CHEM17 POST-LAB

LECTURE - 2
Kurt W.E. Sy Piecco
 List of Experiments
5. Conductivity
6. Acids and Bases
7. Hydrolysis and Buffers
8. Electrochemistry
9. Cation and Anion Analysis
 Strong and Weak Electrolytes

Compounds whose aqueous solutions conduct electricity well are called strong
electrolytes.

These substances exist only as ions in solution.

Example: NaCl: NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

The single arrow indicates that the Na+ and Cl– ions have no tendency to
recombine to form NaCl molecules.

Compounds whose aqueous solutions conduct electricity poorly are called weak
electrolytes.

These substances exist as a mixture of ions and un-ionized molecules in
solution.

Example: acetic acid, HC2H3O2.
HC2H3O2(aq) H+(aq) + C2H3O2–(aq)

The double arrow means that the reaction is significant in both directions.

It indicates that there is a balance between the forward and reverse reactions.

This balance produces a state of chemical equilibrium.
Ionic Compounds in Water

When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ions dissociate.

This means that in solution the solid no longer exists as a well-ordered arrangement
of ions in contact with one another.

Instead, each ion is surrounded by water molecules.

This tends to stabilize the ions in solution and prevent cations and anions from
recombining.

The positive ions have the surrounding oxygen atoms of water pointing toward the
ion; the negative ions have the surrounding hydrogen atoms of water pointing
toward the ion.

The transport of ions through the solution causes electric current to flow through
the solution.
Non-electrolyte Non-electrolyte Electrolyte
Molecular Compounds in Water

When a molecular compound (e.g., CH3OH) dissolves in water there
are no ions formed.

Therefore, there is nothing in the solution to transport electric charge, and
the solution does not conduct electricity.

There are some important exceptions.

For example, NH3(g) reacts with water to form NH4+(aq) and OH–
(aq).

For example, HCl(g) in water ionizes to form H+(aq) and Cl–(aq).
Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes

Compounds can be classified as strong
electrolytes, weak electrolytes, or
non-electrolytes from their solubility. Strong Weak

Strong electrolytes: electrolyte electrolyte

If a compound is water soluble and ionic, then it is probably a strong

electrolyte.

If a compound is water soluble and not ionic, and is a strong acid, then it is a
strong electrolyte.

Similarly, if a compound is water soluble and not ionic, but is a strong base,
then it is a strong electrolyte.

Weak electrolytes:

If a compound is water soluble and not ionic, and is a weak acid or weak base,
then it is a weak electrolyte.

Non-electrolytes:

Otherwise, the compound is probably a non-electrolyte.
 Experiment 5: Conductivity
A. Conductivity test

Conductors:
 Strong: 0.1M solutions of NaCl, NaOH, HCl, NH4Cl
 Weak: tap water, 0.1M NH4OH

Non-conductors:
 dry crystalline NaCl, distilled water

B. Colors of ions

Colorless: K+, OH-, H+, Cl-, SO42-, NO3-

CrO42- (yellow), Cu2+ (blue), Fe3+ (orange), Co2+ (red)

Answers to questions:
1. Solutions of strong electrolytes
2. Concentration of ions in solution
3. Dissociate into component ions (ionize)
4. Mobile ions carry charges (electrons) from one electrode to the
other
5. A weak electrolyte doesn’t ionize completely (but a strong
electrolyte does)
6. Concentrated solutions contain a larger amount of dissolved
substances (solutes)
7. No, concentrated HOAc is still a weak electrolyte.
8. No, dilute HCl is a strong electrolyte
 Acid-Base Chemistry

Arrhenius concept of acids and bases:

An acid is a substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of
H+ ions.
 Example: HCl is an acid.

An Arrhenius base is a substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the
concentration of OH–.
 Example: NaOH is a base.

This definition is quite narrow in scope, as it limits us to aqueous solutions

Brønsted-Lowry acids/bases

a broader, more general definition for acids and bases that is based on the fact that
acid-base reactions involve proton transfers.

a Brønsted-Lowry acid is a species that donates H+, and a base is a species that
accepts H+.

Therefore a Brønsted-Lowry base does not need to contain OH–.
The H+ Ion in Water

The H+ ion is simply a proton with no surrounding valence electrons.

In water, clusters of hydrated H+(aq) ions form.

The simplest cluster is H3O+(aq).

We call this a hydronium ion.

Larger clusters are also possible (such as H5O2+ and H9O4+).

Generally, we use H+(aq) and H3O+(aq) interchangeably.

Amphoteric substances can behave as both acids and bases.

Thus water is an example of an amphoteric species.
 The Auto-ionization of Water

In pure water the following equilibrium is established:
2H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)

This process is called the auto-ionization of water.

The Ion Product of Water

We can write an equilibrium constant expression for the auto-
ionization of water.
[H 3 O + ] [OH- ]
Kc =
[H 2 O]2

Because H2O(l) is a pure liquid, we can simplify this expression:

[H 2 O]2 K c = [H 3 O + ][OH - ] = K w

Kw is called the ion-product constant.

At 25°C the ion-product constant of water is:

1.0 × 10 −14 = K w = [H 3 O + ][OH - ]

This applies to pure water as well as to aqueous solutions.

A solution is neutral if [OH–] = [H3O+].

If [H3O+] > [OH–], the solution is acidic.

If [H3O+] < [OH–], the solution is basic.
 The pH Scale

In most solutions [H+] is quite small.

We express [H+] in terms of pH: pH = -log[H+] = -log[H3O+]

Note that this is a logarithmic scale.

Thus a change in [H+] by a factor of 10 causes the pH to change by 1 unit.

Most pH values fall between 0 and 14.

In neutral solutions at 25°C, pH = 7.00.

In acidic solutions, [H+] > 1.0 x 10–7, so pH < 7.00.
 As the pH decreases, the acidity of the solution increases.

In basic solutions, [H+] < 1.0 x 10–7, so pH > 7.00.
 As the pH increases, the basicity of the solution increases (acidity decreases)

Other “p” Scales

We can use a similar system to describe [OH–]: pOH = -log[OH–]

Recall that the value of the Kw at 25oC is 1.0 x 10–14.

Thus we can describe a relationship between pH and pOH

pH + pOH = -logKw = 14.00
Measuring pH

The most accurate method to measure pH is to use a pH meter.

However, certain dyes change color as pH changes.
 These are called acid-base indicators.

Indicators are less precise than pH meters.

Many indicators do not have a sharp color change as a function of
pH.

Most acid-base indicators can exist as either an acid or a base.
 These two forms have different colors.
 The relative concentration of the two different forms is sensitive
to the pH of the solution.
 Thus, if we know the pH at which the indicator turns color, we
can use this color change to determine whether a solution has a
higher or lower pH than this value.

Some natural products can be used as indicators (tea is colorless in
acid and brown in base; red cabbage extract is another natural
indicator).
 Strong Acids and Bases
Strong Acids

The most common strong acids are HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4, and
H2SO4.

Strong acids are strong electrolytes.

All strong acids ionize completely in solution:
 Example: Nitric acid ionizes completely in water.

HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO3–(aq)

 Since H+ and H3O+ are used interchangeably, we write
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3–(aq)

In solutions the strong acid is usually the only source of H+.

Therefore, the pH of a solution of a monoprotic acid may usually be
calculated directly from the initial molarity of the acid.

Caution: If the molarity of the acid is less than 10–6 M, the auto-ionization
of water needs to be taken into account.
Strong Bases

The most common strong bases are ionic hydroxides of the alkali metals or the
heavier alkaline earth metals (e.g., NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2 are all strong
bases).

Strong bases are strong electrolytes and dissociate completely in solution.

For example: NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

The pOH (and thus the pH) of a strong base may be calculated using the
initial molarity of the base.

Not all bases contain the OH– ion.

Ionic metal oxides, hydrides, and nitrides are basic.

The oxide, hydride, and nitride ions are stronger bases than hydroxide.

They are thus able to abstract a proton from water and generate OH–.
O2–(aq) + H2O(l) 2OH–(aq)
H–(aq) + H2O(l) H2(g) + OH–(aq)
N3–(aq) + 3H2O(l) NH3(aq) + 3OH–(aq)
 Weak Acids

Weak acids are only partially ionized in aqueous solution.

There is a mixture of ions and un-ionized acid in solution.

Therefore, weak acids are in equilibrium:
HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A–(aq)
Or: HA(aq) H+(aq) + A–(aq)

We can write an equilibrium constant expression for this

dissociation:
Ka =
[H3O + ][A − ]
[HA]
or

Ka =
[H ][A ]
+ −

[HA]

Ka is called the acid-dissociation constant.

Note that the subscript a indicates that this is the equilibrium
constant for the dissociation of an acid.

Note that [H2O] is omitted from the Ka expression. (H2O is a pure
liquid.)

The larger the Ka, the stronger the acid.

Ka is larger since there are more ions present at equilibrium
relative to un-ionized molecules.

If Ka >> 1, then the acid is completely ionized, and the acid is a
strong acid.
 Weak Bases

Weak bases remove protons from substances.

There is an equilibrium between the base and the resulting ions:
Weak base + H2O(l) conjugate acid + OH–(aq)

Example: NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq).

The base-dissociation constant, Kb, is defined as

Kb =
[NH ][OH ]
4
+ −

[NH 3 ]

 The larger the Kb, the stronger the base.

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

Whatever is left of the acid after the proton is donated is called its
conjugate base.

Similarly a conjugate acid is formed by adding a proton to the base.

Consider HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A–(aq):

HA and A– differ only in the presence or absence of a proton.
 They are said to be a conjugate acid-base pair.
 A– is called the conjugate base.

When HA (acid) loses its proton it is converted into A– (base).
 Therefore HA and A– are a conjugate acid-base pair.

When H2O (base) gains a proton it is converted into H3O+ (acid).
 H3O+ is the conjugate acid.
 Therefore, H2O and H3O+ are a conjugate acid-base pair.
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

The stronger an acid is, the weaker its conjugate base will be.

We can categorize acids and bases according to their behavior in water.

1. Strong acids completely transfer their protons to water.
 No undissociated molecules remain in solution.
 Their conjugate bases have negligible tendencies to become protonated.
 Example: HCl.

2. Weak acids only partially dissociate in aqueous solution.

 They exist in solution as a mixture of molecules and component ions.
 Their conjugate bases show a slight tendency to abstract protons from water.
 These conjugate bases are weak bases.
 Example: Acetic acid is a weak acid; acetate ion (conjugate base) is a weak
base.

3. Substances with negligible acidity do not transfer a proton to water.
 Their conjugate bases are strong bases.
 Example: CH4.

In every acid-base reaction, the position of the equilibrium favors the transfer of a
proton from the stronger acid to the stronger base.

H+ is the strongest acid that can exist in equilibrium in aqueous solution.

OH– is the strongest base that can exist in equilibrium in aqueous solution.
Calculating Ka from pH

In order to find the value of the Ka, we need to know all of the
equilibrium concentrations.

The pH gives the equilibrium concentration of H+.

Thus, to find Ka, we use the pH to find the equilibrium
concentration of H+ and then the stoichiometric coefficients of the
balanced equation to help us determine the equilibrium
concentrations of the other species.

We then substitute these equilibrium concentrations into the
equilibrium constant expression and solve for Ka.

Please refer to the handouts from my lecture class for examples

Using Ka to Calculate pH

Using Ka, we can calculate the concentration of H+ (and hence the pH).

Write the balanced chemical equation clearly showing the equilibrium.

Write the equilibrium expression. Look up the value for Ka (in a table).

Write down the initial and equilibrium concentrations for everything
except pure water.

It is customary to use x for the change in concentration of H+.

Substitute into the equilibrium constant expression and solve.

Remember to convert x to pH if necessary.

Please refer to the handouts from my lecture class for examples


What do we do if we are faced with having to solve a quadratic
equation in order to determine the value of x?

Often this cannot be avoided.

However, if the Ka value is quite small, we find that we can make a
simplifying assumption.
 Assume that x is negligible compared with the initial
concentration of that species.
 This will simplify the calculation.
 It is always necessary to check the validity of any assumption.
 Once you have the value of x, check to see how large it is
compared with the initial concentration.
 If x < 5% of the initial concentration, the assumption is probably a
good one.
 If x > 5%of the initial concentrtion, then it may be best to solve the
quadratic equation or use successive approximations.

% ionization =
[H ] +
equilibrium
× 100
[HA]initial
Please refer to the handouts from my lecture class for examples

Weak acids are only partially ionized.

Percent ionization is another way to assess acid strength.

For the reaction HA(aq) H+(aq) + A–(aq)

Percent ionization relates the equilibrium H+ concentration,
[H+]equilibrium, to the initial HA concentration, [HA]initial.

The higher the percent ionization, the stronger the acid.

However, we need to keep in mind that percent ionization of a
weak acid decreases as the molarity of the solution increases.

Polyprotic acids have more than one ionizable proton.

The protons are removed in successive steps.

Consider the weak acid H2SO3 (sulfurous acid):
H2SO3(aq) H+(aq) + HSO3–(aq) Ka1 = 1.7 x 10–2
HSO3–(aq) H+(aq) + SO32–(aq) Ka2 = 6.4 x 10–8

Where Ka1 is the dissociation constant for the first proton released,
Ka2 is for the second, etc.

It is always easier to remove the first proton in a polyprotic acid than
the second.

Therefore, Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3, etc.

The majority of the H+(aq) at equilibrium usually comes from the first
ionization (i.e., the Ka1 equilibrium).

If the successive Ka values differ by a factor of ~103, we can usually
get a good approximation of the pH of a solution of a polyprotic
acid by considering the first ionization only.
 Acid-Base Titrations

The plot of pH versus volume during a titration is called a titration curve.

Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations

Consider adding a strong base (e.g., NaOH) to a solution of a strong acid (e.g.,
HCl).

We can divide the titration curve into four regions.

1. Initial pH (before any base is added).
 The pH is determined by the concentration of the strong acid solution.
 Therefore, pH < 7.

2. Between the initial pH and the equivalence point (see next slide).
 When base is added, before the equivalence point, the pH is given by the
amount of strong acid in excess.
 Therefore, pH < 7.

3. At the equivalence point.
 The amount of base added is stoichiometrically equivalent to the
amount of acid originally present.
 Therefore, the pH is determined by the hydrolysis of the salt in
solution.
 Therefore, pH = 7.

4. After the equivalence point.

 The pH is determined by the excess base in the solution.
 Therefore, pH > 7.

How can we analyze the titration (i.e., how will we know when we are at the
equivalence point)?

Consider adding a strong base (e.g., NaOH) to a solution of a strong acid
(e.g., HCl).

We know that the pH at the equivalence point is 7.00.

To detect the equivalence point, we use an indicator that changes color
somewhere near 7.00.

Usually, we use phenolphthalein, which changes color between pH 8.3 and
10.0.
 In acid, phenolphthalein is colorless.
 As NaOH is added, there is a slight pink color at the addition point.
 When the flask is swirled and the reagents mix, the pink color
disappears.
 At the end point, the solution is light pink.
 If more base is added, the solution turns darker pink.
 The equivalence point in a titration is the point at which the acid and
base are present in stoichiometric quantities.
 The end point in a titration is the point where the indicator changes
color.
 The difference between equivalence point and end point is called
the titration error.

The shape of a strong base–strong acid titration curve is very similar to a
strong acid–strong base titration curve.

Initially, the strong base is in excess, so the pH > 7.

As acid is added, the pH decreases but is still greater than 7.

At the equivalence point, the pH is given by hydrolysis of the salt solution
(i.e., pH = 7).

After the equivalence point, the pH is given by the strong acid in excess,
so the pH < 7.
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titration

Consider the titration of acetic acid, HC2H3O2, with NaOH.

Again, we divide the titration into four general regions:

1. Before any base is added:
 The solution contains only weak acid.
 Therefore, pH is given by the equilibrium calculation.

2. Between the initial pH and the equivalence point.

 As strong base is added it consumes a stoichiometric quantity of
weak acid:
HC2H3O2(aq) + OH–(aq) C2H3O2–(aq) + H2O(l)
 However, there is an excess of acetic acid.
 Therefore, we have a mixture of weak acid and its conjugate base.
 Thus the composition of the mixture is that of a buffer.

 The pH is given by the buffer calculation.

 First, the amount of C2H3O2– generated is calculated, as well

as the amount of HC2H3O2 consumed. (stoichiometry.)
 Then the pH is calculated using equilibrium conditions.
(Henderson-Hasselbach equation)

3. At the equivalence point, all the acetic acid has been consumed and all
the NaOH has been consumed.
 However, C2H3O2– has been generated.
 Therefore, the pH is given by the C2H3O2– solution.
 This means pH > 7.
 More importantly, the pH of the equivalence point > 7 for a weak acid–
strong base titration.

4. After the equivalence point:
 The pH is given by the concentration of the excess strong base.

The pH curve for a weak acid–strong base differs significantly from that of a
strong acid–strong base titration.

For a strong acid–strong base titration:
 The pH begins at less than 7 and gradually increases as base is added.
 Near the equivalence point, the pH increases dramatically.

For a weak acid–strong base titration:

 The initial pH rise is steeper than that for a strong acid–strong base
titration.
 However, then there is a leveling off due to buffer effects.
 The inflection point is not as steep for a weak acid–strong base titration.

The shape of the two curves after the equivalence point is the same
because pH is determined by the strong base in excess.

The pH values at the equivalence points differ also:
 The pH = 7.00 for the strong acid–strong base equivalence point.
 The pH >7.00 for the weak acid–strong base equivalence point.
How to choose indicators: we select the appropriate indicator based upon the
pH of the salt solution formed at the equivalence point.

The pH curve for the titration of a weak base with a strong acid also differs
significantly from that of a strong base-strong acid titration.

Consider the titration of NH3 with HCl.
 The equivalence point occurs at pH 5.28 so phenolphthalein should
not be used for this titration.
 The color change for methyl red occurs in the pH range from 4.2 to
6.0 so it is a good indicator to use for this titration.

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids

In polyprotic acids, the ionizable protons dissociate in a series of steps.

Therefore, in a titration there are n equivalence points corresponding to

the number of ionizable protons.

In the titration of H2CO3 with NaOH there are two equivalence points:

One for the formation of HCO3–;

One for the formation of CO32–.
Titration of CO32-

1st e.p.

2nd e.p.
 Experiment 6: Acids and Bases

Analysis of acid concentration procedure:

Write the balanced neutralization reaction
 Determine the mole ratio of base to acid

Experimental data:
 Known parameters: Concentration of base, volume of acid, volume of base
 Unknown parameter: concentration of the acid
 Calculation:

moles base = moles acid × mole ratio of base to acid

Molaritybase × Volumebase = Molarityacid × Volumeacid × stoichiometric mole ratio base to acid

Solve for Molarityacid in the preceding equation.

Convert Molarity to percent mass per volume, %(m/v), by converting moles solute to
grams (if volume is in mL). It is assumed that the solution is dilute and that it’s density is
1g/mL.

Answers to questions
1. When there is an excess of the base, which is indicated by the color change of
phenolphthalein

2. The equivalence point is when there are stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of

the acid and base in the solution. The endpoint is when we stop the titration
because of a signal (e.g. color change), at which point there may not be
stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of the acid and base. In this experiment,
phenolphthalein changes color only when there is quite a large excess of base in the
solution.

3. pH = -log[H+]

4. (Compare the experimentally determined %HOAc with the %HOAc found on the
product label.)

5.

6.
 Relationship Between Ka and Kb

We can quantify the relationship between the strength of an acid and the strength of its
conjugate base.

Consider the following equilibria:
NH4+(aq) NH3(aq) + H+(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

We can write equilibrium expressions for these reactions:
[NH 3 ] [H + ]
Ka =
[NH +4 ]

[NH +4 ] [OH - ]
Kb =
[NH 3 ]

If we add these equations together:
NH4+(aq) NH3(aq) + H+(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

The net reaction is the autoionization of water.
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Recall that: Kw = [H+][OH–]

We can use this information to write an equation that relates the
values of Ka, Kb, and Kw for a conjugate acid-base pair:
Ka x Kb = Kw

Alternatively we can express this as:
pKa + pKb = pKw = 14.00 (at 25°C)

Thus, the larger the Ka (and smaller the pKa), the smaller the Kb (and
larger the pKb).

The stronger the acid, the weaker its conjugate base, and vice
versa.
 Acid-Base Properties of Salt
Solutions

Nearly all salts are strong electrolytes.

Therefore, salts in solution exist entirely as ions.

Acid-base properties of salts are a consequence of the reaction of their
ions in solution.

Many salt ions can react with water to form OH– or H+.
 This process is called hydrolysis.

Anions from weak acids are basic.

Anions from strong acids are neutral.

Anions with ionizable protons (e.g., HSO4–) are amphoteric.
 They are capable of acting as an acid or a base.

All cations, except those of the alkali metals or heavier alkaline earth
metals, are weak acids.

The pH of a solution may be qualitatively predicted using the following
guidelines:

Salts derived from a strong acid and a strong base are neutral.
 Examples: NaCl, Ca(NO3)2.

Salts derived from a strong base and a weak acid are basic.
 Examples: NaClO, Ba(C2H3O2)2.

Salts derived from a weak base and a strong acid are acidic.
 Example: NH4Cl.

Salts derived from a weak acid and a weak base can be either acidic or
basic.
 Equilibrium rules apply!
 We need to compare Ka and Kb for the hydrolysis of the anion and the
cation.
 For example, consider NH4CN.
 Both ions undergo significant hydrolysis.
 Is the salt solution acidic or basic?
 The Ka of NH4+ is smaller than the Kb of CN–, so the solution should
be basic.
 The Common-Ion Effect

The dissociation of a weak electrolyte is decreased by the addition of a strong electrolyte
that has an ion in common with the weak electrolyte.

For example, consider the ionization of a weak acid, acetic acid.
HC2H3O2(aq) H+(aq) + C2H3O2–(aq)

If we add additional C2H3O2– ions by the addition of a strong electrolyte (e.g.,
NaC2H3O2), this results in a shift in the equilibrium.

The equilibrium shifts left.

This causes a reduction in the [H+] and a decrease in the percent ionization of the
acetic acid.

By adding the sodium acetate, we have disturbed the acetic acid equilibrium.

In effect, we have added a product of this equilibrium (i.e., the acetate ion).
 This phenomenon is called the common-ion effect.

Common-ion equilibrium problems are solved following the same pattern as other
equilibrium problems.

However, the initial concentration of the common ion (from the salt) must be
considered.
 Buffered Solutions

A buffered solution or buffer is a solution that resists a change in pH upon addition of
small amounts of acid or base.

Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions

A buffer consists of a mixture of a weak acid (HX) and its conjugate base (X–).

Thus a buffer contains both:

An acidic species (to neutralize OH–) and

A basic species (to neutralize H+).

When a small amount of OH– is added to the buffer, the OH– reacts with HX to produce
X– and water.

But the [HX]/[X–] ratio remains more or less constant, so the pH is not significantly
changed.

When a small amount of H+ is added to the buffer, X– is consumed to produce HX.

Once again, the [HX]/[X–] ratio remains more or less constant, so the pH does not
change significantly.

Buffer capacity is the amount of acid or base that can be neutralized by the
buffer before there is a significant change in pH.

Buffer capacity depends on the concentrations of the components of the buffer.

The greater the concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair, the greater
the buffer capacity.

The pH of the buffer is related to the Ka and on the relative concentrations of
the acid and base.

We can derive an equation that shows the relationship between conjugate acid-
base concentrations, pH, and the Ka.

By definition:
[H + ] [A - ]
Ka =
[HA]

Rearranging, we get:
[HA ]
[H ] = K [A ]
+
a
−

If we take the negative log of each side of the equation we get:
[HA ]
− log[ H + ] = − log Ka − log
[A ] −

By definition:
[HA]
pH = pK a − log
[A - ]

An alternative form of this equation is:

pH = pKa + log
[A ] = pK
−
a + log
[base]
[HA ] [acid]

The preceding equation is the Henderson-Hasselbach equation.

Note that this equation uses equilibrium concentrations of acid and
conjugate base.

However, if Ka is sufficiently small (i.e., if the equilibrium
concentration of undissociated acid is close to the initial
concentration), then we can use the initial values of the acid and base
concentrations in order to get a good estimate of the pH.
Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers

We break the calculation into two parts:

A stoichiometric calculation.

An equilibrium calculation.

The addition of strong acid or base results in a neutralization reaction:
X– + H3O+ ↔ HX + H2O
HX + OH– ↔ X– + H2O

By knowing how much H3O+ or OH– was added, we know how
much HX or X– is formed.
 This is the stoichiometric calculation.

From the concentrations of HX and X– (note the change in volume of
solution) we can calculate the pH from the Henderson-Hasselbalch
equation:
pH = pKa + log
−
[X ]
[HX ]

 This is the equilibrium calculation.

 Experiment 7: Hydrolysis and Buffers

A. Determination of acidity

Salt Solution Hydrolysis reaction pH Explanation

NH4+ + H2O → NH4OH + H+ Both ions hydrolyze water to the

0.1M NH4OAc OAc- + H2O → HOAc + OH-
~7 same extent (equivalent Ka and Kb)

0.1M NaCl NR 7 Neither ion hydrolyzes H2O

0.1M NaOAc OAc- + H2O → HOAc + OH- >7 OAc- hydrolyze water

0.1M NH4Cl NH4+ + H2O → NH4OH + H+ <7 NH4+ hydrolyze water

0.1M NaHCO3 HCO3- + H2O → H2CO3 + OH- >7 HCO3- hydrolyze water

CO32- + H2O → HCO3- + OH-

0.1M Na2CO3 HCO3- + H2O → H2CO3 + OH-
>7 CO32- hydrolyze water
 Color with Methyl Color with
Solution
orange Phenolphthalein

0.1M HOAc Red Colorless

0.1M HOAc + 0.1M NaOAc Red Colorless

0.1M NH4OH Yellow Red

0.1M NH4OH + 0.1M NH4Cl Yellow Red

 Color with methyl orange Color with phenolphthalein
Buffer solutions
+ HCl + NaOH + HCl + NaOH

Weak acid

HOAc Red X Colorless X

HOAc X Yellow X Pink

Buffer of weak acid and its salt

HOAc + NaOAc Red X Colorless X

Red / yellowish Colorless / light

HOAc + NaOAc X X
red pink

Weak base

NH4OH Yellow X Colorless X

NH4OH X Red X Pink

Buffer of weak base and its salt

Yellow / Reddish
NH4OH + NH4Cl X Light pink X
yellow

NH4OH + NH4Cl X Yellow X Pink


Answers to questions
1. A little bit because the presence of the salt lowered the concentration of
the H+ or the OH- due to common ion effect.

2. There is a great change in color upon addition of a neutralizing reagent to

the unbuffered solutions. Due to the presence of the salt and the common
ion effect, the most of the weak electrolyte will be in unionized form.
Upon addition of a neutralizing reagent, the unionized form of the weak
electrolyte will dissociate up until the H+ or OH- in solution are
replenished.

3. Buffer solutions are mixtures of solutions of weak electrolytes and the

salts of their conjugate ions. They resist pH changes as explained in #2.

4. pH before addition of HCl:

pH = pKa(HOAc) + log ([OAc-] ÷ [HOAc])
pH = -log(1.75 × 10-5) + log ((0.05L × 0.1M) ÷ (0.05L × 0.1M))
pH after addition of 0.01mole HCl:
pH = -log(1.75 × 10-5) + log (0.05L × 0.1M) – 0.01mole) ÷ (0.05L × 0.1M )+ 0.01mole))
 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Chemical reactions in which the oxidation state of one or more
substances changes are called oxidation-reduction reactions (redox
reactions).

Recall: OILRIG
 Oxidation involves loss of electrons (OIL).
 Reduction involves gain of electrons (RIG).

Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with
relationships between electricity and chemical reactions.

Consider the spontaneous reaction that occurs when Zn is added to
HCl.
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

The oxidation numbers of Zn and H+ have changed.
 The oxidation number of Zn has increased from 0 to +2.
 The oxidation number of H has decreased from +1 to 0.
 Therefore, Zn is oxidized to Zn2+ while H+ is reduced to H2.

H+ causes Zn to be oxidized. Thus, H+ is the oxidizing agent or
oxidant.

Zn causes H+ to be reduced. Thus, Zn is the reducing agent or
reductant.

Note that the reducing agent is oxidized, and the oxidizing agent is
reduced.
 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction
Equations

Recall the law of conservation of mass: the amount of each element
present at the beginning of the reaction must be present at the end.

Conservation of charge: electrons are not lost in a chemical reaction.

Some redox equations may be easily balanced by inspection.

However, for many redox reactions, we need to look carefully at the
transfer of electrons.

Half-reactions are a convenient way of separating oxidation and
reduction reactions.

Consider the reaction:
Sn2+(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) → Sn4+(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)

The oxidation half-reaction is:
Sn2+(aq) → Sn4+(aq) +2e–

Note that electrons are a product here.

The reduction half-reaction is:
2Fe3+(aq) + 2e– → 2Fe2+(aq)

Note that electrons are a reactant here.
Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions (in acidic medium)

Consider the titration of an acidic solution of Na2C2O4 (sodium oxalate,
colorless) with KMnO4 (deep purple).

MnO4– is reduced to Mn2+ (pale pink) while the C2O42– is oxidized to
CO2.

The equivalence point is given by the presence of a pale pink color.

If more KMnO4 is added, the solution turns purple due to the excess
KMnO4.

What is the balanced chemical equation for this reaction?

We can determine this using the method of half-reactions:

Write down the two incomplete half-reactions:
MnO4–(aq) → Mn2+(aq)
C2O42–(aq) → CO2(g)

Balance each half-reaction:
 First, balance elements other than H and O.

MnO4–(aq) → Mn2+(aq)
C2O42–(aq) → 2CO2(g)

 Then balance O by adding water.

MnO4–(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
C2O42–(aq) → 2CO2(g)

 Then balance H by adding H+.

8H+(aq) + MnO4–(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
C2O42–(aq) → 2CO2(g)
 Finish by balancing charge by adding electrons.
 This is an easy place to make an error!
 For the permanganate half-reaction, note that there is a
charge of 7+ on the left and 2+ on the right.
 Therefore, 5 electrons need to be added to the left:

5e– + 8H+(aq) + MnO4–(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

 In the oxalate reaction, there is a 2- charge on the left and a 0

charge on the right, so we need to add two electrons:
C2O42–(aq) → 2CO2(g) + 2e–

 Multiply each half reaction to make the number of electrons

gained equal to the number of electrons lost.
  To balance the 5 electrons for permanganate and 2 electrons
for oxalate, we need 10 electrons for both.
 Multiplication gives:
10e– + 16H+(aq) + 2MnO4–(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
5C2O42–(aq) → 10CO2(g) + 10e–

 Now add the reactions and simplify.

16H+(aq) + 2MnO4–(aq) + 5C2O42–(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 10CO2(g)

 The equation is now balanced!

 Confirm by checking that there are equal numbers of each
atom on both sides of the reaction (law of conservation of
mass). And confirm that both sides have equal charge (law
of conservation of charge).
 Note that all the electrons have canceled out!
Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution

We use OH– and H2O rather than H+ and H2O.

The same method is used as in an acid solution, but OH– is added to
“neutralize” the H+ used.

The equation must again be simplified by canceling like terms on both
sides of the equation.
 Voltaic Cells

The energy released in a spontaneous redox reaction may be used to
perform electrical work.

Voltaic or galvanic cells are devices in which electron transfer occurs
via an external circuit.

Voltaic cells utilize spontaneous reactions.

If a strip of Zn is placed in a solution of CuSO4, Cu is deposited on the
Zn and the Zn dissolves by forming Zn2+.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Zn is spontaneously oxidized to Zn2+ by Cu2+.

The Cu2+ is spontaneously reduced to Cu0 by Zn.

The entire process is spontaneous.

This voltaic cell consists of:

An oxidation half-reaction:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
 Oxidation takes place at the anode.

A reduction half-reaction:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
 Reduction takes place at the cathode.

A salt bridge (used to complete the electrical circuit).
 Cations move from anode to cathode.
 Anions move from cathode to anode.

The two solid metals are the electrodes (cathode and anode).

As oxidation occurs, Zn is converted to Zn2+ and 2e–.
 The electrons flow toward the cathode, where they are used in the
reduction reaction.

We expect the Zn electrode to lose mass and the Cu electrode to
gain mass.

Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode.

Therefore, the anode is negative and the cathode is positive.

Electrons cannot flow through the solution; they have to be
transported through an external wire.

Anions and cations move through a porous barrier or salt bridge.

Cations move into the cathodic compartment to neutralize the
excess negatively charged ions
(Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu, so the counter ion of Cu is in excess).

Anions move into the anodic compartment to neutralize the excess
Zn2+ ions formed by oxidation.
 Cell EMF

The flow of electrons from anode to cathode is spontaneous.

What is the “driving force”?

Electrons flow from anode to cathode because the cathode has a lower
electrical potential energy than the anode.

Potential difference: difference in electrical potential.

The potential difference is measured in volts.

One volt (V) is the potential difference required to impart one joule
(J) of energy to a charge of one coulomb (C):

J
1V = 1
C

Electromotive force (emf) is the force required to push electrons
through the external circuit.
 Cell potential: Ecell is the emf of a cell.
 This is known as the cell voltage.
 Ecell > 0 for a spontaneous reaction.

For 1 M solutions or 1 atm pressure for gases at 25°C (standard

conditions), the standard emf (standard cell potential) is called E°cell.

For example, for the reaction:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

E°cell = +1.10 V.
Standard Reduction Potentials

We can conveniently tabulate electrochemical data.

Standard reduction potentials, E°red, are measured relative to a
standard.

The emf of a cell can be calculated from standard reduction potentials:
E°cell = E°red(cathode) - E°red(anode)

We use the following half-reaction as our standard:
2H+(aq, 1M) + 2e– → H2(g, 1 atm) E°cell = 0 V.

This electrode is called a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).

The SHE is assigned a standard reduction potential of zero.

Consider the half-reaction:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–

We can measure E°cell relative to the SHE.
 In this cell the SHE is the cathode.
 It consists of a Pt electrode in a tube placed in 1 M H+ solution.
 H2 is bubbled through the tube.

E°cell = E°red(cathode) - E°red(anode)

0.76 V = 0 V - E°red(anode).
 Therefore E°red(anode) = -0.76 V.

Standard reduction potentials must be written as reduction reactions:
Zn2+(aq, 1 M) + 2e– → Zn(s) E°red = -0.76 V.

Since E°red = -0.76 V, we conclude that the reduction of Zn2+ in the
presence of the SHE is not spontaneous.
 However, the oxidation of Zn with the SHE is spontaneous.

The standard reduction potential is an intensive property.

Therefore, changing the stoichiometric coefficient does not affect
E°red.
2Zn2+(aq) + 4e– → 2Zn(s) E°red = -0.76 V

Reactions with E°red > 0 are spontaneous reductions relative to the
SHE.

Reactions with E°red < 0 are spontaneous oxidations relative to the
SHE.

The larger the difference between E°red values, the larger the E°cell.

The more positive the value of E°red, the greater the driving force for
reduction.
Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Consider a table of standard reduction potentials.

We can use this table to determine the relative strength of reducing
(and oxidizing ) agents.

The more positive the E°red, the stronger the oxidizing agent (written
in the table as a reactant).

The more negative the E°red, the stronger the reducing agent (written
as a product in the table).

We can use this table to predict if one reactant can spontaneously
oxidize another.

Example:
 F2 can oxidize H2 or Li.
 Ni2+ can oxidize Al(s).

We can use this table to predict if one reactant can spontaneously

reduce another.

Example:
 Li can reduce F2.
 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions

For any electrochemical process
E° = E°red(reduction process) - E°red(oxidation process).

A positive E° indicates a spontaneous process (voltaic cell).

A negative E° indicates a non-spontaneous process.

This equation is used to understand the activity series of metals.

Consider the reaction of nickel with silver ion:
Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
 The standard cell potential is:
E°cell = E°red(Ag+/Ag) - E°red(Ni2+/Ni)
= (0.80 V) - (-0.28 V)
= 1.08 V
 This value indicates that the reaction is spontaneous.
EMF and Free-Energy Change

We can show that:
∆G = -nFE

Where ∆G is the change in free energy, n is the number of moles of
electrons transferred, F is Faraday’s constant, and E is the emf of the
cell.

We define: C J
F = 96 ,500 = 96 ,500
mol e -
(V )(mol e - )

Since n and F are positive, if ∆G < 0, then E > 0, and the reaction will
be spontaneous.
 Effect of Concentration on Cell
EMF

A voltaic cell is functional until E = 0, at which point equilibrium has been
reached.

The cell is then “dead”.

The point at which E = 0 is determined by the concentrations of the species
involved in the redox reaction.

We can calculate the cell potential under nonstandard conditions.

Recall that: ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln Q

We can substitute in our expression for the free energy change:
-nFE = -nFE° + RT ln Q

RT

Rearranging, we get the Nernst equation: E = E ° − ln Q
nF
2 . 303 RT

Or E = E° − log Q
nF

Note the change from natural logarithm to log base-10.


The Nernst equation can be simplified by collecting all the
constants together using a temperature of 298 K:

0.0592
E = E° − log Q
n

Example: If we have the reaction:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

If [Cu2+] = 5.0 M, and [Zn2+] = 0.050 M:

0.0592 0.050
Ecell = 1.10 V − log = 1.16 V
2 5.0
Cell EMF and Chemical Equilibrium

A system is at equilibrium when ∆G = 0.

From the Nernst equation, at equilibrium;

nE°
log K =
0.0592

Thus, if we know the cell emf, we can calculate the equilibrium
constant.
Experiment 8: Electrochemistry

Spontaneous redox reactions occur in Galvanic cells producing
electricity in the process

∆G = –nFEcell

Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode
= Ereduction – Eoxidation
= Epositive – Enegative

For a redox reaction to be spontaneous: Ecell > 0

When ∆G = 0, Ecell = 0, the cell is in equilibrium (that is, dead)

Non-spontaneous redox reactions (Ecell < 0) are made to occur in

electrolytic cells by applying electrical work (e.g. recharging batteries)
 Experiment 9: Cation and Anion Analysis

A systematic application of chemical concepts

Cations are sequentially separated into and by groups through
precipitation. That is, each group is precipitated out of the unknown
solution. Those cations remaining in the supernate belong to groups
down the line.

Then each cation in each group is tested to confirm their presence
via color reactions (solution or precipitate), through the evolution of
gases or through flame color.

This analysis is an application of the following equilibria:

Acid-base

Precipitation

Complex formation

Redox

Quantitative analysis is designed to determine how much metal ion is
present.

Qualitative analysis is designed to detect the presence of metal ions.

Typical qualitative analysis of a metal-ion mixture involves:

 Separation of ions into five major groups on the basis of their

differential solubilities.
 Insoluble chlorides.
 Acid-insoluble sulfides.
 Base-insoluble sulfides and hydroxides.
 Insoluble phosphates.
 Alkali metals and ammonium ion.
 Individual ions within each group are separated by selectively
dissolving members of the group.
 Specific tests are used to determine whether a particular ion is
present or absent.
References

Brown, Le May and Bursten. Chemistry: the
Central Science, 9th ed. 2004

Silberberg. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of
Matter and Change, 4th ed. 2006