Alexandra Barbera

Selenium Nutrition and Health Project

SCH 202 01

Professor Hoover

Seton Hill University

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The majority of the human body is made of six major elements: oxygen, carbon,

hydrogen, nitrogen calcium and phosphorous. The remaining of the bodys elements are in

extremely small amounts, known as trace elements. Selenium, abbreviated Se, is a trace element

essential in the optimal function of the human body. Its atomic number is 34 with an atomic

weight of 78.97 grams per mole. Selenium is a reddish colored powder and when in contact with

air, turns black (4). Seleniums main role in the body is to protect intracellular structures against

damage caused by oxidation. This means, that selenium compounds act as antioxidants in the

human body. Antioxidants are those that stop free radicals from causing damage as well as

strengthening the immune system. Selenium is a trace element found in the body that is ingested

from the diet and has specific daily values, roles in biochemical pathways, and also disorders or

diseases associated with either a deficiency or an excess amount of selenium.

Seleniums main source into the body is through diet; however, supplements are

available. The amount of selenium in plants depends on the amount of selenium in the soil (3).

Brazilian soil contains large amounts of selenium to amount to about 544 micrograms of

selenium per ounce of Brazilian nuts (3). Plant sources of dietary selenium take up inorganic

selenium, selenite and selenate, and transform it into organic forms, selenomethionone and

selenocysteine, where the most common of the two in the human body, selenomethionine, is

within tissues and incorporated to the amino acid methionine (3). Selenium is also found in other

foods including brewers yeast, liver, butter, fish (mackerel, tune halibut founder and smelts),

shell fish (oysters, scallops, and lobster), garlic, whole grains, and sunflower seeds (6). Selenium

in food is often destroyed or removed when foods are processed or refined (6). Selenium is also

present and available in supplements such as vitamin-mineral supplements, or nutritional

antioxidant formulas which contain the form of selenium, selenomethionone (6). Selenium
SELENIUM NUTRITION AND HEALTH 3

concentrations in the blood and urine suggest recent selenium intake while concentrations in the

hair or nails indicates long term intake such as months or years (3). The recommended dietary

allowances for selenium rise as the individual ages and is even higher for women during

pregnancy and lactation (3). Babies up to six months old require only about 15 micrograms a day

while adults require 55 micrograms, pregnant women require 60 micrograms, and lactating

women require 70 micrograms (3).

Selenium is required in the body for a number of reasons. Its major role is to act as an

antioxidant in at least thirty selenoproteins, with humans containing twenty-five of them.

Selenocysteine is recognized as the 21st amino acid and helps to form residues of selenoproteins

and selenoenzymes encoded by the normally stop codon, UGA (5). Selenocysteine is synthesized

on a tRNA molecule from serine by seryl-tRNA synthase, in which the tRNA involved contains

fewer modified bases as opposed to normal tRNA molecules (1 p.108). Selenocysteine is

comparable to cysteine in which a selenium atom replaces the sulfur atom, which happens

because of similarities between the two atoms (5). In the body, the ingested forms of selenium,

selenocysteine and selenomethionone as well as selenite and selenate are metabolized by various

selenium metabolites that is important in the formation of hydrogen selenide (H2Se) (5).

Hydrogen selenide are then further metabolized to forms which can be exhaled or secreted by the

skin, methylselenol and dimethylselenide, as well as in urine, trimethylselenonium (5). Not only

can hydrogen selenide be excreted from the body, it can be used as a substrate for selenocysteine

synthesis (5). Other selenoproteins include thioredoxin reductases, glutathione peroxidases and

deiodinases, all of which are oxidation-reduction reactions that link with anabolic metabolism (1

p.112). The most abundant selenoproteins in mammals are glutathione peroxidases, in which it is

in every cell type and thought to be one of the main protein antioxidants (1 p.104). Glutathione
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peroxidase type vary based on location, but all try to accomplish one major goal: to reduce

hydroperoxidases (1 p.104). Glutathione peroxidase, also called GPx, has six groups that work to

protect cells against oxidative damage from reactive oxygen and nitrogen species such as

superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, nitric oxide and peroxynitrite (5).

Thioredoxin reductases, found mostly in the testes, allow a protein containing selenocysteine, to

undergo conformational changes on the c-terminal of the protein after selenocysteine reduction

to interact with a substrate such as thioredoxin (1 p.105). In addition to the spermatozoa

thioredoxin found in the testes, there are also cytosolic and mitochondrial thioredoxin that

maintain a reduced state for the removal of hydrogen peroxide that could cause damage on the

body (5). Thyroid hormone deiodinases catalyze the activation or inactivation of thyroid

hormones triiodothyronine and thyroxine (1 p.105). These three processes of selenoproteins

support the idea that selenoproteins synthesized from selenium function in or as antioxidant

systems.

In addition to the other selenoproteins, a protein within plasma helps to defend the body

as an antioxidant. Selenoprotein P is a major plasma protein containing numerous selenocysteine

amino acid residues that work to defend against oxidative injury (5). Selenoprotein P has

multiple selenium atoms in the polypeptide chain, and is the only selenoprotein to do so (1

p.129). Selenoprotein P is not only a plasma protein, but it also binds to cells in capillaries of the

brain and kidney glomerulus as well as arterial endothelial cells and hepatic sinusoidal

endothelial cells (1 p.129). This protein has two major functions within the human body

including acting as an antioxidant in the extracellular space and to serve as a means of

transportation of selenium from the liver to other tissues such as the brain (1 p.130). Because of

the transportation of selenium, selenoprotein P was thought to be a transport protein. If selenium

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levels are deficient in the body, the brain tries to retain its selenium efficiency by the idea that

the brain has selenoprotein P receptors at the blood brain barrier but the other tissues do not have

these receptors (1 p.132). Low selenoprotein P levels are associated with liver cirrhosis, even

though other selenium levels may be normal, due to the decreased synthesis of selenoprotein P in

the defective liver (1 p.133).

The levels of selenium in the body differ from person to person. Men have slightly higher

selenium levels compared to women (3). Those who smoke, drink alcohol, take birth control

pills, and have a condition that prevents absorption of selenium, such as Crohns disease or

ulcerative colitis, have an increased chance of having low levels of selenium in their body (6).

There is also evidence that other forms or brands of birth control may raise levels of selenium in

a womans body (6). Those who undergo hemodialysis, have lower levels due to the filtering out

of selenium from the blood (3). One may also become selenium deficient There is also evidence

that those who have difficulties with their thyroid as well as rheumatoid arthritis and certain

cancers also have low levels of selenium (6). Certain drugs also have shown side effects that

lower levels of selenium, including cisplatin, clozapine, corticosteroids, and valproic acid (6).

High levels of selenium in the body lead to health risks such as hair and nail loss, skin and

nervous system lesions, nausea, rashes, mottled teeth, fatigue, irritability and nervous system

abnormalities (1). Deficiencies in selenium often lead to diseases and disorders. These include

Keshan disease, which is an abnormality of the heart muscle or myopathy combined with a viral

infection that was common in areas of China before government supplementation (2). This

occurred in areas of china mainly due to the lack of selenium in soil, leading to lack in selenium

in countries major food source, vegetables. Countries that lack selenium in the soil include

China, New Zealand and European countries (3). Kashin-Beck disease is a type of osteoarthritis
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that leads to joint and bone disease resulting from selenium deficiency (2). Myxedematous

endemic cretinism is also caused by a deficiency in selenium that leads to intellectual disability

(2).

In addition to causing diseases and disorders, selenium levels have influence in other

diseases, disorders and systems in the body. Selenium may have a role in prevention of cancer

due to its antioxidant properties and its effects on DNA repair (3). It is also shown in some

studies to lower the risk of certain cancers and their mortality rate including that of colorectal,

bladder, prostate, lung, esophageal, and gastric (3). A large trial found that taking daily selenium

supplements increased the risk of squamous cell carcinoma and non-melanoma skin cancer (6).

Overall, areas where soil is rich in selenium have lower rates of cancer, and those with cancer

have lower levels of selenium (6). Selenium in selenoproteins help prevent cardiovascular

disease by preventing the oxidative modification of lipids as well as reduction of inflammation

and prevention of blood clots (3). Selenium, along with other antioxidants, such as vitamin E and

beta-carotene, may help to lower LDL cholesterol levels, thus decreasing risk of heart disease

(6). Selenium concentrations in serum decline with age, and within doing so, may be related with

age related decline in cognitive function due to its antioxidant activity (3). Selenium

concentration is the highest in the thyroid, and is important with thyroid hormone synthesis and

metabolism (5). If the levels of selenium are thrown off, thyroid disease may occur and the

resulting hormone levels will be different as well (3). Selenium also plays a role in immunity.

Selenium may be involved with increased activity of natural killer cells, proliferation of T-

lymphocytes, increased production of interferon y, vaccine-induced immunity as well as

increased antibody producing B-cell numbers (5).

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Overall, selenium is an essential micronutrient that the human body needs in order to

function correctly. Its main purpose is to act as an antioxidant to protect the body from harmful

free radicals. The main source of selenium in the body comes from the foods ingested, although

supplements are available. People of different ages, sexes, and conditions all require different

minimum intake of selenium; however, most requirements are met through the diet. The

selenium content of foods weighs on the area of the food grown due to plants taking up selenium

from the soil. Selenium plays a role in diseases, disorders and malfunction of bodily systems

such as cancer, heart disease, thyroid disease and the immune system. Although some

information is known on the influence of selenium, some impacts are not known to their fullest

extent.
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Bibliography

1. Hatfield, D. L. Selenium: Its Molecular Biology and Role in Human Health; Kluwer

Academic Publishers: Boston, 2001.

2. Medicine Plus. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002414.htm (accessed Oct. 26,

2016)

3. National Institutes of Health. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Selenium-

HealthProfessional/ (accessed Oct. 26, 2016)

4. Pub Chem. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/selenium#section=Top

(accessed Oct. 26, 2016)

5. Tinggi, U. Selenium: Its Role as Antioxidant in Human Health. Environ Health Prev

Med. 2008. 102-108.

6. University of Maryland Medical Center,

http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/selenium (accessed Oct. 26, 2016)