmission line located in Tampico,
Tamaulipas, to solve the pollution problems caused by a ther-
moelectric generating power plant. Since then, line outages
from pollution have not been recorded and maintenance work
has not been required.
5. Conclusions
Due to the different types and levels of pollutants
deposited on the overhead insulators of the electrical net-
65
work, the contamination problem does not have a unique and
simple solution.
There are several alternatives to solve the problems caused
by pollution. Among the main ones are the increase of the
SLD, the use of coatings and the installation of polymeric
insulators. The combination among different alternatives is
necessary in order to diminish the electric network outages
caused by very severe contamination. Such combinations
must be analyzed by means of cost-benefit criterion.
Additionally, it is necessary to use live-line diagnostic
techniques to know the operational state of the insulator,
especially in very high pollution zones. From this way, main-
tenance can be optimized and the electrical system reliability
can be maintained.
In Mexico, both leakage current and ESDD techniques
are combined to monitor the pollution level on transmission
lines.
The leakage current technique has demonstrated to be an
effective tool for diagnosing the pollution level on overhead
insulators.
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