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RNI NO.

MP BIL 01034/12/1/2005-TC ISSN 0973-3914

Research Journal of Social and


Life Sciences
Half Yearly, Bilingual (English Edition)
A Registered/ Reviewed/ Refereed
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942
Impact Factor 3.112
Indexed & Listed at: Ulrich's Periodicals Directory , ProQuest, U.S.A. Title Id : 715205

Volume- XXII-I English Edition Year- 11 June, 2017

Chief Editor
Prof. Braj Gopal
Honoured with Prestigious Bhartendu Harishchand Award

Honorary Editor
Dr. S. Akhilesh
Honored with Prestigious Pt. G.B. Pant Award Govt. of India 1997, 1998,
2000, 2004, 2008,2014 and Bhartendu Harishchand Award in 2006
Dr. Sandhya Shukla
Professor and Head
Department of Political Science
Govt. T. R. S. College, Rewa (M.P.)

Editor
Dr. Gayatri Shukla
Joint Director
Centre for Research Studies

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Subject Experts/ Advisory Board


01. Dr. Safiqur Rahman, Assam 02. Mr. Deepak Shukla, Dubai
03. Dr. A. P. Onkarappa, Karnataka 04. Dr. O.P. Parmeswaran, Chandigarh
05. Dr. Archana Ambhore, Akola 06. Dr. Arvind Joshi, Varanasi
07. Dr. George Abraham, Kerala 08. Dr. Amita, Saudi Arabiya
09. Dr. A.P. Mishra, Rewa 10. Dr. A.K. Shrivastava, Rewa
11. Dr. N.P. Pathak, Rewa 12. Dr. Rajesh Bhatt, Srinagar
13. Dr. V. L. Bhangdia, Amravati 14. Dr. G.K. Sharma, Ujjain
15. Dr. N.P. Tripathi, Rewa 16. Dr. R. S. Topandasani, Junagadh
17. Dr. B.P. Badola, Dharamshala 18. Dr. Minaxi Patel, Rajkot
19. Dr. Bal Gopal Singh, Banshatli 20. Dr. Suneeta Dwivedi, Noida
21. Dr. Prahlad Mishra, Jabalpur 22. Dr. N. Sundaram, Vellore
23. Dr. B.C.M. Patnaik, Odisha 24. Dr. Umesh Shukla, Agra
25. Dr. Narendrasingh, Ahmedabad 26. Dr. Geeta Nair, Mumbai

GAYATRI PUBLICATIONS
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Opinions expressed in this journal do not reflect the policies or


views of this organisation, but of the individual contributors.
The authors are solely responsible for the details and statements in their
Research papers.The Judicial Jurisdiction will be Rewa (M.P.)
CONTENTS

1. Environment & Society 07


Akhilesh Shukla
2. Sanitation: An Issue for Rural Women in India 13
Ranu Sharma
3. Skills: A productivity tool 17
Monika Khanna
4. Rural Development: A Strategy for Poverty 23
Alleviation in India
Archana V. Bajaj (Bhangdia)
5. Experiences and Perceptions of Online Search Engine Use 34
and Information- A Research Study at TISS, Mumbai
Nishant Kashyap Ghatowar
6. Colonial Discourses on Women's Question in the Sadiniya Asomiya 46
Ajit Konwar
7. The Effects of using Social Networking Sites on Academic 53
Performance of the Undergraduate Level Students
(With Special Reference to Nalbari College of Nalbari District)
Karabi Goswami
8. Missionaries, Orunodoi and the Issues of Marriage Reform 60
Navaneeta Baruah
9. International Perspective on Right to Food to Eliminate 67
Hunger and Malnutrition
Anurekha Goswami
10. International Framework on Acid Attacks: A Study 72
Minakshi Goswami
11. Talent Development Initiatives of Indian Public Sector Banks 82
Bhanu Shankar
12. Domonetisation & Effect on Indian Economy 91
Alka Nayak
13. The Right to Information and Good Governance- An Insight 95
Aparajita Baruah
14. Urban Informal Sector Workers and Condition of Employment in 100
Urban Assam: NSS Results
Biman Kumar Nath
4 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

15. Developing the Human Capital for Entrepreneurship 108


Growth in Assam
Rubi Das
16. The Adivasis of Assam: The bitter sweet experience 113
Aditya Gogoi
17. Business Ethics and its Application and Issues in Indian 120
Business Environment
Harmeet Singh
18. A Study on Operational Performance of Assam Financial 127
Corporation (AFC)
Prashanta Sharma
Mallika Das
19. Microfinance: Promoting Women Entrepreneurial and 131
Empowerment in Northeastern States
Jayashree Bordoloi
20. Growth, Inequality and Poverty: Interconnections 138
Krishna Dey
Mouchumi Das
21. The Nature of Capital Expenditure of the Government 145
of Meghalaya
Hemanta Kalita
Niranjan Sarmah
22. Women Entrepreneurship in Assam: Problems and Prospects 154
Sangita Mahanta
Smita Rajbongshi
23. Shared Prosperity as a Policy Response to Inequality 160
Nazneen Ara Hoque
24. Skill Development Process of Handicraft Industries in 165
North-East India: With Special Reference to water Hyacinth
Laya Gogoi
25. Moral Values and Business Ethics 171
Saugat Barua
26. Institutional Planning and Management 176
Md. Aynul Bari
27. Transition from Cash to Cashless Economy-a case study in 182
Guwahati of Kamrup District
AnuradhaBhuyan
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 5

28. Right to Education in India 187


Bipin Chandra Nautiyal
29. Ethnicity in Bhutan: Causes and Effects 198
Roshna Devi
30. Ethnic Conflict and Internal Displacement in Assam 206
Shrutilekha Barman
31. Human Rights and its Hindrances 210
Priyanka Kakoti
32. Issue of Land Rights and Ethnic Conflict in 214
Assam: A Lesson from BTAD
Nipan Haloi
33. Social Media- A new battleground for Indian Political Parties 219
Bapukan Saikia
34. Political Empowerment and Education of Rural Women: Among 224
some Social Groups
Dipalee Neog
35. Economic and Social Changes Medieval Haryana 232
(13th-18th Century CE)
Suraj Bhan Bhardwaj
36. Ancient Indian Revenue System as Reflected in the Arthasastra : 245
An Analysis
Ratul Bujar Baruah
37. Impact of Environmental Changes on Habitation and Economy 249
of the mishing Community
(A micro-regional study on downstream part of the Jia-Bharali river)
Chayanika Bhuyan
38. Prison Reform in India 257
S. K. Rai
39. Victims of Crime in India and the Criminal Justice System: 266
A Brief Study
Rupali Debbarma
40. Human Rights Violations in North Korea 272
Nabanita Das
41. Judicial Interpretation and the Right to Education 278
Chandana Borah
42. Prisoners' Rights: An Evolving Jurisprudence 285
Farida Ahmed, ChandanaSarmah
6 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

43. Euthanasia- An Analytical and Comparative study of its 291


legality on International Dimensions & Views And Indian
Perspective & Scenario
Meu Amoeba Oasis
44. A Comparative Study on the Library Facilities of Government 295
and Private Secondary Schools in Nagaon District
Himakshi Borah
45. A Comparative Study of Adjustment Ability and Aggression 301
between Semi Contact Sport Players
Shipra Rai, Pankaj Pandey
46. Secondary Level Students and Higher Education- A Study 306
Rani Deka
47. Behaviour code /Ethics for a Noble Profession- Teaching 311
Suneeta Khanna Ganguly
48. Higher Education: An Important Catalyst in the development 315
of rural areas in North-East India
Kashmiri Das
49. Interdisciplinary Nature of Education: Relationship with 320
Management Definition of Management
Monika Rabha
50. A Commentary on the Character of Rose in Nadine Gordimet's 325
Burger's Daughter
A.L. Gautam , Jyoti Shukla
51. Understanding Nationalism in the writings of Lakshinath 329
Bezbaroa : An Introspection
Parag Nath
52. Ethnic conflict in Assam : A Study with special reference 338
to Umakanta Sarma's the Bharandas
Deluar Hussain
53. The Role and Need of Puppetry in Behavior Change 343
Communication for Rural India: An Overview
Garima Upadhyay
54. Normal Stages in the Development of the Larvae of 349
Rana Tigrina Daud and Bufo Andersonii Bouleng
Umesh Shukla
55. Prevalence of Menopausal symptoms among the Misings 356
of Majuli, Assam
ParismitaSaikia, ChandanaSarmah
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Environment & Society


* Akhilesh Shukla
==========================================================
Abstract- The need to spread environmental awareness is enormous in the context
of successfully addressing environmental problems. It is linked to environmental
education. On the one hand, provision of environmental education creates greater
awareness in individuals and communities with respect to putting environmental
resources to use even while conserving them. On the other hand, greater
environmental awareness increases the scope of environmental education-as a
discipline as well as inclusion of aspects of it within the scope of other disciplines.
Various media and means are used to spread environmental awareness among
the people. The electronic media and the print media are the major mediums of
spreading information about environment among the populace-educating them
about environmental concerns and ways to address these. News, features, talk
shows and discussions on television and radio are increasingly focusing on
environmental themes of today.Global warming, air and water pollution, overuse
of fertilisers, the negative implication of use of plastics and polythene,
conservation of energy and fuel resources, all these are topics of current media
debate. Newspapers and magazines too are, one may say, more environment
conscious than ever before. Articles and analyses explore the environmental
debacle that our globe is headed towards and create awareness in the common
man about environmental problems.
==========================================================
Keywords: environmental education, Global warming
Introduction: The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living
things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most
often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses
the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources
that affect human survival and economic activity.The concept of the natural
environment can be distinguished as components:
Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without
massive civilized human intervention, including all vegetation,
microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural phenomena that
occur within their boundaries and their nature
Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut
boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation,

===========================
* Department of Sociology, T.R.S. Autonomous College, Rewa (M.P.)
8 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from civilized human


activity.
in contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. In such
areas where man has fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban
settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly
modified into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less
extreme, such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert,
modify the natural environment into an artificial one. Though many animals
build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they are not human,
hence beaver dams and the works of Mound-building termites are thought of
as natural.
The planet Earth is a gift to us by God. It is sustained life for millions of
years, be it in any form. Resources on which we thrive have been in abundance.
But as man pushes forward for more and more, he has forgotten the importance
of saving our planet so that its resources last for millions of years more.
Urbanization, pollution, and other related activities have contributed to
environmental hazards, global warming, and depletion of the planets resources.
We live in a world where in nature resources are limited. Water, air, soil, oil,
the products we get from forests, Grasslands, oceans and from agriculture
and livestock, are all A part of our life support system. Without them, life itself
would be impossible. As we keep increasing in numbers and the quantity of
resources each of us uses also increases, the Earths resource base must
inevitably shrink .The Earth cannot be expected to indefinitely sustain this
expending level of utilization of resources. Added to this is the misuse of
resources. We waste or pollute large amounts of natures clean: we create
more and more material like plastic that we discard after a single use; and we
waste colossal amounts of food, which is discarded as garbage .Manufacturing
processes create solid waste by products that are discard, as well as chemicals
that pollute the air. Increasing amounts of waste cannot be managed by natural
processes. These accumulate in our environment, leading to a variety of disease
and other adverse Environmental impacts now seriously affecting all our live.
While coming and going from home maybe you feel daily the environmental
mess around your locality because of the lack of awareness of your community.
In our residential areas no doubt most of the environmental care is the
responsibility of civic agencies like garbage collectors, sanitary workers but
the role of community is equally important. For example if sanitary workers
come to your area at 7o clock in the morning to clean the roads and streets it
means all the housemates must put the entire garbage of their homes before
7o clock. If they get late then the garbage they put outside home after going of
sweepers will litter around whole day till the next day sweepers come again.
Here community needs environmental awareness to take care of environment
by its own will.
Five Easy ways to raise Environmental Awareness:
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 9

Here are 5 easy ways to raise environmental awareness in your


community to make them play their role for the improvement of their local
environment.
Green Blog: You can make a green blog on any free blogging platform like
Blogger or WordPress to simply communicate to community what they need
to do for the proper maintenance of cleanliness in their area. You can point out
main environmental issues of your area to let all know about their significance.
Making a blog is as easy as ABC. You need to visit www.blogger.com or
www.wordpress.com and click for sign-up for a new blog. Keep a good name
of blog that shows its link with your area and write small posts narrating various
aspects of environment of your area. You need not to worry about quality of
posts nor about the design of the blog. You are not making a green blog to get
huge traffic and earn extra bucks. After making a blog let the community
know about its URL. For this word-of-mouth is the best source of publicity.
Whoever you know in your community tell him the URL in writing to pass it
on to others as well. In this way you can easily take on board your community
members to look after your surrounding environment collectively.
How to raise environmental awareness with poetic rhythm?
Top 5 ways to raise environmental awareness thru magic show
How to raise environmental awareness through a youth festival?
Social Media: The second option is little easier than green blogging. You
need to create a page or group on any popular social media account with a
name that reflects the area where you live and you just have to ask all your
neighbours and other people living in your area to be the member of that group.
From that group you can share you environmental concerns with them and can
motivate them to make collective efforts for the improvement of your local
environment.
What is greenwashing and how to be aware of it while shopping?
Singing competition on environment; entertain and make aware
How to enthrall audience with a green concert?
Green Club: If you have more time you can establish a community based
Green Club to interact in free time to discuss the environmental issues of your
area and to make them act together for the green cause. For this purpose you
need not to get registration of your club. You just need to write on a plain
paper the name and objectives of your club to distribute it among community
members. You should also mention the schedule of community meetings to
get together and discuss and solve the environment issues of your area.
How to hold a painting competition on an environmental issue?
How to organize a speech contest on a green topic?
Top 8 tips to organize a green exhibition in your area
Women Forum: In societies where earning livelihood of the family is the job
of men folk and their women live in homes as housewife the option of Women
Forum can bring best results to raise environmental awareness in community
10 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

to solve the environmental problems of your area on self-help basis. If women


folk has to stay at home they have usually free time to make campaign for the
environmental care of their area and can solve their green issues on self-help
basis.
How to organize a tableau show to raise environmental awareness?
Hold a debate on an environmental issue
Top 10 tips to effectively organize a green walk
Religious Podium: In societies where religion dominates, the religious podium
of either Church or Mosque can also be a good platform the bring community
there and discuss with them the issues of surrounding environment. Here
religious leader of the community can also play leading role to take all people
together for the enhancement of environmental awareness and resolution of
green issues.
How to conduct green workshop on pollution control?
Top 20 tips for holding a seminar on environment protection
How to organize a conference to resolve an environmental issue?
Important Environmental Issues: The environmental problems that have
surfaced in todays times are the result of years of massive destruction and
abuse of our fragile eco-system. A long time is needed to create a particular
thing than destroying it. It is therefore necessary to address the environmental
issues and take appropriate action to prevent further damage. The environmental
issues and in general are discussed through this article.
A years period is too short to observe environmental changes, since;
they are the product of continual degradation of the environment. However, as
we begin with the year, some of the environmental issues have attained a state
which concerns scientists and people in general around the globe. The different
environmental issues are presented below.
Energy Crisis: The subject of energy efficiency has always been a burning
issue. Governments of different nations encourage scientists to find innovative
ways to satisfy their energy needs. With petroleum fuels about to end one day,
this issue has to be addressed as early as possible. Solar energy is one of the
best alternatives to the conventional energy resources like petroleum. Research
and study in the direction to solve energy crisis is therefore, necessary. Mindless
use of petroleum products not only depletes the stock, but also results in the
emission of harmful gases like carbon monoxide (CO). Energy crisis is therefore
one of the burning environmental issues.
Climate Change: The emission of greenhouse gases like C02 and methane is
the result of industrialization other improper practices, which result into their
production. The ozone layer which protects life on earth from ultraviolet (UV)
radiations is becoming thinner gradually due to these greenhouse gases. The
greenhouse gas emissions adversely affect our environment and are the
underlying cause of the global warming phenomenon. There is a gradual shift
in the patterns of climate observed over many years; it is therefore one of the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 11

global environmental issues. Understanding the different causes and factors


associated with climate change is therefore important.
Intensive Farming: Practice of intensive farming leads to the consumption
of natural resources for obtaining profits. Monoculture, overgrazing, meat
production, etc., are the important aspects of intensive farming. Meat production
accounts for generation of greenhouse gases more than any other source.
According to one of the United Nations reports (2006), the greenhouse gases
produced by all the trucks and cars in the world are lesser than those generated
in the process of meat production.
There are many environmental issues which need to be addressed.
However, those mentioned above are the current environmental issues and
important ones. Drastic steps need to be taken to prevent harmful consequences
resulting from climate change and other environmental problems.
Public Awareness: Environmental sensitivity in our country can only grow
through a major public awareness campaign. This has several tools- the
electronic media, the press, school and college education, which are all
essentially complementary to each other. Green movements can grow out of
small local initiatives to become major players in advocating environmental
protection to the government. Policy makers will only work towards
environmental preservation if there is a sufficiently large bank of voters that
insist on protecting the environment orienting the media to project pro-
environmental issues is an important aspect. Several advertising campaigns
frequently have messages that are negative to environmental preservation.
======================
References :
1. D. K. Sinha, Need for Environmental Awareness, http://www.
yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/need-for-environmental-awareness/42509
2. Cetin G, Nisanci SH (2010). Enhancing students environmental awareness.
Procedia Soc. Behavioral Sci., 2: 1830-1834.
3. Yurtta_ GF, Sln Y (2010). What are the most important environmental
problems according to the second grade primary school studentsProcedia Soc.
Behav. Sci., 2: 1605-1609.
4. Gkdere M (2005). A study on environmental knowledge level ofprimary students
in Turkey. Asia-Pacific Forum Sci. LearningTeaching, 6: 2-5.
5. Talay Gndz S, Akpnar N (2004). On the status of environmentaleducation
and awareness of undergraduate students at AnkaraUniversity, Turkey. Inter. J.
Environ. Pollut., 21(3): 293-308.
6. http://www.pollutionpollution.com/2013/05/ways-to-raise-environmental-
awareness.html
7. Johnson, D. L.; Ambrose, S. H.; Bassett, T. J.; Bowen, M. L.; Crummey, D. E.;
Isaacson, J. S.; Johnson, D. N.; Lamb, P.; Saul, M.; Winter-Nelson, A. E. (1997).
Meanings of Environmental Terms. Journal of Environmental Quality. 26
(3): 581589. doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030002x.
8. Symons, Donald (1979). The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford
University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-19-502535-0.
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9. Earths Spheres Archived 2007-08-31 at the Wayback Machine.. 1997-2000.


Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the Future. Retrieved November
11, 2007.
10. Jump up ^ Wordnet Search: Earth science[dead link]
11. Jump up ^ [1]. The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2002. New York: Columbia
University Press
12. Jump up ^ Distribution of land and water on the planet Archived May 31,
2008, at the Wayback Machine.. UN Atlas of the Oceans Archived September
15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
13. Jump up ^ River {definition} from Merriam-Webster. Accessed February 2010.
14. Jump up ^ http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/hydrology.html/ Archived August 13,
2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Sanitation: An Issue for Rural Women in India


* Ranu Sharma
==========================================================
Abstract- No issue touches the lives of women as intimately as that of access to
sanitation. This lack of sanitation has severely ill repercussions for women as it
poses a threat to their safety, mental and physical well being. Children mortality
rate is highest ever recorded and lack of cleanliness causing deaths of slum
dwellers even from easily preventable acute diseases. Prime Minister Narendra
Modi has addressed this issue as a major concern which has led to the launch
of India's largest and most ambitious Clean India Initiative or Swachh Bharat
Abhiyaan on 2nd October 2014. India has finally started on the journey to
clean itself for a prosperous future.
==========================================================
A staggering 2.4 billion, or one-third of the world's population continues
to remain without improved sanitation by 2015, says a recent World Health
Organisation and United Nations Children's Fund report. This is a terrible
violation of basic human dignity, because clean drinking water and basic sani-
tation are human rights that impinge on the exercise of other rights.Right to
Sanitation must be a fundamental right.A major cause of concern for public
health still remains, with 15 per cent of the world's population practising open
defecation. Most Indians still do not have access to modern sanitation: for
example, rural sanitation coverage was estimated to have reached only 21%
by 2008 according to the UNICEF/WHO joint monitoring programme. On
economic grounds, according to the Indian Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, more than 12 billion rupees is spent every year on poor sanitation and
its resultant illnesses. The survey examined 1405 cities in 12 different States
and found out that around 50% of these cities don't have a proper water supply
system. Even if the households have access to piped water in around 80% of
these households the average supply is less than five hours per day. Concern-
ing sanitation the numbers are even worse: Over 70% of the households in the
analysed cities don't have access to toilets or a sewerage system. Almost 60%
of the world's population who has to rely on open defecation lives in India, but
this number also includes many people in rural areas.
Sanitation in Rural India: Sanitation coverage in India continues to display
marked disparities in access to safe toilet facilities between urban and rural
populations across economic and social groups despite some impressive gains
===========================
* Assistant Professor and H.O.D. Department of Sociology, K.A.(P.G.) College,
Kasganj
14 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

made. This lack of access can have deleterious effects on health outcomes and
can lead to infections and diseases associated with inadequate water supply
and sanitation and can also lead to diarrhoea, stunting and mortality among
children.
India has a population of almost 1.2 billion people. 55% of this popula-
tion (nearly 600 million people) has no access to toilets. Most of these num-
bers are made up by people who live in urban slums and rural areas. A large
populace in the rural areas still defecates in the open. Slum dwellers in major
metropolitan cities, reside along railway tracks and have no access to toilets or
a running supply of water. The situation in urban areas in terms of scale is not
as serious as rural areas.This situation as is as alarming as it sounds and calls
for urgent action.
Lack of sanitation an issue for rural women:
Lack of sanitation has severely adverse repercussions on each citizen of
our nation but the this problem has hi the rural women the hardest.No issue
touches the lives of women as intimately as that of access to sanitation. Al-
though men also suffer from the burden of poor sanitation, they are more likely
to resort to other means to relieve themselves. In many slums, men urinate and
defecate along railway tracks and in open spaces. But women - whose anatomy,
modesty and susceptibility to attack does not allow them to discreetly relieve
themselves in public - have no choice but to wait until dark, usually early in the
morning when there is less risk of being accosted. In low income settlements
where there are no individual toilets, women have to queue for long periods to
gain access to public toilets; some have to bear the indignity of having to def-
ecate in the open due to the lack of consideration to their different sanitation
and privacy needs and poor access to toilet facilities.
There is emerging evidence that suggests that this lack of access to sani-
tation can alsoexposethem to the possibility of sexual harassment or assaultand
sexual abuse.In response to the shame and fear associated with open defeca-
tion, women restrict their mobility and also adopt risky practices such as inad-
equate food and water intake for long hours to avoid the need to urinate or
defecate. This lack of adequate nutrition along with poor sanitation and hy-
giene practices can worsen the situation for pregnant women and lead to poor
pregnancy outcomes leading to maternal and child under-nutrition.
For women living in slums, a long wait at the public toilet can mean that
children are left unattended, or that a household chore is delayed. Unhygienic
public toilets and latrines threaten the health of women, who are prone to re-
productive tract infections caused by poor sanitation. For women who are
menstruating, the need for adequate sanitation becomes even more acute.
Adolescent girls were more vulnerable to sexual harassment and assault
when they went out for defecation. The need for privacy and dignity was greatly
felt in managing menstrual hygiene by adolescent girls.Newly married women
and pregnant women were at a greater health risk due to self-imposed food
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 15

restrictions to avoid defecation during the day while married women with chil-
dren were burdened with domestic sanitation responsibilities. Older women
were prone to physical injuries while going out in the fields at night.
Women expressed the need for household toilet facilities mainly due to
reasons of safety and security.Toilet construction remained out of reach for the
very poor.Government-made toilets were poorly constructed, without any doors,
roof or safe enclosures, raising safety concerns and making them inconvenient
for women.Gender inequality in household financial decision making was an
important constraint against toilet construction.
Studies show that in India majority of the girls drop out of school be-
cause of lack of toilets. Only 22% of them manage to even complete class 10.
The Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan:
Our Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi identified the lack of sanitation
in the country as a major issue facing our nation in the 21st century and and
launched an ambitious mission to clean India, The Clean India Initiative.
He urged every citizen of India to devote at least hundred hours every
year, that is two hours every week towards cleanliness. He further added that
we couldn't let India remain unclean any longer.
He appealed to everyone, particularly political and religious leadership,
mayors, sarpanchs and captains of industry to plan and wholeheartedly engage
in the task of cleaning your homes, work places, villages, cities and surround-
ings. He also added that the construction of toilets was of much priority as
compared to building of temples.
On 2nd October 2014, 'Swachh Bharat Mission', the biggest ever clean-
liness drive was launched to ensure hygiene, waste management & sanitation
in India. It aimed to eradicate open defecation by 2nd Oct 2019 as a tribute to
Mahatma Gandhi on his 150th birthday.Through this program, government
builds toilets and community toilets for schools, houses and public places.
Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan (SBA) is a centrally sponsored scheme. Fund-
ing for this program was set as 2 lakh crore. For North Eastern & Special
category states, funding will be in 90:10 ratio by centre and state. And for all
other states, funding will be in 75:25 ratio.World Bank has approved $1.5
billion to support this massive scale initiative.
As per Government reports, as of June 2017, over 1 lakh community
and public toilets have been constructed under this programme. 885 cities
have been declared open defecation free. 2.29 crore household toilets are still
under construction.Toilets and dustbins will be setup for every 500 metres in
cities. States of Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are open defecation free.
The issue of sanitation and the unhygienic conditions in India has finally
come into limelight and is recognised by each citizen of our nation. This is the
biggest step towards the Clean India.This program has dedicated staff to con-
duct awareness programs and to work towards behavioural change. Dignity to
the cleaning staff is also a major aspect addressed by this programme. It has
16 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

also created employment opportunities.Many waterborne diseases like Chol-


era, Malaria, Dengue etc. can also be prevented. In the near future, healthcare
costs will be reduced, thereby contributing to the GDP growth.Tourism sector
will also benefit in the long run.To manage solid waste, electricity is being
produced from it.Maharashtra government has introduced Anti-spitting law,
this step has marked the beginning of a strict order for the well being for all of
us and paving a path towards a cleaner and greener India.
Swachh Bharat still remains a distant dream. Only 95.23 lakh toilets
built in rural India, against a target of 12 crore which is to be achieved by
2019. Out of 1.42 lakh tonnes of garbage generated in urban regions every
day, only 15% is being processed.Out of 170 crore allocated to I&B; Ministry
for awareness campaign, 94 crores has been spent. Mission to clean the Ganga
showing slow progress with funds lying unused.There are no proper dust bins
are available in the public places still.Till the problem of slums is solved, SBA
cannot be successful to the full extent.
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is indeed successful in acknowledging the un-
hygienic conditions in India. Instead of ignoring the sanitation issue, working
towards the clean India is undoubtedly a beneficial thing. Though the target
seems unbelievable by 2019, the problem of open defecation will be reduced
to a great extent by then.With these new toilets being , many women expressed
that they would feel safer and better about themselves; they see the short term
rewards of having a toilet while reaping long term benefits for attaining a skill
that they can generate an income for themselves and ensure the health of their
families.
======================
References :
1. http://www.narendramodi.in/pms-message-on-swachh-bharat-6646
2. https://www.scoopwhoop.com/news/modi-swachh-bharat-abhiyan/#.spxn17n7o
3. http://www.groupdiscussionideas.in/swachh-bharat-abhiyan-how-far-was-it-suc-
cessful/
4. http://www.swachhbharaturban.in/sbm/home/#/SBM
5. http://mirror.unhabitat.org/documents/media_centre/APMC/Sanitation%20-
%20A%20womans%20issue.pdf
6. http://www.livemint.com/Politics/hbWuOVF83Q2hRmBd07digN/Lack-of-toi-
lets-more-than-just-a-sanitation-problem.html
7. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/the-right-to-sanitation/
article4853820.ece
8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16546806
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Skills: A productivity tool


* Monika Khanna
==========================================================
Abstract- Management is a process of managing resources everywhere.
Organizations are managed by peoples and through peoples. Without people
organizations can never exist, Indeed peoples who make up the human resources
of a company are unique and they can make or break an organization depending
upon their level of commitment and co operations. Human resources can be
defined as the collection of peoples and their characteristics at their work. Well
we know that management is universal applicable whether organizational context
or non- organizational context. We people are using management in our day to
day life also. So we can say that management is for everyone as a discipline. As
far as career is concern it requires so much capabilities, responsibilities and
patience. Now days most of the people wants to make their career in management
field. To become a manager specific skills and qualification is desirable. In this
paper we have mainly focused on the qualities, skills and knowledge of a person
that are required for human resource manager.
==========================================================
Introduction: HRM as a field of study makes a sincere effort to provide
knowledge, skills and ability for management Human resources more
effectively. The basic task of HRM is the selection of the right person for the
right job at the right time to carry out the activities of an organization in the
most efficient way. It also aims to enhance the satisfaction morale and
productivity of employees control labor turn over and help organizations
increase their performance by providing the necessary training and development
opportunities, suitable working conditions and career growth to employees.
The primary objective of HR manager is to take care of the work life of the
employees from the time they join the organization to the time they leave it
while ensuring their best possible cooperation in achieving the organizational
goals and objectives. The effective utilization of HR is complex task it requires
greater foresight and strategic consideration on the part of the management.
There is no doubt that HR managers act as a crucial link between the
management and employees. A HR managers most important, and most
difficult, job is to manage people. Managers have to follow principles and
practices in managing the peoples in the organization. There are various
employees of different caste, culture and taste and temperament so to manage
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Govt. Raza P.G. College,
Rampur
18 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

these people create a challenge for manager. To manage the employees


managers must lead, motivate, inspire, and encourage them. Sometimes he
will have to hire, fire, and discipline or evaluate employees. In general, a good
manager has good time management, exceptional written and oral
communications skills, the ability to make decisions and communicate them,
to listen to management and line staff, and an understanding of finance and
marketing. Basic management skills constitute a cycle of goal creation,
commitment, feedback , reward, and accomplishment with a human interaction
at every turn .Encourage participation Plan and organize Facilitate work-
through team building, training and coaching and support Provide feedback
Keep things moving- by relying on schedules, and helpful reminders Empower
and delegate- key duties to others while Maintaining goal clarity and
responsibility Recognize good performance- by rewards and positive
reinforcement.
When interviewing a potential new hire, its standard procedure for a
Human Resources professional to assess the candidate as compared to a list of
key skills and personal characteristics needed for the job. The successful
performance of the diverse HR tasks would require a multi disciplinary
knowledge for the HR managers. It would be good for them to have a working
knowledge in the field of business administration, law, behavioral sciences
industrial psychology, sociology political science, economics, engineering,
finance and computers apart from these they would require the following
personal and job related qualities and skills to become effective performer. An
effective HR manager should have following qualities and skills which are
indispensable for individual as well as for the organization.
Basic Management Skills: There are four basic management skills anyone
must master to have any success in a management job. These four basic skills
are-
Plan-Planning is an effective tool to deal with the future. Planning is the future
course of action which managers need to perform in near future. It is such a
crucial function for an organization that it is the key to all other managerial
functions. Planning basically deals with establishing goals and objectives to
be achieved, developing rules and procedures and determining plans and
forecasting techniques etc.
Organize-Once the plans are formulated the next step is to organize all the
resources in order to convert the planning into reality. A manager must be able
to organize teams, tasks, and projects in order to get the teams work done in
the most efficient and effective manner. Organizing consists of giving each
member specific tasks, establishing departments and division, delegating
authority to the members, create the system to communicate, co ordinate the
works of the members.
Direct-Directing is the action step. After planning and organizing the work
there is need to direct the team to get the work done. Start by making sure the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 19

goal is clear to everyone on the team. With the help of this skill the manager
get the work done through subordinate in a effective manner and they boost up
the morale of the employees and motivate employees to strive for better
performance.
Control-Controlling is the process of checking the efficiency of the individuals
and the groups in fulfilling the plans and goals. Managers are going to check
or measure the actual performance of employees against the standardized one
in order to know the deviations. If there are some deviations then he is going to
take some corrective actions to remove the errors.
Other skills required are:-
Knowledge - Knowledge helps one gain respect. The HR managers must be
an expert in his own field to gain the confidence and respect of his sub ordinates.
He must have a comprehensive knowledge of concepts, principles and theories
related to HRM and other related fields and also he must have practical exposure
to these concepts and principles in real life situations.
Intelligence- Intelligence means the mental ability to properly understand
the nature of the problem existing in a situations or event which may require a
solution. The HR manager should be able to understand the situation quickly
and to act before it becomes unmanageable.
Empathy- Empathy means to put you in place of another. It pertains to
looking at events or situation from others point of view. It is the softer side of
listening and truth. The HR manager should be able to understand how people
feel, why they feel that way, and what you can do to make them feel differently.
Empathy is especially important when managers are dealing with their
employees. HR manager should honor others opinion, sentiments, rights,
beliefs and values.
Communication ability-Communication is the process of exchanging the
ides, information, views etc. A manager has a lot of communication with his
employees and others. The role of HR manager is to get work done through
others therefore he must have good communication skills to share his ideas
effectively with employees and persuade them to work. It is desirable for
manager to have a functional knowledge of the languages of the employees to
effectively communicate with them.
Emotional stability- Organization has gathering of different peoples
belonging to different culture, caste, states.Therefore it is a great challenge for
manager to co ordinate them in an efficient manner. It is often difficult to
predict the responses of employees. They usually behave differently in different
situations .hence, it is essential for HR manager to have emotional maturity
and tolerance in dealing with the employees. Manager should always be rational
and not emotional in his approach.
Conceptual ability-Conceptual power is the ability to summarize and learn
from past experiences, and to use that knowledge to adapt to future similar, or
even dissimilar, problems and situations. Through conceptual power HR
20 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Manager forecast the problem and take preventive measures in advance against
uncertainty.
Motivating ability- Motivation is reinforcement for employees. Motivation
is a blend of natural desires for a particular employee and the environment
created for them which motivate them for effective performance in the
organization and persuade to give their best in the organization
Analytical ability-Analytical ability means to analyze the situations or
conditions in an organization. The HR Manager must analyze the pros and
cons of different decisions taken by him which will be implemented in future.
With the help of analytical ability HR Manager visualise, create and solve
complex problems and
make decisions that make sense based on available information. Such skills
include demonstration of the ability to apply logical thinking to gathering and
analyzing information, designing and testing solutions to problems, and
formulating plans
Dispute resolution-An industrial dispute is basically a difference of opinion
between the employer and the employee over one or more issues. HR Manager
should have the quality and skills of managing dispute in the organization so
that there is congenial working environment which may lead to the productivity
of an
employee as well as of organization.
Decision making Skills -Decision making can be referred as the mental
processes or cognitive process which involve solving problems by selecting
one course of action from various alternatives and which must be quick in
nature. Some decisions are of such nature that they involve conflicts or
dissatisfaction but HR Manager should have skills to implement those decisions
if they are for the betterment of the organization by convincing others present
in the organization. A important part of decision making skills is in knowing
and implementing good decision making
techniques.
Leadership skills -Leadership is the behavior of the leader which influences
the employees and persuades them to perform their duties willingly. The HR
Manager provides leadership and guidance to the workers and their groups.
He insures effective communication in the organization and influences the
workers for extending their cooperation in extending the organizational
objectives.
Human relation approach-The HR Manager should have human approach
to human problems. His attitude toward operative workforce should be
sympathetic in dealing with their problems. It is the social responsibility of
HR Manager to serve all the employees equally so that this will facilitate
industrial and harmony in the organization. The healthy environment makes
the employees happy and a happy worker is a productive worker.
Technical ability-Today we people are living in the era of technology so it is
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 21

very necessary for HR manager to be techno-friendly. He must have the


knowledge of various HR related soft wares and technologies so that he can
best use the employees and their skills. A technical IT appreciation will also be
a required skill for the future. Technology will play a significant part of the
future of HR. Strong HR technology in an organization will give HR and
managers the time, tools and data to manage the people resource more
efficiently. The HR practitioner needs to be competent to lead these changes.
Objectivity and fairness-The HR manager has to serve the interest of both
the employees and management. Therefore he should strict impartially and
honesty in all his transaction. It is his moral responsibility to protect the interest
of employees.
Time management -Time management is the act or process of exercising
conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially
to increase efficiency or productivity. Time management may be aided by a
range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing
specific tasks, projects and goals. The HR manager should be punctual in his
approach. He must perform all his roles on time and also expect from employees
that they should also complete their target in a given time frame. HR manager
must acknowledge the employees for their performance so that employees can
update themselves.
Interviewing skills-Interview is the face to face interaction of candidate and
manager. This is the medium by which manager look into candidate and judge
their performance therefore HR manager must improve the quality of his
selection interviews and can enhance the companys reputation in the
employment market. The HR manager must increase his ability to take effective
notes, develop listening and questioning skills, learn how to classify and evaluate
the evidence, More accurately predict successful job performance and Create
the right climate for candidates.
Conclusion
Hr Department as well as HR Manager is an asset for an organization and
therefore an HR Manager should possess certain skills which make him different
from others and also lead to the productivity of the organization. Apart from
certain inherent skills an HR manager should improve and acquire new skills
time to time to cope up with the environment. It is easy to deal with machines
but difficult to deal with the people and for that effective skills are required.
The paper covers various skills required by HR Manager for the productivity
of the organization and which makes him different from others.
======================
References :
1. http://www.workforcedevelopment.com/career/hr.html
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management
3. http://www.time-management-guide.com/decision-making-skills.html
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making
22 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

5. http://management.about.com/od/managementskills/Management_Skills.htm
6. http://www.slideshare.net/mgrtbx/skills-to-make-you-an-effective-manage
7. http://www.business2community.com/human-resources/5-essential-human-
resource-management-skills
8. https://www.villanovau.com/resources/hr/essential-skills-human-resources
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_skill
10. http://www.personneltoday.com/articles/2007/04/10/40020/what-are-the-key-
skills-for-the-hr-practitioner-of-thefuture-
11. by-rachel.html
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Rural Development: A Strategy for Poverty


Alleviation in India
* Archana V. Bajaj (Bhangdia)
==========================================================
Abstract- Of late, rural development has assumed global attention especially
among the developing nations. It has great significance for a country like India
where majority of the population, around 65% of the people, live in rural areas.
The present strategy of rural development in India mainly focuses on poverty
alleviation, better livelihood opportunities, provision of basic amenities and
infrastructure facilities through innovative programmes of wage and self-
employment. This article overviews the role and function of the Government
and its' programmes for rural development in India. Science and technological
interventions in the field of rural development have been discussed briefly and
efforts being made to document some of the appropriate technologies developed
by several research institutes, organizations suitable for application in rural
areas are listed. Besides, the actual realization achieved during the Xth plan
and the proposed target and strategy of the XIth plan have been highlighted to
showcase the recent trend of developmental activities under the Ministry of
Rural Development.
==========================================================
Introduction: Rural Development in India is one of the most important factors
for the growth of the Indian economy. India is primarily an agriculture-based
country. Agriculture contributes nearly one-fifth of the gross domestic product
in India. In order to increase the growth of agriculture, the Government has
planned several programs pertaining to Rural Development in India. The
Ministry of Rural Development in India is the apex body for formulating
policies, regulations and acts pertaining to the development of the rural sector.
Agriculture, handicrafts, fisheries, poultry, and diary are the primary
contributors to the rural business and economy. Rural development in India
has witnessed several changes over the years in its emphasis, approaches,
strategies and programmes. It has assumed a new dimension and perspectives
as a consequence. Rural development can be richer and more meaningful only
through the participation of clienteles of development. Just as implementation
is the touchstone for planning, peoples participation is the centre-piece in
rural development. Peoples participation is one of the foremost pre-requisites
of development process both from procedural and philosophical perspectives.
===========================
* HOD, Department of Economics, Arts & Science College, Kamargoan Dist:
Washim
24 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

For the development planners and administrators it is important to solicit the


participation of different groups of rural people, to make the plans participatory.
Aims and Objectives: Rural development aims at improving rural peoples
livelihoods in an equitable and sustainable manner, both socially and
environmentally, through better access to assets (natural, physical, human,
technological and social capital), and services, and control over productive
capital (in its financial or economic and political forms) that enable them to
improve their livelihoods on a sustainable and equitable basis.
The basic objectives of Rural Development Programmes have been
alleviation of poverty and unemployment through creation of basic social and
economic infrastructure, provision of training to rural unemployed youth and
providing employment to marginal Farmers/Labourers to discourage seasonal
and permanent migration to urban areas.
Role and function of the Government: The Governments policy and
programmes have laid emphasis on poverty alleviation, generation of
employment and income opportunities and provision of infrastructure and basic
facilities to meet the needs of rural poor. The Ministry of Rural Development
in India is the apex body for formulating policies, regulations and acts pertaining
to the development of the rural sector. Agriculture, handicrafts, fisheries, poultry,
and diary are the primary contributors to the rural business and economy. The
introduction of Bharat Nirman, a project by the Government of India in
collaboration with the State Governments and the Panchayati Raj Institutions
is a major step towards the improvement of the rural sector. The National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 was introduced by the Ministry of
Rural Development, for improving the living conditions and its sustenance in
the rural sector of India. The Ministry of Rural Development in India is engaged
in legislations for the social and economic improvement of the rural populace.
The ministry consists of three departments viz., Department of Rural
Development, Department of Land Resources and Department of Drinking
Water Supply. Under the department of rural development, there are three
autonomous bodies viz., Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and
Rural Technology (CAPART), National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD)
and National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA). The objective of
the ministry can broadly be elaborated as to encourage, promote and assist
voluntary action in the implementation of projects for the enhancement of rural
prosperity, strengthen and promote voluntary efforts in rural development with
focus on injecting new technological inputs, act as the national nodal point for
co-ordination of all efforts at generation and dissemination of technologies
relevant to rural development in its wide sense and assist and promote
programmes aimed at conservation of the environment and natural resources.
However, various ministries in the central government are engaged directly or
indirectly for implementation of many programmes and schemes for the
development of rural areas like Ministries of Agriculture, Health and Family
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 25

Welfare, New and Renewable Energy, Science and Technology, Women and
Child Development and Tribal affairs etc. In addition, to strengthen the grass
root level democracy, the Government is constantly endeavouring to empower
Panchayat Raj Institutions in terms of functions, powers and finance. Grama
Sabha, NGOs, Self-Help Groups and PRIs have been accorded adequate roles
to make participatory democracy meaningful and effective.
Strategies and programs for rural development: The rural economy is an
integral part of the overall Indian economy. As majority of the poor reside in
the rural areas, the prime goal of rural development is to improve the quality
of life of the rural people by alleviating poverty through the instrument of self-
employment and wage employment programmes, by providing community
infrastructure facilities such as drinking water, electricity, road connectivity,
health facilities, rural housing and education and promoting decentralization
of powers to strengthen the Panchayati raj institutions etc. The various strategies
and programs of the Government for rural development are discussed below:
Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP): First introduced in 1978-
79, IRDP has provided assistance to rural poor in the form of subsidy and
bank credit for productive employment opportunities through successive plan
periods. Subsequently, Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment
(TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA),
Supply of Improved Tool Kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA) and Ganga Kalyan
Yojana (GKY) were introduced as sub-programs of IRDP to take care of the
specific needs of the rural population.
Wage Employment Programs: Anti-poverty strategies, like assistance to the
rural poor families to bring them above the poverty line by ensuring appreciable
sustained level of income through the process of social mobilization, training
and capacity building. Wage Employment Programs have sought to achieve
multiple objectives. They not only provide employment opportunities during
lean agricultural seasons but also in times of floods, droughts and other natural
calamities. They create rural infrastructure which supports further economic
activity. It encompasses Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY),
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) and National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (NREGA) etc. NREGA is an act of parliament. It is not merely
a scheme or policy. It aims at enhancing the livelihood security of the people in
rural areas by guaranteeing hundred days of wage employment in a financial
year, to a rural household whose members volunteer to do unskilled manual
work. The objective of the Act is to create durable assets and strengthen the
livelihood resource base of the rural poor.
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS): EAS was launched in October 1993
covering 1,778 drought-prone, desert, tribal and hill area blocks. It was later
extended to all the blocks in 1997-98. The EAS was designed to provide
employment in the form of manual work in the lean agricultural season. The
works taken up under the program were expected to lead to the creation of
26 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

durable economic and social infrastructure and address the felt-needs of the
people.
Food for Work Program: The Food for Work program was started in 2000-
01 as a component of the EAS in eight notified drought-affected states of
Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan,
Maharastra and Uttaranchal. The program aims at food provision through wage
employment. Food grains are supplied to states free of cost. However, lifting
of food grains for the scheme from Food Corporation of India (FCI) godowns
has been slow.
Rural Housing: Initiated in 1985-86, the IAY is the core program for providing
free housing to families in rural areas. It targets scheduled castes (SCs)/
scheduled tribes (STs), households and freed bonded laborers. The rural housing
program has certainly enabled many BPL families to acquire pucca houses.
The coverage of the beneficiaries is limited given the resource constraints.
The Samagra Awas Yojana (SAY) was taken up in 25 blocks to ensure
convergence of housing, provision of safe drinking water, sanitation and
common drainage facilities. The Housing and Urban Development Corporation
(HUDCO) has extended its activities to the rural areas, providing loans at a
concessional rate of interest to economically weaker sections and low-income
group households for construction of houses.
Social Security Programs: Democratic decentralization and centrally
supported Social Assistance Programs were two major initiatives of the
government in the 1990s. The National Social Assistance Program (NSAP),
launched in August 1995 marks a significant step towards fulfillment of the
Directive Principles of State Policy. The NSAP has three components: a)
National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS); b) National Family Benefit
Scheme (NFBS); c) National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS). The NSAP
is a centrally-sponsored program that aims at ensuring a minimum national
standard of social assistance over and above the assistance that states provide
from their own resources. The NOAPS provides a monthly pension of Rs. 75
to destitute BPL persons above the age of 65. The NFBS is a scheme for BPL
families who are given Rs. 10,000 in the event of the death of the breadwinner.
The NMBS provides Rs. 500 to support nutritional intake for pregnant women.
In addition to NSAP, the Annapurna scheme was launched from 1st April
2000 to provide food security to senior citizens who were eligible for pension
under NOAPS but could not receive it due to budget constraints.
Land Reforms: In an agro-based economy, the structure of land ownership is
central to the wellbeing of the people. The government has strived to change
the ownership pattern of cultivable land, the abolition of intermediaries, the
abolition of zamindari, ceiling laws, security of tenure to tenants, consolidation
of land holdings and banning of tenancy are a few measures undertaken.
Furthermore, a land record management system is a pre-condition for an
effective land reform program. In 1987-88, a centrally-sponsored scheme for
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 27

Strengthening of Revenue Administration and Updating of Land Records (SRA


& ULR) was introduced in Orissa and Bihar.
Science and Technology for rural development
Ministry of Science and Technology plays a pivotal role in promotion of
science & technology in the country. The departments has wide ranging
activities ranging from promoting high end basic research and development of
cutting edge technologies on one hand to serving the technological requirements
of the common man through development of appropriate skills and technologies
on the other. Appropriate rural technology focuses mainly on those technologies
which are simple and within the reach of the ordinary people for their own
benefit and the benefit of their community and harness the local or regional
capacity to meet local needs without increasing dependence on external factors.
A large number of governments, public and private non-government
organizations are involved in developing technologies for rural areas. However,
these technologies have hardly touched the lives of the rural population.
Apparently, the problem lies not only in the generation, diffusion and adoption
of technologies but also in poor documentation. Recently, efforts have been
made by several organizations like NRDC, CAPART, TRCS, NIRD, DST,
DBT, CSIR, ICAR, KVKs and other voluntary organizations etc. to bring out
a compendium of technologies for rural areas for wide information
dissemination and public awareness. A brief account of technologies which
are low cost, energy-efficient and environment-friendly as well as appropriate
and sustainable for application in rural areas is presented in the Appendix I.
Government schemes focusing on Science and Technology are:
S&T Application for Rural Development (STARD): Aims at facilitating
development of promising S&T based field groups and innovative technologies
related to rural development.
S&T for Women: To promote research, development and adaptation of
technology, improve the life, working conditions and opportunities for gainful
employment of women especially in rural areas.
S&T Application for Weaker Sections (STAWS): Aimed at the development
of economically weaker sections of the society in rural and urban areas.
Tribal sub-plan: Aims at improving living conditions of scheduled tribes based
on sustainable science and technology activities
Special Component Plan (SCP): Aims at improving the lot of the poor sections
of SC community through intervention of Science & Technology.
Rural Development (Significant achievements by CSIR)
Swaraj- India first indigenous tractor to facilitate mechanized agriculture.
Value addition through post-harvest technologies like essential oil /
menthol production.
Cheapest water purification technology including terracotta purification
disc, portable arsenic detection kit, ultrapore membrane-based purifiers for
removing virus & bacteria.
28 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Over 365 technologies passed on to the rural masses through publications,


training sessions, etc.
Construction of around 30,000 dwelling units using cost-effective
construction technologies.
Reverse Osmosis plant for desalination in Andaman & Nicobar Islands,
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
It needs to be mentioned here that in a collaborative project jointly initiated
by the Andhra Pradesh Government and Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research in Karim Nagar, Central Food and Technological Research Institute,
Mysore played a key role in establishing small-scale agro-based industries in
that district for better livelihoods of the rural communities and promote the
setting up and modification of existing rice mills units at Mulkanoor for better
yields. Rural Development is the main pillar of Nations Development. Inspite
of rapid urbanization, a large section of our population still lives in the villages.
Secondly, rural India has lagged behind in development because of many
historical factors. Though, the 11th Plan began in very favorable circumstances
with the economy having grown at the rate of 7.7% per year in the Xth Plan
period, there still exists a big challenge to correct the developmental imbalances
and to accord due priority to development in rural areas. Ministry of Rural
Development is implementing a number of programmes aimed at sustainable
holistic development in rural areas. The thrust of these programmes is on all
round economic and social transformation in rural areas, through a multi-
pronged strategy, aiming to reach out to the most disadvantaged sections of
the society. The actual realization achieved during the Xth five year plan and
the proposed target and strategy of the XIth five year plan have been highlighted
and presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
Rural development - Review of Xth Five Year Plan
The approved outlay for Xth Five Year Plan was Rs. 1, 41,320 lakh. An
expenditure incurred during the plan period was Rs. 30,580.31 lakh in 2002-
03, Rs.33, 234 lakhs in 2003-04, Rs.69, 610.07 lakhs in 2004-05 and Rs.70,
299.70 lakhs in 2005-06.
Approved outlay for Annual Plan 2006-07 for various schemes/
programmes was Rs. 92, 070.39 lakh against which an expenditure of Rs. 1,
01,168.63 lakhs is anticipated.
Target of constructing 2.83 lakhs houses was fixed. Against this target,
3.10 lakh houses were constructed under Indira Awas Yojana. During Tenth
Plan period 2.11 lakh families have been benefited under Swarna Jayanti Gram
Swarojgar Yojana. Out of this, 1.23 lakh beneficiaries i.e. about 58 % are from
SC/ST category. Under Integrated Wasteland 89 Development programme,
82 projects were sanctioned for 3.93 lakh hectare of land. Out of this, 1.50
lakh hectares land was treated
During plan period, 1466 Micro Water sheds were sanctioned and 4.28
lakh hectares land has been treated. In Sampoorn Grameen Rojgar Yojana, the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 29

GOI has allocated 17.28 lakh MT of food grains out of which 15.04 lakh MT
food grains have been utilized. 6.95 lakh works were sanctioned out of which
6.25 lakh were completed and 176.23 lakh mandays were generated.
Under PMGSY 13,500 Kms roads were completed. In Rastriya Sam
Vikas Yojana, 12,504 works were sanctioned. Out of this, 11,496 works were
completed. Under DPIP, 41,978 common interest groups of 2.84 lakh families
were benefited during the plan period. M.P. Rural Livelihood project is under
implementation in 827 villages of 8 districts. Under this scheme 4,000 families
were benefited during the Xth Plan period.
The state has been a frontrunner in implementation of NREGS. Nearly
1500 lakh mandays have been generated under Madhya Pradesh Grameen
Rojgar Guarantee Yojana.
Target and strategy of the XIth Five Year Plan (2007-2012)
Adequate provision has been made for the state share in continuing
Centrally Sponsored Schemes like Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
(SAGSY), Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), Integrated Waste Land Development
Programme (IWDP), Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Mid Day Meal
Scheme, DRDA Administration and National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (NREGS).
Besides these, World Bank aided DPAP project is being implemented in
14 districts for the last 6 years. Support for this will continue under the second
phase of the scheme in the eleventh plan. Similarly, M.P. Rural Livelyhood
Programme (MPRLP) is being implemented with the help of Department of
International Development (DFID). Water and Land Management Institute
(WALMI), DRDA Administration Yojana, Gokul Gram and Godan Yojana
and community development programme are proposed to be continued into
the XIth Plan.
Besides these, the State Government is supporting 5 new schemes
namely, State Rural Road Connectivity Scheme, C.M. Rural Housing 90
Scheme, Master Plan Scheme, SGSY scheme, Training IEC scheme and
Sutradhar scheme.
As a successor to Rashtriya Sum Vikas Yojana (RSVY), Backward
Regional Grant Fund (BRGF) scheme will be implemented in 24 of the 48
districts.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS)
State of Madhya Pradesh has been the frontrunner in implementation of
this scheme. NREGS was launched in 18 districts of M.P. from 02.02.06. The
central share of the scheme is 90 %. The objective of the scheme is to provide
a minimum of 100 days unskilled employment to adult members of rural
families. 44.19 lakh families have registered, out of which 44.10 lakh families
have been provided job cards.
During the financial year, 1, 48,229 works have been sanctioned upto
31.12.06, out of which 74,185 works have been completed and 74,044 works
30 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

are in progress. Of the total sanctioned works, 1, 11,327 works are of water
conservation, while 22,593 are of rural connectivity. In this scheme, a provision
of Rs. 282.29 crores and Rs. 1998.82 crores has been provided for the annual
plan 2007-08 and 2007-2012.
The target man-days for the year 2007-08 is 2,600 lakhs and for the XIth
five year plan, it is 17,300 lakh man-days.
M.P. Rural Livelihood Programme (MPRLP)
An amount of Rs. 23.15 crores was available in the scheme for the year
2006-07 as per previous balance and other receipts in which state share is Rs.
0.49 crores out of which upto November 2006 Rs. 22.42 crores spent which is
96.05% of total available fund. For the year 2006-07 the target for livelihood
programme is 25,000 families against which upto November 2006, the
achievement is 16,700 families and the percentage is 66.80.
For the year 2007-08, Rs.31.40 crores ceiling is proposed in which Rs.
0.80 crores is state share. Hence, accordingly for the XIth five year plan ceiling
is proposed for Rs. 224.80 crores.
For the year 2007-08, the target is 80,000 families, hence, accordingly
for the XIth five year plan the number of beneficiaries is 3.20 lakh families.
District Poverty Initiatives Program (DPIP)
The DPIP programme, which focuses its activities in over 53 Blocks in
14 districts of MP, will alleviate poverty by improving the capacity and
opportunities for poor and disadvantaged people with special focus on women.
The project period is 5 years. The overall project cost is Rs. 600 crores out of
which World Bank loan would be Rs. 500 crores and the remaining amount
will come from the Government of Madhya Pradesh and from rural
communities as their contributions during project implementation.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna is being implemented in the state
with effect from 25.12.2000. For the proper monitoring and implementation
of the scheme, M.P. Rural Road Development Authority was formed. The
objective of the scheme is that by the end of Xth five year plan, all villages
having more than 500 habitants should be linked with major roads having 12
months connectivity. A distance of 26,544 km long road construction works
were sanctioned upto September 2006 out of which 11,153 km roads
constructions completed. A number of 2,115 villages having more than 1,000
habitants and 576 villages having 500 habitants are linked with 12 month
connectivity roads. Now this scheme is included in Bharat Nirman Scheme
from 2006-07 onwards. Under this scheme, new and upgradation of 48000
km roads is proposed. By the end of 2009, all villages having 1000 habitants
will be connected with newly constructed roads.
Rs.100 crores allocated for the year 2007-08 and for the XIth Five year
plan, an amount of Rs. 500 crores is proposed. The state government target
for the year 2007-08 is 4,000 kms and for the XIth five year plan 20,000 km
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 31

accordingly.
Backward Regional Grant Fund
The scheme is sanctioned by the Ministry of Panchayatraj in 2006-07.
The duration of the scheme is five years. For each district, every year about
Rs. 15 crores will be sanctioned and this programme will cover 24 backward
districts of the state. Total fund for this scheme is provided by the Panchayatraj
Ministry, Government of India.
For the year 2007-08, the plan outlay is Rs. 423.39 crores and for XIth
five year plan outlay is Rs. 2,256.95 crores is proposed.
Table 1: The XIth plan allocation under various schemes/programmes
S. Proposed out lay XIth Five Year
Scheme/Programme
No. (2007-2012) (Lakh Rs.)
1. SJGSY 29656.12
2. SGRY 18016.64
3. DPIP9SS (EAP) / EAPII Phase 23158.72
4 Rural roads 50000.00
5 Indira Avas Yojana 27766.71
6 IWDP 10598.56
7 DRDA 6012.36
8 DPAP 21294.84
9 Gramin Ajivika Pariyaojna 22480.00
10 National Rural Rojgar Gurantee Scheme 199881.85
11 MP Rojgar Gurantee Council 3800.00
12 Mid day meal 69.462.00
13 BRGF 225695.00
14 Community Development 29265.20
15 Walmi 1250.00
16 Raod maintenance 2030.00
17 State rural road Connectivity 8647.60
18 CM Awas Yojana (Apna Ghar) 6200.00
19 State SGSY 1800.00
20 Training 50.00
21 Master Plan 1363.00
22 Sutradhar scheme 50.00
23 Gokul Gram adhosanrachan 5000.00
24 Godan Yojana 1000.00
Grand Total 7,64,478.50
Source: Ministry of Rural Development
Table 2: Scheme-wise physical targets proposed for XIth Five year
plan
Proposed target
Sl.
Scheme/Programme Unit XIth Five Year
No.
(2007-2012)
1. SJGSY No. of beneficiaries in 4.52
lakhs

2. SGRY Lakhs employment 900


3. DPIP(SS with WB support) No. of groups in lakhs 2.05
4 Rural roads (PMGSY) Kms. 20000
5 Indira Avas Yojana No. of houses in lakhs 4.44
6 Gramin Ajivika Pariyaojna No. of household in lakhs 3.20
7 National Rural Rojgar Gurantee Lakhs mandays 17300
Scheme
8 Mid day meal Students in lakhs 466.35
9 BRGF No. of workers 20000
10 Road maintenance Kms. 20000
11 M.P. Rural Livelihood Project No. of families 320000
32 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

New Schemes proposed under the XIth plan


Some new schemes viz., State Rural Road connectivity, State Rural
Housing, State SGSY, Training, Master Plan and Sutradhar are proposed for
XIth Five Year Plan period. The provision made under new schemes for 2007-
12 is Rs. 18,110.60 lakhs and for 2007-08 is Rs. 6,720.00 lakhs. Scheme-
wise activities have been described briefly as follows-
State Rural connectivity: Under PMGSY, the construction of all weather
roads is not permitted if the villages are less than 500 meter away from the
main route/road. Such left out roads and bridges will be covered and connected
under the scheme with state support. During annual plan 2007-08, a provision
of Rs. 25 crores has been made to construct such missing links.
Mukhya Mantri Awas Yojna: Inspite of the scheme being under Bharat
Nirman, as against nearly 38 lakh houseless families in the state, annual
allocation under Indira Awas Yojna is only about 46,000. At this rate, it will
take about nine decades to fulfill the existing need. The State Government has
decided to flag off the Chief Minister Rural Housing Scheme. The main
objective of the scheme is to provide housing to the houseless SC/ST families.
During annual plan 2007- 08, a provision of Rs. 32 crores has been provided
for constructing 12,800 houses.
State SGSY: To strengthen the SHG movement, it has been decided to
constitute SHG Federations on the basis of activity and the geographical
location. Rs. 5 crores and Rs. 18 crores have been proposed for Annual Plan
2007-08 and XIth five year plan 2007-12 respectively.
Training IEC Scheme: A New scheme will be initiated from 2007-08 for
the training on project implementation and its monitoring. For this scheme,
during 2007-08, Rs. 0.1 crore is proposed.
Working Plan for Water Storage: It is a plan on the basis of a survey of
the catchment areas and flow of water direction. On the basis of watershed
specificities, identification and cost estimation of the probable water harvesting
structures is done. On the basis of this study, the master plans have been
prepared for all the districts of the State. On the basis of the master plan,
works of nature of pond deepening and renovation, check dam construction
and other watershed activity will be taken up in a planned and systematic
manner in 14 districts not covered by NREGS and BRGF. For the
implementation of works, according to the Master Plan, an outlay of Rs.5
crores is proposed for the 2007-08.
" Sutradhar Yojana: The establishment of the kiosks has been planned to
facilitate access in rural areas to electronic communication and information
and government schemes and programmes. These kiosks will facilitate
provisioning of up to date information about Centre/State Government
organizations and schemes. For this scheme, Rs. 0.1 crore is proposed for the
annual plan 2007-08. An outlay of Rs. 7, 17,783.60 lakh for the XIth Five
Year Plan is proposed. Out of this, Rs. 18,110.60 lakh is proposed under new
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 33

state schemes. An outlay of Rs. 1, 29,196.60 lakh is proposed for Annual Plan
2007-08, of which Rs. 6,720.00 lakh has been allocated for new schemes.
Suggestions:
Although concerted efforts have been initiated by the Government of
India through several plans and measures to alleviate poverty in rural India,
there still remains much more to be done to bring prosperity in the lives of the
people in rural areas. At present, technology dissemination is uneven and slow
in the rural areas. Good efforts of organizations developing technologies, devices
and products for rural areas could not yield high success. Experiences of many
countries suggest that technological development fuelled by demand has a
higher dissemination rate. However, in India, technology developers for rural
areas have been catering to needs (with small improvement), rather than creating
demand. There is no industry linkage machinery to create demand-based-
technology market for rural communities. Besides, there is also an imbalance
between strategies and effective management programmes. Propagation of
technology/schemes for rural development is slow and there is a lacking in
wider participation of different stakeholders. An ideal approach may therefore,
include the government, panchayats, village personals, researchers, industries,
NGOs and private companies to not only help in reducing this imbalance, but
also to have a multiplier effect on the overall economy.
======================
References :
1. Ministry of rural development, Govt. of India, Chapter VII- Rural Development,
pp. 88-99.
2. Planning Commission, Govt. of India, Eleventh five year plan (2007-2012)
Vol. I, Inclusive growth.
3. Overview of the National Conference of Ministers of State Governments of
Rural Development, Panchayati Raj and Rural Roads, 27-28 January, 2003,
New Delhi.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Experiences and Perceptions of Online Search Engine


Use and Information- A Research Study at TISS,
Mumbai
* Nishant Kashyap Ghatowar
==========================================================
Abstract- Online Research has become an essential skill for students and
scholars.University students use online search engines for fulfilling academic
tasks. As the Internet evolves, students' online search behavior will accompany
changes. Online search behavior helps to understand the various experiences,
perceptions and satisfaction levels of the students. Majority of the students (62
percent) think that online search engines are a fair and unbiased source of
information. All or Almost all (27 percent) or Most of the information (48 percent)
found using online search engines is considered to be accurate and trustworthy
by students. The level of satisfaction with online search information results is
partial (61 percent) among students. Majority of the students are very confident
(53 percent) and somewhat confident (38 percent) with their own searching
abilities. Students experience that online search engines results get more relevant
and useful overtime (59 percent). From the study, it can be understood online
search engines are regarded as trusted source of information provider. Students
believe that the information provided by the online search engines is accurate
and trustworthy.
==========================================================
Keywords: Online Search Engine, Online Search Engine Behavior, Information

1. Introduction: Libraries can no longer cater for people who want fast,
easy access to unlimited, full-text content using interfaces that require no critical
thought or evaluation (Bell, 2004). Fast and (Caron et al., 2015) found that
students admired the organisation of (an) OPAC, but preferred to use the
web in spite of its disorganised state. University students use Internet for
Online searching for fulfilling academic tasks. In this study, there is an attempt
to understand their online search behavior. The study tries to understand the
experiences, perceptions and satisfaction of students from online search engine
and their online search results. Searching and finding information is a human
trait. Information is the ultimate need of human beings. For ages information
has acted as directions for development and betterment. Thus searching and
finding information is an important part of growing. With the advent of Web
based technologies searching and finding has transformed. Individuals have
===========================
* Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 35

access to a large amount of data online with the usage of online search engines
like Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Moreover, this has also created knowledge
sharing communities where users share information through social networking
platforms and others.
2.0 Review of Literature:
2.1 Students views on Online Search results:
Craven and Griffiths (2002) for example report two independent studies
with two very different groups of students (one visually impaired, one not)
both of which report that the average number of pages evaluated was only
one. They summarise that Overwhelming numbers of both sets of participants
looked at only the first page of results while the Craven study goes even
further to report that All looked at only the first page of returned results
usually just the first two or three hits, before pursuing one of these links
further or reformulating the query a pattern of behaviour which, they say, is
reiterated in other studies. Although not reporting this precise finding,
Spink (2002 ) - illustrates that for users generally the incidence of one page
only viewing is certainly a rising trend. They give figures from three iterations
of an extensive longitudinal study which show clearly that between 1997 and
2001 the number of users viewing only the first page rose from 28.6 to 50.5
per cent, while the number viewing three or more pages fell from 51.9 to 29.2
per cent, with over 70 per cent of users looking at two pages or fewer by
2001. Brophy et al. (2004) report Unlike the academic researcher who usually
has a requirement to locate the key paper in his or her field in order to ensure
that an approach or finding has not been overlooked, learners are often satisfied
with any resource which comes close to meeting their expressed need and
there are often many alternatives available. This finding might in fact mitigate
in favour of resources such as the RDN. If high quality, precisely targeted
resources can be delivered to the learner with the minimum of effort on his or
her part, this should overcome the two obstacles of reluctance to look beyond
the first page or two of results, and making do with whatever they find there.
3.0 Research Methodology:
3.1 General Information of the Study Area:
The Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) was established in 1936
and is a deemed university fully funded by the University Grants Commission,
Government of India. TISS offers over 50 Masters Degree from its Mumbai,
Tuljapur, Guwahati and Hyderabad Campuses and 3 Bachelors programmes
from its Guwahati, Tuljapur, and Hyderabad Campuses. TISS is a research
university with M. Phil. and Ph. D. programme and basic and applied research
in a range of areas.
3.2 Need and Significance of Study:
The value and need of the study relates to preferences for online
information formats and content by students, and thus to the quality and
effectiveness of user/information interactions. Given the trends identified in
36 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

the literature, online information tools, learning materials and other services
are here to stay, making this investigation important.
This study is significant because a better understanding of online behavior of
university students will help educators across a range of disciplines plan and
create improved online search learning assessments and activities.
3.3 Research Objectives of the study
Research Objectives of the study include:
1. To understand the extent to which students trust in online search results,
2. To find out the satisfaction with the outcomes of online search results,
3. To find out the Confidence on Online Search Engine and Information,
and
4. To find out the Experience of Online Search Engines.
3.4 Respondents/ Participants of Study:
The web questionnaire was distributed via email to the Tata Institute of
Social Sciences, Mumbai (Guwahati and Mumbai Campus) out of which 100
responses were received. Thus, 100 responses were recorded for the study.
Table 1- Details of Respondents/ Participants of Study
Groups Number Gender Course Years
Bachelors students n1 = 50 Male 26 Three
Female 24
Masters students n2 = 50 Males 25 Two
Female 25

3.5 Tools for data collection used for the study:


The tool used in the present study was a Web questionnaire which was
created using the Google Forms and mailed online to the students of TISS.
The responses received were analyzed using Microsoft Excel software. The
data was collected mainly from responses from web questionnaires mainly
classified under primary sources.
3.6 Scope of the study:
The study is conducted on online search engines use in Tata Institute of
Social Sciences, Mumbai. The researcher has recorded respondents from
Bachelors and Masters degree of TISS, Mumbai (Mumbai and Guwahati
Campus). Quantitative data is collected from web questionnaire. The analysis
is based on the data provided by the students of TISS. The research design is
of quantitative nature wherein the result is based on the review of the responses.
3.7 Limitations and Implications of the study:
This study has some limitations and thus some implications can be drawn
for future research.
1. Interviews with those (e.g., librarians, system developers, peers,
colleagues, or advisors) who facilitate the participants to conduct their online
searching may be needed in order to triangulate varied perspectives of their
searching processes.
2. Adopting mixed methods including surveys and interviews could perhaps
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 37

gather a broader picture of users searching perceptions and behaviors.


3. The study is limited to the students of Bachelors and Masters academic
program of TISS Mumbai (Guwahati and Mumbai Campus). Future studies
could include scholars (M.Phil. and Ph.D.) and other campuses of TISS,
Mumbai (Tuljapur and Hyderabad Campus) for better research study findings.
4. Future studies could expand the sample size and include more students
from different backgrounds and educational contexts in order to gain a wide
range of views.
5. The findings of this study can serve as the basis for developing survey
items to further explore how factors such as gender and different search contexts
influence researchers searching processes.
3.8 Sampling Technique used in the study: The sampling technique used
in the present study is the Convenience Sampling method of non-probability
sampling methods.
3.9 Ethical Concerns of the study: The results of the research cannot be
generalized to the entire TISS Mumbai and Guwahati students community.
The data collected by the researcher does not include any personal details of
the respondents and the findings of the research are not biased and were done
in an objective manner.
5. Data Analysis and Interpretation
5.1 Experiences and Perceptions of Students of TISS
5.1.1 Bias, Fairness and Trust in Online Search Engine and Results
5.1.1.1 In general, do you think Internet Online Search Engines are a
fair and unbiased source of information, or do you think Online Search
Engines are not a fair and unbiased source?

Figure 1- Fairness and Bias Behavior of Online Search Engine


Information
The figure above indicates that 62 percent of the total students agree
that online search engines are fair and unbiased source of information in
38 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

comparison to 19 percent of the total students who agree that they are not fair
and unbiased source of information.
The difference of opinion between the Masters and Bachelors students
are same as we can see from the figure above (34 percent of Masters students
agreed online search engine information are fair and unbiased in comparison
to 28 percent of Bachelors students; and 10 percent of the Masters students
agreed online search engines are not fair and unbiased in comparison to 9
percent of the Bachelors students).
14 percent of the total students didnt know whether online search engine
provide fair or unfair and unbiased source of information (11 percent of the
Bachelors students in comparison to 3 percent of Masters students).
5.1.1.2 In general how much of the information you find using Online
Search Engines do you think is accurate and trustworthy?

Figure 2- Accuracy and Trust in Online Search Engine Information


From the figure above, 48 percent of the total students think that most of the
information from online search engines is accurate and trustworthy (26 percent
of the Masters program students think online search engine information is
accurate and trustworthy in comparison to 22 percent of Bachelors program
students).
27 percent of the total students think that all or almost all information
provided by online search engine is accurate and trustworthy (16 percent of
the Bachelors program students think online search engine information in
comparison to11 percent of Masters program students).
Some (19 percent) of the students believe that most of the information
from online search engines is accurate and trustworthy. 6 percent responded
they didnt know (2 percent) and very little (4 percent) about the same.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 39

5.1.2 Satisfaction Levels with Online Search Engines and Results


5.1.2.1 Level of Satisfaction with Online Search Information Results

Figure 3- Level of Satisfaction with Online Search Information Results


66 percent of the students surveyed stated that they were partially satisfied
with the results of online information (Figure 29). When we compare the
partially satisfied users between the Masters and Bachelors program students
we see that there is not much difference (34 percent of Masters program
students in comparison to 33 percent of Bachelors program students).
Only 34 percent of the students stated they were fully satisfied with the online
information results (22 percent of the Masters students in comparison to 11
percent).
5.1.2.2 Satisfaction with Online Search Engines

Figure 4- Satisfaction with Online Search Engines


From the figure above, it can be understood that majority of the students (40
percent) in TISS are neutrally satisfied with the Online Search Engines. There
is not much difference between the Masters (21 percent) and Bachelors (20
40 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

percent) program students.


25 percent of the students responded that they were somewhat satisfied
with the online search engines they use. Also, some of the students were very
satisfied (20 percent) with the Online Search Engines in comparison to
dissatisfaction (15 percent). The level of satisfaction and dissatisfaction among
Bachelors and Masters program students are not much of a difference.
5.1.3 Confidence on Online Search Engine and Information
5.1.3.1 When you use an Online Search Engine to look for information
online, how often do you actually find the information youre looking
for?

Figure 5- Frequency of Online Search Engine Information Results


61 percent of the total students find information through online search engine
most of the time. 33 percent of the Bachelors program students find information
through online search engine most of the time in comparison to 28 percent of
Masters program students.
In comparison, 30 percent of the total students find information through
online search engine always. In the figure above, it can be seen that there is not
much difference between Bachelors and Masters program students in the
frequency of online search engine information results.
The other responses gathered are only sometimes (7 percent) and hardly ever
(2 percent) students find information through online search engine most of the
time.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 41

5.1.3.2 How confident do you feel about your own searching abilities
when using as Online Search Engine to find information online?

Figure 6- Confidence on Online Searching Abilities


From the figure above, 53 percent of the total students expressed confidence
on their own online searching abilities (31 percent of the Bachelors program
students in comparison to 22 percent of the Masters program students).
38 percent of the total students expressed somewhat confident on their own
online searching abilities (24 percent of the Masters program students in
opposition to 14 percent of the Bachelors program students).
Some of the other responses are 7 percent are not too confident, and 2 percent
of the students do not have confidence on their online searching abilities.
5.1.4 Experience of Online Search Engines
5.1.4.1 Overall, in experience, are Online Search Engines results getting
more relevant and useful overtime, Less relevant and useful, or have you
seen any real difference overtime?
42 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Figure 7- Experience of Online Search Engines results


From the table above, it can be understood that 59 percent of the total students
experience that online search engines results become more relevant and useful
overtime (32 percent of the Masters program student in comparison to 27
percent of the Bachelors program students).
29 percent of the total students experience no difference overtime on
online search engines results (16 percent of the Bachelors program students
in comparison to 13 percent of the Masters program students).
11 percent of the total students experience online search engines results less
relevant and useful with time (6 percent of Bachelors program students in
comparison to 5 percent of Masters students). Only 1 percent of the student
didnt know about the same.
5.1.4.2 Overall, in your experience, is the quality of the information you
get using Online Search Engine getting better over time, worse over time,
or have you not seen any real difference

Figure 8- Experience in Quality of Online Information:


In the table above, it can be seen that 50 percent of the total students
experience that quality of information they get using online search engine gets
better with time (27 percent of the Masters program students in comparison
to 23 percent of the Bachelors program students).
44 percent of the total students experience no difference in quality
overtime when using online search engine (24 percent of the Bachelors
program students in comparison to 46 percent of Masters program students).
3 percent of the total students experience quality of information getting worse
overtime and 3 percent didnt know about the quality of information.
5.1 Findings:
1. Majority of the students (62 percent) think that online search engines
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 43

are a fair and unbiased source of information. In comparison, Masters program


students (34 percent) agreed more that online search engines are a fair and
unbiased source of Information than Bachelors students (28 percent).
2. All or Almost all (27 percent) or Most of the information (48 percent)
found using online search engines is considered to be accurate and trustworthy
by students. Majority of theMasters program students (26 percent) think most
of the information from online search engines is accurate and trustworthy in
comparison to Bachelors program students (22 percent).
3. The level of satisfaction with online search information results is partial
(61 percent) among students. The difference between the partial level of
satisfaction between the Bachelors program students (31 percent) and Masters
program students (30 percent) is less.
4. Students were mostly neutrally satisfied (40 percent) with the online
search engines they use. There is not much difference between the Masters
(21 percent) and Bachelors (19 percent) program students.
5. Students find the information most of the time (61 percent) what they
had been looking for on an online search engine. 33 percent of the Bachelors
program students find information through online search engine most of the
time in comparison to 28 percent of the Masters program students.
6. Majority of the students are very confident (53 percent) and somewhat
confident (38 percent) with their own searching abilities. Masters program
students are very confident (31 percent) in comparison to 22 percent of
Bachelors program students.
7. Students experience that online search engines results get more relevant
and useful overtime (59 percent). Masters program students (32 percent)
agreed more in comparison to Bachelors program students (27 percent).
8. Majority of the students (50 percent) think that the quality of information
they get using online search engines gets better with time. In comparison
between the two categories, Masters program students (27 percent) agreed
the quality of information they get using online search engines gets better with
time more than Bachelors program students (23 percent).
5.2 Recommendations
1. Awareness programmes, training sessions and other information literacy
programmes should be conducted at the beginning of the first semester in
Bachelors and Masters degree on a timely basis.
2. If effective library instruction can be developed to help guide students
information seeking habits, academic librarians can play a very important role
in the education of students, as well as managing the impact of the Internet on
society.
3. Library staff member are expected to be more skilled, accessible, and
cooperative so that they can provide more effective personalized services at
the time of student requirement.The ability to interact on a one-to-one base
with a user in a friendly and instructive manner is essential.
44 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

4. Libraries should demonstrate that they are positioning themselves to


meet the challenges of the new information environment. Students will search
the Internet with or without them; it is to the students benefit if libraries provide
paths to help Internet search engines with licensed library resources(Wright,
2004).
5. Library Web homepage is expected to serve as an Information Portal;
providing information resources, services, facilities, etc. Since many students
will be conducting research from hostels, libraries and other remote locales, it
would be advantageous to design library websites that direct students to high
quality web resources.
6. In general, the library should keep track of the online search tools,
techniques and technologies to harvest the knowledge resources and supply
them to the students.
7. Library databases also vary in the particular search features they offer. If
students know to automatically look for help information or search tips, the
library databases can become their starting point for performing more efficient
and sophisticated searches in these sources.
8. Students must be taught what to expect of the Web, relative to other
library resources. Without input from professional information experts, students
are left to believe what the media and society hold to be true about the Internet:
that it is the information superhighway.
9. Facultys effort to make students learn the online search tools and
techniques is an important involvement in the process of research skills of
students. As faculty have access to the students in an easy way, they can team
up with the library staff in an effort to improve students searching abilities.
6. Conclusion:
Online Research has become an essential skill for students and scholars.
Change has taken place from libraries, by phone calls or visits to experts in the
field to the Online Search Engine. The subject or field experts can now be
contacted through electronic mail. Primary and Secondary information can be
accessed through Online search engines.
As the Internet evolves, students online search behavior will accompany
changes. Online search behavior helps to understand the various experiences,
perceptions and satisfaction levels of the students. Valuable suggestions can
be provided from the varied views expressed. This will help educators to plan
and create an improved online learning assessments and activities. Further
research is needed in this topic as this will boost the online searching abilities
of students.
======================
References :
1. Bell, S. (2004). The infodiet: how libraries can offer an appetizing alternative
to Google. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 50(24), 15.
2. Bilal, D. (2000). Childrens use of the Yahooligans! Web Search Engine: I.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 45

Cognitive, physical, and affective behaviours on fact-based search tasks. Journal


of the American Society for Information Science, 51, 646665.
3. Bughin, J., Corb, L., Manyika, J., Nottebohm, O., CHui, M., Barbat, B. de M.,
& Said, R. (2011). The Impact of Internet technologies/ : Search. Retrieved
from
http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/marketing_sales/measuring_ the_
value_of_search
4. Craven, J., & Griffiths, J. (2002). 30,000 different users, 30,000 different needs?
The design and delivery of distributed resources to the user community, in
Brophy, P., Fisher, S. and Clarke, Z. (Eds). In Facet (Ed.), . London: Libraries
without Walls: The Delivery of Library Services to Distant Users: Proceedings
of the 4th Libraries without Walls Concerence.
5. Herrings, M. Y. (2001). 10 reasons why the internet is no substitute for a library.
American Libraries, 4(1), 7678.
6. Hwang, G. J., Tsai, P. S., Tsai, C. C., & Tseng, J. C. R. (2008). A novel approach
for assisting teachers in analyzing student web-searching behaviors. Computers
and Education, 51(2), 926938. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.09.011
7. Jansen, B. J., Spink, A., Bateman, J., & Saracevic, T. (1998). Real life information
retrieval: a study of user queries on the web. SIGIR Forum, 32(1), 517.
8. Kavanagh, S., & Ojalvo, H. E. (2010). Just Google It? Developing Internet
Search Skills. Retrieved March 4, 2017, from https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/
2010/02/22/just-google-it-developing-internet-search-skills/comment-page-1/
?_r=0
9. Madukoma, E., & Opeke, R. O. (2013). Information Needs and Seeking
Behaviour of Senior Non-Academic Staff in Nigerian Universities. Journal Of
Humanities And Social Science, 7(6), 18.
10. Nachmias, R., & Gilad, A. (2002). Needle in a hyperstack: Searching for
information on the World Wide Web. Journal of Research on Technology in
Education, 34, 475486.
11. Qayyum, M. A., & Smith, D. (2015). Learning from student experiences for
online assessment tasks. Information Research, 20(2), 115. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
lxh&AN=110284339&site=ehost-live%5Cnhttp://www.informationr.net/ir/20-
2/paper674.html#.Vx6rnKODGko
12. Tennant, R. (2001). Digital Libraries- the convenient catastrophe. Library
Journal, 1(1).
13. Thompson, P. (2013). The digital natives as learners: technology use patterns
and approaches to learning. Computers & Education, 65, 1233.
14. Wright, C. A. (2004). The Acedemic Library as Gateway to the Internet: An
Analysis of the Extent and Nature of Search Engine Access from Academic
Library Home Pages. Association of Research Libraries. Retrieved from http:/
/crl.acrl.org/content/65/4/276.full.pdf
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Colonial Discourses on Women's Question


in the Sadiniya Asomiya
* Ajit Konwar
==========================================================
Abstract- The colonial Press played a significant role in the women's
emancipation movement in Assam. Assam witnessed the growth of many
newspapers, periodicals and journals during the colonial period. A few
newspapers emerged during first the half of the 20th century were not only
nationalist in tune but also raised the women's questions which extensively helped
in the freedom struggle as well as in the women's emancipation movement. The
Sadiniya Asomiya, founded by Chandrakumar Agarwala in 1918, was one of
them. Women's issues such as widow remarriage, child marriage, purdah system,
dowry, polygamy, etc. which were prevalent in the contemporary Assamese
patriarchal society, became hotly debated topics in the pages of the Sadiniya
Asomiya. But present research on this role of the newspaper is inadequate and
known to the scholarly world to a limited extent. Hence an attempt has been
made in this paper to find out its role in raising the women's question and its
contribution towards the women's movement in Assam.
==========================================================
Key words: Sadiniya Asomiya, Assamese Newspaper, Colonial Press, Assamese
Women, Women's question
Objectives: The main objective of this paper is to explore the role of the
Sadiniya Asomiya in raising the womens issues in the patriarchal Assamese
society during the colonial period. Attempt has also been made to find out how
it gave momentum to the womens emancipation movement thereby
empowering the Assamese women.
Methodology: The methodology followed in the preparation of this paper is
conventional and analytical methodology. This study is mainly based on the
primary sources of the Sadiniya Asomiya. Secondary sources are also used to
achieve the end.
Introduction: The Sadiniya Asomiya was an Assamese weekly newspaper
founded by Chandrakumar Agarwala in 1918. The newspaper made its first
appearance in Dibrugarh, which was then an emerging modern town resided
by many middle class Assamese families. The reason behind the foundation of
the newspaper was nationalistic rather than commercial. At the time of its
emergence popular newspapers like the Times of Assam, the Assam Bandhav
===========================
* Ph.D. Research Scholar Dibrugarh University
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 47

etc., were functioning in the interest of the Assamese tea planters who supported
the British colonial government.1 The time was also ripe for growing nationalist
activities all over India while Assam legged far behind. In such situation the
lack of a mouthpiece which could focus on the common problem of the
Assamese people and generate public opinion to bring about awareness against
the colonial exploitation was well acquainted by some middle class patriotic
people of Dibrugarh town. Chandrakumar Agarwala, Benudhar Rajkhowa,
Maheswar Baruah etc. were among them.
Discussion:
Chandrakumar Agarwala started his career as a tea planter and owned
the Tamulbari Tea Estate, Dibrugarh.2 Before he settled in Dibrugarh,
Chandrakumar had left for Calcutta for higher education which offered him an
opportunity to introduce himself to the progressive minded people as well as
nationalistic ideas of Bengal. His birth in the famous family of Haribilas
Agarwala, one of the apostles of the new age in Assam, was also helpful to
cope up with congenial environment of Bengal. In Calcutta, his meeting with
Assamese stalwarts Lakshminath Bezbaruah and Hemchandra Goswami led
to the formation of the Trimurti3 (the trio), and thus inaugurated a cultural
nationalism through their literary activities. They organized the Assamese youths
who lived at that time in Calcutta for pursuing higher studies and formed few
literary societies with their help. They also started a monthly Assamese journal
named Jonaki in 1888 which was conducted by Chandrakumar Agarwala.4
The journal lived short but the experience that Chandrakumar acquired had
influenced him immensely and his inspirations for the foundation of the Sadiniya
Asomiya can be seen from this backdrop. After he had settled in Dibrugarh,
Chandrakumar founded the Assam Printers and Publishers Limited with some
of his associates like Sadananda Duwerah, Nilamoni Phukan etc., and started
the publication of the Sadiniya Asomiya on 28th August, the day of death
anniversary of the religious father Sri Sri Madhabdev.5 The foundation day
was specially selected to commemorate the unity and strength offered by the
great man to the formation of the Assamese society. The Sadiniya Asomiya
was also founded with the same purpose. The dream came to be true in the
hands of educated and patriotic editors like Sadananda Duwerah, Maheswar
Baruah, Omeo Kumar Das etc. The office of the press was shifted to Guwahati
in 1921.6 The newspaper continued even after the death of Chandrakumar
Agarwala in 1938. It became more popular and widespread since the emergence
of its daily publication on 26th January, 1946.7
Womens question on child marriage and widow remarriage, which stood
as burning problems in the patriarchal Assamese society during the colonial
period, became hotly debated topics in the pages of the Sadiniya Asomiya
from the beginning of its publications. Though these social practices were
slowly gaining ground in the 19th century, there was still a large number of
people till the end of the second decade of the 20th century who continued to
48 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

oppose them, or at least prescribed a middle path. One news report entitled
Bidhaba Bibah Samparke Andolan, published in the editorial column of the
Sadiniya Asomiya, it is informed that some local people from Jorhat had
involved in debate in a meeting organized to find out a solution regarding
widow remarriage, and in doing so the attendants were divided into three
separate opinions and could not come to an unanimous decision.8 Another
meeting also held at Jorhat town on 13th July, 1924 in the Assamese Theatre
Hall, which was organized for the same purpose by prominent persons like
Chandra Kamal Bezbaruah, Chandradhar Baruah, etc. and was attended by
about 200 people including few gentlemen from Kamrup, Nagaon, Sivasagar
and Golaghat etc. Most of the attendants made their comment in support of
widow remarriage, while a few others opposed it.9
Such debate and discourses on womens issues drew the attention of
contemporary Assamese intelligentsia like Kamalakanta Bhattacharyya, whose
writing frequently appeared in the Sadiniya Asomiya. In one of his writings
entitled Brahman Bidhaba Kanya Bibah Samparke Jukti Bichar, Kamalakanta
criticised the Assamese Hindu society for the prevailing superstitions and social
evils like casteism and untouchability. Advocating widow remarriage, he
explained that the prohibition of widow remarriage was degrading the Hindu
religion and had lost all of its prestige in front of the civilized nations in the
world. Kamalakanta suggested to take care of girl children- to educate them,
to marry them unless they are fit both mentally and physically, to understand
the responsibility of motherhood and to marry them only to the legible, otherwise
it is better to allow them remain unmarried. He also vehemently criticised the
contemporary conservative Hindu society for not taking interest in the upliftment
of the widows.10 One of the religious heads Garamuriya Satradhikar
Pitambadeva Goswami was upset by the pathetic condition of the Assamese
Hindu widows and wanted to set up a bidhaba-ashram (shelter-house for
widows) for the widows where they could live happily and maintain the life of
widowhood. Such progressive measures and thoughts of the Satradhikar was
a significant socio-religious change in and departure from the traditional outlook
of the patriarchal Satra institutions of Assam.11
Some news items about sufferings of the widows and the debate on the
widow remarriage in lower Assam also appeared in the pages of the Sadiniya
Asomiya. Prabin Chandra Deka from Barama of Nalbari, who often wrote in
this newspaper, informs that a Brahmin widow named Rajatpriya, the daughter
of late Dhirnath Sarma of Bangaon, a village in undivided Kamrup district,
became pregnant due to her physical relations with someone that she refused
to confess the name. Her unborn child was disapproved and declared illegitimate
by the Hindu society of the village. As punishment the society claimed her
marriage with an outcast. Her family was also threatened with social
excommunication unless they were purified themselves and made monetary
penalty. On hearing the news Prabin Chandra Deka reached the village to save
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 49

the life of the widow and her family. Ultimately, Rajatpriya was taken to
Guwahati, where Dr. Harekrishna Das and his wife agreed to offer shelter. In
this way the life of the widow was saved.12 Another synonymous incident, as
referred to by the same writer, occurred in the village Bel-Pukhuri in Bahjani
Mouza. The victim, - Kanchanpriya, a Hindu widow and daughter of Harakanta
Nath was saved at last by arranging her marriage to Lambharam Kachari of
Mohia Gaon. Lambharam agreed to the proposal after he was persuaded by
Prabin Ch. Deka.13
An interesting news from the national level regarding child marriage
was published in the Sadiniya Asomiya. The incident took place in Ahmedabad,
where the marriage of a seven years minor Brahmin girl was arranged with a
man aged 57 years. However, legal action was taken against both the parties
and the marriage was thus stopped and broken at the initiative of social
reformers of that locality. Though this news looked like unimportant,
undoubtedly it was published with an intention to warn the patriarchal society
who supported child marriage and to spread the message about the
consequences they might faced.14
The Sadiniya Asomiya also condemned the polygamy which was a
common practice in the Assamese society and which affected the status of the
women. It condemned the act of Kanakaeswar Dutta, an aged teacher of
Kakajan mior school, who newly married a sixteen years girl, despite the
existence of his first wife and five children from her side. Thus the nespaper
attacked the practice of polygamy and tried to generate public opinion against
such unsocial custom.15
The system of dowry, which was slowly gaining ground in the Assamese
Hindu society and upset the prestige of the Assamese women, was also another
sensitive issue that was questioned and criticised in the pages of the the Sadiniya
Asomiya. Some economically backward youths used to take money in advance
from the family of a girl and promised her to marry later on. This system had
soon spread among Assamese people and became a popular tradition even
among educated youths. It is informed that one Assamese graduate serving
under the government borrowed money from a rich and influential person and
promising to marry the latters daughter. Such deal was against the ethics of
not only the women, but also the Assamese society. When the news revealed,
both the parties were criticised by the people. They were also warned to stop
and dismiss the agreement. On the other hand the writer, who reported the
news to the Sadiniya Asomiya, applauded the Assamese women for their efforts
to come out of their houses by breaking the barriers of such patriarchal
domination to participate in the national movement. He added that womens
efforts to become economically self-dependent through spinning and weaving
was actually a struggle for their self-assertion against the patriarchal domination,
which at the same time also helped in the propagation of swadeshi (indigenous)
and boycott of foreign goods against the colonial exploitation.16
50 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Reports on the celebration of Joymati Utsav, an annual festival celebrated in


the commemoration of the Ahom Queen Joymati Konwari, was very common
in the pages of the Sadiniya Asomiya. Participation of Assamese women and
girl children became a usual phenomenon in this festival since its celebration
in second decade of the 20th century. On 24th April, 1932, this festival was
observed with much enthusiasm at Tezpur where women from Bengali and
other non-Assamese communities also participated. As part of the programme,
a drama was played by the women where, Aideukon, the daughter of Padmanath
Gohain Baruah played the role of Joya, her sister Pona played Goda and
Chandranath Sarmahs daughter played the role of Lora-Raja.17 The same
festival was also observed at Joysagar in 1937 in the presence of persons like
Bimalaprasad Chaliha, Chakreswar Phukan etc. The festival was inaugurated
with a borgeet (devotional song) sang by a group of minor girls under the
leadership of Miss Sofia Begum. Lakhimai Dutta, a six years minor girl also
displayed few techniques of gymnastics.18 Continuous celebration of this festival
is a very significant in the history of national movement in Assam. It not only
reminds us Joymatis sacrifice for the love of her husband and motherland, but
also linked to the spread of nationalism and its impact on the social attitude
and ideas about Assameses women. The importance of this festival was well
acquainted by the editors of the Sadiniya Asomiya and news of this type drew
their special attention.
The Sadiniya Asomiya also played a very significant role in focussing
the organized movement of the Assamese women during the anti-colonial
struggle. It published the news about the programmes and activities of the
Asom Mahila Samiti, the first all-Assam womens organization, to spread
message of women powers among the common masses. The writings of
Chandrprabha Saikiani, a leading woman of the organization, frequently
appeared in the newspaper. In one of her writings in the newspaper
Chandraprabha strongly condemned the opinion of Budhidranathnath
Bhattacharyya that he expressed about the Assamese women in an article
entitled Tiri Jagaran in the mouthpiece of the Asom Sahitya Sabha.
Bhattacharyya opined about almost non-existence of purdah system in the
Assamese society at a time when the women had to hide themselves under the
veil (orani). Bhattacharyya insulted womens initiative in anti-purdah
movement, called it unnecessary and urged them to abstain from such activities.
His opinion was a representation of the patriarchal outlook of the contemporary
Assamese society. The editor published it with view to generate a popular
reaction against it and to prove that such attitude was harmful to the progress
of the society.19
The role the Sadiniya Asomiya in widening the popularity of the Asom
Mahila Samiti was also praiseworthy. The meetings of the Mahila Samiti, its
agenda and functions, and constructive measures throughout the course of the
nationali struggle were propagated by the this newpaper. News about arrival
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 51

of national leaders like Amrit Kaur to the 11th annual conference of the Asom
mahila Samiti, where resolution on the demand for release of Naga Queen
Guidilieu and resolution on demand for contesting election of the Local Boards,
taken under her Presidentship, had draw the attention of the editor.20
Focussing on the Mahila Samiti branches in the interior places, organized
by women irrespective of caste, community and religion was a noteworthy
and highly commendable characteristic of the Sadiniya Asomiya. It is informed
that in a meeting of the North Lakhimpur Mahila Samiti, the women condemned
the tradition of polygamy and took resolution to demand its abolition. Before
the meeting started, the attendants held condolence to mourn the death of
Narayani Handique.21 Another news item informs us that the Dokra (Kokrajhar)
Bodo Mahila Sanmila was held, simultaneously with the Bodo Yuva Sanmillan,
on 12th April, 1941 at Natun Bhatarmari Jyoti Ashram under the Presidentship
Pujati Brahma. It was a gathering about 24 thousand Bodo men and women.
This was reported to the newspaper by Rupwati Brahma, the Secretary and
Himanibala Brahma, the Assistant Secretary of the Dokra Bodo Mahila
Sanmilan.22 On the other hand we it is also informed by the same newspaper
that the first annual conference of the Majuli Mahila Sanmilan was held at
Ratanpur Baghar Gaon on 13th May, 1945 under the Presidentship of
Bolinarayan Baruah. Bodheswari Das, a prominent woman freedom fighter
from Majuli was the Secretary of that Mahila Sanmilan. It was in the presence
of the people of that locality including women such as Lilawati Lahan, Kusum
Kumari Bora etc., that a resolution to demand compulsory education for both
boys and girls was adopted.23
Conclusion: In can be concluded that the Sadiniya Asomiya, during the period
of its existence from 1918 to 1958, raised the voices on womens questions
such as widow remarriage, prohibition of child marriage, and ban on purdah,
dowry and polygamy etc. It played an important role in the circulation of
progressive ideas within the Assamese society and accelerated the pace of the
womens movement in this region. Thought failed to survive, the newspaper
identified itself as a dominant form of mass media for four decades. Above all,
it has a larger share to the success of the movement for womens freedom and
emancipation during the first half of the 20th century.
======================
References :
1. Saikia,C.P. (ed.), Asamar Batari Kakat-Alocanir Dersa Bachariya Itihas, Tribune
Press, Guwahati, 1998, p.401.
2. Ibid., p.402.
3. Sharma, Sashi (ed.), Chandrakumar Agarwalar Pratibha, Asam Sahitya Sabha,
Jorhat, 1967, p.7.
4. Ibid., p.34.
5. Ibid., p.40.
6. Saikia, C. P. (ed.), op.cit., p.412.
7. Ibid., p.412.
52 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

8. Sadiniya Asomiya, 15th June, 1924, p.5.


9. Sadiniya Asomiya, 3rd August, 1924, p.2.
10. Sadiniya Asomiya, 17rd August, 1924, p.5.
11. Sadiniya Asomiya, 17rd August, 1924, p.5.
12. Sadiniya Asomiya, 19th March, 1938, p.11.
13. (Sadiniya Asomiya, 13th August, 1938, p.10.
14. Chouwan Basariya Burhar Lagat Saat Basariya Suwalir Biyar Ju-ja in Sadiniya
Asomiya, 24 Feb, 1933, p.8.
15. Sholla Basariya Kanyar Lagat Adahiya Dorar Bibah in Sadiniya Asomiya, 13
Aug, 1938, p.10.
16. Aisakalar Bartaman Kartabya Sadiniya Asomiya, 23 February, 1929, p.5;
Saikia, C. P. (ed.), op.cit., p.442.
17. Tezpurat Joymati Utsav in Sadiniya Asomiya, 13 May, 1932, p.6.
18. Joymati Tithir Utswav in Sadiniya Asomiya, 8 May, 1937, p.11.
19. Saikia, C. P. (ed.), op.cit., p.443.
20. Asom mahila Samitir Adhiveshan in Sadiniya Asomiya, 12 Jan, 1938, p.7.
21. Asom Predeshik Nariraksha Samiti in Sadiniya Asomiya, 14 January, 1939,
p.9.
22. Bodo mahila Sanmillan in Sadiniya Asomiya, 10 May, 1941, p.8.
23. Majulit Mahila Sanmillan in Asomiya, 2 June 1945,p.2.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

The Effects of using Social Networking Sites on


Academic Performance of the Undergraduate Level
Students
(With Special Reference to Nalbari College of Nalbari District)

* Karabi Goswami
==========================================================
Abstract- In the today's busy world, technology has played a vital role in the
human's life. The technological development in the field of communication makes
easier the interaction process among individuals. Social networking sites are
nothing but it is that phrase of communication technology which enables users
to communicate with their friends, families and can share ideas, activities, watch
and listen music, play games, send and receive messages by creating a public
profile in the website. It has transformed and impacted the area like
communication, learning, research, education, business etc. in general and makes
in the regarding as very important media of communication.
==========================================================
Introduction: According to Encyclopedia, Social Networking is a Web Site
that provides a venue for people to share their activities with family, friends
and colleagues or to share their interest in a particular topic. Facebook, Google,
LikedIn and Twitter are the leading social sites. Members create an online
other with biographical data, photos, and any other information they choose to
post. They communicate with each other by making their latest thoughts public
in a block like format or via e-mail, instant massaging, voice or video
conferencing to selected members. Before, the Second Millennium social
networking sites did not had much deeper impact on users of internet. But
after the year 2000 a kind of internet revolution came, and especially a huge
increase and improvement has been seen in social networking sites. The most
important factor behind the success of this revolution is the freedom of
expression of thoughts. Social networking is now regarding as an essential
part of our lives. Offering almost every sector of people. Today, social
networking is uses in the educational purpose in greater extent. Use in Education
of Social Networking is enhanced social media as a platform of gathering
knowledge and information and skill development. Now, it creates a professional
learning community among students and teachers. It is an online collaboration
tools which improve students motivation and engagement, help students

===========================
* M.A., M.Phil, B.Ed, SLET
54 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

develop more collaboration view learning and create a connection of real


learning with up-to-date knowledge. Thus, social networking could become a
vital part for the development of educational environment if implemented
effectively. The term Academic performance refers to how students deal
with their students and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given
to them by their teachers. Academic performance is an inclusive result over
some elements which include motivation, learning environment, test anxiety,
emotion, adjustment, participate in classroom activity, behaviour, social skill,
mental health etc. It is the successful achievement of continuous assessment
in every activity that is going on in the institutional campus.
Objectives of the study: The present study aims to fulfill the following
objectives
To find out the social networking sites used by the students.
To find out the number of students using social networking sites.
To study the relation between social networking sites and academic
performance of the students.
Methodology: In the present study the researcher has been applied the
analytical as well as descriptive method to identify the relation between the
two variables i.e. social networking and academic performance. For this study
the researcher has selected the Nalbari District, Assam as the research setting.
The target population pf the present study consist of all the under graduate
students of the particular college which is around 700. Sample of the study is
composed of 100 participants from the population which are selected by simple
or unrestricted random sampling method. The present study is based on both
primary and secondary data. For collecting the primary data researcher has
prepared a questionnaire which consist both closed and open form of questions.
With the help of this questionnaire the researcher has collect the relevant primary
data. The secondary data are collected from newspapers, journals, articles and
internet sources etc.
Hypothesis: The hypothesis of the present study is formulated as Social
Networking Sites are useful platforms for students learning and academic
performance.
Findings and discussion: To find out the relationship between social
networking and students academic performance, the researcher has selected
100 respondents who are the age group of between 18 to 21 years. All
respondents are selected from the undergraduate programme offered by the
college.
Table 1: Sex distribution of the respondents
Sl. No. SEX Percentager %
1 MALE 65%
2. FEMALE 35%
From the above data it has observed that the majority of the respondents
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 55

are male. Out of 100 respondents 65% are male and only 35% are female.
Diagram 1: Frequencies to visit social networking sites.

From the above diagram it has observed that 47.05% students go to the social
networking sites everyday. 23.52% go to 5 6 times each week, again 23.52%
students go to 2 4 times each week and 5.88% go to only once every week
on social networking sites. So, from the data of the respondents we have come
to know that most of the students visit social networking sites.
Diagram 2: Social networking sites used by the respondents

From the diagram it has been observed that students have used different social
networking sites for academic purposes. Google + and Facebook are used by
most of the students. Twitter is used by the less students which is only 10%.
25% students used Youtube and any other networking sites used by only 5%
students.
Table: 2 Sources of access social Networking Sites
Sl. No. Particulars Responses Percentage %
1 PC 5 5%
2 Laptop 23 23%
3 Smart phone 60 60%
4 I Pade 12 12%
56 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

The above mentioned data shows that only 5 % students access social
networking sites through PC, 23% of students access through Laptop, 60%
of students access through Smart Phone and 12% of students through I Pad.
Thus maximum number of students access social networking sites via Smart
Phone.
Table: 3 Numbers of friends
Sl. No. Particulars Responses Percentage %
1 Less than 10 14 14%
2 10 50 25 25%
3 51 100 19 19%
4 More than 100 42 42%

From the above table it has been observed that 14% of students have less than
10 friends in social networking sites, 25% students have10 50 friends, 19%
students have 51 100 and 42% of students have more than 100 friends in
their social networking sites.
Diagram 3: Causes of using social networking sites.

From the above diagram, it has been observed that 35% of students have used
social networking sites for anything, 18% of students have to making friend,
19% of students have used to chare videos and pictures and 8% for other
purposes. This indicates that majority of students have used these sites for
development of their study.
Diagram 4: Time Spent of social Networking Sites
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 57

The above diagram shows that 10% students spent half an hour on social
networking sites, 30% of students spent one hour, 35% of students spent two
hours per day and 25% spent more than two hours. Thus majority of students
spent two hours per day on social networking sites.
Table: 4 5
percentage of students using social networking sites for studies and
career related information.
Sl. No. Particular Responses Percentage
1 Yes 80.24 80.24%
2 No 19.76 19.76%
From the table it has observed that more than 80% of students use social
networking for their study purposes. They gather information for their
educational activity and search job and career opportunities regarding their
interested field. Only 20% did not use these networks for career related
information.
Diagram 5: Ignoring of responsibilities

Diagram the researcher has observed that 6% of students have ignored their
homework or studies due to social networking sites, 47% of students have
ignored now and then and 47% of students have never ignored their hoe work
because of social networking sites. The data indicates that there is no
significance difference between the students who never ignored their
responsibilities because of social networking sites with the students who have
ignored now and then.
Table 5: More effective than classroom teaching
Sl. No. Particulars Responses Percentage
1 Yes 24 24%
2 No 76 76%
The above mentioned table shows that 24% students agreed with social
networking sites as being more effective than classroom teaching while 76%
said that classroom teaching couldnt be replaced by social networking sites.
These particular data shows that though it is the important mode of gathering
knowledge and information it couldnt be as much effective as classroom
teaching where physical presence of both students and teachers is possible.
58 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Diagram 6: Social networking sites as an affective e-learning tool.

From the above diagram it is mentioned that 72% of students agreed that
social networks are affective e-learning tool, while 28% students disagreed
with it. Majority of students said that it is helpful medium for downloading
supporting and relevant information regarding their assignment and they also
exchange information with their classmates and share their experiences with
teachers as well.
Suggestion: In the present day all individual are very busy in day to day activity.
Such a situation social networking site is playing its role as a powerful engine.
Now every age group people use these sites for their necessities. Among the
students community it becomes very popular. But success of these sites depends
on in which purpose these sites are going to apply. It should be regarded as an
advantageous tool for all round development. The researcher has suggested
some points to improve the uses of social networking sites among the under
graduate students which might be helpful for their educational development.
In the age of Globalization the social networking sites are regarded as
very important tool for communication as well as gathering information.
Therefore, these sites should be utilized by every college and teacher should
play an effective role in this direction.
Most of the under graduate level students are aware of social networking
sites but they utilize it for chatting with friends, sharing videos and pictures. A
number of students utilize it for educational purposes also. But, in the college
campus if the teacher would provide guidance to them it can be more fruitful
for their better performance in the educational activities.
It has been seen that many students of undergraduate level have ignored
heir studies because of social networking sites. So, in this regard the parents
should be aware of the utilization of social networking sites by their children
and direct them to utilize it without hampering their study hour.
Social networking sites also provide a platform where the students
effectively use their leisure time. They can develop their hobbies by accessing
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 59

any information on their interested field through these sites. By empowering


their knowledge in respected field they are able to march ahead in their journey
and contribute to the society by making themselves as human resources.
Therefore, the percentage of using these sites should be high among the
undergraduate level students.
In this particular study the researcher observed that most of the students
viewed that it is the helpful medium of gathering information regarding their
assignment or other educational activities. But, most of the time it is seen that
the students have copying the information of internet for making their
assignment. In this regard they must be aware that rather copying the
information they have to bringing light their inner potentialities or creativity
with the help of those information for making their assignments or preparing
their study materials.
For achievement in academic performance a sound mental health of the
students is necessary. The social networking sites have provided many
recreational facilities to the students by utilizing which they can preserve their
mental health by bringing control over their emotional feelings.
Conclusion: The observation drawn from the empirical data shows that
students have started using social networking for academic purposes and they
are benefited by utilizing it. In the age of globalization as it is an easier and
faster mode of gathering knowledge via internet, so by using this technology
in classroom or college campus the young generation is paving a new way of
education and learning. So, if we all are aware and active in these sites, it will
serve us better and will bring some more revolution in the world of cyber
technology.
======================
References :
1. Ahn, J (2010): The influence of Social Networking Sites on High School
Students Social and Academic Development, Dissertation, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles.
2. Best John W. and Khan, James v (1998), Research in Education, Prentice-
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, Fifth edition.
3. Chandel, N.P.S. and Laxmi, Vibha (2011, Nov) : A Comparative study of
Educational Aspirations of Internet Users and Non-Users, Edu Tracks,
November, 2011 Vol.11 No.3, ISSN: 0972-9844.
4. Dr. Saikia Mukul (2014): An Introduction to Action Research, First edition,
Mani Manik Prakash, Guwahati.
5. Good, Carter V. (1966): Essentials of Educational Research Methodology and
Design, New York, Appleton-Century Crofts.
6. Koul, Lokesh (2005): Methodology of Educational Research, 4th reprint, vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
7. Khan, Shahzad: Impact of Social Networking Website on Students, Abasyn
Journal of Social Science, Vol. 5 No.2.
8. Nanda, Gaurang Charan and Khatoi, Pratap Keshari (2005) : Fundamentals
of Educational Research and Statistics, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Missionaries, Orunodoi and the Issues of Marriage


Reform
* Navaneeta Baruah
==========================================================
Abstract- The nineteenth century has long been considered as the century of
social reforms that affected sections of Indian woman. The spirit of social reform
was evident in almost all the provinces of India. Assam was no exception to it.
Some of the debates/ issues of the period centered round colonial and early
initiatives towards marriage reforms; for eg., to ban certain practices such as
widow immolation (Sati) and female infanticide and to reform other practices
such as those related to widow and child marriages and polygamy. These issues
of social liberation, in general, and women emancipation, in particular, were
raised at a time when India had lost her liberty and sovereignty at the hands of
her colonial masters- the British. Who were the initiators of these reforms and
what were their motives?
==========================================================
The primary interest of the Company was to keep control over India.
The dominant interest of missions was to work for the conversion of Indians to
Christianity. The East India Company, initially, had refused to allow the
Missionaries to settle or preach in the British territories. They did not want to
disturb the traditional religious beliefs of the people, which they felt might
endanger their safety in the newly acquired dominions in India. However, the
Charter Act 1813 allowed the Missionaries free access to India. The
missionaries and their societies subscribed to the view that civilizing the Indian
people would prepare the primitive religious people to embrace Christianity.
This demanded a cultural revolution for the betterment of the natives by
disseminating knowledge. The Printing Press served as a very good tool for
this. This, at the same time, also gave uplift to the nineteenth century Indian
social reformers to work against various social evils. They used the platform
provided by the press towards integration of the various sections of the Indian
society. For the first time in Assam, the Orunodoi, the Assamese newspaper
published from the Sibsagar Mission Press openly published ideas related to
marriage reforms. The first newspaper and magazine of Assam, Orunodoi
was devoted to religion, science and general intelligence. No doubt, the
Missionaries used Orunodoi as a means for their higher aim of proselytization,
but the religious aspect of the paper was neither aggressive nor was it used
===========================
* Pandu College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 61

as a sole organ of sectarian propaganda.1 In an article on marriage reforms,


noted social reformer, Gunaviram Barua suggested certain reforms which were
much ahead of time. He proposed that a period of courtship should precede
marriage so that the couples could be better acquainted with each other before
they finally decide on marriage. Another point that he made was that at the
time of marriage, a man should be at least 23 and a woman at least 18 years of
age; so that the age-difference between the husband and wife is minimum and
they could be more like friends rather than like a grandfather and a grand-
daughter. He also approved the ancient Hindu custom of giving the women
liberty to choose their own marriage partners. He lamented that all good
practices of the ancient Hindus had degenerated into corrupt practices in later
times. He quoted from the Manu Samhita to establish that widow-remarriage
was permitted in the Hindu laws. He stressed that widow remarriage was
practiced among the lower castes in Assam and also in some parts of Orissa.2
The custom of widow-marriage had prevailed in Assam among the non-
Brahmin people.3 These marriages were conducted without following the Vedic
rituals. However, remarried widows did not enjoy equal status and respect
like the other women. They were referred to as dhemani, batalu etc.
Gradually, the practice of widow-remarriage went into disrepute.4
In March 1854, Orunodoi had published a news-item on widow-
remarriage taken from Harachandra Bandhyopadhyays Sangbad
Purnachandrodoi. The article stated that the Deputy Magistrate of Krishnagar,
Srijut Babu Ishwar Chandra Ghosal, had organised a discussion with the
Pundits of Nabadwip on the issue of the widows. Some of the Pundits had
given their opinion in favour of widow-remarriage which had created great
disturbance in the area.5
In January 1856, Orunodoi published an article in favour of the
remarriage of widows. All the Shashtras, including the Parashar Samhita,
from where Pundit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar found his support for the cause,
were invoked to promote the issue. The article, written by Gunaviram Barua,
appealed to the people, in general, to go through the book written by Vidyasagar
on widow-remarriage. He added that the social ban on widow-marriage had
led to the increase in corruption, prostitution and feticide in the society. The
condition of women in the Assamese society, he said, was no better than
domestic animals and slaves.6
In May 1857, Orunodoi published another article of Gunaviram Barua
on Marriage of Widows. He wrote that widow-remarriages were common in
many countries of the world. In ancient Assam, also instances of widow-
marriages were found, though it was distinctly rare among the higher castes of
the society. In this regard, he cited examples of widow-marriages from the
Ramayana and Mahabharata the marriage of Arjuna with the widow-
daughter of Naga Dhritarashtra, marriage of Sugreev and Tara, and Mandodari
and Bibhisana. These and many more references of widow-marriage found in
62 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

the scriptures suggested that such marriages were not uncommon in India.
The writer commented that since, the tradition of writing history of the common
people was rare in our country, references to such cases are found only among
the royalty and the nobility. We can assume that the custom also prevailed
among the common people. He questioned why there is so much of hue and
cry about the widow-remarriage movement in Calcutta, in modern times, if
widow-remarriages were permitted in ancient times, which was considered
to be the most sacred period in history.7
In response to the above mentioned articles of Gunaviram Barua in
Orunodoi, Rudraram Bardoloi raised some controversial points. In a letter to
the editor of Orunodoi, which was published in the paper in August 1857, he
commented, that a girls relation with her husbands family does not end after
the death of her husband. The girl, is still a member of that family, and as such
her own parents do not have the right of Sampradan (the ritual of giving away
the daughter in marriage), in consequence of their having done so on the
occasion of her first marriage. In that case, in a widow-marriage, who will
observe the ritual of Sampradan. While citing the examples of the marriages
of Arjuna with the Naga princess, and Sugreeva with Tara, he asserted that
these were inter-caste marriages. The same rules may not be applicable in
case of marriages within the same caste. It is undeniable, he accepted, that
some ancient scriptures sanction widow remarriage, but in the absence of any
written text in hand in support of widow-marriage, he appealed to Gunaviram
Barua for an explanation of his queries. This, he added, would remove the
apprehensions of many people regarding the marriage of the widows.8
Gunaviram Barua clarified all the points raised by Rudraram Bordoloi, giving
in details, in support of his arguments, the justifications offered by Vidyasagar.
The editor of Orunodoi published all these arguments in the paper for better
understanding and appreciation for all.9 Interestingly, the same question had
been raised in the Bangla Newspaper Sangbad Prabhakar of 26 April 1842.
In response to an article on widow remarriage, published in the Bengal
Spectator of April 1842, the writer in Sangbad Prabhakar had also raised
the question of Sampradan during a widow-marriage?10
The unwearied efforts of Vidyasagar ultimately realized in the Hindu
Widows Remarriage Act (Act XV of 1856) passed on July 26, 1856. It legalized
the marriages of the widows notwithstanding any custom or interpretation of
the Hindu Law to the contrary, and declared the children of such marriages
legitimate.11
Orunodoi published the news of the legalization of the marriage of Hindu
widows. Gunaviram Barua wrote, Oh! This is indeed an auspicious day. It
was beyond our dreams that God would show such a great day. Great is
Vidyasagar, glory to him! The women of India will ever remain indebted to
him. Widows were not only going through mental sufferings but physical
sufferings as well. The society was polluted with foeticide. The writer expected
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 63

that widow marriage would find wider acceptance in Assam. He fervently


appealed to the people of Assam to save the young widows from the clutches
of the cruel social customs. He asked every woman to shower their blessings
12
on Vidyasagar.
Gunaviram, then a young boy of 22, was present in the historic widow-
remarriage ceremony in Calcutta on 7th December, 1856, where Srishchandra
Vidyaranta married Kalimati Devi. The marriage was organised by Vidyasagar.
The second widow re-marriage took place after two days, on 9th December.
Gunaviram was present in that marriage also. He was so moved emotionally
that he wrote an article Dujani Bidhava Sowalir Bibahar Kotha,
describing the whole event, which was published in Orunodoi.13 He stated
that these two marriages have inaugurated a new-era in the history of India,
i.e., the era of widow-marriage. According to him, it was a great turning
point.14
The articles of Orunodoi could create awareness among the people about
the injustice meted out to the widows. An anonymous writer, through a letter
to the editor of Orunodoi lamented that the innumerable widows in the country
were passing their days in agony. Their conditions were beyond description.
Though some people realized the gravity of the situation, they did not dare to
defy the existing system. The writer appealed to Gunaviram that if he is
unmarried he should marry a widow and set an example for the common
people. This would be of immense benefit to the Assamese society as a whole.15
Considering example as better than precept, Gunaviram, after the death
of his first wife, Brajasundari in 1867, married. Bishnupriya, then a widow.
Gunaviram Barua continued with his endeavour to motivate the common people
towards the cause of widow-remarriage. In another article on Widow-
remarriage in Orunodoi, he stressed the point that those who vehemently oppose
widow remarriage actually misinterpret Hindu scriptures. He counteracted
that vedic hymns are applicable to both regular and widow-marriages. The
great sages of ancient India Manu, Yajnavalka, Vishnu, Parashar, Narad
and Katyayana, all have actually permitted widow-remarriage. According to
Manusamhita if a women once deserted by her husband again returns to him
with chastity, she may be married again (chapter 9, shloka 176). Vishnu-samhita
and Bashishta Samhita too support remarriage of widows or chastised women.
These marriages were called Punavu marriage and Sanskar marriage. In
addition, he wrote, the great epics, Mahabharata, Ramayana and various
Puranas also justify widow-remarriage. The reformer appealed for a change
in the attitude of people towards the cause.16
The first Assamese social drama Ram-Navami which appeared serially
from March 1858 in the Orunodoi was significantly based on the theme of
widow-remarriage.17 The theme of Ram-Navami was built round the tragic
love story between a young Brahmin widow Navami and Ram, an educated
Brahmin youth. Navami, a child-widow, became pregnant as a result of her
64 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

secret affair with Ram. Being helpless, mother of Navami arranges for a secret
abortion. But unfortunately, the news reaches the village-head, Mahajan, who
imposes a heavy fine on Navamis father in lieu of social ostracism. And soon
the entire family falls into the trap of this exploitative machinery. Ultimately,
Navami commits suicide. Ram, too, ends his life to get rid of his guilty
conscience as circumstances had made him so weak that he failed to declare
his love for Navami and could not support her during distress. Vidyasagar and
sage Parashar also made appearances in the Drama.
The Drama expressed the rationalistic viewpoints about marriage put
forward by Vidyasagar that marriages are conscious physical and spiritual
union of a man and a woman which is never fulfilled in child marriages.
Gunaviram argued that society must change with time. The problems of widow-
remarriage were discussed at length. Its adoption would, definitely prevent
social evils like abortion and prostitution.
The movement against child marriage had gathered momentum throughout
the sixties and the seventies of the nineteenth century.
In September 1846, Orunodoi, published an interesting news that a
literary society in Gujarat had invited from their people literary essays with
prize money of Rs. 150/-, on the ill effects of child marriage. In response, two
persons had submitted their writings. One of them was of the opinion that
child marriage was against the tenets of the Hindu scriptures. Both the essays
elaborated on the ill effects of early marriage. The editor of Orunodoi added
that early marriage not only led to physical and mental deterioration but was
also responsible for week progeny. The article was widely appreciated among
the intelligentsia in Assam.18
Polygamy among the upper classes was common in Assam. Shihabuddin Talish
wrote, ... few of the men have two wives only; most have four or five, and
they mutually exchange their wives, or buy and sell them.19
To carry on the household life with a number of co-wives was bad enough.
One Sonar Chand wrote in Orunodoi an article, Anek-Bia Kara Ajugut (It is
wrong to marry many), highlighting the evils of polygamy. He wrote that from
time immemorial polygamy was prevalent in our land. Polygamy has continued
due to illiteracy, ignorance and irrationality of the society. The writer, with a
heavy heart, asked why women could not marry several times if men could.
He also cited the example of the English-men, considered as the most civilized
nation in the world, who were forbidden by law to marry more than once. The
writer expressed his unhappiness over the prevailing social evils of this country.
He also stressed the importance of education for a happy and prosperous
conjugal life.20 The writer of the article Sri Sonarchand was none other than
Hem Chandra Baruah, prominent Assamese social reformer of the nineteenth
century. In a letter in the Orunodoi, addressed to the Muslim population of
Assam, a missionary pointed out that although Islam permitted polygamy, the
modern man should not marry more than one. The author further appealed that
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 65

since God has created men and women alike, women should be treated with
respect.21 Though the evil practices of Sati and infanticide were fortunately
rare in Assam, yet references to them were made in several places in the
Orunodoi. Already many Hindu women have burnt themselves in the funeral
pyre of their husbands for the sake of becoming Sati. Some did voluntarily
while some were forced to become Sati by their relatives. The reason for
becoming Sati was perhaps the horrors of the miserable life which a widow
had to lead. Widow-remarriage was not allowed among the Hindu Brahmins
and noble families. Thus death was considered better than widowhood. The
Hindu scriptures also carry divergent views on the question of the remarriage
of the widows. However, in 1829, Sati was declared illegal by Governor
General, Lord William Bentinck. Now it is heard that some pundits have
assembled in Calcutta to decide on the question of Hindu widow-remarriage.
The widows among the Christians are allowed to remarry.22
In a news item published in the same issue, it was reported that in the
kalu village of Sibsagar, on the death of the brother of Sri Lambordar Mauzadar,
his wife prepared to become Sati. The Mauzadar, however, informed the
magistrate in time and with the help of a Daroga, rescued her from becoming
a Sati.23 In another news item under Anek Desor Sambad, the news of an
instance of Sati in Hyderabad was reported.24
Thus issues of marriage reforms came to constitute a significant domain
in Orunodoi. The early reformers looked at these reforms from the perspective
of women. However, there were marked contradictions and limits in the reform
process, more so, as it lacked the voice of the women herself. Women writings
rarely reflected the same concern as those which so seriously engaged their
male counterparts in that period of the century. Assam did not lack women
writers; mention may be made of Bishnupriya Devi, Swarnalata Barua,
Padmavati Devi Phukanani and Tejaswari Barua. Gunaviram Baruas wife
Bishnupriya Devi knew both Assamese and Bangla and a little bit of English
too.25
How many groups were actually touched by these reform issues such as
widow remarriage, child marriage, eradication of polygamy, Sati etc., remains
to be discussed. At the same time, the extra energy with which the early
reformers debated these questions of marriage reform concerning women
cannot be overlooked. The newspapers and Journals that followed Orunodoi,
played a significant role in promoting marriage reformation amongst the
Assamese people. These papers succeeded in creating an intellectual
atmosphere in Assam. These writings, therefore, provide fresh insights on the
emerging subjectivities of women, enabling a far sharper evaluation of the
nineteenth century impulse to reform. It offered women new responsibilities
towards race and nation and new opportunities for education, producing the
middle class women. In the early part of the next century, different versions of
female emancipation came to be slowly tied to the idea of national liberation
66 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

and regeneration.
======================
References :
1. M. Neog., compiled and re-edited., Orunodoi, Guwahahti, 1983, pp. 65-66
2. An Assamese from Calcutta On Marriages, Orunodoi, Dec. 1853.
3. Gunaviram Barua, Asam Buranji, Guwahati, 1972, pp. 199-200.
4. Census Report of India, Assam, 1891
5. 'Remarriage of widows, Orunodoi, March, 1854
6. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, Jan 1856
7. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, May, 1857
8. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, August, 1857
9. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, November, 1857
10. Sangbad Prabhakar, 26 April, 1842
11. M. Basu, Hindu women and Marriage Law, New Delhi, 2001 pp. 69-70
12. Bidhava Bibah Marriage of Hindu Widows Legalised, Orunodoi, Sept,
1856
13. Dujoni Bidhava Sowalir Bibahar Kotha, Orunodoi, Jan, 1857
14. ibid
15. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, April, 1858
16. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, March, 1858.
17. Ram Navami Natak, Orunodoi, July 1858
18. Alop Bayasat Biya Karowa Anucit, Orunodoi, Sept. 1856
19. Sir Edward Gait, A History of Assam, Guwahati (reprint) 1994, p.138
20. Anek Bia Kara Ajugut, Orunodoi, April, 1856
21. Letter to Mussalmans, Orunodoi, March, 1854.
22. Immolation of Widows, Orunodoi, May 1846.
23. ibid
24. Sattee, Orunodoi, June, 1846
25. J. N. Bhuyan ed. Jnanadabhiram Barua Rachanawali, Jorhat, 1981, p.124.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

International Perspective on Right to Food to


Eliminate Hunger and Malnutrition
* Anurekha Goswami
==========================================================
Abstract- Though there is plenty of food to feed everyone in this world still the
vulnerable are suffering from hunger and malnutrition. Hunger and malnutrition
are related to each other in such a manner that malnutrition is also called
"hidden hunger." Lack of nutrition and hunger impairs people to lead a healthy
and active life by causing discomfort and illness beyond the usual uneasy
sensation.The United Nations has adopted the Right to food concept as a
practical tool to fight with hunger and malnutrition. It is a basic individual
inalienable human right which every human being should enjoy irrespective of
all the different artificial barriers existing in the society. Different goals and
targets are set up at the international level, which are also supported by the
States to eradicate poverty, hunger, malnutrition and all other related issues. In
this paper it is tried to reflect the relationship between the right to food and
hunger and malnutrition and also the steps taken at the International level to
eradicate hunger making this world hunger free.
==========================================================
Key Words: Hunger, Malnutrition, Right to Food

Introduction: Every five seconds one child under the age of 5 dies from
hunger or malnutrition-related disease. Every four minutes, one person loses
his or her eyesight for lack of vitamin A. More than 852 million people do not
get enough food each day to sustain a normal life. This is a shame on
humanity. It is time to enforce the right to food. -United Nations Special
Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Jean Ziegler, March 16, 20061
Hunger is a shame on humanity. When people in a country do not have
enough food to eat which results in discomfort, illness, weakness or pain, then
people are said to suffer from hunger.
On the global scale the simplest definition of hunger is a scarcity of food
in a country. On an individual scale, hunger occurs when a person consumes
an insufficient amount of calories to sustain them called malnourishment.2
Chronic hunger leads to malnourishment. Malnourishment is such a
condition where the person suffering does not have sufficient amount of right
kinds of food. It is a disorder of nutrition. Hunger and malnutrition are so
closely related that malnutrition is also called hidden hunger. Though there
===========================
* NEF Law College
68 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

may be varied reasons for hunger and malnutrition but the major cause may be
attributed to the accessibility of food. Mostly the people from developing
countries are the victims of hunger and malnutrition even though such countries
produce enough food not only for the internal markets but for export also.
Hunger and malnutrition today are not due to less availability of food
but for lack of accessibility. It now becomes the matter of right and entitlement
imposing obligation to the State.
Role of Right to Food:
Giving importance to accessibility to food in a world of plenty where
massive hunger persists, the right to food plays a pioneering role since last
decade. The right to food was the first of the Economic Social and Cultural
Rights to be studied by the UN human rights system.
In 1987 a report titled The Right to Food as a Human Right became the
starting point for a series of investigations into the rights contained in the
International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. The crucial
role of the right to food was reconfirmed almost ten years later when the 1996
World Food Summit requested the High Commissioner for Human Rights to
define its legal content.3
The right to food is an individual centric human right. This right tries to
reduce hunger by taking following steps-
1) Making policies focusing on poor and vulnerable
2) Ensuring no set back by engraving the right to food in the National
Constitution
3) Empowering the poor and hungry to claim their rights and make their
voice heard
4) Helping citizens to be involved in policy and program design
5) Promoting transparent budget
6) Raising awareness about rights and obligations.4
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, there are certain elements of right to food viz. availability, accessibility
and adequacy and measures should be taken to improve those elements to
fight hunger.
The right to adequate food means that every man, woman and child
alone and in community with others must have physical and economic access
at all times to adequate food and which can be procured with human dignity.
The right to adequate food is a distinct part of the right to an adequate standard
of living. The right to food is a legal right. It gives rise to legal obligation of
states to respect, protect and fulfill the human right to food.
Role of International Community:
The right to food is enshrined in several international human rights and
other treaties. It is deep rooted to the international human right law. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which is considered as the basic
document of human rights lays down that everyone has a right to standard of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 69

living adequate for health, housing and medical care and necessary social
services including food..
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in
Article 11(1) states clearly that the right to an adequate standard of living
includes food, housing, clothing. Moreover, article 11(2) recognizes the
fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child ,under Article 24(2)(c)
obligates states parties to combat disease and malnutrition, including within
the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of
readily available technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious
food and clean drinking water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks
of environmental pollution.
The Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions, and relating to the
Protection of Victims of International and Non-International Armed Conflicts,
also declares in article 54(1) that starvation of civilians as a method of warfare
is prohibited.
After the failure of World Food Conference in 1974 due to the failure in
policy making and funding, the Food and agricultural Organization convened
a high level meeting in Rome in the year 1996. In this World Food Summit
different Governmental and Non Governmental Organizations were involved
among the others to influence public opinion and provided a framework to
achieve Food for All. The objective of the Summit was to renew global
commitment to eliminate hunger and malnutrition. It targeted to reduce by
half number of undernourished people within the year 2015.
In the year 2000, the United Nations adopted Eight Millennium
Development Goals and the first goal was to eradicate hunger and reduce the
number of hungry people to half the amount by 2015.
The target of reducing extreme poverty rates by half was met five years
ahead of the 2015 deadline. Globally the number of people living in extreme
poverty has fallen from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015.5 It narrowly
missed the target projected.
The Millennium Development Goals era came to a conclusion in the
year 2016. The United Nations adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. Eradication of poverty, hunger and food security has attained
the priority amongst the other seventeen goals.
In 2012, The Zero Hunger Challenge was launched by United Nations
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. The Zero Hunger vision reflects five elements
from within the Sustainable Development Goals, which taken together, can
end hunger, eliminate all forms of malnutrition, and build inclusive and
sustainable food systems. It has inspired action at country level and contributed
to ensuring that food and nutrition security and sustainable agriculture have
remained high on the global development agenda. It has encouraged all to
work together towards ending hunger.
70 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

A lasting end to hunger and malnutrition cannot be achieved in isolation;


achieving Zero Hunger calls for realizing the totality of the 2030 Agenda in
ways that benefit everyone, everywhere. The Zero Hunger Challenge promotes
integrated approaches that respond to the multiple, interconnected causes of
hunger and malnutrition.6
The Zero Hunger Challenge adopted five principal elements as follows:
1. Eliminating stunning in children under two years of age;
2. Guaranteeing universal access to adequate and nutritious food;
3. Ensuring that all food systems are sustainable;
4. Achieving a 100% increase in the productivity and income of smallholder
farmers;
5. Eradicating food waste and loss.
If these five elements of Zero Hunger Challenge are integrated into
nationally led Sustainable Development implementation strategies, it can end
hunger.
Therefore, the 2030 Agenda will be successful if it is integrated with the
national policies.
Conclusion:
Hunger and malnutrition is a curse to the society. In the world of plenty
where some people are relishing and wasting good amount of food, some
others are suffering from hunger and malnutrition. At the International level
the United Nations and its related organizations have targeted to eradicate
hunger, malnutrition and poverty. Despite of the several targeted goals and
guidelines vulnerable people are suffering. At the national level also States are
trying to fulfill their obligation to ensure Right to Food. The reason for failure
is many folded. It may be due to the failure of targeting the most vulnerable,
failure to empower the poor to participate in decision making which affects
their life, lack of transparency of the institutions working on it.
The right to food is a practical tool for fighting hunger and malnutrition.
Therefore synchronization is required at the global and national level.
======================
References :
1. Dr Agwarwal H.O, Human Rights, Central Law Publication, 13th Edition,
2011.
2. John Annie(ed), Dialectics and Dynamics of Human Rights, Asia Law
House,2012
3. http://tinyurl.com/38rdgz
4. http://borgenproject.org/what-is-the-definition -of -hunger/
5. Module 12- The Right to Adequate Food
6. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au833e.pdf
7. http://www.wvi.org/united-nations-and-global-engagement/article/were-mgds-
success
8. http://www.un.org/en/zerohunger/pdfs/zhc%2....
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 71

Footnotes:
1. http://tinyurl.com/38rdgz
2. http://borgenproject.org/what-is-the-definition -of -hunger/
3. Module 12- The Right to Adequate Food
4. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au833e.pdf
5. http://www.wvi.org/united-nations-and-global-engagement/article/were-
mgds-success
6. http://www.un.org/en/zerohunger/pdfs/zhc%2....
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

International Framework on Acid Attacks: A Study


* Minakshi Goswami
==========================================================
Abstract- Acid attack, acid throwing or 'Vitriolage', has emerged as the
contemporary form of human rights violation. The increasing number of
incidence of acid throwing has broadened the list of survivor awaiting justice.
To address this serious issue, the concern of the society and a serious attempt
on the part of the authorities in particular and the masses in general is needed.
Acid attack is a crime that goes against the fundamental human rights guaranteed
to individuals by virtue of their being human. Therefore, the crime of acid attacks
violates many significant rights guaranteed under the international level human
rights instruments like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Convention
on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. Further, initiatives
taken at the international level to eradicate the crime of acid violence is evident
from the works of Special Rapporteur on Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment, United Nations Trust Fund in Support of
Actions to Eliminate Violence against Women and the United Nations Entity for
Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. This paper makes a humble
attempt of dealing with the international framework on the violence of acid
attacks.
==========================================================
Key Words: Acid attacks, human rights violation. International framework

1. Introduction: Protection of fundamental freedom and human dignity is


one of the most prominent goals that the world community tries to achieve at
the national, regional and international level. The Universal Declaration of
Human Rights 19481 is one of the most vital instruments on human rights that
tries to promote universal respect for and observance of human rights and
fundamental freedoms. Protection of the basic human rights guaranteed under
the International human rights instruments is not possible till stringent provisions
to address gross abuses of human rights are introduced. World will be an
insecure place for women till the time incidents like sex selective abortions,
honour killings, sexual offences, acid attacks etc. continues. Acid attacks that
leave the woman alive but disfigured or disabled is the most heinous crime.2
2. International Endeavours on Acid Attacks: Acid attacks are the brutal
===========================
* (LL.M., NLUJAA), Junior Research Fellow, Vivekananda Kendra Institute
of Culture, Guwahati - 781001, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 73

form of violence that undermines the basic rights guaranteed to an individual


under several human rights instruments. Following are some of the significant
provisions of international human rights instruments as well as international
initiatives that were taken at the international level to address gross human
rights abuses of acid attacks-
2.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The wordings of Article 3
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) provides for right to
life, liberty and security of person. The term person includes every single
individual. However, this significant provision of the UDHR is greatly
undermined by the incidents of acid attacks. In most of the cases, the victims
are not killed but they are given a life of unexplainable miseries and
complications. The chemical burns of acid can completely destroy the nose,
throats and eyes of the victim that makes eating and breathing intolerable or
completely impossible. It destroys eyesight or makes the victim blind. The
ever increasing number of such horrific cases whether committed in public
places, busy bus stops or in victims own residence; shows that people are not
secured anywhere and the rights guaranteed under Article 3 of the UDHR has
remained a mere provision.3
Article 5 of the UDHR prohibits torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatments. However, the consequences of acid attack are no less than cruelty
and torture. Social isolation, unbearably expensive cost of medical treatments,
guilt and shame makes the victim feel like they are a burden for their own
families. Inadequacy of rehabilitation schemes is another major problem as far
as acid attack is concerned. Hence, considering the consequences and after
attack changes that the victims face; acid attacks can be regarded as the most
degrading and dehumanizing form of violence prevalent in the world.4
Under the provision of Article 25 (1) of the UDHR right to health care
has been made a fundamental human right. It further elaborates that everyone
has a right to a standard of living adequate for health of himself and of his
family, including medical care and necessary social services and the right to
security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability or other lack of
livelihood in circumstances beyond its control. However, despite this significant
provision being inserted under UDHR, many victims who cannot bear the
huge expenses of treatment receive extremely poor or in some cases no medical
care at all. Without a concrete provision at the national level to determine the
quantum of compensation to be paid, victims in most cases only get negligible
amount of financial help.5
2.2 Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women: The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discriminations against Women (CEDAW) was adopted General Assembly
Resolution A/RES/34/180 in 1979 and it came into force on September 3,
1981. The Convention may be described as the Magna Carta of womens
human rights as it essentially constitutes the international Bill of rights for
74 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

women. The preamble of CEDAW recalls that discrimination against women


is a major obstacle to womens participation in political, social, economic and
cultural activities as equals to the males. Discrimination against women also
violates the principles of equality of rights and respect of human dignity. A
holistic development of the personalities of women, the growth and development
of the society and family is also significantly undermined when discrimination
against women prevails. Therefore, putting an end to discrimination against
women is the central focus of CEDAW that covers gender based violence and
abuse like acid attacks.6
In the absence of stringent legal provisions, cases of acid attacks go
unreported and perpetrators easily escape punishment. The survivors as well
as their families fight back against all the odds without any support, empathy
or justice for the violence they experience.
2.3 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women: The
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women was passed in
1993 by the United Nations General Assembly. This Declaration aims for the
universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to
equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings. India is
under an obligation to implement the provisions of this Declaration as it has
ratified the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. Under
Article 4 (f) of this declaration the member states are recommended to develop
preventive approaches with the help of legal measures for violence against
women. Under this provision the state parties are expected to focus on all such
measures; be it legal, political, administrative or cultural in nature.7
Incidents of gross human rights abuses like acid attacks can be brought
down under control when stringent provisions and initiatives are taken at the
national and local levels. International instruments can give an overall idea on
how and what steps can be taken to address a specific issue. However, to
eradicate social evils; it is necessary to focus on the specific nature of the
problem at different localities. Hence, national and local level measures are
necessary to address the uniqueness in the nature of the problem. Similarly,
the nature, causes and magnitude, after attack treatment, compensation and
punishment for the perpetrators of acid attacks differs from country to country
and hence the Declaration on Elimination of Violence against Women
encourages on taking country specific measures. The nature and type of such
measures are not only limited to legal spheres, but also extends to political,
administrative or cultural initiatives.
2.4 General Recommendation No. 19 (eleventh Session, 1992)8 by the
Committee on Elimination of Discrimination against Women: Para 11 of
the General Recommendation No. 19 made by the Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination against Women views that the traditional attitudes
of regarding women as subordinate to men results in the widespread practices
involving violence or coercion9. In this recommendation, acid attack finds a
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 75

mention as a type of violence against women. The Committee views that the
prevailing prejudices and practices of regarding women as subordinate to men
may justify gender-based violence as a way of protecting or controlling women.
However, the physical and mental effect of such violence is severe on women.
It deprives them the equal enjoyment, exercise and knowledge of human rights
and fundamental freedoms.
2.5 Special Rapporteur on Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (15th September, 2010): Acid
burning attacks- Victimization, Survivors, Support, a side event sponsored
by Womens UN Report Network, Worldwide Organization for Women and
NGO Committee on the Status of Women, 15th September 2010, Geneva. In
this event the report presented by Manfred Nowak, Special Rapporteur on
Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
highlights some important issues relating to acid attacks. The report states that
many a time women victims of acid throwing incidents are the ones attacked
by husbands, ex husbands or even partners making it a domestic violence in
the form of intimate partner violence. The effects of disfigurement and scarring
is so intense that fearing rejection and societys stigma; the survivors seclude
themselves and lead of life of complete isolation.
Another important and in fact major issue i.e. access to justice, reparations
and rehabilitation of the survivors of acid attack has also been strongly raised
in this report. Access to justice specifically becomes difficult for women victims
due to restricted movement, discriminatory laws, financial and economic
constraints etc. Lastly, this report also acknowledges the significance of
counselling at each stage of physical recovery. After a horrific incident of acid
attack takes place, the life of the victim undergoes a complete change and for
the victims to adapt themselves to the newness, counselling is the best and the
only way out.10
2.6 United Nations Trust Fund in Support of Actions to Eliminate
Violence against Women: The 2014 report prepared by the United Nations
Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women highlighting the
activities of the United Nations Trust Fund in Support of Actions to Eliminate
Violence against Women shows that gender based violence/violence against
women is a growing concern.In the year 1996 the United Nations Trust Fund
in Support of Actions to Eliminate Violence against Women, a multilateral
grant-making mechanism was established by the General Assembly resolution
50/166. On behalf of the United Nations system this Trust Fund is administered
by the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of
Women (UN-Women).This report mentions that with the increasing gender
based violence, womens right to peaceful existence is systematically violated.
Eradication of the existing gender based violence is not possible without
sustained social and political will and engagement, increased financial
resources, effective legal and policy responses and comprehensive interventions.
76 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

In order to bring down the number of ongoing gender based violence, the
Trust Fund focuses on three specific areas:
Firstly, prevention of violence against women and girls,
Secondly, expansion of access to justice and support services for survivors
of violence and
Lastly to expedite the implementation of laws and policies aimed at ending
violence against women and girls.
These three are vital to address gender based atrocities and ensure women
a life of security. Ending violence against women is possible only with the help
of stringent legal provisions. If laws are silent on gender violence; victims will
not have an authority to approach to for justice. In Cambodia, enactment of the
2012 Acid Attack law would not have been possible without the active role of
the Acid Survivors Trust International, a former grantee, and its partner, the
Cambodian Acid Survivors Charity. As a result of enactment of a specific law
regulating acid violence, in early 2013, the Phnom Penh Municipal Court handed
down the first conviction for an acid attack.11
2.7 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women is known as UN Women in short. It was created by the United
Nations General Assembly. UN Women, a global campaign for girls and
women, is dedicated to the cause of gender equality and empowerment of
women. UN Women focuses on human rights issues that have a gender
dimension. It works towards eradication of violence against women, economic
empowerment, leadership and participation, peace, security, national planning
and budgeting etc. New Delhi based multi country office of UN Women
exercises its jurisdiction over Bhutan, India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka. In its
effort towards eradication of gender inequity, UN Women majorly focuses on
advocacy campaigns, establishment of legal frameworks as well as national
actions. In order to work effectively at the grassroots level UN Women works
in partnership with governments, civil societies and UN system.12
2.8 Acid Survivors Trust International (ASTI): At the international level,
Acid Survivors Trust International is the only organization in the world that
works to end acid violence across the world. This organization works to increase
awareness of acid violence and develop effective responses both at the national
and international levels. It has also established six partner organisations in
Bangladesh, Cambodia, Pakistan, Nepal, Uganda and India in order to combat
the violence of acid attack more effectively. It works in co-operation with UN
agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations and strategic partners from across
the world. The partner organisations of ASTI in Bangladesh, Pakistan and
Cambodia have effectively played their advocacy role that lead to legislative
reforms and reduction in the number of such violence. In Bangladesh the
government has introduced acid specific legislation in the year 2002, the
Pakistani Government passed the Criminal Law Amendment Act 2011, the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 77

Cambodian government passed legislation in 2012.13


ASTI helps its partner organisations through financial and technical support,
sending volunteer plastic surgeons, burns and physical therapists, nurses and
counsellors etc. who train local medical and psycho-social practitioners provide
victims with the specialist care and treatment. ASTI works towards fulfilment
of four goals-
Firstly, to ensure that survivors of acid and burns violence have the best
available medical treatment.
Secondly, ASTI aims to provide legal support and advice to survivors
and their families.
Thirdly, ASTI assists in the rehabilitation, education and training of
survivors. Rehabilitation, counselling and training plays a vital role in enabling
the victims to lead independent and fulfilling lives despite their injuries.
Lastly, it works towards preventing, reducing and ultimately eliminating acid
attacks.
3. Conclusion: At the international level the United Nations tries to protect
human dignity and ensure security of the people. Bangladesh, India and
Cambodia the three countries with the most noted incidence of acid attacks
are ranked 64th, 108th and 109th out of 145 countries on the Global Gender Gap
Index14 201515. Hence there definitely is a gender dimension into the cases of
acid attack. However, recently cases have also been reported where even males
have become victims of such crimes as it is an easy effective method of harming
and killing enemies. Considering the international obligations of countries under
the human rights instruments countries like Bangladesh and Cambodia have
enacted specific legislations to regulate issues of acid attack within their
territories. After passing of statutes that specifically deals with the issue, the
rate of acid violence in these countries have come down significantly. Therefore,
the Government of other countries where the crime of acid attack is prevalent
should also take the initiatives of passing specific legislations addressing the
crime of acid attack.
======================
References :
1. Parvathi Menon and Sanjay Vashishtha, Vitriolage & India - The Modern
Weapon of Revenge, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND
SOCIAL SCIENCE INVENTION, http://www.ijhssi.org/papers/v2(10)/Version-
2/A0210020109.pdf (March 6, 2016).
2. The Universal Declaration on Human Rights was adopted and proclaimed by
General Assembly Resolution 217-A (III) of 10th December, 1948.
3. Vlachovd, Marie and Biason, Lea. Women in an Insecure World: Violence against
Women Facts, Figures and Analysis. http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/
women_insecure_world.pdf. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed
Forces (DCAF), Geneva, September 2005. Web. 3 April , 2016.
4. Awasthi and Kataria, Law Relating to Protection of Human Rights, Orient Pub-
lishing Company, New Delhi. 2011. Print.
78 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

5. Awasthi and Kataria, Law Relating to Protection of Human Rights, Orient Pub-
lishing Company, New Delhi. 2011. Print.
6. Awasthi and Kataria, Law Relating to Protection of Human Rights, Orient Pub-
lishing Company, New Delhi. 2011. Print.
7. Human Rights in International Law. Council of Europe Publishing, Universal
Law Publishing Co. 2011. Print.
8. Brownlie, Ian and Goodwin-Gill, Guy S. Basic Documents on Human Rights,
2007. Print.
9. General Recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Dis-
crimination against Women. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/rec-
ommendations/recomm.htm. United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women. Web. 21 May, 2016.
10. Violence against women is a long existing problem that includes family violence
and abuse, forced marriage, dowry deaths as well as acid attacks.
11. Statement by Manfred Nowak Special Rapporteur on Torture and other cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Side-event Acid burning at-
tacks victimization, survivors, support , http://www.wunrn.org/news/2013/
07_13/07_29/072913_un3_files/SR%20Torture%20Statement% 20on%
20Acid%20Attacks%20&%20Torture.pdf. Web. 26 May, 2016.
12. Report of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women on the activities of the United Nations Trust Fund in Support of Ac-
tions to Eliminate Violence against Women.
13. UN Women. http://www.unwomen.org/en. Web. 2 June, 2016.
14. Acid Survivors Trust International. http://www.acidviolence.org/. Web. 21
March, 2016.
15. Global Gender Gap Index is an index designed to measure gender equality and
for the first time the Global Gender Gap Report (2006) was published by the
World Economic Forum.
16. A copy of the 2015 Global Gender Gap Index is attached in appendix I.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 79

Appendix I
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 81
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Talent Development Initiatives of


Indian Public Sector Banks
* Bhanu Shankar
==========================================================
Abstract- The talent development of employees is an essential pre-requisite of
any organization in the present time. Lack of definite career path for the
employees coupled with monitory and non monitory incentives often leads to
the migration of employees to some different organization .Indian Public Sector
Banks suffer from the same problem. These banks have witnessed the migration
of employees to other similar organization due to an unhealthy work environment
and lack of incentive packages. These banks do not have a well defined talent
development programmes and personality development programmes ..As a
consequence, the employees suffer from job dissatisfaction and their retention
in the organization becomes difficult. This paper aims at discussing the major
issues relating to talent development of banking sector and the initiatives taken
so far in the public sector banks.
==========================================================
Introduction: Talent development comprises of a variety of components such
as training, career development, career management, and organizational
development. While talent development comes under the preview of the top
management, there is no denying the fact that career development is necessary
for the retention of any employee, irrespective of their position in the company.
Some type of career path is necessary for job satisfaction and hence job retention.
Therefore, the organization must focus on talent development for employee
satisfaction.
A BCG survey covering 83 countries has revealed that developing and
retaining staff is a big challenge for Human Resouce Department. Indian
executives specifically emphasized the concerns of managing talent, improving
leadership development and managing work-life balance as their apex HR
issues. In India, corporates face numerous challenges in talent management.
In India, there will be a shortage of 0.2 million engineers and more than 0.5
million non-engineering graduates, over the next five years. Given the economic
downturn, this may not be an abrupt issue for corporates. Employee
development promotes employee engagement which is of prime importance
to a high performance workplace.
Employee development can have a vivid effect on the level of employee
===========================
* Associate Professor, National P.G. College, Lucknow (U.P.)
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 83

retention of a firm. Engaged employees with the opportunity for personal and
professional growth are more likely to reside with the organization. Employee
Training and development is an investment in the organization that can provide
a noteworthy Returns in terms of talented employee retention. Talent
management is an indispensable ingredient to ensure the wellbeing and vigor
of your organization for years to come.
Public sector banks do reward their employees. The reward to staff is,
however, not comparable to those given by private or foreign banks. Things
are constantly improving in this area with the liberal financial autonomy package
to all public sector banks (PSBs) proclaimed by the government last year and
the realisation by PSBs to effectively face the challenges posed by other players.
The banks need to make use of this opportunity in a greater measure. Attrition
and poaching has made things complicated for PSBs, whose ability to employ
fresh talent is constrained by structured compensation packages with limited
flexibility. For them talent nurturing has become a major issue rather than
hiring fresh talent. They have to find out ways to incentivize the talent accessible.
This requires a look at compensation packages commensurate with the paying
capacity, differentiation between performers and non-performers and institution
of a reward mechanism.
Talent management needs differentiating the organization by building
business capability through excellent programmes to magnetize, engage and
retain the most valued employees, underlining the significance of talent
differentiation, aligning the talent management strategy to the overall business
plan and implementing a nuance approach towards the most cherished
employees with paradigm shift from uniform service regulations and
compensation package structure to a flexible compensation package and service
conditions. Banks should put in place appropriate HR audit could play a
essential role in instilling a sense of confidence in the management and HR
functions in the organization. There is a manifest need to address the key drivers
in attracting and retaining the exact talent. Building an ideal work environment,
cultivating and retaining talents in these difficult times requires effective
management and leadership in maintaining a talent friendly environment and
ensuring alignment of talent expectations with core business tactic. This is a
tall order and necessitates periodical revisiting of the vibrant of compensation
management, performance measurement, organization change, employee
relationship management, employer branding, talent development and
succession planning. In the ultimate scrutiny, employee rewards and recognition
have to move beyond compensation and benefits. In this world of flux and
flow, turbulence and volatility, attrition and organizational dynamics, what is
required is that employers must offer a holistic package to employees. Financial
aspects have to be a vital part of this package but the significance of non-
monetary incentives cannot be ignored in any objective assessment of the growth
and structural transformation of any organization.
84 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Objective of the Study:


To evaluate the various Talent Development Initiatives undertaken by
Indian Public Sector Banks.
To determine whether the talent Development activities undertaken in
Indian Public Sector Banks are streamlined to facilitate upward mobility.
To determine whether active involvement in Talent Development activities
is an important criteria considered for performance appraisal of
employees.
To understand the general perception of Indian public sector bank
employees towards Talent Development Initiatives.
Research Methodology and Research Design:
Sample Size: 100
Nature of Data: Primary Data
Target Audience: Public Sector Bank Employees in Kanpur
Sampling Technique: Judgment Sampling
Research Design: Descriptive Research
Analysis and Interpretation of Data:
For the purpose of analysis and interpretation of data statistical methods
and tools like Tabulation, pie charts and graphs are used in this research.
Analysis and interpretation of data facilitates the process of filtering and editing
of data. It also throws light on what are the different categories or unit of
Analysis involved in the Research. Thus at the end of interpretation process all
the raw data gets transformed into useful facts and information that facilitate
decision making.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 85

Table No. 1,
Employees should be encouraged to participate in Personality
Development Programmes
S No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 0%
2 DISAGREE 14%
3 NEUTRAL 52%
4 AGREE 34%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 0%

Diagram No. 1
Employees should be encouraged to participate in Personality
Development Programmes

Inference:
Majority of the respondents had a neutral opinion about bank employees
participating in Personality Development Programmes.
Table No.-2
Talent Development Participation is an important criterion to evaluate
Employee performance of Public Sector Banks
S No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 69%
2 DISAGREE 10%
3 NEUTRAL 11%
4 AGREE 11%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 0%
86 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Diagram No.-2
Talent Development Participation is an important criteria to evaluate
Employee performance of Public Sector Banks

Inference: Majority of the respondents opined that participating in Talent


Development activities is not considered as an important criterion to evaluate
employee performance. This throws light on the fact that Talent Development
activities are sparsely encouraged in Public Sector Banks.
Table No.-3
Talent Development activities Pave Way for Career Development and
Career Growth
Sl No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 6%
2 DISAGREE 71%
3 NEUTRAL 13%
4 AGREE 3%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 7%

Diagram No.-3
Talent Development activities Pave Way for Career Development and
Career Growth.

Inference: Majority of the respondents opined that Talent Development


Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 87

activities in the Public sector Banks hardly pave Way for Career Development
and Career Growth. This clearly depicts whatever Talent development initiatives
are undertaken by the Public Sector Banks are not successful to bring in the
desired results.
Table No.-4, Talent Development activities are well Communicated to
the Bank Employees
Sl No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 0%
2 DISAGREE 82%
3 NEUTRAL 0%
4 AGREE 38%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 0%

Diagram No.-4, Talent Development activities are well Communicated


to the Bank Employees

Inference: Majority of the respondents opined that Talent Development are


not well Communicated to the Bank Employees. This could nullify all the
efforts taken by the IBA to develop the in-house talent in Public Sector Banks.
Diagram No.-5, Exemplary performance of Bank Employees are
timely rewarded
88 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Inference: There is a mixed opinion among the Public sector bank employees
about exemplary individual performance being timely rewarded. It gives an
insight on the fact that some Public Sector banks are on the forefront when it
comes to rewarding their employees for exemplary performance while few
others lag behind.
Table No.-5
Active Support from the Management for Talent Development
Activities
Sl No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 0%
2 DISAGREE 10%
3 NEUTRAL 24%
4 AGREE 57%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 9%

Diagram No.-5
Active Support from the Management for Talent Development
Activities

Inference: There is a mixed opinion among the Public sector bank employees
about support from the management in the form of the required infrastructure,
facilities, funds and grant for Talent development of employees. It gives an
insight on the fact that some Public Sector banks are on the forefront when it
comes to incorporating and supporting Talent Development activities while
few others lag behind.
Findings:
Most of the bank employees have an apathetic approach towards Talent
Development Initiatives undertaken by Indian Public Sector Bank while
some of the employees strongly advocate Talent Development Initiatives
to be undertaken by Indian Public Sector Banks.
Majority of the bank employees feel Talent Development would hardly
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 89

enhance the commitment to quality. Some of the employees strongly


believe it would unquestionably improve quality standards maintained
by the bank.
Majority of the respondents feel rewarding exemplary individual
performance should play a leading role in Talent development. There is
a mixed opinion among the Public sector bank employees about
exemplary individual performance being timely rewarded. It gives an
insight on the fact that some Public Sector banks are on the forefront
when it comes to rewarding their employees for exemplary performance
while few others lag behind.
Majority of the respondents had a unbiased opinion about bank employees
participating in Personality Development Programmes.
Majority of the respondents opined that Talent Development activities in
the Public sector Banks hardly pave Way for Career Development and
Career Growth. This clearly portrays whatever Talent development
initiatives are undertaken by the Public Sector Banks is not successful in
bringing the desired results.
Majority of the respondents opined that Talent Development are not well
Communicated to the Bank Employees. This could nullify all the efforts
taken by the IBA to develop the internal talent in Public Sector Banks.
Majority of the respondents opined that individual expectations are not
considered while designing Talent Development Activities. Thus there
is a drastic gap between employee expectation about career development
programmes in their organization and the reality.
There is a mixed opinion among the Public sector bank employees about
support from the management in the form of the required infrastructure,
facilities, funds and grant for Talent development of employees. It gives
an insight on the fact that some Public Sector banks are on the forefront
when it comes to incorporating and supporting Talent Development
activities while few others lag behind.
Recommendation and Suggestions:
There is a lack of trained and talented employees in Public Sector banks.
Therefore, talent development activities should be the prime concern of
the banks.
The bank employees should be made aware about the importance of
Talent Development activities in their career advancement.
There should be a regular performance appraisal of the employees of
public sector banks.
Talent Development initiatives of Public Sector banks should be result-
oriented.
Employees should be rewarded for their exemplary performances. This
would help in controlling dissatisfaction among the employees.
Public sector banks should provide the necessary infrastructure facilities,
90 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

funds and grants for Talent Development of employees.


Conclusion: Talent management demands the building of business capability
through excellent programmes to attract, engage and retain the most valued
employees. There is a need to address the key drivers in attracting and retaining
the right talent. Effective management and leadership is required to develop
an ideal work environment and to cultivate and retain talents in the organization.
This is a great challenge and it requires periodical reviewing of the dynamics
of compensation management, performance measurement, organization change,
employee relationship management, employer branding, talent development
and succession planning. Employee rewards and recognition should not be
restricted to compensation and benefits. The employees must be offered a
holistic package by the employees in todays world of turbulence and volatility.
This package should include both monetary and non-monetary incentives which
is of utmost importance in the overall growth and structural transformation of
the organization.
======================
References :
1. Altunbas, Y. and Chakravarthy, S.P. (2001), Frontier Cost Functions and Bank
Efficiency, Economic Letters, Vol.72, Issue 2.
2. Arun Shourie (2003), Before the Whining Drowns it Out, Listen to the New
India,The Indian Express.
3. Ashok H. Advani (2000), Indias Best Banks, Business India.
4. A.V. Aruna Kumari (2002), Economic Reforms and Performance of Indian
Banking: A Cross Structural Analysis, Indian Economic Panorama, A Quarterly
Journal of Agriculture, Industry, Trade and Commerce, Special Banking Issue.
5. Banker (2003), Top 1000 World Banks, Vol.153, Issue 929, p.187-222,
Business Source Premier
6. Bank Indices (2001), Professional Banker, July.
7. Banking & Finance (2002), Indias Best Banks, Vol.3, No.6, Jan.-Feb.
8. Bhattacharyya, Arunava; Lovell, C.A.K. and Sahay, Pankaj (1997), The impact
of liberalization on the productive efficiency of Indian commercial banks,
European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 98, Issue 2.
9. The Good Bank Guide, Corporate Location, Sep./ Oct. 1998, Business Source
Premier.
10. A.K. Trivedi (2002), Economic Reforms and Banking Scenario: An Analysis,
Indian Economic Panorama, A Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, Industry, Trade
and Commerce, Special Banking Issue.
11. C. R, Kothari; (2002), Research Methodology, 2nd Edition, Vishwaprakashan.
12. Malhotra, K, Naresh; (2007), Marketing Research, 5 th Edition, Pearson
Education, Inc.
13. Cooper, R, Donald; Schindler, S, Pamela, (2007), Business Research Methods,
9th Edition, Tata Mc. Graw- Hill Education Private Limited.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Domonetisation & Effect on Indian Economy


* Alka Nayak
==========================================================
Abstract- India's ministary of finance claimed Rs 500 and Rs 1000 notes are
used in terrorism, illegal activities, fuel of black market, using counterfeitmoney
and bribe so, Prime Minister Modi Ji announced or declared demonitization to
wash this money from country. Demonetization can be said as 'surgical strike'
unorganised trading, Real-Estate, Share-market are very much effected, After
surgical strike, within 3-4 days 35,000 crore Rs deposited in banks approximate
1500 crore black money were destroyed impact of Agriculture, manufactring
sector and service secter are also moved after demonelization G.D.P of counrty
slightly decrease as campare to previous year but it will be not same in future.
It is intervention one time draining of black money but unless the root causes of
corruption removed, corruption will continue. It will depend next step of
Government.
==========================================================
On Nov. 8, 2016, The govt announced a histroic measure of
demonetisation The two largest denomination notes of Rs 500 & 1000 were
demonitized with inmediate effect ceailing to be legal tender except for a few
specified purpose. By a single move 86% of cash in circulation cased to be
legal tender. This inititive affected notes with a value of about 15 trillion Rupees.
Due to payment transaction in India are primarily cash based & electronic
payment infrastructure is limited. The shortage of cash had disrupted economic
activity with smaller businesses & rural region being particularly most affected
in Indian economic histroy there were two previous instances of demonitization
in 1946 & 1978 but recent move had large impact.
Some Impacts of Demonetization in Different sectors:
(1) Seasonal workers/Daily workers Worker are worstly hited during
demonetization move because of they receive their wages on the basis of work
what they did per day. Cash crunch is very likely to result in delay or with
holding of their payment.
(2) Rural Populaion : Rural population depends upon the sale of their
produce like vegetables, milk. Eggs. Whose daily bread & butter depend on
daily sale so they are affected very much.
(3) Small Farmers/Mandi : Small farmers who have no KCC/Agricultural
loan account, do not have facilities of with drawing INR 20,000-25,000 in
===========================
* Officiating Principal/ H.O.D. Economics Department Gandhi
Mahavidhyalya Orai
92 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

cash due to low income and lack of awareness.


Trade has been hit hard at the largest vegetable market in North- India
Traders who bring vegetables in vehicles complain that sales have driedup as
cash has driedup. Truck Driver have not mony even to go back to their homes
that very time.
(4) Inpact on Real-Estate : It is most effected sector due to low demand
and money Transaction through banks. Unorganised builders are affected
because it is driven by a large cash component.
(5) Impact on Bond Market : After demonitisation INR 11 Lakh cr. entering
into the bond market as per a CNBC report.
(6) Impact on pension holders : Pension holders especially above 70 or
80 years of age standing in long queues withdrawl limit for such sector is also
restricted to current limit. So they had to go multiple trips to banks.
(7) Impact on Health sector : Private hospital were not accepted old notes.
So patients had to face troubles.
(8) Private Educational Institutions : Huge amount of donations ranging
from 50-60% of tution fees transacted in cash.
(9) Impact on political party for Election fund : It is known fact that
political parties are main movers of black money, their sources of fund never
disclosed. A political candidate spent average Rs 4-5 croes on campaigning
that is likely to go down.
(10) Household sector : It is common practice among Indian housewives to
to save pretty amount of cash from total sum given to run the household for
time of need.
(11) Impact of online Transaction & payment : Online Transaction and
payment wallets are seeing surge already, Paytm. One of the largest payment
wallets in India. Today said that it has been 35 million transaction for mobile
and DTH recharges on its platform post the gevernments move to Srap INR
500 & 1000 notes. Aprat from this 20,000 small businesses in Hyderabad
alone have adopted paytm that very time.
(12) Impact on G.D.P. : Due to availability of less cash demand reduced &
supply was also affected due to liquidity disrupted supply chains. Cash intensive
sector was affected more like real estate, Jewellary but overtime as the economy
became more formalized, G.D.P. will become stable.
Impacts of demonetisation in both short term and long Term:
The aim of govt for this action was fourfold - The curb corruption, restrict
the use of high denomination notes for terrorism. To restrict the accumulation
of black money, to make the fake currency out from the market.
There were earlier measures taken by govt to curb such wrong illicit
activities some of the measures was SIT, Benami-Transaction Act 2016, Black
money & imposition of tax act information & exchange agreement was done
with some countries, by Income discloser scheme.
With these measures govt had taken a large step to curb such illicit
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 93

activities. Demonetisation had many short term impacts which created panic
in public. These short term problems could be make small but the govt &
R.B.I did not do enough preparation before taking the steps of demonetization
and it was the reason for increased panic for individuals & businesses by that
time, the situation was panic due to the shortage of currency supply cash
withdrawl limit was put by govt, this was the one cause of panic as the
individuals did not has sufficient cash as per their needs.
However with these short term impact India is pushed for digital
transaction. Introduction of lottery scheme for digital transaction & BHIM
app for transaction were step taken by govt to promote digitalisation the
movement of house hold saving from physical to financial will help boost
growth according to yes bank BSE 0.90% report.
Benifits on G.D.P. :
1. It will increase digitalisation one intermediate & objective of
demonetisation was to create less cash economy. But digital transcation face
significant problems such as cellphone for customers, point of sale machines
for merchants but needs internet connection providing proper internet
connectivity with broadband speed which is one of aim of digital India so this
move of demonitisation will push India towards digital economy.
2. Insufficent money in banks During the period of demonetisation is under
screening mechanism aimed seperating whole income from black. money. At
the some time govt announced a scheme to disclose black money provided
Declare unaccounted wealth & pay taxes with penalty such moves make dump
money under circulation and under taxation laws. Thus it will help Indian
economy by reducing problems of black money & corrupt practices.
3. Demonitisation could have for reaching effects :
It will channelise saving into financial system. As the cash withdrawl
limits are erased much of the cash which is in bank system will be taken out
again but some of deposits will remain in banks which will make economy
better as available for loans etc.
4. In some extent problems of fake currency will be solved it is neccessary
govt to keep watch on fake currency routes so future problem of counterfeit
money may stopped.
5. By monitoring new currency notes govt can restrict funding for terrorist
activities.
6. Much of black money accumulated was ultimatily used to evade taxes
on property rates. The black money is reduced so by increasing digital means
& keep a limit of maximum cash Transaction by this tax evasion will also
diminish. It is desirable in future that it will lead to reduction in realestate
prices & lead to affordable housing for all.
So it can be said that demonetisation have long term effects with short
term problems. But coming with even bigger high denomination note i.e. Rs.
2000 will increase again black money problem. As per govt Rs. 2000 Note
94 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

helped in solving cash shortage problems in market but pre-preparation was


necessory for R.B.I. bank that very time so govt before taking such a big move
strategy should be well-planned.
======================
References :
1. Gulati Singh Gurbin (Jan. 2017) Impact of Demonetization on textile & trade.
2. Ashworth David (Nov. 2016) Reasons behind Demonetization.
3. Dec 2016, PTI New Delhi wwwdnacndia.com
4. Economic Survey 2016-17.
5. Media Report.
6. CNBC Report on/8 Nov. 2016
7. RBI Report from 9 Nov. 30 Nov. 2016
8. Outlook Magzine, 5 Dec., 2016
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

The Right to Information and Good Governance- An


Insight
* Aparajita Baruah
==========================================================
Abstract- In a democracy, the citizen's right to know is assumed rather than
guaranteed. s fact, the right is derived from the government's accountability
and answerability to the people. Good governance can be done by way of
providing adequate information to the governed. In this paper, how the right to
information is considered as a fundamental right under the Constitution of
India through judicial interpretation has been highlighted. Due to its immense
importance in public spheres, Right to information has been invariably
incorporated in many international human rights instruments and Constitutions.
==========================================================
Introduction: In twentieth century, the Right to Information Act is widely
considered a revolutionary step towards the growth of our democratic polity.
The basic object of the Right To Information Act, 2005 is to empower the
citizens, promote transparency and accountability in the working of the
Government, contain corruption, and make our democracy work for the people
in real sense. An informed citizen will be better equipped to keep necessary
vigil on the instruments of government and make the government more
accountable to the governed. The concept of governance is as old as human
civilization. The word governance means the process of decision-making
and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). A
good governance system is associated with efficient and effective administration
in a democratic framework. Good governance is directly related to purposive
development, oriented administration which is committed towards the
improvement of quality of the life of the masses. Information is sine qua non
for the functioning of democracy. Good governance depends on the co-operation
and on the involvement of a large number of citizens and organizations.
The four elements identifies for good governance are:
Maintenance of Rule of Law
Sound Public Sector Management
Controlling corruption
Avoiding Excessive Military Expenditure
Free exchange of ideas and free debate are essentially desirable for the
government of a free country. Government openness is a sure technique to
===========================
* Assistant Professor (Sr.) Gauhati University
96 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

minimize administrative faults1.


Meaning of the Term: Information is a term derived from Latin words
Formation and Forma which means giving shape to something and
forming a pattern respectively. It adds something new to our awareness and
removes the vagueness of our ideas. Information belongs not to the state, the
government of the day or civil servants, but to the public. The citizens right
to know the true facts about the administration of the country is one of the
vital ingredients of a democratic state.
Objectives of the Study: The present study tries to analyse the importance of
right to information in the context of good governance. In India, the right to
education originates from right to freedom of speech and expression. Various
International as well as national laws that underscores the importance of right
to education has also been discussed in this paper.
Methodology: The methodology adopted while writing this paper is confined
to secondary sources of data available in books, articles and internet materials.
The author has also included primary authoritative sources, such as documents
as well as landmark judgments pronounced by the judiciary.
Right to Information under the Constitution of India:
Information is the core value of democracy and good governance.
Freedom of information is a fundamental human right and is the touchstone of
all freedoms which the United Nations is concerned with2. Sometimes, the
law may impose secrecy in the interest of the individual. But then, the secrecy
ought not to be more than what is absolute necessary3.
The Constitution of India does not specifically provide for the right to
information as a fundamental right, though the constitutional philosophy amply
supports it. The Preamble of the Constitution of India constitutes India into a
democratic country and secures for its people, justicesocial, economic and
political; liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. This justifies
that the Constitution of India is drawn upon the idea of open government. In
the same manner, Article 19(1)(a)- freedom of thought and expression, Article
21-right to life and personal liberty would become redundant if information is
not freely available. Article 39 (a),(b),(c) of the Constitution make provision
for adequate means of livelihood, equitable distribution of material resources
of the community to check concentration of wealth and means of production.
As today, information is wealth, hence, need for its equal distribution cannot
be overemphasized. Taking a cue from this constitutional philosophy, The
Supreme Court of India held freedom of information as a fundamental right
under Articles 19(1)(a) and 21 of the Constitution of India. Thus, in India, the
right to information is a basic human right which cannot be abridged, only
reasonable restrictions can be imposed and that too on the grounds mentioned
in Article 19(2) of the Constitution.
Unique fact is that in India, the right to information is a direct consequence
of peoples movement for reaching socio-economic justice to the deprived
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 97

sections of society, whose entitlements under rural development schemes were


being deprived due to lack of information of development projects. With judicial
support, the right to information became a cause of public action and there
was a strong demand for a formal law on right to information. Various states
have enacted laws ensuring public access to information, although with various
restraints and exemptions. Ultimately, in the year 2002, the Central Government
has passed the Freedom of Information Act. However, on the suggestion of
the National Advisory Committee and others, government decided to repeal
the Freedom of Information Act, 2002 and in its place enacted the Right To
Information Act, 2005 to effectuate the right to information recognized under
Article 19 of the Constitution4.
Right to Information Act, 2005: The Right to Information Act, 2005
empowers everyone to:
i. Ask them any questions
ii. Take copies, including certified copies of documents
iii. Inspect documents
iv. Inspect works
v. Take sample of material
Information under this Act means any material held in any form with a
government agency, i.e. files, records including tenders, contracts, orders,
correspondence, i.e. emails, letters opinion, advice, samples, material held in
electronic formats and as audio/visual material. Right to information means
a. The right to seek information from any public authority
b. The right to take certified copies of public documents help by public
authorities.
Though the Act provides for transparency but it is not absolute. This Act
provides that certain sensitive information may be withheld from the public, if
the public authority in possession of the information thinks that the same is
likely to jeopardize either national interest or violate the trade secrets5. The
information which cannot be denied to the Parliament or State Legislature
shall not be denied to any person as withholding the information must be
balanced against the disclosure of public interest. A public authority may allow
access to information, if public interest in disclosure outweighs the harm to
the protected interests. However, in any event information relating to
occurrences 20 years before the date of request shall have to be provided as an
exception to such exemptions6.
Though the provision of the Act is loud, yet like all openness law, this
Act also faces huge problems in implementation because bureaucrats do not
relish openness7. There is no prescribed format of application for seeking
information. The application can be made on plain paper. The application should
however, have the name and complete postal address of the applicant. Even in
cases where the information is sought electronically, the application should
contain the name and postal address of the applicant8. Still some of the States
98 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

through their Rules have given specimen application for the person seeking
information to maintain infirmity of the content of the application and to remove
the ambiguity in the applications. But, such specimen is not binding in nature;
applicant can make it in its own way9.
In normal course, information to an applicant shall be supplied within
30 days from the receipt of application by the public authority. If information
sought concerns the life or liberty of a person, it shall be supplied within 48
hours10. In case the application is sent through the Assistant Public Information
Office or it is sent to a wrong public authority, five days shall be added to the
period of thirty days or 48 hours, as the case may be11. Section 24 of the Act
empowers the Central Government and State Governments to exclude certain
intelligence and security organization from the purview of this Act by placing
them in Second Schedule.
The Act has created a practical regime through which the citizens of the
country may have access to information under the control of public authorities
in order to promote transparency and accountability in the working of every
public authority12.
Right to information-un Initiatives: The right to know had gained
prominence after the Second World War. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration
of the Human Rights, 1948 specifically deals with right to freedom of opinion
and expression. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR), 1966 which India has also ratified, also provides for a corresponding
provision in Article 19. Article 19(2) states that everyone shall have the right
to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek , receive and
impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally,
in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his
choice. Article 4 of the American Declaration and Article 10 of the European
Convention of Human Rights guarantees the right to freedom of expression.
Right to Information-Global Scenario: Several countries have enacted
comprehensive laws to facilitate access to public records and right to
information. In England, The Freedom of Information Act was approved in
November 2002 after nearly 20 years of campaigning. The Act gives any person
a general right to access to information held by a broad array of public
authorities. In 1966, the Freedom of Information Act was enacted in America
replacing the Administrative Procedure Act, 1946. The Federal Freedom of
Information Act, 1982, Freedom of Information Regulation 1982, Freedom of
Information (Miscellaneous provisions) Regulation1982 provides for access
to documents held by Commonwealth agencies. The 1983 Access to
Information Act provides Canadian citizens and other individuals and
corporation in Canada the right to apply for and obtain copies or records held
by government institutions.
Right to information and Indian judiciary: Judiciary is the watchdog and
custodian of our Constitution. It was through a creative interpretation of Article
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 99

19(1)(a) of the Constitution that the Supreme Court carved out a fundamental
right to information as being implicit in the right to free speech and expression.
One of the earliest cases where the Supreme Court laid emphasis on the peoples
right to know was State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain13. Apart from this,
the Supreme Court in several judgements14 tried to emphasize the importance
of right to information. Following the same trend in D.K.Basu v. State of
West Bengal15, held that the detainees have right to know the charges framed
or reasons of arrest, place of arrest, right to get the relatives informed about
the arrest and to have a lawyer of ones own choice.
Conclusion: It is significant to create a favourable climate where Right to
Information gets implemented in true spirit. The Right to Information Act,
2005 may restrict the accessibility of information from unpublished records
and documents of the administrative authorities. Excessive classification is an
impediment to information sharing. Escape clauses are too many and too wide.
Central Vigilance Commission Report suggests that people generally exercise
their right to information for settling personal shores and not for enforcing
governmental transparency and accountability. It is necessary to provide as
such information suo moto to the public at large at regular intervals through
various means of communications so that the people have minimum resort to
the use of the Act to obtain information
======================
References :
1. M.P.Jain & S.N.Jain(2007). Principles of Administrative Law, 6th Edition,
Wadhwa,Nagpur, p.2530
2. UN General Assembly, 14th December 1966
3. Supra note 1 at p. 2531
4. I.P.Massey (2012).Administrative Law, 8th Edition, pp.561-562
5. Section 8 & 9 of the Right to Information Act, 2005
6. Section 8 of the Right to Information Act, 2005
7. P.K.Das(2005). Handbook on Right to Information Act, 2005, 3rd Edition, p. 15
8. S.S.Srivastava (2012). Right to Information, 1st Edition, Central Law Agency,
p.18
9. Id at p.19
10. Id at p.21
11. Id at p.22
12. Supra note 7 at p. 17
13. (1975) 4 SCC 428
14. Secretary, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India v. Cricket
Association of Bengal, AIR 1995 SC 1236; Dinesh Trivedi v. UOI, (1997) 4
SCC 306; PUCL v. UOI, (2003) 4 SCC 399; Association for Democratic Reforms
v. UOI ,AIR 2001 Del 126,127
15. AIR 1997 Sc 610
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Urban Informal Sector Workers and Condition of


Employment in Urban Assam: NSS Results
* Biman Kumar Nath
==========================================================
Abstract- In urban Assam, more than 60 per cent of the workers have been
engaged in unorganised sector. Industry groups like information and
communication, real estate, accommodation and food service, manufacturing
have more concentration of informal employment than that of other groups in
urban Assam. This is reflected in the location quotients calculated for non
agricultural industry groups from the NSSO published data. Self employment
(activity code: 11-21) in general has been 53.8 per cent in urban Assam while
42 per cent in all India average. As far as the informal sector workers are
concerned, percentage of self employment has been 90.6 per cent in urban Assam
while this figure is 97.8 per cent for urban India as recorded in 68th round. It
indicates that informal sector; both in the state and the country as a whole are
dominated by self employment. Section-I of this paper explains the location
quotients and relative concentration of non agricultural informal employment
in urban Assam. Section-II explains three conditions of employment namely
written job contract, paid leave and social securities of informal sector workers.
Casual labourers are found to be more vulnerable in three conditions of decent
work. An attempt has been made to see informally employed industry groups
and locate the conditions of employment by using the published data of National
Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) of two rounds namely 61st and 68th round.
==========================================================
Key words: Informal employment, paid leave, written job contract, social security
etc.
1.1 Introduction: Unorganised sector consists of all unincorporated private
enterprises owned by individuals or households engaged in the sale and
production of goods and services operated on a proprietary or partnership
basis and with less than ten workers. Further, unorganised workers consist of
those working in the unorganised enterprises or households, excluding regular
workers with social security benefits, and the workers in the formal sector
without any employment/ social security benefits provided by the employers
(NCEUS, 2008). In the labour market of Assam, 60.4 per cent of the workers
in urban areas and 60.3 per cent of the rural workers are informally employed.
Bulk of the informal sector workers is largely self-employed. The self-employed
===========================
*
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 101

category of employment in urban informal sector is 97.4 per cent in India


whereas it is 89.6 per cent in Assam.1 Most of the self employed workers
usually work from their home. In self employed category, many women
especially home based working women are vulnerable to poverty in various
states of India (Unni, 2006). However, labour productivity and growth of
enterprises in unorganised manufacturing sector of Assam has been growing.
But, the growing urban informal sector fails to establish a sufficient forward
linkage with the formal sector while a few enterprises establish a backward
linkage with the same in the state of Assam (Majumdar, 2012).
1.2 Concept and Approaches: The concept of informal sector was coined
by a social anthropologist, Keith Hart in 1973 in Ghana and was started in
India by Harriss and Todaro. Recognizing informal sector as a relative term,
Bose (1980) points out that informal sector is exploited by formal sector and
the backwardness of informal sector is responsible for the stagnancy of formal
sector. It is exploited by formal sector through marketing system by purchasing
goods from informal sector at negligible prices and makes huge profit by selling
at higher prices. Moreover, the informal sector is also at a disadvantageous
position in purchasing inputs at sky-high price from the black market. On the
other hand, formal sector can get their inputs at controlled and subsidized
price. This view is also supported by few scholars (Romatet, 1983; Harriss,
1982) by stating that subcontracting system is a medium of exploitation that
usually prevails in the informal sector. But for the dynamic growth of both the
sector, there is requirement of simultaneous development (Papola, 1981).
1.3 Objectives: This Paper is based on the following objectives
1. To understand the relative concentration of non agricultural informality
in different industry groups in Urban Assam
2. To locate the deficit in decent work of urban informal sector workers in
terms of selected conditions of employment in Urban Assam.
1.4 Data Source and Methodology:
Section-I of the paper explains the location quotients and relative
concentration of Non agricultural informal employment in Urban Assam.
Section-II explains three conditions of employment- written job contract, paid
leave and social security of urban informal sector workers.
Table 1.1
Non Agricultural Informal Sector Employment and Location Quotient
in Different Industry Groups in Urban Assam in 2011-12
Industry Area Employment Location
Quotient
Mining and Quarrying (B) Assam 0 0
India 31.1
Manufacturing (C) Assam 78.9 1.04
India 75.9
Electricity, gas, stream, and Air conditioning Assam 0 0
supply (D) India 12.2
102 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Water supply; sewerage, waste management and Assam 12.0 0.18


remediation activities (E) India 66.0
Construction (F) Assam 55.3 0.70
India 78.2
Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles Assam 91.4 0.98
and motorcycles (G) India 93.6
Transportation and storage (H) Assam 66.7 0.90
India 73.8
Accommodation and Food service activities (I) Assam 100 1.09
India 91.8
Information and communication(J) Assam 78.8 2.33
India 33.7
Financial and insurance activities (K) Assam 18.2 0.71
India 25.7
Real estate activities (L) Assam 100 1.14
India 87.7
Professional, scientific and technical activities (M) Assam 43.3 0.62
India 69.3
Administrative and support service activities (N) Assam 42 0.69
India 61.1
Education (P) Assam 18.6 0.55
India 33.8
Human health and social work activities (Q) Assam 9.8 0.18
India 53.7
Arts, entertainment and recreation (R) Assam 100 1.36
India 73.1
Other service activities (S) Assam 80.3 0.96
India 83.9
Non Agriculture (B-U) Assam 60.7 0.88
India 68.7

Source: NSSO 68th Round


It includes AGEGC sector also which is very insignificant in urban area.
AGEGC means agriculture sector excluding growing of crops, plant
propagation, combined production of crops and animals without a specialised
production of crops or animals (NSSO, 2014). Thus, conditions of employment
are assumed to be tilted towards non agricultural occupations only. The industry
groups B to U has been recognised as non agricultural industries in both the
reports. Per thousand data are transformed to percentage and location quotient
is calculated for selected variable under study. Location Quotient (LQ) is a
simple ratio used to determine the concentration or dominance of a particular
industry in a region in comparison to a larger reference region (here country is
taken as reference region). It can be calculated for both enterprise and
employment where comparable data exist for both the areas. It reveals the
degree of regional specialization or concentration of each informal sector
segments. In our case of employment, LQ calculation rules can be summarized
as below: To create LQ for the above table, the following formula is adopted:
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 103

Location Quotient (LQ) =

If LQd1, the state (Assam in our case) has less concentration of that particular
industry group than the nation or the state is less specialized in that particular
industry group.
If LQe1, the state (Assam in our case) has greater concentration of that
particular industry group than the nation or the state is more specialized in that
particular industry group.
Figure: 1.1
Location Quotient of Non Agricultural Informal Employment

Source: Based on Table 1.1


SECTION-I
2.1 Relative Concentration of Informal Workers in Urban Assam
Figure 1.1 shows that information and communication has the highest
LQ value (2.03) indicating a high concentration of informal workers in the
segment. Assam has been considered as an uncut diamond for information
technology destination (Govt of Assam, 2011). Communication also has a
large informal labour market in various enterprises. The second highest informal
employment provider has been the arts, entertainment and recreation which
shows LQ value as greater than one (1.36) indicating greater concentration of
the industry group in Assam than that of the nation. This can be partly attributed
to the mushrooming growth of various electronic media, growth of
advertisements and commercialisation of many activities. Further, LQ value
of real estate has been found to be 1.14 indicating higher concentration of
informalization of the industry group. Real estate has been followed by
manufacturing which is called the backbone of an economy. But, the
employment taking place in state manufacturing has been mainly unorganised
(LQ value of 1.04 indicates larger informalization of manufacturing in Assam
than the country as a whole). Accommodation and food service activities are
highly informal in the state. All other LQ values are less than one indicating
104 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

lesser concentration of informal employment than that of the nation.


SECTION-II
2.2 Conditions of Employment:
Condition of employment indicates that workers engaged in different
industry groups do get the benefits of livelihood like paid leave, written job
contract, social security etc. or not. Unorganised sector workers like electricians,
barbers, cobblers, trunk manufacturers, handicraft workers, rickshaw pullers
and thela pullers do not avail those benefits as organised workers avail.
Moreover, they do not have any written contract with the employers where
exploitation from employer side has been very common.
Table 2.1
Percentage of employees who had no written job for different status in
employment in Urban Assam
61st Round (2004-2005) 68th Round (2011-2012)
Status of Employment Male Female Person Male Female Person
Regular wage/ Salaried (RWS) 44.6 40.9 43.9 50.4 39.4 48.7
Casual Labour (CL) 93.2 62.1 85.9 85.1 76.9 84.2
All Workers 54.7 46.3 53.1 57.8 45.2 56.0

Source: Computed from NSS 61st and 68th round


2.2.1 Written Job Contract:
Table 2.1 and shows the magnitude of workers of usual status who do
not have any written agreement with the employers in non agricultural and
AGEGC enterprises in different status in urban Assam. In urban Assam, farm
sector workers are usually not much in numbers and NSSO do not provide
condition of employment separately for AGEGC and non agricultural sector.
56 per cent of the Regular Wage Salaried (RWS) do not have written contract
with employer in urban Assam and male percentage has been found to be
more than that of female counterpart in both rounds of NSS. It indicates more
possibility of male informal workers to be there in the occupations where written
job contract is very less than that of females. The employees with no written
job contract have been found to be far higher for the casual labourers.
2.2.3 Paid Leave:
Paid leave means a type of leave during sickness and maternity. Table
2.2 shows that there is an accelerating trend of workers who are not eligible
for paid leave in both rounds of NSS. More than 46.1 per cent of the workers
in AGEGC and non agriculture sector are not eligible for paid leave in Urban
Assam. This figures again more (52.1%) for female workers, who have always
been the worst sufferers in informal employment (Unni & Rani, 2003). Data
shows that 86.6 per cent of the casual labourers are outside the coverage of
paid leave in their respective employment avenues. However, over the two
rounds of NSS, the number of informal sector workers without paid leave has
increased from 39.6 per cent to 46.1 per cent.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 105

Table 2.2
Percentage of Employees not Eligible for Paid Leave in Urban Assam
Gender 61st Round 68th Round
RWS Casual All Workers RWS Casual All Workers
Labour Labour
Male 22.3 96.7 37.8 34.2 85.1 45.1
Female 29.9 96.8 47.0 43.6 98.7 52.1
Person 23.7 96.7 39.6 35.7 86.6 46.1

Source: Same as Table 2.1


2.2.4 Social Security Social Security in India usually takes three different
forms Preventive, promotional and protective. But, it is not adequate in the
informal sector as compared to formal sector. In urban Assam, among
employees in AGEGC and non-agriculture sectors who were not eligible for
any social security benefit was as high as 41.4 percent. It was 45.7 percent in
previous round. The declining percentage is encouraging meaning that
incremental number of workers has been getting social security benefit over
the two rounds.
Table 2.3
Percentage of Employees not Eligible for Any Social Security Benefit
in Urban Assam
Gender 61st Round 68th Round
RWS Casual All RWS Casual Labour All Workers
Labour Workers
Male 29.7 96.7 43.7 29.9 84.3 41.5
Female 39.4 96.8 54.0 30.6 98.7 41.2
Person 31.5 96.7 45.7 30.0 85.9 41.4

Source: Same as Table 2.1, Note: RWS = Regular Wage / Salaried


There are more female workers who are entitled to social security than
male workers. This is because the deceleration of percentage in two periods is
more for (54.0 per cent to 41.2 per cent) females than for males (43.7 per cent
to 41.5 Per cent). But, this is just the reverse in case of casual labourers (96.8
per cent to 98.7 per cent). There has been incremental growth of female workers
without social security in casual category. In a nutshell, more casual labourers
(both male and female) are outside the coverage of social security than that of
RWS workers in urban informal sector of Assam. Thus service sector led
growth of urban Assam is lacking in many respects of gainful employment
opportunities revealed in the various rounds of NSS.
3.1 In Lieu of Conclusion
Assam being a place with diverse community and frequent turmoil in
politics has a labour market with poor condition of employment especially in
urban informal sector. The state has been ranked 14 among 21 major states in
Employment Situation Index (ESI) in 2011-2012 (ILE Report, 2014). Given
the stagnancy in industrial performance, growing labour force especially in
106 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

urban area is engaged in tertiary sector. Of the entire tertiary sector, hotel and
restaurants, real estate, renting and business activities and arts, entertainment
and recreation together constitute of informal workers. Industrial sector mostly
reflected in unorganised manufacturing has marginally accelerated according
to the Economic Survey of Assam in 2014-15. Information, communication,
entertainment and unregistered manufacturing have been generating output
only with informal sector workers in the state.
Most of the promotional measures as a part of social security have been
taken up by the nation and the state too for betterment of conditions of informal
sector. For example, as a part of Unorganised Sector Social Security Bill 2008,
the state of Assam has built Assam Social Welfare Board. The state labour
department has raised 100 crore cess from the builders to implement welfare
schemes for construction workers of the state under Assam Building and Other
Construction Workers Welfare Board (ABOCWWB) in 2007. Further, Atal
Pension Yojona (APY), Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), Smart Card to
unorganised workers, Swabalamban scheme are some of the steps taken by
the state government in association with the union government are encouraging
trend. However, there are some deficits in the process either for identification
(since most of the informal workers are casual and lack of employer-employee
relationship) or lack of technological support in trickling down the schemes to
the beneficiaries. Therefore, state interventions with the help of NGOs, labour
officials and researchers is the urgent need of the hour in sustaining better
livelihood for the growing urban informal labour force.
======================
References :
1. Bare, C. and Brown, T. (2006). Location Quotients: A Tool for Comparing
Regional Industry Compositions, Incontext, March, p.1
2. Bose.A.N (1980) Informal Sector: Problems and Prospects, Nagarlok, Vol.12,
No.2, p. 24
3. Government of Assam (2015) Economic Survey of Assam 2014-15, Directorate
of Economics and Statistics, Planning and Development Department, Govt of
Assam, Guwahati, p.1-3
4. Govt. of Assam (2011) Employment Policy of Assam, Department of Labour,
January, Guwahati, Assam, p.51
5. Harriss, John (1982) Character of an Urban Economy: Small Scale Production
and Labour Markets in Coimbatore, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XVII,
No.23 and 24, pp. 945-54,993-1002
6. Institute for Human Development (2014). India labour and Employment Report
2014 Workers in the Era of Globalisation, Academic Foundation and Institute
of Human Development, New Delhi, P-7
7. Majumdar Ashima & Borbora Saundarjya (2013) Social Security and the
Informal Sector in India A Review, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLVIII,
No.42, pp. 69-72.
8. Majumdar Ashima (2012). Urban Informal Manufacturing Sector in Assam:
An analysis of growth dynamics, productivity, linkage and Social Security, an
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 107

unpublished PhD thesis of Department of HSS, IIT, Guwahati, Assam, p.xvii


9. National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (2009) The
Challenge of Employment in India: An Informal Economy Perspective, NCEUS,
New Delhi
10. NSSO (2014) Informal Sector and Condition of Employment in India, 2011-
2012, NSS 68th Round (July 2011-June 2012), NSS Report No. 557, NSSO,
New Delhi, pp. 28-31, 115-117, 137-146

11. NSSO, (2007) Informal Sector and Conditions of Employment in India, 2004-
2005, NSS 61th Round (July 2004-June 2005), NSS Report No. 519, NSSO,
New Delhi, pp. 87-89, 106-115
12. Papola T.S (1981). Urban Informal Sector in a Developing Economy, Vikas,
New Delhi
13. Romatet, Emmanuel, (1983) Calcuttas Informal Sector: Theory and Reality,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XVIII, No.20, Dec.10, pp.2115-28
14. Unni Jeemol (2006). Informal Employment: Estimating Home-based and Street-
based Workers in India, Expert Group on Informal Sector Statistics (Delhi Group),
NCEUS, New Delhi
15. Unni Jeemol and Rani Uma (2003) Employment and Income in the Informal
Economy in Jhabvala R, Sudarshan R.M and Unni Jeemol (ed.), Informal
Economy Centre Stage New Structures of Employment Sage Publications, Pp.
54-55
Footnotes:
1. Activity Codes 11, 12 and 21 is classified as Self Employed in NIC 2-digit
classification which indicates Own account worker, as employer and as helper
respectively.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Developing the Human Capital for Entrepreneurship


Growth in Assam
* Rubi Das
==========================================================
Abstract- Entrepreneurship is one of the most important input in the economic
growth and development of a country . Entrepreneurship growth and successes
would help the development of economy in Assam but entrepreneurship would
never grow unless there is a deliberate effort on the development and reinvigorate
its human capital through education, training, cultural dynamism, commitment,
social interaction, leadership, attitudinal training, orientation etc.
Entrepreneurship can grow and be sustained only when human capital is properly
harnessed, nurtured and developed. This article studies the relationship between
human capital and entrepreneurship and its effects on economic development.
Suggestions are also made on the way forward for entrepreneurship successes.
==========================================================
Keywords: Human Capital, Entrepreneurship, Education, Culture.

Introduction: Assam, the land of blue hills and red river, blessed with abundant
supply of natural resources, yet she remains one of the industrially backward
states of the nation. Neglecting human capital and entrepreneurship is one of
the prime reason for this state of affairs. Any nation or state that fails to take
proper care of its human capital should equally say goodbye to having
entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship (Obisi and Anyim, 2012). Ogbonifoh et al
(1999) explains that entrepreneurship is an essential variable in any nations
economic growth and development. It is therefore true that the growth of a
nation or state depends on whether it has entrepreneurs or encourage
entrepreneur and the successes of entrepreneurship depends largely on whether
the human capital is being deliberately harnessed and nurtured . Entrepreneurs
are born because of inherent traits within them, which can be called human
capital, but entrepreneurs are also made because of environmental issues (both
harsh as well as kind), which go to fire up the individual to become creative,
innovative and committed towards realizing ones goals.
The Concept of Human Capital: Human capital is defined in the Oxford
English Dictionary as the skills the labour force possesses and is regarded as
a resource or asset. It encompasses the notion that there are investments in
people (e.g., education, training, health) and that these investments increase
===========================
* Icon Commerce College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 109

an individuals productivity.
Human capital is a collection of traits all the knowledge, talents, skills, abilities,
experience, intelligence, training, judgment, and wisdom possessed individually
and collectively by individuals in a population. These resources are the total
capacity of the people that represents a form of wealth which can be directed
to accomplish the goals of the nation or state or a portion thereof.
In this article, it is tried to show that any nation or state, which fails to take care
of its human capital, will not be possible to develop entrepreneurs and growth
of entrepreneurship. It is when a nation takes care of its human capital that the
human capital can develop and metamorphose into entrepreneurs so that
entrepreneurship would manifest, grow and flourish and the nation or state
would in turn develop economically.
The Concept of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneur is an individual who takes
initiative to bring new ideas , innovation starts a new venture and act as a
catalytic agent for a new project which creates wealth. Thus he becomes a
change agent for socio-economic development. Entrepreneurship is a process,
which involves the efforts of an individual in identifying viable opportunities
in a business environment and obtaining and managing the resources needed
to exploit those opportunities. It is cleared from the above that entrepreneurs
should have internal and external behavioural qualities to succeed. All these
qualities are not easy to come by but can be developed through deliberate
human capital formation and development strategies, which will highlight in
this article.
Hill and McGowan (1999) stated that entrepreneurship to grow,
entrepreneurs need a combination of inherent personal traits, a propensity for
creativity and innovation, a good understanding of relevant environmental
issues, and appropriate managerial traits; after all, entrepreneurship is concerned
with change and the entrepreneur is the major agent of change. Our contention
is that all these traits which is required for entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship
to succeed can be acquired and developed through a well contrived human
capital formation and development strategies which are discussed below .
Education: Entrepreneurs need knowledge and knowledge can be acquired
through education. On the other hand Education is one of the system through
which we can develop the human capital by expanding their knowledge. Becker
(1964) stated that persons with higher education and skilled earn more than
others in developed countries which have paid particular attention to the role
of investment in human capital through education.
Obisi (2003) noted that through education, specific human capital abilities
would be acquired which may include. - Acquisition of conceptual knowledge,
development of capabilities and development of skills, attitudes and orientation,
which entrepreneurs would need to grow.
Assam should invest strategically on educations so that its human capital
can be developed which would in turn become entrepreneurs. As per 2011
110 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

census, literacy rate in Assam is 73.18% and 1.5 lakh educated youth is jobless.
This is only due to current education system prevailing in the state. The
Government should implement new course curriculum to generate skilled
labour force and to develop the concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship
among the students. The government can play an important role in developing
the standard of education that serves all classes of society and prepares them
with skills at every level of the value chain. This will require a step-change
both in the quality of education and access to it at all levels- primary, secondary
and higher education. According to Young lee, the more the populaces are
highly educated, the more the entrepreneurs available in the country, which
would reduce unemployment as more job, would be created. Well structural
education curriculum and system would enable people to develops abilities
such as - decision making abilities, forecasting and prediction abilities and
develop openness, and enterprise (risk taking).
Development of Dynamic Culture:
Unless and until Assam develops an entrepreneurship culture it would
continue to suffer the problem of low economic growth. It is seen that Assam
is an agrarian economy but unfortunately, a cultivators son, after receiving
University degree, does not want to follow his fathers profession. He would
prefer to rot in cities and towns, in search of clerical employment. This has
made unemployment problem more acute and far more distressing.
Entrepreneurship culture in recent times has become an important area of
study. It is considered to be a solution for creating wealth, generating
employment and providing new and better goods and services. Developing
the spirit of entrepreneurship among the young has become vital because the
government cannot provide jobs for all kinds of unemployed youth and the
corporate sector will provide limited jobs only to the best and that too without
any job security. Entrepreneurship is simply finding new opportunities to do
things better and then seizing the opportunity. With changes like globalization,
deregulation, open competition and technological change taking place, our
society is becoming an entrepreneurial society. In an entrepreneurial society,
individuals face a tremendous challenge . Entrepreneurship is all about ones
readiness to take risks, create structure and handle a business in a competitive
world that is dynamic. In this entrepreneurship culture there is always a way
and scope of innovation and because of this scope it has the ability to change
the world.
According to Armstrong (1996) culture can work for a people by creating
an environment, which is conducive to performance improvement and
management of change. This is important so that the old and ineffective way
of doing things would give way to better and effective ways of doing things.
He further says that culture can also work against a people by erecting barriers,
which prevent the attainment of missions and visions of the people. Culture
can assist in galvanizing entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, as it would convey
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 111

a sense of identity and unity of purpose to members of the society. Our culture
should be such that would condone and sustain entrepreneurial skills by
consistently influencing behaviour, attitudes and beliefs .Entrepreneurship
culture is still in the bud in the state of Assam. But it has got high potentials to
develop the entrepreneurship culture with its peculiar features like rich natural
resources, wonderful scenic beauty, fertile soil, etc. if the people imbibe
entrepreneurial culture with conducive in the society so as to create more
entrepreneurs that create wealth rather than creating mere business men and
women. Our values and norms, which make up a culture of people, must be
such that encourage enterprise (risk taking), equal opportunity, competitive
ability, innovation, commitment, faith and creativity. The truth is that a culture
that is static and fails to embrace positive attitudes, values and norms would
not harness and nurture entrepreneurship capable of uplifting Assams economy.
Therefore culture should be dynamic rather than static.
Skill development and Training Programmes:
Skill Development aims to create skilled and job ready workforce by
equipping it with employable skills. Here traditional trades and employment
skilling in informal sector is being youths great extent which continues to
develop the entrepreneurs professionally as well as personally. With the
introduction of various programmes 68%of the rural youth are able to realize
the need for diversification and develop a Can Do attitude in them. One of
the most important factors of individual performance is enhancing leadership
skills. Through the training programme provided by the SIRD, it is found that
almost all the participants are able to enhance their leadership qualities.
Leadership is the ability to influence others to achieve a goal. From the
establishment and to nourishing an enterprise, one entrepreneur has to face
many obstacles and a good leader can take right decision in time.
Social Influences:
Social Influences Indeed social contacts can go a long way in uplifting
entrepreneurship through family, work groups etc. Family should encourage
each other to be creative, innovative and provide support when needed. There
are many youths of Assam with a lot of ideas but no support from families and
society. With family support, social contacts and individual perseverance people
would be encouraged to become entrepreneurs and embrace entrepreneurship.
The way forward for sustaining entrepreneurship through human capital
development
Government at all level must have deliberate policies to create a conducive
environment for entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship to flourish.
Entrepreneurship programmes should be developed across disciplines,
not just in business schools or economic departments.
Implementation of awareness campaigns and extracurricular activities
including visits to businesses at the secondary and vocational school
levels is suggested. It will improve the attitudes towards entrepreneurship,
112 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

and encourage young people to consider entrepreneurship as a potential


career path.
There should be exchange programmes between the academic and
industries which will assist in fostering the spirit of togetherness among
the planners, producers and the employers of labour.
Vocational training should be adequately catered for since it is obvious
that not every person will have access to formal education
Social education and reworking of education curriculum at all level by
making entrepreneurship compulsory from primary to tertiary level would
help encourage entrepreneurship.
Building infrastructures that would support entrepreneurs realize their
dreams.
Provision of training centres and financial support to help entrepreneurs.
Families should support their wards to embrace entrepreneurship and
become entrepreneurs.
Rewards and recognition to entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship should
be encouraged.
Individuals should not allow handicaps and barriers to undermine their
entrepreneurial spirit. They should remain focused and unyielding in
realizing their entrepreneurship dream.
Conclusion: Entrepreneurship can grow and be sustained only when the human
capital is properly harnessed, nurtured and developed. Without a well-developed
human capital, entrepreneurship would remain a distant dream. In Assam
human capital development are still open to a lot of initiatives. The state should
not neglect education, poor infrastructure, little social amenities, lack of
visionary leadership, little or no recognition for entrepreneurs, lack of support
for people with ideas which are the major barriers for entrepreneurship growth.
Unless urgent and drastic steps are taken to remove all the issues highlighted
above, entrepreneurship would not grow and Assam economy would remain
in doldrums.
======================
References :
1. Chris Obisi and Francis C. Anyim (2012) DEVELOPING THE HUMAN
CAPITAL FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP CHALLENGES AND SUCCESSES.
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences.
March 2012, Vol. 2, No. 3.
2. Igba, Elizabeth Chimezie, Igba Daniel Igba and Nwoge Monday HUMAN
CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT: A WAY FORWARD FOR ENTREPRENEURIAL
GROWTH IN EBONYI STATE. British Journal of Education Vol.3, No.9,
pp.88-102, September 2015.
3. Dr. Sanjeeb Hazarika Skill Development for Rural Entrepreneurship: A study
on State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD), Assam . ISSN VOLUME 3 I
ISSUE 3 I JULY SEPT. 2016.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

The Adivasis of Assam: The bitter sweet experience


* Aditya Gogoi
==========================================================
Abstract- Owing to its soil species suited for tea cultivation, Assam remained
top once again in the ranking of tea production among Indian states for the
current year, though the tea production of this premier state of the North-Eastern
Region (NER) has been marginally reduced from 610.97 million kg in 2014 to
606.80 million kg in 2015 (Tea Board of India). Besides being played the role of
prim a-donna of Assam's infant like industrial configuration; the adivasis or
popularly known as the tea-tribe among Assamese people, engaged in every tea
estate of different parts of the state, makes the state more colourful in all the
perspective; whether be it demographic or social or cultural or in terms of
economic contribution. The matter of real concern is that even after occupying
18%-20% share of Assam's total population, the adivasis has been remained
one of the most neglected and exploited segment of the society regarding various
political and administrative chain of unwillingness. The paper tries to keep a
bird view on the socio-economic constraints through which the adivasis of Assam
has been surviving long to achieve a respectable position in the mainstream
society.
=========================================================
Keywords: tea production, Assam, adivasis
Introduction: It was the year of 1823. The conflict between British and Burma
was on a high note and the Yandabo treaty was yet to be signed. Robert Bruce,
a merchant cum soldier, was imprisoned by the Burmese while visiting
Rongpur. Later he was released. In a cold evening of that very year, the
Singphow chief Bessa Gum furnished Bruce with some plants. The history of
Assam was waiting to be re-written. The whole saga took a new dimension
when Robert Bruce gave those plants to his brother C.A. Bruce who later
handed them over to Robert Scott. Under the able supervision of Scott, these
plants were successfully tasted in Botanical garden of then Calcutta. Discovery
of tea in Assam prompted the East India Company to establish a robust tea
market worldwide, which China hitherto monopolized. Robert Bruce was
appointed as the first superintendent of the government tea forest of Assam,
who in 1837 sent 46 boxes of Assam tea to the tea committee.
Maniram Dewan of Assam, who provided services under the Assam
===========================
*
114 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Company of British until his resignation in 1841, is considered as the first


Indian to start planting tea with his two gardens in Jorhat district. After the
pioneering effort of Maniram Dewan, numbers of Assamese person came
forward with vested interest in tea plantation. The golden journey of Assam
tea has been continuing without any interruption since its inception till date, as
it is very evident from the Assams first position in all India ranking with
almost 55% share of the nations total tea production. (North East Inquiry,
2014).
However the story of the tea tribe or adivasis, who works in the tea
gardens, is not as smooth and sweet as that growth of tea gardens and tea
production. Though the total population of tea tribe is counted as 50-60 lakhs,
in real sense not more than 20-25 lakhs people work as tea labourer, both as
temporarily and permanently, in 850 tea estates of the states (Assam Tea Welfare
Board, 2015). The adivasis of Assam has always been facing tough days almost
in all the spheres of the society. Here tea labourer hardly gets an opportunity to
sustain a comfortable life let alone a rosy one. Although a handful of personalities
from the adivasis start acquiring prominent place in various fields in Assam,
the fact remains that the community is still among the most neglected and
exploited. The workers devoid of basic life amenities live in impoverishment
and often die of labour obscurity. Most workers are exploited by their owners
in every possible way. Crummy standard of living, wide spread poverty,
pervasive illiteracy and poor health condition are immutable obstructions to
their lives.
Review of literature: According to Hazarika (2012), the glory behind the tea
cultivation, plucking and processing of tea leaves may not be equal to the
exploitation and untold hardship of the tea labourers. These workers rarely get
opportunities to live with facilities provided other them by their planters/owners
or companies. Poor standard of living, lack of education and health facilities
are major obstacles for them.
DasGupta (2013) found three prime reasons behind the exploitation of
adivasis in Assam. The so-called current neo-liberal environment of commerce
and business, strive for ensuring higher and higher export earnings and free
hand to the capitalists pave the way to the planters or owners of the tea estates
to exploit the labourers for longer days without compensating their due
payments.
Baishya (2016) mentioned that thought the Plantation Labourer Act, 1951
made it mandatory for each tea estate to establish at least one primary school
and one well equipped health care unit, the guidelines are hardly seem to
followed by the estate authority.
Topno (2006) expressed his concern about the nexus between the tea
garden authority and labour unions of the respective gardens. Most of the
leaders of these unions are either corrupt or managed by the owners and the
fundamental problems remain unsolved for years.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 115

Objectives of the study: The motive of writing of this paper is primarily


driven by two basic objectives as mentioned below:
1) To make an assessment of the current socio-economic condition of the
adivasis of Assam
2) To stress highlight on the possible ways forward while improving the
living condition of the community.
Data source and Methodology: For data, faith has been placed on secondary
sources like Tea Board of India, Tea Board of Assam, Assam Tea Welfare
Board, North-East Enquiry, Statistical Handbook of Assam, etc. along with
various research journals, newspapers and internet.
The paper is a descriptive one.
Limitations of the study: In this paper an attempt has been made to cover all
the vital issues relating to socio-economic aspect of tea tribe of Assam. But
during this endeavour, numerous difficulties at all the stages have been
encountered. Since the study is made on secondary sources of data, it is pertinent
to mention that it may not hold good in all the tea growing areas of Assam
regarding their different socio-political experiences. But still it will provide a
helpful insight to general conception about the structure, configuration and
socio-economic status of the adivasis of the state.
Short history of adivasis or the tea tribe in Assam: The common belief
about the adivasis or the tea tribe in Assam is simultaneously uttered with the
history of establishment of tea gardens in the state. Though a few historians
claimed to have sufficient evidence to prove a link between adivasis and Assam
even before setting up the tea gardens, the claim is yet to be verified among
the history laureates of the state. The descendants of the current adivasis in
Assam were brought to Assam as slaves by the East India Company and later
by the British rulers and entrepreneurs since the date back of 1840s through
1920s, mostly from Santhal Pargana of Bihar and Chotanagpur of Odissa. The
first batch of adivasis was recruited to Assam in 1841, out of which none
could survive owing to wide spread famine and diseases. But as tea plantation
grew faster and more lands were occupied for establishment of new tea gardens,
scarcity of labourer complied the Assam Tea Company to encourage influx of
lakhs of adivasis to Assam for working as tea labourer. As time passed away,
the adivasis started assimilating to the flow of Assamese culture formulating a
more powerful and enriched ethnic integration. This adivasis later constituted
the tea tribe of the region. However the discontent is still in the highlight as
most of them prefer to identify themselves as adivasis rather than tea tribal
and they found a very strong logic behind their argument. After all, no one
would like call themselves along with the name of a commercial product.
The tragic facts:
Educational status: Education level, many a time mixed with the term literacy
rate, always has the highest impact on the evolution and reformation of any
civic society, as it plays the role of prima donna while constructing human
116 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

resources for the economy. Existence of widespread illiteracy across all the
segments of the adivasis of Assam carries the fundamental paradoxical factor
behind all their struggling. The 15th round of Census conducted by Central
Statistical Organization in 2011 clearly shows a very much dismal status of
the tea tribe in terms of educational attainment.
Table 1: Literacy rate of Assam and adivasis of Assam in 2011
Year All Assam literacy rate Adivasis literacy rate
2011 73.18% 54.67%
Source: Economic survey of Assam, 2012
The above table clearly shows that the adivasis of Assam are lagging far
behind than their other counterparts of the state. The overall literacy rate of
Assam during the last census was 73.18%, while that of the tea tribe for the
same was much lower at 54.67%.
Gross Enrolment Ratio of the adivasis also vastly differs from that of overall
rate of the state, as it is clearly visible from the following table.
Table:2
All Assam rate (in %) Rate of the Adivasis (in %)
Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) 84.97 67.04
Children never enrolled 19.26 21.35
Currently not enrolled 33.37 52
Source: Economic Survey of Assam, 2012
Exploitation by their owners and dearth of scope outside compelled the
tea workers not to send their children to even primary schools. They prefer to
keep their children at home to look after their younger siblings when they go to
work in the garden. Even these children are sometimes forced to work as
casual labour in their respective gardens. As corruption is becoming a genetic
disease, the scream of these sufferers remains unheard by the government or
other so-called intellectual section of the society in most of the cases.
Economic status: Fulfilling the basic requirements is the primary objective
of any individual. Every individual is driven by the motive of invisible hand
which is referred to the intention of maximizing his/her own interest. The
portrait of economic status of the adivasis is found to be most pathetic among
all the communities of Assam. The tea garden workers receive much lesser
amount in terms of daily wage than the daily wage in the market. In 2013,
though the state government set the minimum daily wage at Rs. 169 for the tea
plantation workers, it is still not that sufficient as the market wage rate is
roaring up to near Rs. 250 per day. As the prices of basic necessities have
general tendency to spark always high, the tea workers find it cumbersome to
maintain at least a makeshift standard of living. Engagement in formal banking
system or social security measure like life insurance policy still seems to be
pipe dream for most of the workers as it is very evident from the existence of
only 5 lakhs bank account among 25 lakhs of tea workers and only one active
Automated Teller Machine (ATM) in 850 tea gardens in the state (Amar Asom,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 117

December, 2016). Adding salt to the wound, the tea labourers do not enjoy
the status of Below Poverty Line (BPL) families even after having a disgusting
and deplorable living condition. This is due to fact that the tea garden Coolie
lines are regarded as neither urban nor rural and hence always stays outside
the facility of ration card cum identification card reservation for BPL families
(Bhattacharjee and Nirmolia, 2015).
Health Status: The constitution of India gives its citizen the right to health as
a fundamental right. In the words of World Health Organization (WHO), health
can be defined as the status of complete physical, mental and social well-
being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. A good health means
better ability to produce a quality outcome of any productive activity.
Providing a manageable health care facility, which was one of the
mandates of Plantation Labour Act of 1956, in the tea gardens has been an
uphill task for the government. Although there exists Primary Health Center
(PHC) in most of the tea gardens of the state, but these are not that sufficient
and well-equipped to cater the entire medical needs of the workers. According
to the study made by Assam Tea Welfare Board, as much as 90% of the tea
garden population is not acquainted with the scheme and policies launched by
government for their health up gradation. Medhi and Hazarika (2016) reveals
the fact that prevalence of stunting was 47.4% and 51.9% among boys and
girls respectively relative to NCHS reference, which reduced to almost 30%
while Indian reference data was used. Prevalence of thinness was higher among
boys (59.5%) than the girls (41.3%) counterparts. Almost three quarters of
the women who die in the tea gardens during pregnancy and childbirth are of
age between 20 and 30 years, indicating that they are having children earlier
and more frequently than the national average, which in turn suggests that
they lack contraception.
But a recent survey conducted by Assam Branch of Indian Tea Association
(ABITA) across 277 gardens of Assam brings at least a ray of hope to some
extent. According to the report published by ABITA, Maternal Mortality Rate
(MMR) and Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) are 227 and 18 respectively in these
tea gardens as against 301 and 55 for the same in the state as a whole. But
mammoth success has yet to be achieved by the Ministry of Health and Welfare
through integrated co-operation with the involvement of other local communities
and NGOs, with the objective to transform the adivasis into a sustainable
community
Environmental status: Dismal environment around the tea garden habitats
is another disastrous disturbance. Lack of proper drainage system along the
coolie line, habit of workers to keep their domestic animals even within their
overcrowded campus, inability to access healthy water and sanitation facility,
lack of personal interest of the workers towards hygiene and many other factors
make the environment in almost all the tea gardens more fragile and much
deplorable. The facilities provided by the management are not supposed to be
118 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

matched to the minimum standards set by the government programmes


normally implemented in the tea gardens. Lenient forest department allows
the tea garden workers to damage the adjoining forest covers of the tea gardens
in order to clear land for cultivation. Each of these factors, complemented by
the others, hit the sustainability issue of the development agenda of the
government.
Social status: As mentioned earlier couple of times, adivasis can be considered
as the only genuine preliterate section of the society. Their sufferings hardly
acquire due emphasis on the works of many so-called mainstream intellectuals.
Although numbers of personalities, like Samir Tanti, Kamal Kumar Tanti etc.
to name a few, started acquiring significant position through various professions,
general Assamese people still regard adivasis as a community that cannot be
given the social status as of their own.
The tasks at hand: Prolific ramification of initiatives taken by government,
NGOs or even by individuals can be the core of upward movement through
the ladder of development. Encouragement to the tea garden workers to provide
ample support to anything that is going to help them is the supplementary task
for all the stakeholders. Management often tries to exploit these workers with
all guns blazing. Therefore control and regulation of management by
government law can become another vital instrument.
Since education plays the captain role in enhancing quality thinking of
any cast, community or society, no progress can be expected from the adivasis
without making them educated up to a certain minimum standard.
Establishment of better facilitated schools under the supervision of strictly
regulated management in the tea gardens should be given foremost priority
for this perspective.
All the efforts may go in vain without changing the mentality of the
mainstream Assamese people. All those, who refuse to render same social
position and respect to the adivasis, are only helping in constructing a feudal
society prevailed during the medieval period. Such mentality is expected to be
abandoned in order to achieve an integrated and better organized society with
lesser conflict.
The bottom line: The fact is that the adivasis of Assam is caught up to the
cross road. Breaking the shackle of identity politics seems to be daunting
undertaking for them. But the appeal from the time is that the moment has
fully arrived for them to introduce themselves as a premier community of the
state. Multiple hurdles may come across the path of prosperity, but there is no
logic to become hopeless and helpless while doing anything extra-ordinary for
the upliftment of the socio-economic status of the tea tribe or adivasis of Assam.
======================
References :
1. Assam Branch of Indian Tea Association (ABITA), Guwahati, Assam, India.
2. Assam Tea Welfare Board, Assam, India.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 119

3. Baishya, D. (2016): History of tea industry and status of tea garden workers of
Assam, International Journal for Applied Research (IJAR), 2(4).
4. Bhattacharjee, A. and Nirmolia, L.P. (2015): Role of tea industry in rural
development of Assam: Issues and challenges in respect of human resource,
Annual conference of proceeding, XVI, January, Jorhat, Assam, India.
5. Das Gupta, A. (2013): The socio-economic and health challenge of labour in
the tea gardens of Assam, Indian Institute of Plantation Management, Bangalore,
India.
6. Hazarika, K. (2012): Tea tribe is lagging behind in the process of urbanization,
International journal for trends in Economic Management and Technology
(IJTEMT), Vol. 1, Issue 6, Silchar, Assam, India.
7. Medhi, G.K., Hazarika, A.N. (2016): Nutritional status of adolescent among
tea garden workers, Regional Medical Research Centre, N.E. Region (ICMR),
Dibrugarh, Assam, India
8. North-East Enquiry, 2014
9. Statistical Handbook of Assam (2012): Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
Government of Assam, Guwahati-28, Assam, India.
10. Tea Board of India, Kolkata, India.
11. Topno, W. (2006): Struggles of adivasis of Assam.
12. http://www.actionaid.org/India/what-we-do/assam/right-tea-garden-workers-
assam.
13. Shodhganga: inflibnet.ac.in>bit stream.
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Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Business Ethics and its Application and Issues in


Indian Business Environment
* Harmeet Singh
==========================================================
Abstract- Business ethics also known as corporate ethics relates to the principles
and social values that guide the conduct and operations of any economic entity.
It reflects the degree to which a business is perceived to have followed their
core ethical values in the light of its environment and ethical considerations.
The paper will address the concept of business ethics and its applicability in the
Indian economy. Although the decisions and code of conduct of business houses
are made independently but there still exists friction in their functioning due to
various factors available in the environment. Due to technological development
and information technology customers have become very sensitive to ethical
issues and as such business houses adopt many ways in order to honour the
moral obligations. The paper attempts to highlight the need of ethics to become
an organizational priority and align it with the mission, vision, values, strategies
and goals of organization. However the effective fulfilling of ethical behavior is
also affected by the socio-economic condition in a country. Though expected by
many but in its due course of application it needs to be studied carefully and
take the decisions after considering various options. Thus, in order to shape its
future and for its long run business organizations will only be benefitted with a
strong ethical base or system which will perpetuate outside the organization.
==========================================================
Keywords: Ethics, Business, Code of conduct, India
Part-I : This part of the paper contains an Introduction to Business ethics, the
objectives of the paper and the methodology.
Business Ethics, an introduction: Business Ethics in simple are rules that
guide the activities of a business entity. Ethics have a key influence on business
for its smooth running and effective operations. Through ethics the quality in
every aspect enhances and the environment in which it operates benefits as
ethical activity is valuable in itself. Existence of ethics in business guides the
corporate strategies, decisions, policies and its culture. Ethics affects not only
the business but also various others which have certain interest on the business.
Such are the employees, customers, competitors, other business entities, social
leaders, media, shareholders etc. The ethical principles can help guide
organisations at times of recruitment, customer relations, compliance of
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Don Bosco College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 121

environmental and safety laws, attitude to whistle blowers, selling and marketing
activities and many other occasions whereby it becomes a useful tool to earn
reputation and acceptance in the economy. Business Ethics brings in
conjunctions with virtuous motives with duty, obligation, goodwill and prudence
which help in maintaining balance between goals of an entity and the welfare
of the society. To bring about a better ethical environment, organisations should
chalk out programmes for bringing accountability towards ethics. This can be
introduced by means of commitment of top management which will assure
integration of ethical policies with the management for setting its standards.
Ethical standards need to be clearly understood and proper training in this
regard can be useful.
Objectives: The paper is an effort to study the ethical scenario in the Indian
economy and the various issues in relation to its environment. Thus, two
objectives were sought for a better understanding, which are as follows:
1. To identify the applicability of business ethics in Indian economy.
2. To study the various sources of ethical issues in the Indian business
environment.
Methodology: The paper has been carried out with the help of secondary
sources including paper published in various websites and with reference to a
few books.
Part-II
Section A: This part of the paper attempts for an in-depth study of the
Objectives No. 1.
The Indian business organisations in order to comply with the international
standards have also opted for the forming of ethical policies and guidelines in
its codes which exhibit their contributions towards the social, economic and
political environment in India. These ethical issues were brought into picture
because of increasing demand for such practices throughout the country and
also due to the various scams that took place due its inadequateness. Although,
now-a-days, almost all organisations have made it mandatory to include Ethical
Codes into its management. Thus, few companies were selected for this purpose
to highlight the major contributions towards society and the stakeholders by
companies or organisations in order to maintain a good image.
An analysis has been made on five companies which have included Ethical
Code into their management system. They are:
1. Oil India Limited (OIL):
Date of Inclusion in its reports: 1st Jan 2006
Applicability in matters of:
Complying with Disclosures Requirements
Prohibit insider trading
Representation in Public only by specialised officer to maintain the
confidentiality of stakeholders
Compliance with regulatory laws of the land
122 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Maintaining healthy, safety and environmental norms


Protect assets of the company
Consequences of non-compliance of codes
2. Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL):
Came into effect from the 1st February, 2015
Applicability in matters of:
Contribution to society and human well being- their rights, culture and
diversity
Honesty, trustworthy and practice integrity
Honour Confidentiality
Transparency in Practice
Vision of safety standards and customer care
Mission of developing the region
Objectives of HR training and environment protection
Values of fairness towards all employees
Compliance of laws
Avoid inducements
Protecting company assets
Consequences for violations
3. Tata Global Beverages Limited (TGBL):
Adopted by the Board at its meeting on 9th August 2016
Applicability in matters of:
Long term value for stakeholders
Integrity
Social Obligations
Environment Protection
Regulatory Compliance
Corporate governance
Establishing an Ethics compliance Committee
Corporate Sustainability Reporting Committee for monitoring and
guiding policies that has been put to effect
4. Assam Company India Limited (ACIL):
Adopted in the 33rd Annual General Meeting of the Company, 2010
Applicability in matters of:
Fair dealings
Preventing insider trading
Compliance with laws and regulations
Company assets protection
Health and safety standards
Anti-corruption laws
No political contributions
Environment protection
Confidentiality of information
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 123

Equity
Review of codes

5. Hindustan Paper Corporation Limited (HPCL):


A pproved by the Board at its 205th Meeting and effective from April,
2011
Applicability in matters of:
Social Contributions towards women empowerment, flood relief, sports
promotion, employment generation, infrastructure development, health
care and family welfare.
Vocational programme, safe drinking water provision for persons residing
in the vicinity of the Mills, Free Medical & Eye Camps, infrastructure
development in nearby villages like constructing/repairing roads, school
buildings, street lighting etc
Interpretation: The above companies selected have been analysed as per the
lines of its code of conduct in its business operation. The companies selected
highlighted the various codes regarding the conduct of business over its activities
showing concern over society and economic welfare.
1. The companies mainly stressed over the disclosure requirements in annual
reports complying with the international standards.
2. Codes were also based on the prevention of insider trading which lays
down the specific details regarding protection of investors.
3. Policies regarding the safety norms and standards for health and
environment. These policies show the quality production and maintaining
the activities as per the requirements of the government.
4. Abiding by the legal regulations of the country, hence its respect for the
country in which it is doing business.
5. Avoiding inducements of any sort. This means that there should not be
any contributions made towards any political party or providing any gifts
or bribes for the purpose of undertaking any business activities.
6. Fairness towards all its employees for the purpose of creating an
environment of equal working opportunities irrespective of any gender.
7. Maintain confidentiality of information of the stakeholders and disclosure
only after the approval of a specific committee for such purposes.
8. Appraisal committee and review of the codes after certain point of time.
Also actions in case of non compliance of norms or codes by any
employee or officer.
9. To protect the assets of the company while in use for business purpose.
10. Stress for corporate governance and ethics compliance committee also
for maintaining the international standards and government rules.
Section B: This part of the paper attempts for an in-depth study of the
Objectives No.2.
The various sources of ethical issues in the Indian business can be
124 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

summed up as follows:
Corruption
Customer Relations
Employee Relations
Industrial/ Corporate/ Economic Espionage or Competitive Intelligence
Environment Relations
Corruption- One of the major aspect in todays world that challenges
the ethical mindset of the general public or even for the corporate houses is
corruption. Corruption has been a common phenomena right from paying a
peon for setting an appointment to paying to a high level government official
for getting various plans passed and also offering some amount of money to
political parties, candidates holding influential positions, which they may use
in order to support the organization. It has become a mindset that in order to
get some work done some sort of bribery or kickbacks has to be made. In the
context of Corruption, Bribery and Corporate Frauds it can be mentioned
that in 2012 and 2013, India was ranked 94 among 176 countries on the
Corruption Perception Index (CPI) and the Financial Stability Report of the
RBI revealed that losses of over INR 4,448 crores (approx. USD 8.2 billion)
to Indian banks from financial frauds in 2012 were the highest ever.
Customer Relations- For any company to succeed it must and have to
earn the respect and confidence of their customers. And for the present day
managers one of the ethical problems faced is customer relation. To start with-
the use of overstated prices shown towards spending up huge amounts for
promotion of products, use of inflated value added service tax, using dubious
practices of packaging, promoting and selling of products into the market,
launching products that are below standards but are advertised in such a way
that it to be superior in quality, hiding of facts related to customer safety all
includes the unethical practices done by some business units. There are also
situations in which the organizations violate not only the ethical business
principles, but also the fundamental rights of the consumers even though various
legislations exist for their protection.
Employee Relations- It is another important aspect upon which the
managers make decisions. The corporate houses have to handle the tough job
to create an environment of respect and trust, by respecting the rights of the
personnel that are given to them. The employees will start to step in into their
tasks, for the success of the organization, only if they are give a certain status
at their workplace along with liberty, intimacy, and a fair salary. It is very
common to a organisation while carrying on its activities in a developing country
that it may start to ignore the basic and fundamental rights of the employees by
exploiting them and not providing remuneration as per standards as they also
know that they would work at even less price in order to survive. But it has
long term consequences that may lead to labour unrests, strikes, lockouts etc.
Speaking about consequences here is an event from Maruti Udyog Limited at
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 125

Manesar that was plagued by labour unrest at its Manesar plant for over a year
during the year 2011-12. The labour unrest resulted in halting production.
According to a leading newspaper, the series of workers strikes at the plant
caused a production loss of 83,000 cars which in terms of money was INR
2,500 crore1.
Industrial/ Corporate/ Economic Espionage or Competitive
Intelligence- Corporate espionage also called as the Competitive Intelligence
is an unconventional and also an illegal method which corporations use in
order to go ahead of their competitors. It involves executives spying on their
rivals as to gain economic as well as technological advantage. According to a
report of Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India
(ASSOCHAM) over 35% of companies that are operating in various sectors
across India are involved in corporate espionage to gain advantage over their
company believe that companies that have strong labour unions hire spying
agencies to monitor the union leaders to ensure that they were not being paid
by competitors and even politicians in order to create problems in the future.
Environment Relations- A business has to operate in a particular
environment and therefore its responsibility towards it is very important.
Relation with the environment is a important source of ethical issue for almost
all business houses. The business organizations must respect the national
legislation regarding environment protection. Protecting the natural environment
must be considered a major social task for sustainability of humankind especially
by representatives in the business world. In spite of all this they are tempted to
break the rules, as the costs required to obey the rules often considerably reduce
the companies profits and competitive capacity. Many times it is seen that
famous names in the business were involved in pollution scandals which caused
long-term effects in the reputation and the image perceived by the consumers.
A few years back Coca-Cola India faced serious criticism from activists and
environmental experts who charged it with depleting groundwater resources
in the areas in which its bottling plants were located which thereby affected
the livelihood of the farmers, dumping toxic and hazardous waste materials
near its bottling facilities and discharging waste water into the agricultural
lands of farmers. Notwithstanding the criticism Coca-Cola India continued to
introduce various initiatives such as rain water harvesting, restoring
groundwater resources and adopting sustainable packaging and recycling and
serving the communities where it operated. Coca-Cola planned to become
water neutral in India by 2009 as a part of its global strategy.2
Conclusion: Business ethics thus in a nutshell can be regarded as an important
constituent of companies and business firms. Following ethical principles one
remains in the safe side and earn good reputation and an image. Ethics brings
in:
Adoption of ethics in the organizations will create a positive image in
the mind of the public and will regard it with confidence and tempted to support
126 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

its actions.
Corporate ethics and social responsibility are related to good financial
performance as more profitable firms can better afford to invest in ethics and
social responsibility initiatives, and these initiatives in turn lead to more profits.
The consequences of unethical behaviour of a company may harm the company
in a process which may involve series of events such as - wasting the company
wealth to hide the unethical behaviour, affecting the reputation of the
organization, losing various clients and business partners and finally leading
to the shutting down of the company.
======================
References :
1. Ethics and conduct of business, Boatright, John,R., Patra, Bibhu, P., Pearson
Education incorporation, Delhi, 6th Edition., 2011
2. Business Ethics and corporate Governance, Bhatia, S.K., Deep & Deep
publication Pvt. Ltd., 2004, New Delhi.
3. Global Journal of Management and Business Studies. Volume 3, Number 10
(2013), Research India Publications.
4. Prasad S. N., Case Study: Labour Unrest at Manesar Plant of Maruti Suzuki in
2012, A Perspective
5. http://www.nrl.co.in/1Code-of-conduct1, Accessed on 21 June, 2017
6. http://www.tataglobalbeverages.com/investors/governance/policies, Accessed on
23 June, 2017
7. http://www.assamco.com/codeofconduct.html, Accessed on 23 June, 2017
8. www.hindpaper.in/profile/vigilance.htm, Accessed on 23 June, 2017
9. www.hindpaper.in/images/pdf/CSR_Policy.pdf, Accessed on 23 June, 2017
10. http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/India-ranks-76-in-Corruption-
Perception-Index/article14022729.ece, Accessed on 24 June, 2017.
11. Kaur H and Aggarwal G, A Paradox on Corporate Social Responsibility - Case
Study on Coca Cola, International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences,
Volume 2, Issue 9, Sep 2012
12. http://www.assocham.org/newsdetail.php?id=4837, Accessed on 24 June, 2017
Footnotes:
1. Prasad S. N., Case Study: Labour Unrest at Manesar Plant of Maruti Suzuki in
2012, A Perspective.
2. Kaur H and Aggarwal G, A Paradox on Corporate Social Responsibility - Case
Study on Coca Cola, International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences,
Volume 2, Issue 9, Sep 2012
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

A Study on Operational Performance of Assam


Financial Corporation (AFC)
* Prashanta Sharma
** Mallika Das
==========================================================
Abstract- The Assam Financial Corporation has been set up in 1954 under the
State Financial Corporation Act 1951 in order to provide the financial assistance
to various small and medium scale industrial units for the industrial development
of northeastern region. It has been engaged in this field for more than 50 years,
therefore in order to know their contribution towards the industrial development
of this region, the researcher have decided to analyze and evaluate the
operational performance of AFC through this research paper. The paper is
based on the performance of AFC for the last 5 years from 2008-2009 to 2012-
2013 and the secondary data have been collected which is analyzed by using
various financial ratios and comparing the amount of loan sanctioned and
disbursed during the period of the study.
==========================================================
Keywords: AFC, operational performance, financial ratios.

Introduction: The Northeastern region of India has always been considered


as the industrially backward region due to the various difficulties as lack of
infrastructure and acute financial crisis. In order to boost up the industrial
development of northeastern part and the other states of India, the Government
of India had decided to set up the various financial institutions in various states
under the State Financial Corporation Act 1951. The Assam Financial
Corporation is a leading financial institution of north east region established
under this act for promoting the industrial and economic development of the
region.
Historical background of AFC: Assam Financial Corporation (AFC) was
established in 19th April 1954 under the Central Act, viz., The State Financial
Corporations Act, 1951. The fundamental objective of setting up of the
corporation was promoting and developing small scale and medium scale
industries in northeast with a special focus on spreading industrial culture in
the rural, semi-urban and backward areas of the region. AFC is playing a
pivotal role in providing credit support to the small and medium scale industries
===========================
* Associate professor, Gauhati University
** Gauhati University
128 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

over more than five decades and contributed to the industrial as well as economic
development of the region. Soon after liberalization, the corporation had to
face major challenges in terms of restraining growth of NPAs, fund constraints
and generating profits due to prudential norms followed for assets classification.
The corporation has been constantly endeavoring to push upward their
performances in order to enhance more financial support to the small and
medium scale sector.
Need of the study:
The Assam Financial Corporation has been played a major role in
developing the industrial infrastructure of the northeastern region since its
inception. But the industrial development of Assam and other northeastern
part is not boosted up as per the expectation, due to which the economic
development of the region is also hampered. In order to examine how the
financial institution like AFC is performing in this regard, their operation and
financial performance is needed to be analyzed.
Review of Literature: The following are the related literature review found
essential for the purpose of the study.
Sana kumar Ashish, Kanrar Susanta (2009) in their paper, Role of State
Financial Corporations in the Development of Micro, Small and Medium
Enterprises: A Study With Special Reference to West Bengal Financial
Corporation(WBFC) mentioned that state financial corporations have been
established to provide various types of financial and non-financial assistance
in MSME sectors. Through this paper an attempt had been made to study the
role of WBFC in the development of MSME sectors.
Reddy Viswanatha (2013) in the study Operational and Financial
Performance of Andhra Pradesh State Financial Corporation (APSFC): An
Overview has made an attempt to examine the numbers of applications
sanctioned with applied amount, flow of assistance in terms of sanctions and
disbursements, flow of assistance to the small-scale sector, Recovery
performance of the Corporation, Cost of borrowings and return on average
assets of APSFC.
Baldaniya, Bhavesh J. (2015) in the paper titled- An analytical study of
financial performance of state financial corporation with special reference
to Gujarat state financial corporation mentioned that since the last few years,
the corporation was passing through financial difficulty. Due to very heavy
NPA, commercial banks had stopped advancing fresh loans since October
2001. The capital structure of the GSFC was neither much sound, nor had
stable position in the long run. The researcher also mentioned that for any
reform to succeed, the infrastructure should be strengthened and so also the
man power deployed in it.
Aneja Ranjan, Makkar Anita (2015) in their study on Performance
Analysis of SFCS in India: A Case Study of Haryana Financial Corporation
evaluated the financial and operational performance of Haryana Financial
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 129

Corporation (HFC) and concluded that HFC is inefficient from almost all sides
of its functioning. HFC also failed to provide sanctions and disbursements
rationally to develop the state of Haryana properly.
Objectives of the study: The main aim of the present study is to know the
performance of the AFC during the 5 years from 2008-09 to 2012-13 in the
field of providing the financial assistance to the small and medium scale
industries of Assam and other northeastern states of India. Following are the
two basic objectives undertaken for the study.
1. To analyse the financial performance of AFC and
2. To evaluate the operational performance of AFC
Limitation of the study: The area of the present study is kept limited for a
period of only 5 years i.e. from 2008-09 to 2012-13due to shortage of time.
Research Methodology: The present study is a descriptive and analytical
form of research. The secondary source of data has been collected for a period
of 5 years (i.e. from 2008-09 to 2012-13) for the purpose of the study. The
collected data has been analysed by using various financial ratios in order to
assess the operational and financial performance of AFC.
Findings of the study: The financial and operational performance of AFC
has been judged with help of the following financial ratios and by comparing
the total loan sanctioned and disbursed.
Financial Performance
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Current Ratio 9.70 9.32 3.21 5.77 6.09
Absolute Liquid Ratio 3.64 8.37 2.86 4.93 5.56
Debt-Equity Ratio 0 0.66 0.66 0.54 2.03
Fixed Assets Ratio 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02
Return on Investment 14% 8% 5.7% 4.2% 0.74%
Earnings Per Share 16.3 9.3 6.6 4.9 2.8

Source: annual report of AFC from 2008-09 to 2012-13


The Financial performance of AFC reveals the following facts
1. The current ratio in the years 2008-09 and 2009-10 showed very high
value but it was reduced from 9.70 in 2008-09 to 6.09 in 2012-13.
2. The absolute liquid ratio was increasing year by year except in the year
2010-11 where it was slightly decreased.
3. The liquidity position of AFC as a whole showed that a greater amount
of idle money blocked in working capital which may restrict the generation
of revenue.
4. The solvency position of AFC was increasing during the period of the
study although in the year 2008-09 the debt-equity ratio was nil due to
non availability of long term debts.
5. The return on investment was decreasing from year by year which shows
the earning capacity of AFC was in declining trend.
6. The earnings per share were gradually declining year after year which
130 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

indicates the shareholders are not earning a good amount from their
investment.
Operational performance
Rs. in crores
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Loan sanctioned 3.18 7.28 14.39 30.39 23.19
Loan disbursed 3.51 3.78 7.05 10.12 20.69
Loan recovery 8.11 6.91 6.35 6.26 7.82

Source: budget reports of AFC


The following facts are pointed out from the operational performance
1. The amount of loan sanctioned by AFC was increasing year after year. It
was noticed that the amount of loan disbursed was always lesser than
the loan amount sanctioned except in 2008-09.
2. The loan recovery was gradually decreasing from 2008-09 to 2011-12
and after that it was raised again in 2012-13.
Recommendations
The following few recommendations are made from the above findings-
1. The high liquidity position of AFC should be controlled first in order to
reduce the surplus money blocked up in the form of working capital.
2. AFC should improve their financial performance as it was seen that the
return on their investment was reducing continuously during the period
of the study.
3. AFC should enhance the amount of loan disbursed against loan sanctioned
so that the overall performance can be improved.
4. They should also focus on the amount of loan recovery position which
was decreasing year after year that may affect their operational
performance.
======================
References :
1. Daimari Dr. Prasen (2008), Economic Development of Assam: problems and
prospects.
2. Arthshastra: Indian journal of economics and research, volume 4, issue 1, 2015
3. www.afconline.gov.in
4. www.iosrjournals.org
5. www.indianjournaloffinance.co.in
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Microfinance: Promoting Women Entrepreneurial and


Empowerment in Northeastern States
* Jayashree Bordoloi
==========================================================
Abstract- The main objective of the paper is to highlight the women entrepreneurs
in northeastern states and to what extend microfinance is promoting micro
entrepreneurship among women. The Study intends to examine the role of
microfinance through financial inclusion in promoting Women micro
entrepreneurship in Northeastern states of India.The movement of
entrepreneurship promotion and development in the past few decades has gone
a long way in Northeast India. And it is believed that the efforts involved both
governments and financial Institutions have made a favorableimpact on women
entrepreneurship. Efforts have also been made to analyze the role of microfinance
through SHGs in promotion of micro entrepreneurship. In case of research
methodology data are collected from secondary sources. Since, finance is one
of the major problems especially among the rural women;microfinance is an
important tool towards the entrepreneurial empowerment of women in resource
perspective. And those women who are access and involved with microfinance
loan are more likely to engage with micro entrepreneurial activities. In general
the study found that Microfinance have contributed to the improvement of the
economic and social conditions of the population and women in particular by
the policy of promotion of the saving and credit which helps this population to
carry out income generating activities and self-sufficiency.
==========================================================
Keywords: women entrepreneurship, microfinance, SHG, Micro enterprise, Self-
sufficiency
Introduction: Microfinance which has its roots in microcredit implies provision
of financial services to poor and low-income individuals who have no access
to formal financial services, in most cases because they are unable to provide
sufficient collateral. Access to services such as, credit, venture capital and
insurance is provided on a micro-scale enabling participation of those with
severely limited financial means in small businesses. It improvespoor household
income and economic security, build assets and reduce vulnerability. It also
generates demand for othergoods and stimulates local economies. Women
workers throughout the world contribute to the economic growth and
sustainable livelihoods of their families and communities. Microfinance helps
===========================
* Sonapur College
132 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

empower women from poor households to make this contribution. Microfinance


the provision of financial services to the poor in a sustainable manner
utilizes credit, savings and other products such as microrisk. Women particularly
benefit from microfinance as many microfinance institutions (MFIs) target
female clients.
Objectives:
To understand the role of microfinance in promoting micro
entrepreneurship in Northeastern states of India.
To identify the problems of micro and women entrepreneurs in
Northeastern states of India.
To highlight the issue of financial inclusion in the NE region.
Methodology:The study is based on secondary data which are gathered from
secondary sources about microfinance and financial inclusion through the
published articles, Journals, reports and websites of NABARD. Graphs and
Tables are used for explanation and interpretation.
Microfinance in India and Particular in Northeast: In India too microfinance
(beginning with microcredit) took roots around 18 years ago with the linkage-
banking program started by NABARD in 1992. Through the SHG-bank linkage
program, a mechanism of the poor getting very small loans was unveiled.
Though Northeast is among the least evolved microfinance markets in India,
in the last few years the sector has been growing at a brisk pace, particularly
supported by initiatives of state government, NABARD, Banks and many
emerging local as well as multi state micro finance institutions. Some successful
microfinance institutions in Northeast are BANDHAN, RGVN(northeast)
microfinance limited and NABARD. RGVN which focuses mainly on
northeastern states, as on 31st March, 2014 had portfolio of Rs. 125 crore in its
107 branches spread across the five northeastern states benefitting 166,623
numbers of clients. BANDHAN in 13 years has travelled a wide geography
of 22 States and Union Territories with special focus on eastern and
underdeveloped states of North East.
Mudra Yojana in Ne India: Recently, MUDRA Yojana was launched by our
Honorable PM Narendra Modi on 8th April 2015 as per Department of Financial
services, Ministry of Finance. The scheme purports to develop and refinance
the micro business units. Under this scheme, micro and small business sectors
will be able to avail loan to the tune of Rs 10 lakhs from all scheduled Urban
Co-operative Banks/ State Co-operative Banks, Public or private Scheduled
commercial banks and regional rural banks (RRB) alongwth Microfinance
Institutions like NFBCs, societies an trusts. All such loans would be termed as
Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency (MUDRA) loans. No
collateral security would be required for those availing MUDRA loan. In Assam,
the government has taken initiatives to bring to the people and the youth of the
region to the benefits of MUDRA Yojana. The Guwahati based MFI operates
in the NE states of Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 133

Nagaland and RGVN (NE) Microfinance Ltd, a Guwahati based MFI has
operations in the north eastern states of Assam, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Nagaland
and Arunachal Pradesh and has been tentatively shortlisted as Microfinance
institution.
Region wise performance of Banks and MFIs (Amount disbursed)

CATEGORY NORTH WEST EAST SOUTH TOTAL


SHISU 12037.22 14581.37 14491.25 20917.85 62027.69
KISHOR 9612.64 7494.02 7200.78 16765.84 41073.28
TARUN 9041.88 7171.12 4224.92 9415.84 29853.76
TOTAL 30691.74 29246.51 25916.95 47099.53 132954.7
% SHARE 23% 22% 19% 35% 100%
Avg amount 45 38 29 41 38
disbursed in
Rs

Source: Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojna.


The data indicates that the MFI has contributed substantially to the
number of accounts financed under the Yojana. However, due to the smaller
amount disbursed by them, it has steeply brought down the per capita average
loan under the programme, with an average of 38000/account, as against 79000/
account in case of bank accounts. But MFIs have contributed substantially in
the financing of Shishu category loans.
Linkage Between Microfinance and Micro Entrepreneurship:
Microfinance and micro entrepreneurship are inter-linked which is
recognized by many experts in their research field.Entrepreneurship is the
active process of recognizing an economic demand in an economy and supplying
the factors of production (land, labour and capital) to satisfy the demand usually
to generate a profit. High levels of poverty combined with slow economic
growth in the formal sector have forced a large part of the developing worlds
population into self-employment and informal activities. But this is not
necessarily negative, micro enterprises contribute significantly to economic
growth Social stability and equity. The sector is one of the most important
vehicles through which low-income people can escape poverty with limited
skills and education to compete for formal sector jobs, these men and women
find economic opportunities in micro-enterprises as business owners and
employees. In most developing countries, micro-enterprises and small scale
enterprises account for the majority of firms and large share of employment.
Microenterprise:
A small business that employs a small number of employees. A
microenterprise will usually operate with fewer than 10 people and is started
with a small amount of capital. Most microenterprises specialize in providing
goods or services for their local areas.Microenterprises serve a vital purpose
in improving the quality of life for people in developing countries. Microfinance
seeks to help microenterprises by loaning small amounts of capital to these
134 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

businesses. This allows poor individuals or families to start their own


businesses, earn income and benefit their communities.
Women Entrepreneur, Empowerment and SHGs:
From the 1980s, microfinance can be seen as window of hope from
developmental agencies who largely trail Economic development. Such zeal
originates from the notion that microfinance can provide for killing two birds
with one stone. It can facilitate poverty reduction through improved quality
of life on one hand, and womens empowerment on the other. Microfinance
often targets women exclusively in some cases because 70% of worlds poor
are women, in addition traditionally women have been disadvantaged in access
to credit and other financial services. Therefore, to cover up this gap and for
achieving the goal of women empowerment government was widely accepted
the SHG bank linkage Microfinance programme in 2005-2006.
SHG is an association of people belonging to similar socio-economic
characteristic, residing in same locality. The SHGs are voluntary associations
of 10 to 20 people formed to attain some common goals. These are groups,
which have similar social identity, heritage, caste or traditional occupations,
and come together for a common cause and manage resources for the benefit
of the group members. Various evaluation studies were made to identify the
impact of microfinance and SHGs on women empowerment in the country
while in northeastern states studies have been concentrated in Assam relative
to other northeastern states. After joining the SHGs poor people particularly
women have not only increase their income but also improved their standard
of living by performing various economic activities independently(Diganta
kumar Das and Bipul Baruah). Microfinance has been useful in helping poor
people in establishing their microenterprise but failed to help them in expansion
of their activity due to higher interest rate limitation in SHG model but in spite
of that SHG bank linkage model has come out as better approach in promoting
microenterprise (Nisha Bharti).
Over one third of Northeasts low income households will have access
to financial services in a dignified and transparent manner by 2015(Northeast
Microfinance Vision 2015). Based on 2001 census data it has been estimated
that there are close to 3.5 million low income households in the Northeast. The
total supply of credit through SHG bank linkage and direct microfinance is
around Rs.5.8 million considering average loan outstanding of Rs.8000 in
Assam and Rs.10000 in rest of the states. It found that around 684,968
households have access to financial services. The table below shows the break
up.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 135

Table 1:
Current Status of Financial Inclusion
Table 1: Current Status of Financial Inclusion
States No. of low Current credit Average Estimated Fin. Included
income supply in loans size, no. of households
households* northeast,Rs Rs financially as % of total
bn households low income
HH
Assam 2,545,631 4.04 8,000 505,000 20%
Manipur 148,212 0.37 10,000 37,000 25%
Meghalaya 168,879 0.11 10,000 11,000 7%
Tripura 291,082 0.47 10,000 47,000 16%
Nagaland 109,825 0.09 10,000 9,000 8%
Arunachal 127,114 0.23 10,000 23,000 18%
Mizoram 37,755 0.14 10,000 14,000 37%
Sikkim** 18,815 0.39 10,000 39,000 207%
Total 3,447,313 5.84 685,000 19.8%
*Source: Census,2001
**Data suggests that Sikkim has more credit supply than estimated demand
Sikkim is a clear outlier amongst the Northeastern states, with a developed
financial system where credit supply exceeds demand. Elsewhere, the extent
of financial inclusion varies from a minimal 7% in Meghalaya to a respectable
37% in Mizoram average approximately 19%. Clearly some states require far
more support.
Women Enterprises and SSI unit managed by women in NER of India:
Table-2:
Participation of Women in Management/ Ownership in SSI sector
Name of State No of No of women No of female Percentage of
/UTs Enterprises enterprises Employee both female
managed by registered and employment in
women unregistered the total
sector. employment of
the state / UTs
Arunachal pradesh 131 150 446 12.10
Assam 11189 11757 26065 6.08
Manipur 9168 10745 23338 17.06
Meghalaya 3658 3580 8803 13.42
Mizoram 3076 3700 6824 27.46
Nagaland 207 179 3211 5.65
Sikkim 30 98 221 16.72
Tripura 631 863 7619 13.38
All India 995141 1063721 3317496 13.31
Source: Compiled from Ministry of MSME , Govt of India, 2010
It is observed from Table 2 that Assam represents more women owned
enterprises and also engaged a large number of women employees in both
registered and unregistered sector in comparison to other NER States. However,
in Assam the percentage of female employment in total employment is
comparatively lower (6.08) than other NER states. Among, NER Mizoram
recorded highest percentage of female employee in the total employment.
136 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Table-3
Participation of women in SSI sector (as on march, 2008)
States Unregistered Women Registered Women
enterprises enterprises enterprises enterprises
managed by managed by
women women
Sikkim 0 53 30 45
Arunachal 80 87 51 63
Pradesh
Nagaland 130 122 77 57
Manipur 8434 9980 734 765
Mizoram 2346 3007 730 693
Tripura 578 784 53 79
Meghalaya 3018 2929 640 651
Assam 9241 9716 1948 2041
NER 23827 22678 4263 4394
All India 880780 926187 114361 137534
Source: Compiled from NEC databank, 2008.
It is observed that the percentage of women in SSI units (unregistered
sector) in the NER is only 2.7%. Further, among the NER states, Manipur
represents the highest percentage of women participation in SSI in both
registered and unregistered sector.
Problems of women and microentrepreneurship in NER of India: The
SHG Bank linkage is still not properly understood by Northern states in
comparison to other parts of India due to lack of financial literacy. Therefore,
challenge in Northeast currently not of achieving rapid growth but of creating
conducive atmosphere and awareness about financial services. In Assam and
to some extent Manipur one has to focus on growth and increasing outreach,
however in other NER states the focus presently has to be on establishing
institutions and creating credit culture. Existing microfinance institutions are
facing several constraints due to limited funding, inappropriate legal firms,
high operational costs and moderate human resource quality. The region due
to its socio-political and geographic peculiarities faces several constraints. The
region lacks infrastructure, lacks connectivity with rest of the country, is very
diverse culturallyhas been facing problem of insurgency over past several
decades. Besides, due to illiteracy of women, They are not aware of micro
entrepreneurship which can improve their minimum standard of living. In rural
areas, women are socially less exposed, economically hard pressed and basically
they are engaged more with household chores.
Findings: From the study it is found that microfinance institutions like
BANDHAN, NABARD, RGVN and SHG-Bank linkage programme has
played a major role in covering the entire Northeastern region in financial
inclusion. Among the Northeastern states, in Assam and Manipur SHGs and
microfinance institutions hs played a major role in financial inclusion resulting
in greater extent of micro and women entrepreneurship in comparison to other
Northeastern states. In addition, among the entire Northeastern states, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 137

is more access to microfinance relative to other Northeastern states resulting


in female participation in total employment is less. This shows that due to lack
of employment opportunities women have shifted to entrepreneurship and
informal sector small business. It indicates a positive growth and improves in
standard of living of women including their family. As a whole microfinance
as a tool of women micro entrepreneurship has been successful not only helping
poor women but also improved their standard of living and sel confidence.
SHGs, NGOs and microfinance institutions have provided women the economic
independence without being dependent on their men folks by engaging them
in various economic activities which has provided to be economically profitable.
Conclusion: Micro credit is promoting the small scale business and micro
enterprises and its major aim is to alleviate poverty by income generating
activities among women and poor. The availability of micro credit through
microfinance has not only resulted in higher incomes of women but also
developed better leadership skills, awareness regarding health and education
aspects, communication skills and improved financial literacy among women
in North Easter region of India. If a women is empowered through
entrepreneurship her competencies towards decision making surely influence
her family or neighbors behavior and spill-over effects will create a social
multiplier. Although microfinance has made a tremendous effort in poverty
alleviation, improving the standard of living of poo and women empowerment
but still it needs to go a long way since Northeast is the most financial excluded
region in the country. The banking and finance infrastructure is very weak,
with Northeast lagging in almost all critical banking outreach indicators.
======================
References :
1. Sanjay kanti Das (2012), Entrepreneurship through Microfinance in Northeast
India: A Comprehensive Review of Existing. Information Management and
business review.
2. Gour Krishna Saha (2014), Microfinance and women Empowerment in Rural
Assam.Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary studies.
3. Rahul Saharia (2015), Impact of self- Help groups on economic Empowerment
of women in Assam. International Research Journal of interdisciplinary and
Multidisciplinary studies.
4. Microfinance Vision 2015 Northest Region, India.
5. Small changes, Big changes: Women and Microfinance- InternationalLabor
Office.
6. NABARD Report.
7. Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojna Report.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Growth, Inequality and Poverty: Interconnections


* Krishna Dey
** Mouchumi Das
==========================================================
Abstract- It can be said that growth inequality and poverty are interconnected
with each others. The relationship between Growth and Poverty is based on
Employment opportunity. Creating more jobs can reduce poverty to a some
extent. Regarding inequality, proper distribution of wealth and new policies
will be essential. The total income of the society should also have to increased
in this regard. In the prior researches it has been shown that higher growth rate
reduces poverty. But it has also found that the effect of economic growth on
changes in poverty has either diminished or remained same over time, e.g., the
1980s economic expansion in the U.S. had no affect on poverty (Lonnie Kent
Stevans 2008). Various poverty alleviation program should introduce which
should involves improving the living conditions of people who are already poor,
aid particularly in medical and scientific areas is essential in providing better
lives. Again by increasing the minimum wage rate, expanding the earned income
tax, building assets for working classes, by investing in education etc program
can reduce inequality which will finally lead to the growth of the country.
==========================================================
I. Introduction: Despite of the fact that developing countries are growing
at a impressive rate in the last 25 years, its benefits have only reached the poor
to a very limited degree. In the most of the developing countries, the income of
the poor increases much lower than the average. Although various policies has
been taken, little has been done to estimate the possibilities for significantly
reducing worldwide poverty within a period of time. The discipline of economic
development starts with the problem of backwardness and international poverty.
In other words the development gap between countries of the world is increasing
i.e. the rich countries are getting richer while the poor countries are getting
poorer. In this respect ,the Lorenz curve and Gini-coefficient like measures
are employed to measure international inequalities. So the study of connection
among growth, inequality and poverty will help to understand the present
scenario of the country. The world economy grows constantly but the growth
pattern can differ over time and among countries (Almas Heshmati 2004).
The real challenge to established a development strategy for reducing poverty
===========================
* Vidyaniketan High School,
** M.Phil. Reasearch Scholar, Gauhati University
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 139

lies in the interactions between distribution and growth, and not in relationship
between poverty and inequality on one hand and poverty and growth on the
other, which are essentially arithmetic(Francois Bourguignon, 2004) .
II. Growth , Inequality and Poverty
Growth: Economic growth is the increase in the inflation adjusted market
value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. The world
economy or global economy is the economy of the world, considered as the
international exchange of goods and services that is expressed in monetary
units of account (money). Global growth in 2016 is estimated at a post-crisis
low of 2.3% and is projected to rise to 2.7% in 2017(IMF World outlook). The
economy of India is the seventh largest economy in the world measured by
nominal GDP and the third largest by purchasing power parity. India has
emerged as the fastest growing major economy in the world as per the Central
Statistics Organization (CSO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Numerous foreign companies are setting up their facilities in India on account
of various government initiatives like Make in India and Digital India. Mr.
Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India, has launched the Make in India
initiative with an aim to boost the manufacturing sector of India economy.
Digital India initiative, which focuses on three core components: creation of
digital infrastructure, delivering services digitally and to increase the digital
literacy. In the paper some major states are selected to show the growth rate
across the India since 1980 to 2009.
Growth rate across the major states in India:
State-wise , Period-wise Compound Growth Rate of NSDP
States 1980-81 to 1989-90 1990-91 to 1999-00 2000-01 to2008-09
Growth Rate Rank Growth Rate Rank Growth Rate Rank
Gujarat 4.8 12 8.0 2 10.6 1
Goa 5.2 9 8.4 1 8.9 3
Uttaranchal - 2.6 24 8.9 4
Kerala 2.6 22 5.9 12 8.5 5
Orissa 4.8 14 4.0 22 8.4 6
Nagaland 7.5 2 5.6 13 8.4 7
Jharkhand - - 6.5 8 8.4 8
Maharashtra 5.6 5 6.9 5 8.4 9
Bihar 4.7 16 2.0 27 7.2 15
Rajasthan 5.9 4 6.5 7 6.5 18
Meghalaya 4.4 19 5.5 15 5.8 21
Assam 3.3 21 2.2 26 5.3 25
Punjab 5.4 6 4.4 21 5.1 26
Madhya Pradesh 3.6 20 5.6 14 4.5 27
Source; Annual Report of RBI
140 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

In the diagram it is seen that the growth rate of Gujarat has increased at
a tremendous rate and success to secure the first position according to 2009
report and the growth of Gujarat is 10.6%. Accordingly the growth of other
states also increases at an increasing and decreasing rate except Madhya
Pradesh which growth rate decreases from 5.6% in 1999 to 4.5% in 2009.
Inequality: Inequality may be one of the great challenges to global development
and communitys social fabric. The story of inequality in many developed
countries, including the U.S. and U.K. is more sobering. A report by the Paris-
based Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
showed that while globally, household income increased overall by 1.7%yearly,
not all income levels have benefited equally. The worlds bottom earners
income grew annually by only 1.4% in the last 30 years, while the top earners
grew by 2%. According to Thomas Piketty (2016), there is a huge gap in
data about income tax in India. As of November 2016, India is second most
unequal country in the world. The richest 1% of Indias own 58.4% of wealth.
The richest 10% of the Indian own 80.75 of the wealth. This trend is going in
the upward direction every year, which means the rich are getting richer and
the poor are getting poorer.
Indias Gini Coefficient Report: In India, National Sample Survey does not
collect data on income, because people deliberately dont tell their income
when asked during data collection. The Gini coefficients cited are from NSSO
is based on consumption expenditure rather. This simply implies that the
inequality in distribution of income will be more than inequality in distribution
of expenditure. The only organization that provides income distribution data is
National Council Of Applied Economics Research. (NCAER), through the
National Survey of Household Income and expenditure (NSHIE). Last time,
the NSHIE was done in 2004-05. NSHIE showed a Gini coefficient of 0.466
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 141

in 2004-05. In recent time, the people Research on Indias Consumption


Economy (PRICE) survey called ICE (Indias Consumer Economy) had come
up a Gini coefficient with income distribution data at 0.386. If we take both
data correct, we can say that income inequality has declined in last 10 Years.
Poverty: Poverty in India is a historical reality. From late 19th century through
early 20th century, under British colonial rule, poverty in India intensified,
peaking in 1920s. Famines and diseases killed millions each time. After Indian
gained its independence in 1947, mass death from famines were prevented.
Rapid economic growth since 1991, has led to sharp reduction in extreme
poverty in India. However those above over the line live a fragile economic
life. According to the World Blank methodology, the world had 872.3 million
people living below the poverty line of which 179.6 million people lived in
India. In other words India with 17.5% of total worlds population had 20.6%
share of worlds poorest in 2011.
The following table shows the poverty rate of major states of India
Name of States 1983 1993-94 2004-05

GUJRAT 32.79 24.52 16.8


GOA 18.9 14.92 13.8
UTTARKHAND 39.6
KERALA 40.42 25.43 15
ORISSA 65.29 48.56 46.4
NAGALAND 39.25 37.92 19
JHARKHAND 40.3
MAHARASHTRA 43.44 36.86 30.7
BIHAR 62.22 54.96 41.4
RAJASTHAN 34.46 27.41 22.1
MEGHALAYA 38.81 37.92 18.5
ASSAM 40.46 40.86 19.7
PUNJAB 16.18 11.77 8.4
MADHYA PRADESH 49.78 42.52 38.3

Figure-2
142 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

In the diagram it is seen that Punjab ranks highest in case of lower rate of
poverty and Orissa has the highest rate of people below poverty line.
III. Interconnections amongst Growth, Inequality and Poverty:
Inequality and Poverty are global problems. In contains of poverty it can be
said that poverty rates are related to the overall health of the economy. As the
economy grows, so do opportunities for employment and income growth.
Stronger labor markets and higher income levels tend to help those families
living in poverty move above the poverty threshold. According to national
data, poverty rates have moved somewhat together with changes in the
unemployment rate since 1959, and in opposite directions in relation to changes
in inflation adjusted median income. That is, lower poverty rate is coincide
with decreases in unemployment or increases in income. Some studies have
suggested that the relationship between changes in the poverty rate and
macroeconomic variables have weakened over time. An October 2005 National
Bureau of Economic Research working paper by, Hilary Hoynes, Marianne
Page and Ann Stevens(2005) suggested that while the link has weakened,
changes in the unemployment rate and median wages nevertheless predict
changes in the poverty rate rather well.
In regards of inequality and poverty all countries are affected. But one
that is particularly receiving attention is India. India is one of the largest growing
economies in the world. During the last two decades India has only been able
to maintain a sustained growth, but also reducing poverty steadily. However,
neither growth nor poverty reduction is uniform across regions of India. The
non-uniformity might be either due to economic growth, or due to different
aspects of poverty reducing impact of that growth. So the relationship amongst
growth, inequality and poverty can be said as that promoting economic growth,
increases total income in society, creating more jobs and income which could
be distributed.
Economic growth will reduce income inequality and poverty if
1. Wages of the lowest paid rise faster than the average wage.
2. Government benefits such as unemployment benefits, sickness benefits
and pensions are increased in line with average wages.
3. Minimum wages increases in the line with average earnings.
IV. Poverty Growth Inequality Triangle Model: In developmental
economics, the Poverty-Growth-Inequality Triangle also called the Growth
inequality poverty Triangle or GIP Triangle refers to the idea that a countrys
change in poverty can be fully determined by its change in income growth and
income inequality. According to the model, a development strategy must then
also be based on income growth and income inequality. The Poverty Growth
Inequality Triangle model was created by Francois Bourguignon, the former
Chief Economist (2003-2007) of the World Bank.
Bourguignon defines the model by following diagram-
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 143

Absolute poverty and poverty


reduction

Distribution and distributional Aggregate income level and


changes growth

Bourguignon defines the changes in poverty as a function of growth,


distribution and changes in distribution:
Poverty = F (growth, distribution, distribution).
This equation assumes small changes in poverty. Bourguignon uses per
capita income and gini index as the measure of inequality in his model.
Conclusion: Thus it can be said that growth inequality and poverty are
interconnected with each others. The relationship between Growth and Poverty
is based on Employment opportunity. Creating more jobs can reduce poverty
to a some extent. Regarding inequality, proper distribution of wealth and new
policies will be essential. The total income of the society should also have to
increased in this regard. In the prior researches it has been shown that higher
growth rate reduces poverty. But it has also found that the effect of economic
growth on changes in poverty has either diminished or remained same over
time, e.g., the 1980s economic expansion in the U.S. had no affect on poverty
(Lonnie Kent Stevans 2008). Various poverty alleviation program should
introduce which should involves improving the living conditions of people
who are already poor, aid particularly in medical and scientific areas is essential
in providing better lives. Again by increasing the minimum wage rate,
expanding the earned income tax, building assets for working classes, by
investing in education etc program can reduce inequality which will finally
lead to the growth of the country.
======================
References :
1. Melkamu, M.and Bannor, R.K. (2015) Estimation of agricultural resource
inequality in India using Lorenz curve and Gini Coefficient approach.
International Journal of Current Research and Academic Review, 2347-3215
volume 3pp. 174-184
2. Ghosh, J. (2015) Growth Industrialisation and Inequality in India, Journal of
Asia Pacific Economy, DOI: 10.1080/13547860.20140974316
3. Stevans, L.K. and Sessions, D.N. (2008) The relationship between Poverty,
Economic growth and Inequality Revisited, Journal of Income Distribution,
pp. 5-20
4. Sarkar, S. and Das, S.(2014) Interrelationship between Poverty growth and
144 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Inequality in India : A special approach, Economic Research Unit, India


Statistical Institution.
5. Ahluwalia, M.S., Carter, N.G and Chenery H.B. (1978) Growth and Poverty
Developing countries, Journal of Development Economics 6(1979)pp. 299-
341
6. Kang , J.W.(2015), Interrelation between Growth and Inequality, Asian
Development Bank
7. Kuzents, S. (1955) Economic Growth and Income Inequality, The American
Economic Review, volume XLV, number one.
8. Bourguignon, F. (2004) The Poverty-growth-Inequality Triangle Indian council
of International economic Relations, New Delhi
9. Hoyens, H., Page M.e. and Stevens, A. (2005) Poverty in America: Trends and
Explanations, Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol.92 pp 748-765.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

The Nature of Capital Expenditure of the


Government of Meghalaya
* Hemanta Kalita
**Niranjan Sarmah
==========================================================
Abstract- The Government of Meghalaya is giving more importance for
developmental expenditure in comparison to non developmental expenditure.The
state government requires revising the policy of allocating budgetary grants.
The state government also could not exhibit efficiencyin utilizing resource.
Particularly in asset creation, the state government was showing more failure
in adequate utilization of the budgetary grants. In fact, the state government
should fix budget target on the basis of the past records of actual utilization of
the resources under conventional system of budgeting. But, in few cases the
budgetary allocation was not realistic.
==========================================================
1. Introduction: Socio-economic up gradation of a state depends on the
government policy and its implementation. The effective implementation of
the government policies necessitates development and expansion of the
infrastructural facilities. Therefore, the government should invest huge financial
resource for infrastructural development. Particularly in the less developed
state like Meghalaya, the study of capital receipts and disbursements is
significant for creating more fixed facilities for development and revising
burgeoning interest burden. The development of the state can be accelerated
by the state government with the efficient utilization of long term financial
resource of the state exchequer. The study on the capital receipts and
disbursements of the Government of Meghalaya may contribute to suggest
the state government in this respect.
2. Objectives of the Study:
1) To study the pattern of capital disbursements of the Government of
Meghalaya,
2) To examine the capital disbursement for creation of assets for socio-
economic development of the state.
3. Research Methodology: The research is based mainly on secondary
sources of data. The state governments departments have been chosen on the
basis of their socio-economic importance.
===========================
* Paschim Guwahati Mahavidyalaya
** Paschim Guwahati Mahavidyalaya
146 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

4. Nature of Government Expenditure: Due to the increased


responsibility of the Government, the total expenditure of the Government of
Meghalaya are increased year after year. The trends of total expenditure and
expenditure from the Consolidated Fund are as under.
Graph-D-1
The Trend of Total Expenditure of the Government of Meghalaya
(Rs.in crore)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15
Graph-D-2
The Trend of Expenditure from consolidated fund of the Government
of Meghalaya
(Rs.in crore)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
The total disbursement of Government of Meghalaya is increased from
Rs.17965.00crore in 2010-11 to Rs. 27881.00crore in 2014-15. In the period
2010-11 to 2014-15, the expenditure from the Consolidated Fund has been
increased from Rs.4770.00crore to Rs.7629.00crore. In the period of the study,
both the total disbursement and the disbursement from the Consolidated Fund
are enhanced by 1.5 times, but the Graph-D.1 and the Graph-D.2 indicates
that the trend of total disbursement of the state and expenditure on consolidated
fundis upward. The Expenditure from Consolidated Fund is steadily upward.
The Graph-D.3 shows that though the disbursement from Public Fund increased
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 147

by 1.53 times in 2010-11 to 2014-15, the trend of the disbursement is


remarkably decreased in 2013-14.
Graph-D-3, The Trend of Expenditure from Publication fund of the
Government of Meghalaya
(Rs.in crore)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
Table D-1, Categorization of the Total Disbursement of the
Government of Meghalaya
(Rs. in crore.)
Items 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Disbursement from consolidated 4770.00 5945.00 6124.00 6968.00 7629.00
Fund 27% 30% 25% 28% 27%
Expenditure of Public Account 13195.00 13764.00 18305.00 18224.00 20252.00
73% 70% 75% 72% 73%
Total Disbursement 17965.00 19709.00 24429.00 25192.00 27881.00
100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
Graph-D.4, Disbursement From Consolidated Fund and Publication
Accounts
(Rs.In crore.)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
It has been observed that the major portion (i.e. 70% to 75% of the total
148 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

disbursement) of total disbursement of the Government of Meghalaya is usually


incurred from Public Accounts. The disbursement from Consolidated Fund is
only 25% to 30%.
The Graph-D-4 also shows that the expenditure from Consolidated Fund
is very less than the expenditure incurred from Public Accounts; but, the
governments responsibility is just like trustee with Public Account. The
importance of the Consolidated Fund is more as all the policy programmes of
the government are continued with the expenditure from the Consolidated
Fund. Therefore, in this chapter, the Investigator has analysed the nature of
disbursement of the Consolidated Fund in detail.
5. Revenue and Capital Expenditure: All the Government Expenditure
can be categorized as capital & revenue expenditure. It is mentioned earlier
that the all the disbursement related to creation of assets and infrastructural
facilities are known as Capital Expenditure. It also includesthe repayment of
Public Debt and issue of loan and advances.The table-D.-2 shows that the
Revenue Expenditure are more than capital Expenditures in different years.
The capital Expenditure has been found less than revenue Expenditure in all
periods.The share of revenue Expenditure out of the total expenditure of the
Consolidated Fund was 80% To 84% in 2010-11 to 2014-15 whereas the
share of Capital Expenditure was 18% to 20% only in the same period. It
shows that the government requires utilization of more resources for
maintenance of the services, assets and facilities than the creation of the assets
and infrastructures.
Table D-2
Revenue and Capital Expenditure Under Consolidated Fund
(Rs. In Crore)
Items 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Revenue Expenditure 4013.00 4835.00 4999.00 5552.00 6252.00
84% 81% 82% 80% 82%
Capital Expenditure 757.00 1110.00 1124.00 1416.00 1377.00
16% 19% 18% 20% 18%
Total Expenditure of 4770.00 5945.00 6123.00 6968.00 7629.00
consolidated fund 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
6. Classification of Capital Expenditure: The table.D-3 exhibits that
the Plan Capital Expenditure are more than the Non Plan Capital Expenditure.
The Plan Capital Expenditure were 77% to 82% of total Capital Expenditure
and it was increased by 2 times during the periods of the study whereas; Non
Plan Capital Expenditure were 18% to 33% in 2010-11 to 2014-15 and it was
also increased by 2 times in the same periods..The reason of the large amount
of Plan Capital Expenditure is that the major portions of the assets are created
by the state government under 5 years plan.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 149

Table-D-3
Categorization of Capital Expenditure (Rs. In Crore)
Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Non-plan capital expenditure 156.00 223.00 233.00 325.00 242.00
21% 20% 21% 33% 18%
Plan capital expenditure 601.00 887.00 891.00 1091.00 1135.00
79% 80% 79% 77% 82%
Total capital expenditure 757.00 1110.00 1124.00 1416.00 1377.00
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
Another noticeable fact is that there is a significant difference in between
the balances of capital receipts & expenditure. It has been observed in table-
D-4 that there were capital surpluses in each and everyyear out of 10 years of
the period of the study. But in case of capital receipts and expenditure, capital
expenditure was always more than capital receipts. In fact, capital expenditure
include disbursement for repayment of public debt,(i.e. the receipt of which
are recorded under capital receipts) along with the expenditure for creation of
assets and infrastructural facilities. Therefore, capital expenditure usually
becomes more than capital receipts. But it is also worth noting that the
government should have due consideration on level of receipts for having
decision for expenditure.
Table-D-4
Capital receipts & Capital Expenditure (Rs in crore)
Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Total capital Receipts 384.00 491.00 547.00 653.00 727.00
34% 31% 33% 32% 35%
Total capital Expenditure 757.00 1110.00 1124.00 1416.00 1377.00
66% 69% 67% 68% 65%
Surplus /Deficit 1141.00 1601.00 1671.00 2069.00 2104.00
100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
7. Capital Expenditure for Economic Services:
The Economics services include Agriculture, Rural Development, Special
Area Programme, Irrigation, Transport, Industry & Minerals and General
Economy etc. The capital expenditure incurred for Economic services is highest
among the capital expenditure of all the aforesaid categories. The table-D-5
shows that the range of spending for Economic Services is 42% To 57% in
2010-11 to 2014-15 of total capital outlay.
150 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Table-D-5
Categorisation of Capital Expenditure (Rs in crore)
Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
General services 36.00 (6%) 27.00 (2%) 61.00 (5%) 16.00(1%) 82.00(6%)
314.00 460.00 363.00
Social services 133.00 (18%) 224.00 (20%)
(28%) (32%) (26%)
514.00 643.00 600.00 673.00
Economic services 405.00 (51%)
(46%) (57%) (42%) (49%)
202.00 169.00 299.00 203.00
Public debts 141.00 (19%)
(18%) (15%) (21%) (15%)
42.00 27.00 42.00 56.00
Loans and advances 52.00(5%)
(6%) (2%) (3%) (4%)
757.00 1109.00 1124.00 1417.00 1377.00
Total capital disbursement
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
It has been observed from Table-D.5 that the capital outlay on general
services was increased by 5 times in comparison with social and economic
services in the period of the study. It implies that the Government of
Meghalaya maintains law and order situation for economic development
of the State. On the other hand, though the capital expenditure on Social
services and Economic Services were increased by 3 times and 2 times
respectively in 2010-11 to 2014-15, the capital disbursement on social services
and economic services were reduced in 2012-13 and in 2013-14. It indicates
that the government of Meghalaya has given less importance for
enhancement of budgetary grant.
The Capital disbursement for Economic Services can be classified as
capital expenditure for Agriculture & allied activities, Rural Development,
Special Area Programme, Irrigation, Industry &Minerals, Transport and other
General Economic Services. The Table-D.6 shows that out of the total capital
expenditure for economic services, the state government spent 64% to 83%
for transport, 7% to 12% for Special Area Programme, 2% to 10% for Industry
&Mineral, 1% to 20% for irrigation, 0.55%to5% for Agriculture and Allied
Activities, 0.001% to 0.33% for Rural Development and 0.15% to 0.45% for
General Economic Services. Among all the categories of Economic Services,
the transportation involves more capital disbursement for creation of
Assets. Capital Expenditure for Rural Development and General Economic
Services are very negligible.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 151

Table-D-6, Capital Expenditure of Economic Service (Rs in Crore)


Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
20.82 28.3 10.7 16.34 10.36
Agriculture and allied activities
5% 0.55% 2% 3% 2%
1.2 0.31 0.1 0.2 0.1
Rural development
0.02% 0.06% 0.001% 0.33% 0.01%
39.34 59 76.65 41.26 50.55
Special area programme
9.7% 11% 12% 7% 8%
82.56 82.03 84.26 6.1 42.23
Irrigation and flood contrall
20% 16% 13% 1% 6%
25.38 12.48 46.47 33.39 68.81
Industries and mineral
6% 2% 7% 6% 10%
235.7 331.47 424.96 500 499.87
Transport
6% 65% 66% 83% 74%
Nil 0.1 0.1 2.68 1.08
General and other economic services
-- 0.19% 0.15% 0.45% 0.16%
405 513.69 643.24 599.97 673
Total capital expenditure on economic services.
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
8. Capital Expenditure for Social Service: The Capital Expenditure for
Social Services can be classified as Capital Expenditure for Education, Sports,
Art & Culture, Health & Family Welfare, Water Supply &Sanitation, and Social
Welfare. Among all the categories of expenditure, capital expenditure is highest
in the Department of Water Supply &Sanitation. The Department of Water
Supply & Sanitation spent 29% to 71%amount of the Capital Expenditure of
Social Services. The Capital Expenditure for Health &Family Welfare, Social
Welfare and Education, Sports, Art & Culture were 12%to 28%,0.21% to 4%
and 1% to 21% respectively in 2010-11 to 2014-15.But,in 2012-13and 2014-
15,thre were no capital disbursement for Social Welfare. In fact, state
government spent lowest amount as Capital Expenditure for Social welfare
among all the activities of Social Services.
Table D.-7, Capital outlay on social services: (Rs. in Crore)
Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
8.91 29.28 3.42 94.37 4.30
Education, Sports and Arts, public works
7% 9.79% 2% 21% 1%
20.39 36.44 63.03 96.02 87.66
Health and family welfare
16% 12% 28% 21% 24%
87.96 141.91 127.6 135.89 254.8
Water supply and sanitation
66%. 45% 57% 29% 71%
5.86 0.69 Nil 3.78 Nil
Social securities and welfare
4% 0.21% -- 0.8% --
4.38 5.90 9.52 18.37 16.24
Housing ect.
3% 2% 4% 4% 4%
5.50 99.78 20.43 111.57 Nil
Urban Development
4% 31% 9% 24% --
Total 133.00 314.00 224.00 460.00 363.00
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
152 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

It is also noticed in Table D-7 that there was no capital disbursement for
urban development under social services in 2014-15. Therefore, the government
of Meghalaya should give more emphasis to continue the allotment of fund in
the budget for urban development.
9. Capital Expenditure for General Services:
Capital Outlay for General Services can be Categorized as Capital
Expenditure for Police, Stationery &Printing and Public Works Department.
The major portion of Capital Expenditure under General Services is usually
incurred for Public Work. The Department of Public Work spent 68.28% to
79.56% amount of total Capital Disbursement of General Service Category as
Capital Expenditure for asset creation.But important fact is that the government
wasnot disbursedany fund for assets creation on public works department under
general services in 2011-12 and 2013-14.it explicit that in these two periods,
the state government given less importance for public works.
But it is noticeable that the Government of Meghalaya disbursed only 1.37%
to 12.13% amount for stationary and printing Department as Capital
Expenditure. The police department also involved very less amount in 2011-
11, 2012-13 and 2014-15 as Capital Expenditure. But surprisingly in 2011-12
and in 2013-14, the capital outlay on police department was increased by
90.81% and 87.88%.From these observations it is clear that, though the
capital outlay on police department was increased very highly but the
state government was not allotted any amount on public works
department in these two years.
The state government spent less amounts as capital outlay under General
Services in Comparison to other two services (i.e. Economic and Social
Services) and major portion of the capital expenditure under General Services
are usually incurred for road and building construction for smooth functioning
of administration.
Table D.-8
Capital outlay on general services (Rs. in Crore)

Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15


6.85 24.52 16.86 14.06 17.8
Police ( Home Department)
19.03% 90.81% 27.64% 87.88% 21.71%
0.51 2.48% 2.49 1.94 1.12
Stationary and Printing
1.42% 9.19% 4.08% 12.13% 1.37%
28.64 41.65 63.08
Public Works Nil Nil
79.56% 68.28% 76.93%
Total capital expenditure of Gen. 36.00 27.00 61.00 16.00 82.00
Services (100%) (100%) (100%) 100%) (100%)

Source: The Finance Accounts of Government of Meghalaya, 2010-11 to


2014-15.
Conclusion: The Government of Meghalaya is giving more importance for
developmental expenditure in comparison to non developmental
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 153

expenditure.The state government requires revising the policy of allocating


budgetary grants. The state government also could not exhibit efficiencyin
utilizing resource. Particularly in asset creation, the state government was
showing more failure in adequate utilization of the budgetary grants. In fact,
the state government should fix budget target on the basis of the past records
of actual utilization of the resources under conventional system of budgeting.
But, in few cases the budgetary allocation was not realistic.

Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Women Entrepreneurship in Assam: Problems


and Prospects
* Sangita Mahanta
** Smita Rajbongshi
==========================================================
Abstract- This was an attempt to understand problems and prospects of women
entrepreneurship in Assam. This was a descriptive research attempt made by
the researcher on the basis of secondary data got from different sources. For
the study, the researcher considered Assam as the study area. It was interpreted
that woman entrepreneurship is applicable in Assam as woman from rural and
urban areas are coming out of their households and taking initiatives to start
their own business and they are getting support and encouragement from their
family members in starting their own business. It was seen that women are
capable of managing their households and business works properly and
successfully all together and showing good results in it. They also have the
ability to manage their own business risks family responsibilities and
entrepreneurial activities properly. Beforehand, people were unaware about this
and women were also afraid of coming out of their households to start their
own business due to the lack of education, opportunities, social system and
resources. Besides, women are getting full opportunities to start their own
business as they are getting proper education, training and financial support
from the government for becoming successful woman entrepreneurs.
==========================================================
Concept of entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurship the concept itself describes
it as the innovative and creative rejoinder for the environment. There can be
any of the sectors that we can find such rejoinder viz. business, agriculture,
industry, education, social endeavor, social work etc., hence we can define
entrepreneur as the one with either creative innovation or finding the same into
already existing ones. Hartman says (1959), Entrepreneurship is such a method
processing whereby there is gathered part of people, money markets, production
facilities and knowledge and then the combination of all is converted into
commercial enterprise with a very new exposure. Similarly Schumpeters
wording on the same as the entrepreneurship itself is an essential and creative
act to the social level. The term by Pareek and Nandkarni (1978) says that the
entrepreneurship does directs generally to selling and buying of new enterprises
at social levels with its dynamicity of socio-cultural factors, an individual support
===========================
* Assistant Professor, USTM, Assam
** MSW 4th semester, USTM, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 155

systems and the environment.


Concept of Women Entrepreneurs: Women Entrepreneurs may be defined
as the women or group of women who initiate, organize, and operate a business
enterprise. The Government of India has defined women entrepreneurs as an
enterprise owned and controlled by women having a minimum financial interest
of 51 percent of the capital and giving at least 51 percent of employment
generated in the enterprise to women. Women Entrepreneurs are engaged in
business due to push and pull factors which encourage women to have an
independent occupation and stand on their own legs. A sense towards
independent decision making on their life and career is the motivational factor
behind this urge (REETA CHAUHAN, 2011).
Opportunities for Women Entrepreneurs:
1) Free entry into world trade.
2) Improved risk taking ability.
3) Governments of nation have withdrawn some restrictions.
4) Technology and inventions spread into the world.
5) Encouragement to innovations and inventions.
6) Promotion of healthy competition among nations.
7) Consideration increase in government assistance for international trade.
8) Establishment of other national and international institutes to support
business among the nations of the world.
9) Benefits of specialization.
10) Social and cultural development.
Challenges for Women Entrepreneurs:
1. Problems of raising equity capital.
2. Difficulty in borrowing fund.
3. Through-cut completions endangered existence of small companies.
4. Problems of availing raw materials.
5. Problems of obsolescence of indigenous technology.
6. Increased pollutions ecological imbalanced.
7. Problems of TRIPS and TRIMS.
8. Exploitation of small and poor countries.
Problems of Women Entrepreneurship:
1. Problem of Finance
2. Scarcity of Raw Materials
3. Stiff Competition
4. Limited Mobility
5. Family Ties
6. Lack of Education
7. Social Attitudes
8. Male Dominated Society
9. Lack of Information and Experience
10. Low Need for Achievement
156 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Prospects of Women Entrepreneurship:


Women have strong feeling required and relevant for entrepreneurship
development such as, ability to manage details, dedication to work they take-
up tolerance and smooth attitude towards people. There is also belief that
women are capable of facing risk and absorbing misfortunes then men. Women
entrepreneurship gained currency in the recent past due to the general
recognition of entrepreneurship as a quick route to the socio-economic
development of the country by planners. The declaration of the International
Decade of Women (1975-85) and the setting-up of a separate Ministry for
Women and Child Welfare in 1985 have given an added significance to the
women entrepreneurship. The recent reservation policy on women and the
changing attitude of the society in present days towards women indicate that,
bright future is waiting for them.
1. Education and Training
2. Overcoming cultural barriers
3. Strengthening existing agencies
4. Design Library
Table-2
Participation of Women in management/ ownership in SSI Sector,
North Eastern Region, India (As on 31.03.2010)

Sl. Name of the State No. of No. of Women No of female Percentage of


No. Enterprises Enterprises Employees female
Managed by (Both Regd./ Employment in
Women Unregd. Total
Employment of
the State
1 Assam 11189 1157 26065 6.08
2 Sikkim 30 98 221 16.72
3 Arunachal 131 150 446 12.10
4 Nagaland 207 179 3211 5.65
5 Manipur 9168 10745 23338 17.06
6 Mizoram 3076 3700 6824 27.46
7 Tripura 631 863 7619 13.38
8 Meghalaya 3658 3580 8803 13.42
All India 995141 1063721 3317496 13.31

Source: Complied From http://www.demsme.gov.in/ssiindia/census/


ch11.htm23.52
As shown in the above table1, the economic activities in the secondary
and tertiary sector have grown in proportion to the primary sector in the different
states. Manipur, with a long tradition in weaving, sericulture, handicrafts, etc
has engaged much larger proportion of workers in the secondary sector,
followed by Assam that vies closely with the national figure.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 157

Table-3
Sl. Name of the Total No. of Women No. of Enterprises No. of
No. State Enterprises Enterprises Managed by Women female
Employees
in the
MSME
Sector
REGD UN- TOTAL REGD UN- TOTAL
REGD REGD
1 Sikkim 368 45 53 98 30 0 30 221
2 Arunachal 1252 63 87 150 51 80 131 446
3 Nagaland 13861 57 122 179 77 130 207 3211
4 Manipur 47999 765 9980 10745 734 8434 9168 23338
5 Mizoram 11116 693 3007 3700 730 2346 3076 6824
6 Tripura 24352 79 784 863 53 578 631 7619
7 Meghalaya 22520 651 2929 3580 640 3018 3658 8803
8 Assam 194379 2041 9716 11757 1948 9241 11189 26065
Ner 315847 4394 26678 31072 4263 23827 28090 76527
All India 10521190 137534 926187 1063721 114361 880780 995141 3317496

(In Lakhs)

Sources: Third Census of Small Scale Industries 2001-02


According to the third census of MSMEs (2001-02), the number of women
enterprises was 1, 37,534 and number of enterprises actually managed by
women was 1, 14,361 accounted for 10.11% and 9.46% of the total units as
shown respectively in the table 2.
About 13% of the women enterprises were in the registered MSME
sector and the remaining 87% were in the unregistered MSME sector. With
regard to enterprises managed by women, 11.5% were in the registered MSME
sector and 88.5% were in the unregistered MSME sector. The share of units
managed by women in terms of employment was 7.14%. The total number of
female employees in the MSME sector is estimated at 33, 17,496.
Entrepreneurship among women of the Northeastern states has been gradually
gaining popularity during recent years. In 2001-02, total number of women
enterprises in the region was 31,072 and enterprises managed by women were
accounted for 9.8% and 8.9% of total MSMEs of the region.
Methodology used:
The study consists of secondary data from books, articles, thesis paper,
which is collected from different libraries; research Centre, internet websites,
which helped in the study to be done more briefly and elaborately. This was a
descriptive research attempt made by the researcher on the basis of secondary
data got from different sources. For the study, the researcher considered Assam
as the study area.
Research Question:
What is the economic importance of women entrepreneurs in Assam?
What are the ways of promoting and supporting women entrepreneurs
in Assam?
Objectives of the Study:
To know about problems and prospects of women entrepreneurs in
158 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Assam.
To know about the factors influencing the women entrepreneurs in Assam.
To know about the schemes promoting women entrepreneurs in Assam.
Analysis: From the reviews made by the researcher, it was basically found as
follows:
1) Women Entrepreneurs are engaged in business due to pull factors, which
encourage them to become entrepreneurs such as their desire to do new
in life, need for independence, availability of finance, concessions and
subsidies.
2) Women performs important role in building the real backbone of nations
economy, as they have the ability to balance different tasks and priorities,
and also capable in building good relationship with both customers and
employees, and also they have the potential and the will to establish and
manage enterprise of their own, and these strengths and potentials of
them are tapped for productive channels.
3) Thirdly, the promotion of women entrepreneurship is a reliable means
of achieving economic stability of women and their families. It involves
considerable spending on education which will help in enhancing
womens decision making power and reducing gender discrimination to
a great extent.
4) The country has undergone tremendous changes and has experienced
higher rates of growth- economically, industrially, and technologically.
Increasing educational facilities, industrialization, new economic policy,
positive approach of government, availability of financial resources,
entrepreneurship development, training facility and changing socio-
economic-political empowerment encouraged women to enter into
entrepreneurial activities.
Conclusion:
Though Assam is a male dominated society, but today women come
forward to make their own destiny. Entrepreneurship development or income
generating business activities are a feasible solution for empowering woman
and helping them to stand on their own feet. Increasing female literacy
empowers women to make financial decisions, facilitating easy availability of
credits, formulating woman friendly policies helps in encouraging, promoting
and developing women entrepreneurs to a great extent. With relevant
education, improved economic conditions and financial opportunities will be
helpful for woman to create and sustain successful business venture.
======================
References :
1. Abhirrao, Dr. Jitendra (2013). Entrepreneurship and Rural Women in India.
New Delhi, India: New Century Publications.
2. Dhameja, S.K. (2008). Women Entrepreneurs: Opportunities, Performance
andProblems. New Delhi - 110027: Deep & Deep Publications Private Limited.
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3. Fredrick, Dr. J. & Gowri, K. (Ed.). (2012). Women Micro Entrepreneurs:Changes


& Challenges (1st ed.). New Delhi - 110003, India: Vista International Publishing
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& Deep Publications Private Limited.
8. Lavanya, T. (2010). Women Empowerment through Entrepreneurship. New
Delhi, India: New Century Publications.
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Entrepreneurship:Problems and Prospects in Rural Assam, 1(1), 195 - 207.
Retrieved from http://www.ijirc.in.pdf/142803737.pdf
10. Mahajan, V.S. (Ed.). (1991). Women Contribution to Indias Economic andSocial
Development (1st ed.). D - 1/24, Rajouri Garden, New Delhi - 110027: Deep &
Deep Publications.
11. Mittal, Disha & Gupta, Shakuntala (2007). Women Entrepreneurship
Development, Delhi - 110092: Zenith Books International.
12. Patil, Dr. Asha & Mathu, Dr. Anuradha (Ed.). (2007). Women Entrepreneurship:
Issues and Challenges (1st ed.). New Delhi 110052, Kalpaz Publications.
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Guwahati: Indian Institute of Entrepreneurship.
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www.shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in.pdf
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WomenEntrepreneurship. New Delhi 110002: Akansha Publishing House.
16. Shukla, Dr. Narendra & Chansoria, Dr. Mukesh (Ed.). (2011).
WomenEntrepreneurship (1 st ed.). Jaipur 302003 (Raj.) India: Pointer
Publishers.
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inflibnet.ac.in.pdf
18. Tiwari, Dr. Sanjay & Tiwari, Dr. Anshuja (2007). Women Entrepreneurship
andEconomic Development. New Delhi 110002: Sarup & Sons.
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Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Shared Prosperity as a Policy Response


to Inequality
* Nazneen Ara Hoque
==========================================================
Abstract- Fulfilling the World Bank's target of reducing extreme poverty to 3 %
of the world's population by 2030 is not so easy, particularly for the natural
resource based and conflicting countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. As per the
latest poverty estimates and projections, to meet the target of reducing extreme
poverty, policies must go beyond targeting rates of aggregate economic growth,
because growth alone will not be sufficient to achieve the goal.
==========================================================
Introduction: Inequality is basically associated to an unequal distribution of
resources and an unequal access to opportunities or benefits from economic
activity. The income inequality gap is widening day by day due to the inability
of the countries to fully integrate solutions to social issues into targeted industrial
and economic policies, which undermines the developmental potentialities of
the industries. In a report, World Bank president Jim Yong Kim calls inequality
a powerful threat to progress everywhere; High income inequality is hardly
new in human history but today inequality is constraining national economies
and destabilizing global collaboration in ways that put humanitys most critical
achievements and aspirations at risk. This includes the goal of ending extreme
poverty by 2030, In the view of a rapidly changing global scenario and growing
inequalities, a strategy is needed for sustained growth which must ensure that
all peoples have same access to all kinds of opportunities and income and non-
income gains should be distributed equally across society. On April 20, 2013,
the World Bank has adopted two goals-
End of extreme poverty for those people who continue to live with hunger
and destitution by 2030.
Promotion of shared prosperity.
To evaluate progress, these two goals are measured by the following
two indicators:
i. A reduction in the global headcount ratio of extreme poverty (the
population share of those whose income is below the international poverty
line) to 3 percent by 2030. With an interim target of 9 percent by 2020.
Despite significant progress toward this goal, the updated global poverty
statistics shows that poverty levels still remains high and the policies
===========================
* Gauhati Universty, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 161

taken are unlikely to be sufficient to reach the goal.


ii. The promotion of income growth in the bottom 40 (B40) percent of the
population in each country.
If a country can grow and share benefits to boost the income of the
bottom 40 percent of its population, then it is moving toward shared prosperity.
While only tracking the income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the
population we can not make a conclusion that it will show the real insights of
the changes in inequality. But by comparing the shared prosperity measure
with a survey-based measure of average income or consumption, or of income
growth of the top 60 per cent of the population, the evolution of inequality in
countries over time will be easily learned by the shared prosperity measure.
This paper tries to figure out the recent trends of shared prosperity.
Objectives: To see the recent trends of shared prosperity.
Findings: To assess the trends in shared prosperity, it is essential to understand
the composition of the B40, as B40 is not a static subgroup of the population
because some people move in and out of the B40, whereas others are chronically
at the lower end of the income distribution.
Based on new 2011 PPP prices, global poverty estimates have been
updated to $1.90 a day to reflect the re-estimated international poverty line.
The new poverty line is based on the 15 national poverty lines of the same
countries that previously defined the $1.25 line, ensuring maximum
comparability. The latest headcount estimate for 2012 based on the new data
suggests that about 900 million people (12.8 per cent of global population)
lived in extreme poverty; which was about 987 million(14.2 per cent of the
global population) in 2011. Data of 2012 reveals a modest decline in the
number of poor in Sub-Saharan Africa. The proportion of global population
living on less than $ 1.90 a day in 2012 was about a third of what it was in
1990 and this confirms that the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG)
target of bringing down the rate of extreme poverty to half of its 1990 level
was met before its 2015 targeted date. The global poverty rate has fallen by
approximately 1% point a year since 1990, with rapid decline in poverty in
China and India. Both these countries are playing a vital role in this outcome.
In case of Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, poverty levels remain
unacceptably high. For several decades, East Asia and Pacific, South Asia,
and Sub-Saharan Africa account for 95 per cent of the global poverty. Although
the composition of global poverty across these three regions has shifted over
the years. The share of Sub-Saharan Africa in global poverty has increased to
43 per cent along with a slower pace of poverty reduction, though there is
rapid growth of population. The poverty rate has declined only from 56 to 42.6
per cent between 1990 and 2012. South Asia achieved more rapid poverty
reduction over the past 30 years, even though it is still home to about a third of
the Worlds poor.
The poverty rate of India in 2012 was 21.2 per cent which is one of the
162 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

lowest among those countries with the largest number of poor, even though it
was home to the largest number of poor. Poverty measures for India are based
on the household expenditure surveys, which are done as part of the National
Sample Surveys (NSS), it basically uses 30-day recall for consumption of
both food and non-food items to measure expenditures. These so-called
uniform reference period (URP) consumption aggregates collected in every
consumption survey (except 1999-2000) provide the longest consistent series
for measuring poverty in India. These provide a basis to the World Bank to
estimate Indias poverty at the international poverty line.
The NSS Organization introduced a new consumption series based on a
modified mixed reference period (MMRP) in the 2009-10 survey. The
MMRP series modified the former 30-day recall to a 7-day recall for some
food items and to a 1-year recall for low-frequency non-food consumption
items and it was recommended as a more accurate reflection of consumption
expenditures. As a result of the shorter recall period for food items, MMRP-
based consumption expenditures in both rural and urban areas are 1012 per
cent larger than URP-based aggregates. It also estimates a lower poverty rate
of 12.4 per cent for 2011-12.
Poverty is declining, but not so fast. The global poverty headcount ratio
was 35% in 1990 and then declined to 12.4% in 2012, and in 2013 it was
10.7%. In 1990, almost 2 billion people lived in extreme poverty but in 2013
it was 767 million, although the worlds population had increased by almost 2
billion, mostly in the poorest regions.
The overall trends in B40 income growth appears to be generally positive,
but it is heterogeneous among the countries. If we consider the five-year periods
starting circa 2007 and ending around 2012, B40 incomes of the 65 countries
grew out of the 94 countries. Among them, 47 countries registered a shared
prosperity premium, with B40 incomes growing faster than the incomes of
the average population, thus reducing income inequality between these groups.
For these countries, the premium ranged from less than 1 percentage point to
well above 3, which reveals that growth in many countries has been considerably
pro-poor. Indeed, the average shared prosperity premium stood at 1.7 per cent.
Though poverty rate has fallen, but not all the countries made equal progress
on shared prosperity. While 65 countries experienced growing incomes for
the B40, 29 saw declines. And for 20 among them the shared prosperity
premium was negative, in these countries not only the incomes of the B40
decline, inequality also raised. For these countries, the premium ranged from
zero to -3.1 percentage points, with an average around (-1.2). Half of the
high-income countries and over a third of low-income experienced decline in
the incomes of the B40. Interestingly, among the countries that registered
positive income growth of the B40, all low-income countries registered a
positive shared prosperity premium whereas over a third of high-income
countries experienced a negative premium. Among developing regions, B40
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 163

income growth exceeded 5 per cent in 8 countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean, reducing income inequality between the B40 and the rest of the
population in all of them; while the other regions saw a more mixed result.
Again, in 2016 the World Banks Global Database of Shared Prosperity
published annual growth rates among the bottom 40 and the overall mean
growth rate for 83 countries; which is based on the based on data on the most
up- dated spell, circa 200813.
Table 1: Shared Prosperity, circa 2008-13
Name of the regions No. of countries Population Country average
(%) SP (%)
East Asia and Pacic 8 94 5.0
Eastern Europe and Central 24 89 1.5
Asia
Latin American and the 16 86 4.1
Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa 2 32 1.8
South Asia 4 87 3.7
Sub-Saharan Africa 9 23 2.7
Industrialized countries 20 68 -1.0
World 83 75 2.0

Source: GDSP (Global Database of Shared Prosperity), World Bank,


Washington, DC, http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/brief/global-
database-of-shared-prosperity.
As shown in the table 1, out of the 83 countries, 8 belong to East Asia
Pacific, 24 belong to Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 16 from Latin American
and the Caribbean, 2 belong to Middle East and North Africa, 4 belong to
South Asia, 9 from Sub Saharan Africa and 20 belong to industrialized countries.
All regions report positive average in- come or consumption growth among
the bottom 40. East Asia and Pacic, Latin America and the Caribbean, and
South Asia showed the best average growth performance among the bottom
40, with annualized rates of 5.0 per cent, 4.1 per cent, and 3.7 per cent and 2.7
per cent in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1.8 per cent in the Middle East and North
Africa, and 1.5 per cent in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The bottom 40 in
industrialized countries experienced an average contraction of 1.0 per cent of
income.
Conclusions: Fulfilling the World Banks target of reducing extreme poverty
to 3 % of the worlds population by 2030 is not so easy, particularly for the
natural resource based and conflicting countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. As
per the latest poverty estimates and projections, to meet the target of reducing
extreme poverty, policies must go beyond targeting rates of aggregate economic
growth, because growth alone will not be sufficient to achieve the goal.
Extreme poverty is usually associated with under developed or developing
countries. Poverty arises out of extreme inequality so if we want to reduce
poverty rate then inequality should be reduced first. To reduce extreme poverty
and boosting shared prosperity the following should be concerned-
164 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

I. To provide better infrastructure facilities such as transport, power,


healthcare, water to those places where the poverty rate is high
II. Creation of employment opportunities.
III. Setting up of an effective and competitive education system that will
make their citizens to compete with others.
IV. In the developing countries a massive cash transfer program funded by
the people in the rich countries is needed as it will bring the people
living below the International Extreme poverty Line just up to that line.
V. Empowerment of women is necessary, as economically active women
have fewer children and can redistribute the proceeds of their enterprise
more widely among their extended families.
======================
References :
1. Othman Muhamad Badri (2015), Role of women in achieving shared prosperity:
An impact study of Islamic microfinance in Malaysia; 2nd Global Conference
on Business and Social Science-2015, GCBSS-2015, 17-18 September 2015,
Bali, Indonesia.
2. Marshall Ray (2012), Can We Restore Broadly Shared Prosperity? Work and
Occupations 39(4) 376 387 The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and
p e r m i s s i o n : s a g e p u b . c o m / j o u r n a l s P e r m i s s i o n s . n a v, D O I : 1 0 . 11 7 7 /
0730888412445218 http://wox.sagepub.com
3. Phillips Fred (2005), Toward an Intellectual and Theoretical Foundation for
Shared Prosperity; Systemic Practice and Action Research, Vol. 18, No. 6,
December 2005(C 2005) DOI: 10.1007/s11213-005-9466-2
4. Ejaz Ghani, Lakshmi Iyer, Saurabh Mishra, Promoting Shared Prosperity in
South Asia, published on Economic Premise , March 2013 Number 110
5. Basu Kaushik, Shared Prosperity and the Mitigation of Poverty in Practice
and in Precept; published on http://econ.worldbank.org.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Skill Development Process of Handicraft Industries in


North-East India: With Special Reference to water
Hyacinth
* Laya Gogoi
==========================================================
Abstract- A common training centre which could provide training on skill
enhancement, quality control and product development can be established in
order to train more people in practicing this craft. The product range needs
wide publicity through print or electronic media to attract prospective buyers.
It can be observed that most of the beneficiaries covered under the project are
women. This innovative craft has transformed the lives of women in the rural
areas. The earnings depend on their productivity and the additional income
generated helps them in meeting their family needs. The water hyacinth craft
initiative is an innovative product in its own way, have been successfully utilized
as a substitute of cane and bamboo in making traditional handicraft items. The
result has been spectacular as this products have been successfully marketed
and there is a huge demand for these ecofriendly products in the market.
==========================================================
Introduction: The north eastern part of India is famous for its handcraft
products. True ethnicity is the perfect term that reveals the real identity of
handicraft items from the north-eastern states of India. Cane and bamboo work
among various other forms of crafts, are the most important to the north eastern
region of India. As a matter of fact, the vast range in the handicraft items has
now innumerable natural products, which add to the pride of collector as
precious items in interior decoration and household utensils. However, irregular
supply of cane and high cost of procurement have adversely affected the
craftsmen in their cane based activities. With the traditional handicraft sector
facing a major threat, NEDFi (North Eastern Development Finance Corporation
Limited) took up the challenge of identifying water hyacinth as an alternative
raw material to replace cane and bamboo.

Water
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Sonapur College
166 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial plant that can grow to a height


of 3 feet. The dark green leave blades are circular to elliptical in shape attached
to a spongy, inflated petiole. The water hyacinth has striking light blue to violet
flowers located on a terminal spike.Water hyacinth known as panimeteka in
Assamese, is abundantly available in the north eastern region. This creates
difficulty for other aquatic plants to survive thereby creating an imbalance in
the aquatic ecosystem.
Objectives of the study:
To know about a review on handicraft industries in North East India.
To study the identification of water hyacinth in North East India.
To know about the production process of water hyacinth for making
varieties of crafts and furniture.
To know the skill development of artisans in water hyacinth handicraft
industries.
To know what initiatives has been taken for water hyacinth by NEDFi.
Methodology of the study:
The method used in this paper is descriptive and analytical. The data
and information collected for this study is through both primary and secondary
sources. The present diagnostic study has been carried out in the villages of
North east. The primary data has been collected from the artisans through
questionnaires. The secondary data has been collected through various books
and publications.
Significance of the study:
The significance of the study is that the supply of raw materials of cane
is erratic and moreover, extensive use has resulted in dwindling forest resources,
imposing a threat no on the traditional cane and bamboo sector and on the
ecosystem. Thus, through this paper it is to be known that water hyacinth is an
alternative raw material to replace cane and bamboo and the products developed
would be eco-friendly thereby, generating sustainable livelihoods and
maintaining a balanced ecosystem.
Analysis:
Review on handicraft industries in North East India:
Handicraft industry is an emerging sector that has generated huge
employment for the skilled and unskilled labours. North Eastern Region is one
area where it has huge potential for investments particularly in the field of
textiles and handicrafts. Due to its inherent strength for skilled work force and
locally available raw materials this sector is developing a lot in this region.
Handicrafts forms one of the basic livelihood activities and it provides income
and employment opportunities to a large number of people. Cane and bamboo
work, among various other forms of crafts, are the most important to the north
eastern region of India. However, extensive use of cane and bamboo has resulted
in depletion of the sources of raw materials. This case illustrates the initiative
undertaken by NEDFi in the north eastern states to promote water hyacinth as
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 167

the possible alternative to cane and bamboo as its abundance and easy
availability.
The identification of water hyacinth in North East India:
Water hyacinth is a free-floating plant that gets its nutrients from the
water from dangling roots. The plant reproduces by seeds and vegetative
through daughter plants that form on rhizomes and produce dense plant beds.
A single plant can produce as many as 5,000 seeds and waterfowl eat and
transport seeds to new locations. They are floating plants with round to oval,
shiny green leaves up-to-ten inches in diameter, although smaller leaves are
common. Leaves are held upright so they act like sails. A mass of fine roots
hang in the water underneath the plant. The flowers are blue-purple or lilac-
colored with a yellow spot. There are very few varieties of water hyacinth and
none of them commonly available. The Peacock Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
azurea) is very similar to the common variety.
The production process of water hyacinth for making varieties of
crafts and furniture:
1. Selection of water hyacinth: Different types of water hyacinth plant
use for different products. Usually long water hyacinth plant is uses for Mat,
Furniture, Basket, Bag etc. and short water hyacinth plant are uses for other
products.
2. Storage: The water hyacinth plant are stored together in such a way that
it can be picked up easily.

3. Carrying: The water hyacinth are carried in boat or by pull cart to the
production place.

4. Cutting as per required size: The water hyacinth are cut into different
shapes and sizes as per required designs by the workers to make different
items from it.
5. Drying: After the water hyacinth plants are cut, then it is dried in the
168 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

sun. As there is moisture present in it, so it is dried for a period and then the
actual work is carried out.
6. Flatting: Well dried stems will turn brown making crackling sound when
it will crumpled. Flatting Machine is required for thin fibre to make high quality
product. Currently it is being done manually with the help of hammer, stone
and bamboo.
7. Knitting: After flatting of the water hyacinth plant it is ready for knitting.
Some artisans are making mat and other product with the help of mould. There
are some artisans use frame to create lamp stand, furniture, mirror frame etc.
8. Surface decoration: Surface decoration is very important for water
hyacinth products. It is decorated by various beads, golden zori, jute flowers
etc., which gives an attractive look to the product.
9. Packaging: Various graphics and designs can be printed to make the
packaging look more attractive and more professional. Craft paper, Polythene
sheet, Bubble paper etc. are required for cardboard box packing to prevent
moisture effect.
10. Finished Product: The finished water hyacinth products are wrapped
with craft paper and before sale, it is stored in proper containers with lid in dry
place and minimum six inches height from the floor.
Average Net Profit of Last Three Financial Years: (Rs. In Cr.)

Table 1:- Sources: Budget Allocation,


Financial Year NEDFi. Net Profit
The skill development of artisans2013-2014in water hyacinth handicraft62.05
2014-2015 63.87
industries:
2015-2016 75.63
Apart from the design interventions,
Total technological interventions have
201.55
also been taken up by NEDFi. Continuing with their capacity building67.18
Average Net Profit
programmes, groups of artisans 2%are provided
of Average with flattening machines. It1.34
Net Profit
improves the quality of their products and motivates them to perform better.
Most of the artisans are women. The capacity building initiative includes ten
days of skill development and a day long programme on micro credit
management to improve and upgrade the skill of the artisans. Open workshops
were also conducted to popularize the craft and to create awareness among
people. This move of creating the various groups helps in involving a greater
section of the community and generates livelihood opportunities even for the
unskilled. NEDFi has coined the brand name of the water hyacinth handicraft
products as Aqua Weaves. The direct marketing platform, where the artisan
can directly communicate to the customer without middleman, ensures and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 169

promotes fair trade practices.


Initiatives taken for water hyacinth by NEDFi :
NEDFi has been organizing exhibitions exclusively for water hyacinth
craft in small towns as well as in big cities. It is constantly encouraging the
artisans to make an effort to exhibit their items in these exhibitions. Artisans
have participated in various national exhibitions. Local level exhibitions have
been held at Sivasagar, Dhemaji, Ledu, Guwahati and many more. In this way
it is generating sales for the artisans as well as creating future market demand
for the products. NEDFi launched the water hyacinth craft project with a mission
of sustainable livelihood generation by unlocking the creativity and potential
of the artisans. It also had two goals to achieve i.e., to provide supportive
market and easy credit facility to the artisans.

NEDFi integrate with NGOs and SHGs as partners in both social and business
missions. This proved to be a strategic decision as opportunities were available
in the society achieving the social mission of creating sustainable livelihood.
Findings and Suggestions:
Findings: The tools which are required for the production of water
hyacinth goods should be ergonomically designed according to the workstation.
Due to some problems like insufficient lighting arrangement, less tools,
insufficient space the workers face lot of problems. The worker holds the water
hyacinth stems in with their feet due to lack of holder. Currently, although the
products are being sold, the income from the sale of products is not much due
to worse quality. Use of proper cushioning in the workstation, cement floor
and furniture are required for good quality product. The persons which are
engaged in this field are not fully skilled and for that reason product up gradation
is too less and new technology are not been introduced. There is also a lack of
skill marketing to develop the artisans skill in national and international market
where they can get a good price for their product.
Suggestions: Product display is the main factor of selling with the current
methods of marketing such as local market, national and international markets
can also be explored. The efforts were made to re-introduce their traditional
170 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

designs, skills and techniques to cater to the modern needs. This would bring
them closer to become self-dependent. The worker must use proper tools while
working , use of improper tools may cause accident. While working, the waste
release by the water hyacinth and the dust may cause internal disease and
health problems. To avoid such problems, they must use a safety masks and
kits. Products can be displayed at various art centres, emporium and museums
across the cities to sell their products directly to the market which will also
help them to understand the choice of the customers and also about the latest
trend.
Conclusion: A common training centre which could provide training on skill
enhancement, quality control and product development can be established in
order to train more people in practicing this craft. The product range needs
wide publicity through print or electronic media to attract prospective buyers.
It can be observed that most of the beneficiaries covered under the project are
women. This innovative craft has transformed the lives of women in the rural
areas. The earnings depend on their productivity and the additional income
generated helps them in meeting their family needs. The water hyacinth craft
initiative is an innovative product in its own way, have been successfully utilized
as a substitute of cane and bamboo in making traditional handicraft items. The
result has been spectacular as this products have been successfully marketed
and there is a huge demand for these ecofriendly products in the market.
======================
References :
1. Borah, N. (2014): Water Hyacinth Craft - A livelihood initiative by NEDFi.
Social Science Research Network, available at SSRN 2539958, (accessed 8
August 2014).
2. Borpujari, U. (2016): Hyacinth turns producer in the NorthEast. http://
www.deccanherald.com/hyacinth-turns-productive northeast.html
3. Gopal, Brij (2015): Water Hyacinth (Aquatic Plant Studies), Elsevier Science
Ltd.
4. North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Limited (2016): NEDFi Annual
Budget Allocation.
5. Talukdar, B. R. (2016): Water Hyacinth CraftPearl of water transforming
lives. http://www.indiatogether.org/craft-economy.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Moral Values and Business Ethics


* Saugat Barua
==========================================================
Abstract- The term morality which is derived from the word "moral" denotes a
principle, a belief, or a norm of distinguishing right from wrong, good from bad
action or conduct. Morality is a form of social consciousness that expresses the
human action or behaviour that is either desirable or undesirable in relation to
the life, interest, right, dignity and freedom of oneself or others. As objects of
morality human beings are those upon whom the actions or behaviours of the
moral agents are imposed. This shows that as social beings humans act, react
and interact in their interrelations. Morality seeks that the action that the moral
agents perform or the behaviours they exhibit should promote life. In other
words, the ultimate aim of morality is to make the world a safe place for humans
to live in and flourish. The other important feature of morality is the freedom of
choice. It is impossible to conceive of morality without freedom. The moral
agent is free to choose between two courses of action. One is free to choose
either the course of action that promotes ones best interest at the expense of
others; or the course of action that advances the best interest of the society. In
other words one is not conditioned by external factor for pursuing this or that
course of action. It is not because one anticipates a reward or punishment from
somewhere that the moral agent chooses to do this or that but because of one's
moral commitment.
==========================================================
Morality and Ethics: People sometimes mistake ethics for morality, and
morality for ethics. This confusion arises firstly from the failure to clearly
know the distinctive features that make morality different from ethics and the
latter from the former. Secondly, it arises from the lack of understanding as to
how one is related to the other. A moral philosopher transcends the common
sense perception of moral life. One questions and reflects on the existing moral
concepts. People from all walks of life use moral values in their everyday
reality. Thus the subject of moral philosophy is not as such strange to any lay
man. But not all who use morality know what moral value is and is not. Even
most of those who discern what is moral from what is immoral do not question
why they ought to obey moral rules. Ethics makes difference to this attitude.
Almost all of us have, without questioning, accepted the moral percents and
practices that we were taught while growing up. However, there comes a time
when we begin to look critically at the moral precepts and values that one has
===========================
* Assistant Professor, CMJ University
172 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

always accepted. When one begins critically questioning the moral principles
and precepts that he has already accepted, then he is engaged in doing moral
philosophy.
Business Ethics: Business ethics are reflected in the very philosophy of
business organizations. Ethics in the field of business are business ethics. These
are desired norms, moral set of values and behaviour exclusively dealing with
business transactions. It provides the guidelines that help individuals to screen
the rightness and wrongness of decisions and behaviours before an impulsive
or random act causes unforeseen negative consequences. It also refers to running
the business abiding with certain policies, rules and regulations desirable in
the area of business. For example in the area of marketing management
American Marketing Association defines its codes of ethics for its members
embracing the different topics. Business ethics are rules of business conduct,
by which the propriety of business activities may be judged. It can be defined
as an attempt to ascertain the responsibilities and ethical obligations of business
professionals. Here the focus is in people, how individuals should conduct
themselves in fulfilling the ethical requirements of business.
Business ethics is a study of moral standards and how these apply to the
systems and organizations through which modern societies produce and
distribute goods and services to the people who work within these organizations.
In other words it is a form of applied ethics. It includes not only the analysis of
moral norms and moral values, but also attempts to apply the conclusion of
this analysis to that assortment of institutions, technologies, transactions,
activities, and pursuits that we call business. As this description of business
ethics suggests, the issues that business ethics covers and encompass a wide
variety of topics. There are three different kinds of issues that business ethics
investigates: systemic, corporate and individual.
Systemic issues in business ethics are ethical questions raised about
economic, political, legal, and other social systems within which businesses
operate. These include questions about the morality of capitalism or the laws,
regulations, industrial structures, and social practices within which business
operate. Corporate issues in business ethics are ethical questions raised about
a particular company. These include questions about the morality of activities,
policies, practices, or organizational structure of an individual company taken
as a whole.
Business Ethics and Corporate Organisations: The most significant kinds
of modern business enterprises are corporations: organizations that the law
endows with special legal rights and powers. Today large corporate
organizations dominate our economies. Modern corporations are organizations
which have right to sue and to be sued, own and sell property, and enter into
contracts, all in their own name, as an organization. The modern corporations
consist of (a) stock holders who contribute capital and who own the corporation
but whose liabilities for the acts of the corporation is limited to the money they
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 173

contributed, (b) directors and officers who administer the corporations assets
and who run the corporation through various levels of middle managers and
see employees who provide labour and who do the basic work related directly
to the production of goods and services. To cope with their complex coordination
and control problems the officers and managers of large corporations adopt
formal bureaucratic systems of rules that link together the activities of the
individual members of the organization so as to achieve certain outcome and
objectives, such rules constitute the foundation of corporate ethics.
As far as rules, legislation, administration, policies and procedures of an
organization are concerned they tie organization together and this allows us to
say that organizations are responsible for their activities in the same way as
individuals are. Though the organization has moral duties to their members
and society, yet the rules which abide the individual together, have nothing to
do with morality. Corporate organizations and their acts depend on human
individuals and human beings run these organizations. That is why individuals
remain the ultimate point of accountability. When an organization member
collectively but freely and knowingly pursue immoral objectives, it ordinarily
makes perfectly good sense to say that the actions they perform for the
organization are immoral and organization is morally responsible for this
immoral action. As individuals who are the primary carriers of moral duties
and moral responsibilities in the organizations, are free to choose whether to
follow the organizations rules or even to change these rules, that is why
managerial or individual ethics are more important than corporate ethics as
they determine the quality of work life in the organization. The organization
system is only a machine through which ethics are applied. The corporate
policies, corporate culture, corporate norms and corporate design can and do
have an enormous influence on the choices and behaviours on corporate
employees.
For any business, justice should be the rule. This means that there should
be a company code of conduct that facilitates improved performance. It is the
duty of the management to ensure that responsibilities of business to
shareholders as well as to stakeholders are fulfilled. The concept of social
responsibility also includes the idea of trusteeship. Gandhi reminded us of
moral values saying that life itself is a trust and all powers carry obligations
with them. Managers are indeed trustees of shareholders and all its stakeholders
in any business organization. Each of parties involved in the business has no
more than a partial interest in the enterprise: only the management entrusted
with its governance carries the overall responsibilities for its success and growth.
Management must be freed from one sided dependence on any single interest,
if it has to take a broad enough view of all its obligations.
Business Ethics in Workplace: Business ethics should be followed in the
workplace in the following ways:
Employees: The modern concept of business is partnership between
174 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

labour and management. Management should serve as a model employer and


provide stable employment, adequate wages, good and safe working conditions,
job satisfaction, opportunities for self-development and promotion. Employees
also need the same. They want to unite and form their trade union to achieve
rights and to seek protection against high handedness of management. They
desire their work to be rewarding. Management as a part of its social
responsibilities is expected to provide for their social security, welfare,
grievances settlement, machinery and sharing of excess profits. Employees
may be allowed to participate in decision-making process at all levels of
management. In this way a sense of belongingness can be developed. Healthy
trade union practices may be encouraged. According to partnership concept
the major areas of relationship are
a. Wages: These should be need based and productivity related.
b. Salaries for managerial personnel: According to responsibilities and
government rules. There should be minimum disparities between wages of
employees and salaries of managerial personals.
c. Relationship between employers and employees: Employers should
consider the following lapses:
Unsympathetic treatment to employees by supervisors.
Favouritism in promotions etc.
Lack of communication between management and workers.
Lack of appreciation of meritorious achievements.
Delay in settling grievances/disputes with employees.
Lapses on part of employees i.e., indiscipline in carrying out orders.
Lack of desire by employees to improve efficiency.
Role of politically inspired trade unions: frequent strikes, gheraous etc.
d. Industrial Legislation i.e., Laws relating to employees to be followed
strictly.
e. Welfare of employees: Employers to provide health, safety, working
conditions and welfare measures for conductive work environment.
B. External Interest Groups:
i. Consumers and Community: In the words of Henery Ford,
Management must provide those goods and services that the society needs at
a price that the society can afford to pay. Management is supposed to provide
good quality products to the consumers. And deliver the product at the right
time, at the right place, at the right price and in right quality. Consumer and
community are ultimate judges of business and its products. It is a businessman
s duty to protect consumer interest at any cost. He must guard against
adulteration, poor quality, lack of service to the consumer and dishonest
advertisements, underweighting, supply of stated goods etc. He must handle
the complaints of consumer more carefully and efficiently and promote the
consumer association, allow no hording concerning prices. He must adhere to
the quality and standards (ISI, AGMARK). He must also provide after sales
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 175

services.
ii. Government:
a. Employer has to be law abiding, follow laws relating to trade, factories
and labours.
b. To pay his dues and taxes fully and honestly.
c. Not to purchase political support by unfair means.
d. Not to corrupt public servants.
e. Avoid adulteration.
To maintain fair trade practices and avoid hording and cornering.
Conclusion: Like all other fields of human activities, Ethics in business is
very important for the welfare of the society. We should remember the fact
that business is a means to promote human welfare and not an end in itself
whose main concern is the maximisation of profit. Hence every business activity
must have ethics at the background. Business activities and business
organisations are run by individuals and these individuals in their turn must be
guided by strong moral values like honesty, transparency, modesty, simplicity,
kindness or compassion and concern for humanity. Business is concerned with
production, distribution, marketing and advertisements. There should be ethics
in the system of production, fair and equal distribution and the consumption
pattern should be safe and harmless. Government should see to the fact that
goods produced in a particular area are equally distributed as far as practicable.
In order to achieve these goals, proper education to create awareness amongst
the people, improvement of communication system, abolition of middleman
who deceive the poor people and improvement of communication facilities
are important. No wonder, Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation said that
material advancement is not an end in itself but a means to a higher end that is
moral and spiritual upliftment of mankind.
References:
1. Grcic, Joseph (1989) Moral Choice: Ethical Theories and Problems, New York:
West Publishing Company.
2. Norman, Richard. 1983. The Moral Philosophers: An Introduction to Ethics.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3. Tripathi, A. N. 2003. Human Values. New Delhi New: Age International
Publishers.
4. Mal Leicester (2001) A Moral Education in an Ethical System. Journal of
Moral Education, Vol. 30, No 3, Page 251 to 260.
5. Robert Kunzman (2003) Religion, Ethics and the Implications For Moral
Education: A Critique of Nuccis morality and religious rules. Journal of Moral
Education, Volume 32, Issue 3, Page 251 to 261.
6. William C. Frick, (2009). Principles value-informed decision making,
intrapersonal moral discord, and pathways to resolution: The complexities of
moral leadership praxis, Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 47, Issue
1. Page 50 to 74.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Institutional Planning and Management


* Md. Aynul Bari
==========================================================
Abstract- Institutional Planning deals with preparation of plan or programme
of action at the institutional level. To enable the institution to accomplish their
goals by mobilizing, channelizing and utilizing resources to the optimum level
and in the desired direction. Institutional Management is a part of Educational
Management. Educational Management is at a Macro level-At the National
and State levels. The processes of management are from top to down. Institutional
Management is at the Micro-level - At the level of individual institutions.
Institutional management involves the Principal, teaching and non-teaching
staff. The origin of the educational management as a field of study may be
traced back to the 1880s with the publication of the "Practical Handbook of
school Management by Teachers".Institutional Planning have some Steps-
Identifying the needs of the institution, pooling together the resources available,
preparing a plan of action, implementing the plan, Evaluating and taking
corrective actions etc. Management is universal in the modern industrial world.
Every individual organization requires the making decisions, the co-ordination
of activities.
==========================================================
Keywords: Institutional, Management, programme, Macro level, Planning etc.

Introduction: Institutional planning and management is a correlated with each


other. Every institute has needed institutional planning and management for
proper running. Institutional planning is a direct off-shoot of educational
planning. It is a programme of development, new achievements, institutional
work, co-curricular activities, etc. prepared by an educational institution on
the basis of its felt needs and the resources available or likely to be available
with a view to bringing improvement in the school and its practices.
Management is getting the employees to want to do his prescribed work as
planned, willingly and with enthusiastic co-operation. Educational management
is a field of study and practice with the operation of educational organizations.
The management of higher education institute always looks forward to bring
their institute in the apex of any level. A higher education institute is supposed
to do for its development and better management.
Objectives:
1. It aims at imparting realism and concreteness to educational planning
===========================
* Student of M.Ed.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 177

and management.
2. It aims at shifting the emphasis from expenditure- orientation to that of
proper utilization of resources.
3. It aims at involving every teacher in the formulation and implementation
of plans.
4. Institutional planning and management improve the quality of education
system.
Methodology: Methodology is based on secondary data and empirical study
only. All the data are collected from Internet, Journals, and related books.
Meaning and definition of institutional planning and management:
Institutional planning is the description of programmes constructed by an
institution. Institutional planning is the plan for the institution as a unit so that
its targets are defined in the plan, its time-bound progress is determined, the
rate of progress per unit of time is also determined, and the commitments are
made in the plan which regulate and accelerate its working. It is a scheme for
the efficient running, steady growth, balanced expansion, and priority-wise
progress of an institution. Management is universal in the modern industrial
world. Every individual organization requires the making of decisions, the
coordination of activities, the handling of people, and the evaluation of
performances directed towards group activities.
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or
directing, and controlling an organization or initiative to accomplish a goal.
Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources,
financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Definitions of institutional planning and management:
1. These terms institution planning and institution development as conceived
by Maquiso (1983) are elucidated as- Institution planning is the process
of thinking, deciding and willing so that an institution becomes a model
institution according to its purpose.
2. M.B. Buch has defined institutional planning An institutional plan is
a set of programmes prepared by an institution on the basis of its felt
needs and the knowledge of its resources available and likely to be
available with a view to improve the school standards and practices and
with a view to provide for the future development of the institution.
3. According to James- Management is management of people, not things.
It emphasizes personal management.
4. According to Cuthbert Ross-Management is an activity involving
responsibility for getting things done through other people.
5. According to F W Taylor- Management is the art of knowing exactly
what you want to do and seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest
way.
Scope of Institutional planning and management:
1. Improving the school plan:
178 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

(a) Provisions for more amenities to pupils sanitary facilities, drinking


water, transport, midday meals, medical aids, uniform, etc.
(b) More and better equipments in the school-reading rooms, library,
teaching aids, laboratory, etc.
(c) Maintenance of school buildings- voluntary labor, contributions, etc
2. Improvement of Instruction:
(a) Supervised study and special tuition facilities. (b) Visiting teachers
from the teaching fraternity as well as from outside. (c) Support to teacher
improvement programmes like in-service training, refresher courses, summer
schools, etc.
3. Extra curricular Activities for Pupils:
(a) Social service projects. (b) Work experience through participation in
community projects. (c) Athletics and games. (d) Literary activities.
4. Community programmes for the school:
(a) Youth related Activities and services. (b) Adult education
programmes. (c) Literacy programmes
Scope of Management:
The schools management has to perform different kinds of activities to
achieve its goal and for providing good education to the pupils. Those activities
which a school manager performs come under the scope of management. They
may be described as follows:
1. The management prepares the school budget and secures revenues
for financing the school. 2. It ensures that all school money is economically
spent and expenditure accounted for. 3. It selects and purchases school sites.
4. It is concerned with the selection, supervision and inspection of the teachers
and other employees. It also pays the teachers and other employee and promotes
them.5. It arrange for in-service education and refresher courses for the teaching
staff. 6. It ensures co-operation with the staff and promotes in them esprit de
corps. 7. It selects and arranges the supply of textbooks. 8. It provides assistance
in curriculum construction. 9. It provides health services medical supervision.
10. It makes provision for extracurricular activities. 11. It takes school census,
organizes and makes proper use of them. 12. It ensures the regular attendance
of the pupils. 13. It arranges for the guidance of pupils. 14. It maintains school
records and accounts.
Besides these activities there are many other activities which are of special
nature and occur at special occasions. The management has to pay full attention
to them as well.
Importance Institutional planning and management:
Importance of Institutional planning: The importance of Institutional
planning is as follows:
1. Proper direction and base for educational planning.
2. Maximum utilization of resources.
3. Betterment and improvement of the institution.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 179

4. Provision for teamwork.


5. Democratic approach to planning.
6. Encourages initiative of the individual teacher.
The importance of Institutional planning is emphasized by the Education
Commission in the following words; No comprehensive program of
educational development can ever be put across unless it involves every
educational institution and all the factors connected with it, its teachers, Students
and the local community and unless it provides the necessary inducements to
make their best efforts.
Importance Institutional Management: Institutional management deals with
all kinds of institution, how to manage an institute like- may be an educational
institution, may be a political institution, may be an industrial institution etc.
According to Peter Durcker, Management is what the Modern world is all
about, This statement means that all the development that has taken place in
the world is due to efficient management:
The points below bring out the importance of management:
1. Encourages Initiative : Management encourages initiative. Initiative
means to do the right thing at the right time without being told or influenced by
the superior. The employees should be encouraged to make their own plans
and also to implement these plans. Initiative gives satisfaction to employees
and success to organization.
2. Encourages Innovation: Management also encourages innovation in
the organization. Innovation brings new ideas, new technology, new methods,
new products, new services, etc. This makes the organization more competitive
and efficient.
3. Facilitates growth and expansion: Management makes optimum
utilization of available resources. It reduces wastage and increase efficiency.
It encourages team work and motivates employees. It also reduces absenteeism
and labor turnover. All this results are growth, expansion and diversification
of the organization.
4. Improves life of workers: Management shares some of its profits with
the workers. It provides the workers with good working environment and
conditions. It also gives the workers many financial and non-financial incentives.
All this improves the quality of life of the workers.
5. Improves corporate image: If the management is good, then the
organization will produce good quality goods and services. This will improve
the goodwill and corporate image of the organization. A good corporate image
brings many added benefits to the organization.
6. Motivates employees: Management motivates employees by providing
financial and non-financial incentives. These incentives increase the willingness
and efficiency of the employees. This results in boosting productivity and
profitability of the organization.
7. Optimum use of resources: Management brings together the available
180 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

resources. It makes optimum (best) use of these resources. This brings best
results to the institution.
8. Reduces wastage: Management reduces the wastage of human, material
and financial resources. Wastage is reduced by proper production planning
and control. If wastage is reduced then productivity will increase.
9. Increases efficiency: Efficiency is the relationship between returns and
cost. Management uses many techniques to increase returns and to reduce
costs. Higher efficiency brings many benefits to the organization.
10. Improves relations: Management improves relations between
individuals, groups, departments and between levels of management. Better
relations lead to better team work. Better team work brings success to the
organization.
11. Reduces absenteeism and labor turnover:
Absenteeism means the employee is absent without permission.
Labor Turnover means the employee leaves the organization.
Labor absenteeism and turnover increases the cost and causes many
problems in the smooth functioning of the organization. Management
uses different techniques to reduce absenteeism and labor turnover in
the organization.
12. Encourages Team Work: Management encourages employees to work
as a team. It develops a team spirit in the organization. This unity brings success
to the organization.
Improvement: Every institution must prepare a List of Improvement
programmes, along with details of each programme. The programmes can be
Long term or short term in nature. Each improvement programme must be
specific in terms of: 1. Utility for the institution. 2. Financial implications. 3.
Objectives must be stated in clear terms. 4. The programmes must be clearly
outlined in terms of tasks. 5. Each task must be specified in terms of: Resources
required, Time schedule for each task, Expected output.
Findings: A good institutional planning makes easy to any kind of institutional
management. All kinds of good institution will need a planning for proper
management. A planning gives an instruction for good management. If any
institution there has good planning and management then development will
come first. So, higher educational institution cannot make quality education
without any proper planning and management. A higher educational institution
will need a good planning and management for proper growth and development
of the institution. Good planning and management is a backbone for any kind
of Higher Education institution for effective and quality education. Institutional
planning and management always reduce the institutional complexity, saving
time, fulfill the any kind of shortage, fulfill the institutional demand, reduce
the material crisis, reduce the economic crisis, and help for progressing etc.
Conclusion: Institutional planning and management is very important for study
in higher education system. It is a process against traditional institution system
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 181

of education. The planning undertaken by an institution with regard to its aims,


objectives, ideals, values and existing or possible resources for executing its
day to day functions effectively and moving towards the pathway success,
improvement and development. Management provides guidance and direction
to individual relating to organization and tries to link up different aspects. So,
Institutional planning and management is a key of institutional development.
If planning and management is not systematic then the institutional development
is impossible. In the higher educational institution should have needed proper
planning and management for quality education. It indicates the institutional
achievement and progress.
======================
References :
1. Kochar.S.K, School administration and management2011, T.S. Kochar,
ISBN 9788120747883, Sterling Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110020
2. Sidhu.K.S, School Organisation and Aministration1996 Kulbir Singh sidhu,
ISBN 9788120717435, Sterling Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110020
6. www.uwc.ac.za/IA/Pages/Institutional-PlanningManagement.aspx
7. www.sathitech.blogspot.com/2009/04/institutional-planning.html
8. https://www.adelaide.edu.au/planning/ippf
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Transition from Cash to Cashless Economy-a case


study in Guwahati of Kamrup District
* AnuradhaBhuyan
==========================================================
Abstract- The Digital India programme is a flagship programme of the
Government of India with a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered
society and knowledge economy. "Faceless, Paperless, Cashless" is one of
professed role of Digital India.In India the demonetisation announced at prime
time by Prime Minister NarendraModi on November 8,2016 is among the
rare,bold economic policy decisions in the history of independent India which
has bought a marked fall in the use of cash transactions in India and thus
paved the way for the transition to a cashless economy.Online transactions will
allow the government to keep a check on payments and lessen the possibility of
black money in the economy,thus such an economy will depend on online
transactions rather than cash payments.Amidstthis,Assam already started the
journey towards cashless economy and various proactive steps are being taken
by the State government to reduce the dependence on cash.This study examines
the cognitive and emotional associations that people have with payment modes
in order to ascertain if and how these associations impact on adoption of payment
mode choice.Suggestions shall be cited eventually to accelerate the participation
of the people in adopting digital payments.
==========================================================
Keywords: cashlesseconomy,cash-centric
Introduction: A cashless economy is defined as a situation where there is
very little flow of cash in the society and thus much of the purchases are done
by the electronic media.These media can be debit cards,electronic fund transfer,
mobilepayments, internetbanking,etc.The Vision-2018 for Payment and
Settlement Systems in India brought by the RBI in June 2016 reiterates the
commitment to encourage greater use of electronic payments by all sections
of society as to achieve a less-cashsociety. On 8 November 2016, Prime
Minister NarendraModi announced the biggest-ever demonetisation exercise
India has ever seen by abruptly withdrawing Rs 500 and Rs 1,000 notes from
public use in a bid to clamp down on black money, fake currency menace,
terror funding and corruption. The move pushed millions of new users into the
fold of the digital economy. Guwahati,commonly known as the Gateway to
the North East is the largest city of Assam and is one of the fastest growing
===========================
* Lecturer , Icon Commerce College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 183

cities in India,situated on the South Bank of Brahamaputra River.It is the


commercial hub of the region with a high rate of varied population migrating
from different places on account of various social and economic factors.
Cashless transactions which is the latest buzzword in the countrys
economic arena,the Assam Government took several initiatives to promote
cashless economy like launching of e-walletTokapoisa.inwhich is a portal
for enabling cash economy,organising digidhanmela an awareness campaign
among citizens and merchants encouraging them to shift to digital mode,etc.It
has also given various incentives to customers who opt for digital mode of
payment since demonetisation.
Modes of cashless transactions:
1. Online Transfer:NEFT or RTGS which help one-to-one and business-
to-business funds transfer.
2. Credit Card or Debit Card: Credit card or debit card is another cashless
payment method.The limitation of this payment method is an availability
of swipe card facility (PoS) at merchant end.
3. Internet Banking:Internet banking, also known as online banking, e-
banking or virtual banking, is an electronic payment system that enables
customers of a bank or other financial institution to conduct a range of
financial transactions through the financial institutions website.
4. E-Wallets: E-Wallet is next cashless payment option. E-Wallet can be
used to purchase products starting from grocery to airline tickets.
5. UPI Apps: Unified Payments Interface which Inter connects banks to
help transfer funds.
6. Aadhaar Enabled Payment System:Aadhaar Enabled Payment
System(AEPS) is a bank led model which allow online financial inclusion
transaction at micro-ATM through the business correspondent of any
bank using the Aadhaar authentication.
7. Unstructured Supplementary Service Data(USSD):It helps link
mobile number and bank account to make payment.
Objectives:
1. To study the perception of the people regarding adoption of cashless
transactions.
2. To study the factors that act as facilitators for the preference over cashless
mode.
3. To study the worries/demotivating factors hampering them to switch
over to cashless mode.
Significance of the study:
The study will give various insights into the various implications of the
introduction of the cashless policy on the economy ofAssam.Various challenges
and prospects identified in the study will also enable various stakeholders to
tackle these challenges effectively by making policies that will address them
and boost the economy of India and Assam in particular.
184 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Research Methodology:
Sources of Data:
a. Primary Data: Questionnaire was used as the main source of collecting
primary data.
b. Secondary Data: Various online journals and internet was used as the
source of collecting secondary data.
Sample Size: The sample size for this study is 100 respondents.
Research Instrument:Questionnaire with close-ended questions was used
as a research instrument in this study.
Study Area:The study was conducted in Guwahati cityof Kamrup District.
Sampling Method:Random Sampling Method was used in this study.
Research Design: The research is both Analytical and Descriptive in nature.
Analysis and Findings:
ATM is very frequently used mode of money withdrawal amongst the
residents of the Guwahati city which helps us to interpret that the economy
is still cash-centric.
Cash is considered as the most popular mode of transaction in the city
followed closely by smart cards.The banking cards such as debit cards
and credit cards are in existence for a long while now in city and are
acceptable at most of the purchase counters as well as for online
transactions.Thus,at present the adoption rate of banking cards is much
higher than the mobile wallets.Other modes of payments such as
USSD,AEPS,UPI,etc.are very recently introduced in the eco-system and
are still in the innovator stage in the product-adoption life-cycle.
The mobile wallet users are basically the youngsters who are tech savvy
and they prefer Paytm compared to rest of the e-wallets.
The findings reveal that while a section of the people are getting
comfortable with cashless payments, some mindset issues are holding
back many from embracing the newer platforms.
Factors facilitating to switch over to cashless mode

Most people switch to digital payments for its sheer convenience.The


Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 185

ease of conducting financial transactions is probably the biggest motivator to


go digital.Along with it,attractive offers also acts as a motivating factor for
some people to adopt the cashless mode.There are lots of cashback offers and
discount offered by mobile wallets like Paytm,as well as the reward points and
loyalty benefits on existing card and store cards.Also time to time various
incentives are offered by the government for choosing digital mode of payment.
Factors demotivating to switch over to cashless mode

Concerns around the security of transactions and identity theft still prevent
majority of the people of the city from moving over to the digital payment
platforms.Since the people are culturally not attuned to digital transactions,even
well-educated person run the risk of falling into phishing traps. Given the tedious
process and poor grievance redressal mechanism system, people will have no
easy recourse if they lose money online. Merchant Acceptance is another
significant factor as they prefer not to keep records in order to avoid paying
taxes. Lack of technology knowledge also cannot be overlooked as it acts as a
hindrance for mainly the older section of the society who may find themselves
locked out of their accounts if they cannot download an app or do not have
cash.
Conclusions: In the current scenario,however,the city is in a very critical stage
in its digital journey. There has been a mixed response towards this cashless
drive in the Guwahati city and it is doubtful of its full acceptance throughout
the state.Cashless society is a welcome idea but higher level participations
are required.The government on its part is working at various levels to reduce
the dependence on cash.A cashless society for now,seems like a distant dream
but a less cash society can be appreciated.This is against corruption and will
stand India with developed nations.
Achieving a 100% cashless society will never be possible,but one can
always start from a less cash society and then move towards becoming mostly
cashless. However, move towards less cash economy depends on how
effectively we deal with issues like cyber security, online frauds, financial
186 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

inclusion into the formal banking sector, awareness campaign and proper
redressal system.
Suggestions:
1. Banks and related service providers will have to constantly invest in
technology in order to improve security and ease of transactions.
2. Like Pulse Polio Campaign ,the Digital India Campaign must be
conducted at mass scale twice or thrice in a year.
3. Till the time the penetration for online payments doesnt reach local stores,
the transition will never be truly effective. The government can intervene
at the local mom-and-pop grocery stores level to see that they accept
digital payments.
4. Special drives through schools, colleges, to educate the people about
the financial inclusion and digital transactions can help create awareness
about cashless/banking transactions.Also the government should tap the
enthusiasm of the youngsters who are generally tech-savvy to embrace
the new services and in turn, use them to educate the others to overcome
their discomfort and insecurity concerns.
5. Government needs to take steps to reduce the interest charged on debit/
credit cards.
6. A cultural and mindset change is required to bring people on board and
make them feel comfortable with digital payments.
======================
References :
1. Dr.ParasJain,RoshniBillaiya,SomanMalaiya,Khusboo Singh Parihar-Role of
cashless economy in India International Journal of Commerce and Management
Research ISSN:2455-1625,Volume 3;Issue 2;February-2017;Page No.59-60
2. Dr.M.Chelladurai,Dr.V.Sornaganesh-Demonetisationn,Unified Payment
Interface & Cashless Economy International Journal of Informative & Futuristic
Research ISSN:2347-1697,Volume 4;Issue 3;Nove,ber-2016,Page No.5654-5662
3. N.Ramya,D.Sivasakthi and M.Nandhini Cashless transaction;Modes,advantages
and disadvantages International Journal of Applied Research ISSN:2394-
7500;IJAR 2017;B(1):122-125;December 2016
4. http://www.businesstoday.in/opinion/columns/moneytoday/cashless-indian-
economy
5. M.economictimes.com Gains and drawbacks of digitisation
6. Byjus.com>cashless-economy
7. www.livemint.com
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Right to Education in India


* Bipin Chandra Nautiyal
==========================================================
Abstract- The 'Right to Education' is an Integral part of the organization's
Constitutional mandate which expresses 'the belief of its founders in full and
equal opportunities for education for all' and 'to advance the ideal of equality
of educational opportunity.' The Indian constitution provides right to live as a
fundamental right, is given wide interpretation by the Supreme Court in various
judgments. It has included 'right to education' under ' right to life'. Life without
education is just like an animal, who doesn't have tail and horn or in other from
'slave'.In the Indian Constitution, the educational provisions are guaranteed
an regarded as the fundamental right of the citizen. Many provisions have been
made in the Indian Constitution to enable the Indian citizens to exercise there
right to education. Right to education as enacted as article 21-A in the
Constitution under fundamental rights within article 21 was by virtue of Supreme
Court decision and by virtue of Parliament's will power. The Supreme Court
has implied the 'right to education', as a fundamental right from article 21. The
word 'life' has been held to include 'education' because education promotes
good and dignified life. The question arose the first time before Supreme Court
in Mohini Jain's case. The court accepted the Constitution does not expressly
guarantee the right to education, as such, as a fundamental right. But reading
cumulatively article 21 along with the directive principle contained in articles
38, 39(a), 41 and 45, the Court opined that "it becomes clear that the formers
of the Constitution made it obligatory for the state to provide education for its
citizens."
==========================================================
Introduction:
Right to Education is inserted in Art 21-A, vide Eighty Six constitutional
Amendment Act within fundamental right, rule of law, which have latin
expression of La Legalite. Rule of law is quite similar to American Expression
Due Process of law which connotes government on principles of law and
not of men. Law most really rule and that justice should prevail. It is therefore
the sole basis of administrative-Law-Structure. The constitution embodies
within itself the concept of Rule of Law as could be observed from Preamble
declaration : Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, Part III enshrines
fundamental rights of citizens as Art 21-A: Right to Education.
In order to achieve the objectives outlined in the constitution of India :
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Govt. Law College, Gopeshwar (Chamoli) Uttarakhand.
188 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Justice, Liberty, Equality and for eternity : Rule of law is the only instrument
available. Otherwise people will not be able to control and curb monopolistic
power and madness of Political parties which drains vitality from the rule of
law As expressed by the law commission of India in its fourteenth Report,
where there is no effective opposition in legislature, the legislature and the
executive in availably tend to be intolerant and some times even contemptuous
of the decisions of the Courts interpreting laws in a manner which they consider
to be opposed to their policies. This tendency to trample ruthlessly upon the
rights of the individuals with the aid of a stream roller majority is to be
deprecated. And this nation has experienced this truth.
United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) believes that education is an human right and achieving this for
all children is one of the biggest moral challenges of our times. The right to
education is an integral part of the organizations constitutional mandate which
expresses the belief of its founders in full and equal opportunities for
education for all and to advance the ideal of equality of educational
opportunity. In addition, the right to education is enshrined in the universal
declaration of Human Rights, the International convenant of economic, social
and cultural rights and the convention on the rights of the child.
History of Right of Education in India:
Fundamental Rights constitute the Ark of the constitution and Article
21 i.e. Right to Education is a flag mast of constitution since it is a right who
will really shine India, because our children are only the future generation. On
whose shoulder the future responsibility will be lying, hence this Eighty Sixth
Amendment. It was stated in the 86th Amendment that the constitution of India
in a directive principle of state policy contained in Article 45. has made a
provision for free and compulsory education for all children upto the age of 14
years within 10 years of promulgation of the constitution. We could not achieve
this goal even after 50 years of adoption of these provisions. The task of
providing education to all children in this age group gained momentum after
the national policy of education (NEP) was announced in 1986. the Government
of India in partnership with the state governments, has made strenuous efforts
to fulfill this mandate and though significant improvements were seen in various
educational indicators, the ultimate goal of providing universal and quality
education still remains unfulfilled. In order fulfill this goal. It is felt that an
explicit provision should be made in the part relating to fundamental right of
constitution.
The Indian constitution provides right to live as a fundamental right, is
given wide interpretation by the supreme court in its various judgments. It has
included right to education under right to life. So the democracy and full
freedom can be enjoyed by the subject of the state. The court has held that
right to education means right to life with human dignity full from in this case
the person or the citizen has the right to live his life in meaningful and dignified
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 189

manner. Life without education is just like an animal, who doesnt have tail
and horn or in other from slave. The individuals right to life will be
meaningless. If the state fails to provide it adequately education to its people
because such education is given to those children who are the future of the
Nation.
Education is the basic means for human development. It therefore merits
great importance in any human society. Primary Education is the foundation
stone of education. The medium of communication, language is taught to the
children in primary education. They are trained in general human behavior
and reading skills and their of visualization and comprehensions is developed.
These are the means of acquire advance education acts as the foundation stone
for future education. If this foundation stone as laid properly, the future education
runs smoothly. Thus primary education commands a very important place is
society, it is in dispensable.We know that right to education was a constitutional
right but after 86th constitutional amendment it has become a fundamental
right and fundamental duty for the parents In other words we can say that state
can be sued in the court and parents cannot demand their fundamental rights
until unless they fulfill their duty.
In the beginning, there was the provision of only fundamental rights in
our constitution but, through the 42nd constitutional Amendment in 1976, under
Article 51 (A), 10 fundamental duties of citizens were also added in the
constitution. Later on through 86th Constitutional Amendment in 2001, the
11th fundamental duty was added as K to the existing list of 10 fundamental
duties, which are as mother-father or guardian. They should provide opportunity
of education to children or dependents in the age group 06-14 years.
Various Provisions Regarding The Right to Education:
In the Indian constitution, the educational provisions are guaranteed and
regarded as the fundamental right of the citizens. Many provisions have been
made in the Indian Constitution to enable the Indian citizens to exercise their
right to education. The different provisions related to education in the Indian
constitution are as follows :
In the beginning education was in the state list. It was the responsibility
of the State Government to organize education. Whereas the Central
Governments responsibility was confined to the organization of education in
union territories, some educational institutions of national importance and to
maintain the standard of technical and higher education. Through the 42nd
Constitution amendment in 1976, education was included in the Concurrent
List. Since then the organization of education has become the joint responsibility
of the Central and the State Governments. At present, the Central Government
is responsible to formulate National Education Policy, to organize education
in the union territories, to establish coordination between the facilities of general
education throughout the country: to maintain the standard of higher education;
to develop the language of national importance and to organize higher education
190 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

and research institutions of national importance. Whereas the State


Governments are responsible for the administration of education in their
respective states according to the National Education Policy formulated by the
Central Government.
In the Article 45 of the Constitution it is declared that state shall endeavors
to provide, with in a period of 10 years from the commencement of this
Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children until they
complete the age of 14 year. State here refers to the Central and the State
Government both, through 86th Constitutional amendment 2001, free and
compulsory education to children upto 14 years of age has been made a
fundamental right. Such as Article 15(3) of the Constitution states that no
provision specially mentioned shall prevent the state (s) from making any special
provision for women and children.
Article 29 of the Constitution states that discrimination in admission, in
Government or aided educational institutions, shall be made on the ground of
religion, race, caste, creed and colour to any citizen of India. Presently this
rule is also applicable to the non-aided but recognized institutions and as well
as the public schools.
In the Article 30 of the Constitution, two provisions are made for the
education of the minorities :
All minorities whether based on religions or language, shall have the
right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
The State will not discriminate against any educational institutions in
providing, aid on the ground of language or religions managed by some minority
community.
As a result of these Constitutional directives, minorities are free to run
their educational institutions in their own way.
Judicial Trend:
Right to Education as fundamental right (Article 21-A) has been inserted
in the constitution. After the constitutional 86th Amendment Act 2001 has added
this new article after article 21 which has an amendment in 44th in the year
1976. The 44th amendment has amended Article 359 which now provides that
the enforcement of right to live and liberty under Article 21 can not be suspended
by the presidential order. This amendment is intended to prevent the re-
occurrence of the situation in future which arose in the Habeas Corpus case.
In view of 44th amendment the A.D.M., Jabalpur vs Shivkant Sukla1 is no
longer a good law.
Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the fundamental rights
to life and personal liberty by laying down No person shall be deprived of his
life or personal liberty accepts according to the procedure established by
law. The Article lays down that an individual can be deprived or his life or
personal liberty only under a law passed by a component legislature conferring
authority of the deprivation of either or both, and by laying down a procedure
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 191

for such deprivation.


The Supreme Court has asserted that the Article 21 is the heart of
fundamental rights in the case of Unni Krishnan V. State of Andhra Pradesh2.
It have enough positive contents and is not merely negative in its reach even
though Article 21 is in negative terms in the case of P. Rathinam V. Union of
India3. The Supreme Court has taken the view that in order to treat a right as
a fundamental rights. It is not necessary that it should be expressly stated as a
fundamental rights accordingly, the Supreme Court has implied a whole bundle
of human rights out of Article 21 by reading the same along with some directive
principle as laid down in part IV in the constitution. Right to education as
enacted as 21-A in the Constitution Part III under fundamental rights within
Article 21 was by virtue of supreme Courts decision and by virtue of
parliaments will power.
The Supreme Court has implied the Rights to Education, as a
fundamental right from Article 21. The word life has been held to include
education because education promotes good and dignified life.
The question arose for the first time before a two judge Bench of supreme
courts in Mohini Jain v. state of Karnataka4 in the following factual context.
With a view to eliminating the practice of collecting capitation fee for admitting
students in educational institutions, the Karnataka legislature passed an Act
purporting to regulate tuition fee in private medical colleges in the state . By
issuing a notification under the act , the Government fixed Rs . 2000 / - per
year as tuition fee payable by candidates admitted against government seats,
but other students from the state were to pay Rs. 25,000/- per annum. The
Indian students from outside the state were to pay Rs . 60,000/ - per annum.
On a writ petition filed by an out of the state student, the Supreme Court
quashed the notification under Article 14. In justification of the notification,
the private medical colleges head argued that they did not receive any financial
aid from the Government and so they must charge much higher fees from
private students to make good the loss incurred on government students.
The court accepted that the constitution does not expressly guarantee
the right to education, as such, as a fundamental Right. But reading cumulatively
Article 21 along with the Directive principle contained in Arts. 38, 39 (a), 41
and 45, the court opined that it becomes clear that the formers of the
Constitution made it obligatory for the state to provide education for its
citizens. 5
The Courts argued that without making the right to education under
Article 41 a reality, the Fundamental Rights would remain beyond the reach of
a large majority which is illiterate, the Fundamental rights including the freedom
of speech and expression and other rights guaranteed under Article 19, cannot
be fully appreciated and fully enjoyed unless a citizen in educated and is
conscious of his individualistic dignity. Further, life in Article 21 means right
to live with human dignity. Right to life is the compendious expression for
192 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

all those rights which are basic to the dignified enjoyment of life. Thus, ruled
the Court, the right to education flows directly from the right to life, and that
the right to education being concomitant to the fundamental rights, the
State is under a constitutional mandate to provide educational institutions at
all levels for the benefit of the citizens.5A
The main question before the Bench was whether it would be permissible
for private but government recognized educational institutions to charge
capitation fee for the admission of the students. The Bench characterized
capitation fee as nothing but a price for selling education and amounts to
commercialization of education adversely affecting educational standards. The
court characterized institutions charging capitation fee as teaching shops.
The concepts of teaching shops is contrary to the constitutional scheme
and is wholly abhorrent to the Indian culture and heritage.5AA
The Bench declared that charging capitation fee amounts to discrimination
on a class basis and is thus denial of Article 14 because a poor meritorious
students is denied admission to these institutions because he has no money
whereas the rich can purchase education. Such a treatment is patently
unreasonable, unfair and unjust. The court further observed in this connection.
The Bench thus declared charging of capitation fee by the State
recognized educational institutions as wholly arbitrary and as such violation
of Article 14 of the Constitutions. Referring to the fixing of Rs. 60,000/- as
tuition fee for outside state students in the impugned notification, the Court
observed:
Whatever name one may give to this type of extraction of money in the
name of medical education it is nothing but the capitation fee and as such
cannot be sustained and is liable to be struck down.6 Taking an absolutist
view of the State obligation to provide education at all levels, the Bench
observed:
We hold that every citizen has a right to education under the
Constitution. The state is under an obligation to establish educational
institutions to enable the citizens to enjoy the said right. The state may
discharge its obligation through State-owned or State recognized educational
institutions. Charging capitation fee in consideration of admission to
educational institutions, is a patent denial of a citizens right to education
under the constitution.6A
Another facet of right to education was interpreted in case of Haryana
progressive Schools conference (Regd.) Vs Union of India and others.7 It
was held that private unaided school, None of the provisions specifically
empower the appropriate Government or local authority to treat or direct or
notify or declare any private unaided school to be a neighborhood school. As
per the mandate of the 2009 Act a neighborhood school would to be established
by the appropriate Government or local authority where one does not exist.
Thus, even if in a particular area one or more private schools already exist, the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 193

Government would not be absolved of its obligation to set up or establish a


neighborhood school. There is no provision in the Act whereby the Government
or local authority could be considered to have discharged its obligation to set
up or establish such school by merely treating or declaring a private school as
neighborhood school. As per section 3 of the 2009 Act every child of the age
of six to fourteen years shall have a right to free and compulsory education in
a neighborhood school. If a private school were to be declare to be a
neighborhood school then all children and not only such as find mention in
S.12(1) (c) would be entitled o free and compulsory education therein, not
only in class I but in all classes from I to VIII. In that situation the private
school would be burdened with all the responsibilities of a government school
as defined in Section 2(n)(i). There is no provision in the Act where under
such an obligation/responsibility to provide free and compulsory education is
cast on the private unaided schools. Thus, it has to be held that there is no
provision in the 2009 Act whereby a private unaided school as defined in
S.2(n)(iv) could be declare to be neighborhood school.
Findings of The Case:
In Mohini Jain, the Court took an extremely expensive view of State
obligation to provide education to every one at all levels. The State should
provide adequate number of institutions of higher and professional education
as there may be need for. From a practical point of view, such an approach
was hardly viable, feasible and tenable in the present-day economic situation
of the country, for no State has the financial wherewithal to meet public demand
for professional colleges. The Mohini Jain ruling would have placed and
impossible financial burden on the State governments to provide education to
all. All private educational institutions would have closed down and only
government aided institutions would have survived.
The judgment in Mohini Jain stated certain postulates which, though
basically sound theoretically and idealistically, were hardly viable and feasible
and tenable in practice. For example, when the state in India has not been able
to introduce compulsory and universal primary education in the country so far
even after five decades of the Constitution coming into force, in spite of a clear
and specific Directive Principle to this effect, it seems to be an exercise in
futility to imagine that the Government can fully meet from its own meager
resources the full demand for higher education and professional education for
all those who seek the same.
Accordingly, the matter whether the State could permit private
professional educational institutions to charge capitation fee for admission of
students came to be reconsidered in Unni Krishnan by a larger Bench of Five
Judges. A more realistic view has been propounded now by the Court. The
matter was put in proper perspective by the court decision in Unni Krishnan.
The court has reiterated the proposition that having regard to the
fundamental significance of education to the life of an individual and the nation,
194 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

the right to education is implicit in, and flows from, the right to life guaranteed
by Article 21. But, Said the Court, the parameter of this right, which is not
absolute, have to be determined in the light of the Directive Principles contained
in Arts, 41, 45 and 46.
The Court has now limited the State obligation to provide educational
facilities as follows :
Every citizen has right to free education until he complete the age of 14
years.
Beyond that stage, the State obligation to provide education is subject to
the limits of the economic capacity and development of the State.
The obligation created by Arts 41, 45 and 46 can be discharged by the
state either by establishing institutions of its own, or by aiding, recognizing
and/or granting affiliation to private educational institutions. Taking note of
the inadequate outlay on education and limited economic capacity of the State
to finance education, the Court has ruled that private educational institutions,
both aided and unaided, are a necessity in India, but commercialization of
education cannot and should not be permitted.
Statutory Provision:
Responsibility of the Central Govt. and the State Govt. of Right of
Children to free and compulsory Education Act, 2009 (u/s 7)
(1) The Central Govt. and the State Govts. shall have concurrent
responsibility for providing funds for carrying out the provisions of this
Act.
(2) The Central Govt. shall prepare the estimates of capital and recurring
expenditure for the implementation of the provisions of the Act.
(3) The Central Govt. shall provide to the State Govts., as grants-in-aid of
revenues, such percentage of expenditure referred to in sub-section (2)
as it may determine, from time to time, in consultation with the State
Govts.
(4) The Central Govt. may make a request to the President to make a
reference to the Finance Commission under sub-clause (d) of clause (3)
of Article 280 to examine the need for additional resources to be provided
to any State Govt. so that the said State Govt may provide its share of
funds for carrying out the provisions of the Act.
(5) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (4), the State Govt.
shall, taking into consideration the sums provided by the Central Govt.
to a State Govt. under sub-section (3), and its other resources, be
responsible to provide funds for implementation of the provisions of the
Act.
(6) The Central Govt. shall-
(a) develop a framework of national curriculum with the help of academic
authority specified under section 29,
(b) develop and enforce standards for training of teachers,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 195

(c) provide technical support and resources to the State Govts. for
promoting innovations, researches, planning and capacity building.
Responsibility of the Appropriate Government (U/S 8)
The appropriate Govt shall-
(a) provide free and compulsory elementary education to every child :
Provided that where a child is admitted by his or her parents or guardian,
as the case may be, in a school other than a school established owned, controlled
of substantially financed by funds provided directly or indirectly by the
appropriate Govt. or a local authority, such child or his or her parents or
guardian, as the case may be, shall not be entitled to make a claim for
reimbursement of expenditure incurred on elementary education of the child
in such other school.
Explaination The term compulsory education means obligation of
the appropriate Govt. to
(i) provide free elementary education to every child of the age of six to
fourteen years, and
(ii) ensure compulsory education, attendance and completion of the
elementary education by every child of the age of six to fourteen years;
(b) ensure availability of a neighborhood school as specified in Section
6;
(c) ensure that the child belonging to weaker section and the child
belonging to disadvantaged group are not discriminated against
and prevented from pursuing and completing elementary education
on any grounds;
(d) provide infrastructure including school building, teaching staff and
learning equipment;
(e) provide special training facility specified in Section 4;
(f) ensure and monitor admission, attendance and completion of
elementary education by every child;
(g) ensure good quality elementary education confirming to the
standards and norms specified in the Schedule;
(h) ensure timely prescribing of curriculum and courses of study for
elementary education, and
(i) provide training facility for teachers.
Responsibility of Local Authorities (U/S 9)
Every local authority shall-
(a) Provide free and compulsory elementary education to every child :
Provided that where a child is admitted by his or her parents or guardian,
as the case may be, in a school other than a school established, owned, controlled
or substantially financed by funds provided directly or indirectly by the
appropriate Govt. or a local authority, such child or his or her parents or
guardian, as the case may be, shall not be entitled to make a claim for
reimbursement of expenditure incurred or elementary education of the child in
196 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

such other school.


(b) ensure availability of a neighborhood school as specified in Section 6;
(c) ensure that the child belonging to weaker section and the child belonging
to disadvantaged group are not discriminated against and prevented from
pursuing and completing elementary education on any grounds;
(d) maintain records of children upto the age of fourteen years residing within
its jurisdiction, in such manner as may be prescribed;
(e) ensure and monitor admission, attendance and completion of elementary
education by every child residing within its jurisdiction;
(f) provide infrastructure including school building, teaching staff and
learning material;
(g) provide special training facility specified in Section 4;
(h) ensure good quality elementary education confirming to the Standards
and norms specified in the Schedule;
(i) ensure timely prescribing or curriculum and courses of study for
elementary education;
(j) provide training facility for teachers;
(k) ensure admission of children of migrant families;
(l) monitor functioning of schools within its jurisdiction, and
(m) decide the academic calendar.
Conclusion:
In various cases the Apex court has held that the fundamental right is
most precious human right and is a flag mast of all other rights. Therefore it
must be interpreted in a broader and expensive spirit. So as invest it with
significance and vitality, which may endure for years to come enhance the
dignity of the individual and the worth of human person. Court further observed
that right to live enshrined in Article 21 can not be restricted to mere animal
existence. It means something more than just physical survival, thus court
held that right to live include with human dignity and all that goes long with it,
namely the bare necessities of life such as adequate nutrition, clothing, shelter
and facilities for reading, writing and expressing oneself in diverse form of
free moments and co-mingling with fellow human beings are part of the right
to live with dignified manner. Therefore respect of human is not just a matter
of a deep study in axiology for an estimate of comparative value in ethical,
social, political or an aesthetic problem, but the matter of acknowledge of a
truth already recognized by our constitution, when its opening chant excludes
the culture nobility for a fraternity that assures the dignity of individual.
To conclude at present the aim of primary education in our country are
clearly defined and its core curriculum is also prepared. In the meantime to
solve all these problems it is necessary the right to education act, 2009 for the
children between the age of 06-14 years are implemented and he Government
should increase its budget for education and ensured that money is properly
utilized at every level, individual cooperation should be encouraged which
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 197

should be under the Government control, the responsibility of every personal


related to the field of education, specially of the administrative officials and of
the teachers should be fixed. If everyone performs his duty with honesty and
devotion much can be achieved within limited resources. The control over the
increase in population in an essential prerequisite to the solution of any problems
of a country, therefore effective measures should be taken to check its increase
in stand of indulging in politics of vote.
I would like to conclude by stating that peace and harmony has to be
maintained, which will flourish prosperity among the society then its only
judiciary who by being active in interpreting the terms of right to education
under the terms of human dignity or by the inculcating various inter-national
conventions of the declaration. Precedents and ancient cultural heritage witch
test about protecting human dignity as they have done in many cases. Now its
only the judiciary who can protect the fundamental rights of a citizen as well
as the person. But my personal opinion is that ones own wisdom is also
responsible for uplifting the education in the society, like many NGOs are
working in this field for upliftment of weaker section of the society. Still it is
our bonafied duty to educate our children. Ones we are fulfilling our duty; we
are authorized to demand our rights, which are mentioned under the
fundamental rights.
======================
References :
1. AIR 1976 SC 1207
2. AIR 1993 SC 2178
3. AIR 1994 SC 1844
4. (1992) 3 S.C.C. 666
5. (1992) 3 S.C.C. 666 at 677
5A (1992) 3 S.C.C. 666 at 680
5AA Ibid at 680
6. (1992) 3 S.C.C. 666 at 668, 669
6A (1992) 3 S.C.C. 666 at 682
7. AIR 2016 Punjab & Haryana 103
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Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Ethnicity in Bhutan: Causes and Effects


* Roshna Devi
==========================================================
Abstract- Bhutan is a small landlocked Buddhist kingdom with an area of 38,394
square kilometres. Bhutan is strategically placed between two Asian giants India
and China, which turns it into a buffer state. Among its two neighbours Bhutan
has a close and cordial relation with India, which has been strengthened with
changing time. However, with China Bhutan yet does not have any official
diplomatic relations due to its expansionist policies as imposed upon Tibet in
1950s. As a landlocked country, Bhutan is always conscious to maintaining its
unique cultural and religious identity. Since 2008, Bhutan has entered into the
category of parliamentary democratic state, where as king become the
constitutional head of the state.
==========================================================
Like various South Asian countries Bhutan is also a multi-ethnic, multi-
lingual and multi-religious country. Bhutan was well known in history for its
beautiful scenery and ethnic harmony. There are at least five ethnic groups in
Bhutan these are the Sarchops, the Ngalops, the Bumthaps, the Kurtops and
the Nepalese. Till 1980s all these ethnic groups lives in a harmony under the
leadership of the king of Bhutan, however of late of 1980s Bhutan has been in
news for its ethnic problems. The Nepalese who were inhabitant of southern
Bhutan started the issue of ethnicity by raising their voice against the ruler of
Bhutan in name of cultural and lingual suppression. Before discussing about
the problem of ethnicity in Bhutan it is essential to briefly narrate about what
is ethnicity.
The word ethnic is derived from the Greek word ethnikos which itself
originated from the word ethnos which means heathen or pagan. The
Oxford Encyclopaedia English Dictionary, describes the word ethnic as a
social group having a common national language or cultural tradition... denoting
origin by birth or descent rather than nationality...relating to race or culture
(ethnic) group: ethnic origins. Ethnic identity is one of the most widely
discussed issues amongst the scholars, policy makers, community members,
and academicians. In the United States of America, ethnics as a polite term
was used throughout the Second World War to mean Jews, Italians, Irish and
other groups of people inferior to the dominant groups. Paul R Brass defined
ethnicity as, any group of people dissimilar from other people in terms of
===========================
* Ph.D, Research Scholar, NEHU, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 199

objective cultural criteria and containing within its membership, either in


principle or in practice, the elements for complete division of labour and of
reproduction forms an ethnic category. Today, most of the social scientists
use the term to refer a social group which consciously shares some aspects of
a common culture and is defined primarily by descent. Thus, ethnicity is a
sense of ethnic identity and sense of belongingness to a particular group or
community. It manifests the sentiments and emotions of a group which tries to
preserve their distinct identity.
Bhutan and its Ethnic Groups: A Special Reference to Nepalese or
Lhotshampas:
As mentioned earlier Bhutan has a multiethnic history from the time
immemorial. The major five ethnic groups of Bhutan were scattered in different
parts on ethnic basis. For example, the Bumthaps and the Kurtops lives in
central and eastern Bhutan, the Sharchops were mainly residing in the eastern
part of the country, the Ngalops mostly resides in western and eastern Bhutan,
and the Nepalese live mostly in southern part of Bhutan. Significantly, the
Bumthaps and the Kurtops were very less in number and a little have been
heard about them. The Sharchops were the earlier inhabitants of Bhutan; the
Ngalops were migrated from North-East India and north Bhutan. Lastly, the
Nepalese among most of them came to Bhutan only after the late 19th and
early 20th century from Nepal, Indian state of Darjeeling, Kalimpong and
Sikkim. The first four ethnic groups constitute the Drukpa Culture group who
follows the Mahayana section of Buddhism. The last group means the Nepalese,
by and large were Hindus. Though with the changes of time the first four
ethnic groups integrated themselves and the Ngalops became the ruling elite,
the Nepalese were not integrated with these group due to its distinct religious
and cultural identity.
Most of the Nepalese have been residing in Bhutan for only three or four
generations. They follow the religion of Hinduism, their language, dress, culture;
food habits differ sharply from the Bhutanese socio-politico- cultural
mainstream. The Nepalis are described as Southern or Lhotshampas because
they are mainly confined to the south.
If we study the history of Nepali ethnic group in Bhutan then we can
found that, after the Treaty of Sinchula in 1865 which terminated the Anglo-
Bhutanese war, Nepali immigration into Bhutan started on a small scale. There
is no authentic account of Nepali immigration into Bhutan; it was assumed the
first Nepali settlement took place approximately 107 years ago. Nepali
settlements in Bhutan were mainly confined to its southern region. The Nepali
immigration from Nepal to Bhutan in this period was related with the invitation
from Bhutanese government to develop the uninhabited and wild southern
Bhutan for agricultural purposes. After the settlement of these Nepali
immigrants in the area, it became the countrys primary supplier of food and a
source of collecting revenue. The Nepalese assumed an important role first as
200 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

cultivators and eventually as businessmen, teachers and civil servants. Hence,


we can say that Nepali immigration to Bhutan was associated with the royal
initiative. In 1958, the population of Nepalese in Bhutan was estimated as
seventy thousands. They were granted full citizenship of Bhutan in 1958 and
these people were distinguished as Lhotshampas. In the same year the National
Assembly of Bhutan declared the 1958 as a cut- off year for granting Bhutanese
citizenship by the Nationality Act of 1958. So, till then there was no ethnic
issues in Bhutan but later problem started when the population of Nepali
migrants has increased in the southern region to such extent that it create a
threat to the existing Drukpa Culture of the country.
The next influx of Nepali migrants into Bhutan began in 1961, when
Bhutan had entered into a phase of planned model of economic development.
Unlike the previous immigration which was encouraged by Bhutanese
government the next phase of immigration was later on announced as an illegal
one. These illegal peoples were known in Bhutan as Ngalops. The Bhutanese
government assumed that these people were encouraged to come to Bhutan
by their Lhotshampas relatives for job. Another reason for such illegal
immigration to Bhutan was closely associated with high unemployment rate
and poverty that existed in their own country (Nepal). Similarly, due to the
active connivance of the local people and some of the corrupt public officials
(mostly the ethnic Nepalese) that prevented the government from realising
such massive scale of illegal immigration that had taken place since 1961. The
Bhutanese feared that if influx of Nepalese into Bhutan continues in the next
few years, Bhutan may become a Nepali majority state. So focusing on the
fact this aspect the government of Bhutan decided to conduct a census in
1988. However the failure of Bhutan to have an authentic census has made the
matters worse. The Nepali people of Bhutan started in alleging that a policy of
discrimination is being pursued against them by the ruling elites of Bhutan.
Causes of ethnicity in Bhutan:
If we analyse the causes of rise of ethnicity in Bhutan, then we can
mention the following aspects as the root causes of emergence of ethnicity-
1. The census started in 1988 by Bhutanese government which adopted
1958 as the cut- off year in gaining Bhutanese citizenship creates a strong
dissatisfaction among the Nepalese of Bhutan.This census has declared a large
number of Nepali peoples as illegal consequently, some 28,000 people have
been declared as outsiders and they were declared to have lost their right to
vote.
2. On the cultural-religious front, the edict Driglam Namzah issued by the
king to adopt the Bhutanese style of living became a matter of serious
controversy among the ethnic Nepalese. A fine of Nu 100 to 200 was imposed
on those who violates of the dress code. The Bhutanization programme
initiated by the king further alienated the Nepalese community. The Nepalese
tried to project that the Drukpa Culture was being imposed on them. The
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 201

move of king, aimed at national integration, proved counter- productive as


many Nepalese took it as an act of cultural imperialism.
3. In case of language also, the Bhutanese government adopts a strict rule
where Nepali language was banned by considering Lhotshampas as a threat to
political and social order of Bhutan. In educational institutions learning of
Dzonkha the national language of Bhutan was make compulsory. Nepali
language was abolished from the schools oftongue. Nepali teachers and officials
were fired and Nepali books were burned. This act of government was also
related with the cause of emergence of ethnicity in Bhutan
4. In issuing of No Objection Certificate the government creates clear
division among the Bhutanese and Nepalese people. No Objection Certificate
pertains to clearance for transfer of students and for various operations of
Bhutanese farmers. The government said NOC should not be issued to those
students who have been actually involved in anti- national activities and to the
children of illegal migrants.
5. The green belt policy of the Bhutanese government is also considered as
one of the important event which has make the Nepalese antagonize of them.
Under this policy even the fertile land of southern Bhutan were taken over by
the government ostensibly to bring more areas under forest. This was considered
as a tactic of government to undermine the economic progress of the southern
people by snatching their productive agricultural land from them.
6. Various Nepali organisations especially All India Gorkha League entered
much before in Bhutan and started enrolling members for the league. After
1988, various political parties and organisations such as Bhutan Congress, the
Bhutan National Democratic Party, and Bhutan Peoples Party were formed in
Bhutan to address the problem of ethnic Nepalese of Bhutan.
7. Another grievance is that the Nepalese as well the critics of the then
government of Bhutan feel that while Tibetan ethnic groups were encouraged
to have children the governments population control programme although
voluntary, is directed towards the regions where the Nepalese population
predominates. Moreover, the inter marriage between Bhutanese and Nepalese
as encouraged by the king with an incentive of Ngultrum 10,000 was mostly
refused by the Nepalese. All these policies aimed at integrating ethnic Nepalese
into Bhutans national life were viewed by Nepali people with suspicion and
doubts.
8. The Nepalese also complain about the restriction on their movement to
other parts of Bhutan. Moreover, educated Nepalese point out that in many
cases they are passed over jobs and promotion even when they are better
qualified and experienced in compare to other people. They also point out that
they are harassed at check posts and asked to produce documents whereas
other people were not ask for such proofs.
So, against the census of 1980s and the above mentioned aspects, the
Nepali community of Bhutan raised their concerns that they are being
202 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

persecuted by the Bhutanese authorities for the different ethnic identity. They
continuously demanded to end the rule of monarch as an authoritative one and
started their agitation for establishing democracy in the country. In southern
Bhutan dozens of government properties have been blown up or burst, bridges
destroyed and busses and trucks hijacked. From government side, to stop such
tension they deployed police and military force to normalise the situation. But
incidents of rape, torture and false imprisonment against ethnic Nepalese make
the situation more worsen. Such tension among ethnic Nepalese and the kings
action to assert the Bhutanese culture led to the outflow of thousands of people
into neighbouring countries like Nepal and India.
Effects /Consequences of ethnic problem of Bhutan:
If we analyse the consequences of ethnic problem of Bhutan then we
can say that the internal problem of Bhutan became an international one by
involving countries like Nepal, India as well of various international
organisations such as UN, UNHCR, and Amnesty International. A longstanding
and heretofore low- intensity ethnic problem prevailing between Bhutan and
Nepal has caused considerable concern in the region of South Asia. Different
stand of involving countries further make the issue critical one. From Nepals
point of view the fleeing of more than 1 lacs ethnic Nepali people from Bhutan
is a matter of human rights violation. The denial of basic rights to ethnic
Nepalese by Bhutanese government is a matter of ethnic cleansing. Nepal
considered that the refugees were Bhutanese citizens who carries various official
documents which probing their citizenship. So, Nepal urges the government
of Bhutan to take back these people to Bhutan. On the other hand, Bhutan
refused to bring back those people who came to Bhutan in post 1958. Due to
this confrontation, Nepalese government requested India as powerful country
of the region, to play a mediate role to solve the ethnic problem. However,
Indias response to the problem facing Bhutan and Nepal has been very cautious.
Since both countries have excellent relations with India, so India asked Nepals
authority that they should be resolved the problem with Bhutan through direct
contact.
The consequences of ethnic problem of Bhutan can be discussed as
follow
1. Firstly, the ethnic issue resulted in emergence of refugee problem. The
people who left Bhutan due to the fear persecution from their own authority
crossed the borders of India and Nepal. However, Indias unwillingness took
the burden of Nepali refugees of Bhutan unlike its approach towards Tibetan
refugees compels them to took shelter in Nepal. These people were later settled
in the different refugee camps of Jhapa district of Nepal.
2. Secondly, due the problem of its ethnic Nepali people Bhutans identity
as a peaceful nation with ethnic harmony had been disrupts. The eviction of
more than 70,000 ethnic Nepalese people from Bhutan though is an issue
related to countrys internal politics reflective of its ethnic divide; their
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 203

concentration in refugee camps in east Nepal turned it into a crisis with extra
territorial dimensions. The involvement of UN relief agencies and human rights
organisations in the conflict and Indias refusal to play a mediatory role in this
connection has placed Bhutan in a very undesirable situation.
3. Another consequence of ethnic problem is that on the issue categorisation
of ethnic Nepalese to Bhutan, Nepal and Bhutan showed their different
standpoints. This has still created a strain relationship between Nepal and
Bhutan. The division of refugees in categories such as bonafide refugees evicted
forcefully, Bhutanese who have emigrated, non- Bhutanese and Bhutanese
who have committed criminal acts, has not made negotiation process simpler
as the two countries continue to disagree over the number of refugees who fall
in these groups.
4. Though Bhutan and Nepal started the negotiation process but it was
failed as two sides stated their different opinion on identification of these
refugees. Further Bhutans act of denial to receive the refugees of its country
has interpreted by Nepal as an act of ethnic cleansing, though the charge has
been strongly opposed by Bhutan. The relief agencies and the human rights
organisations like Amnesty International however portray a different picture.
According to them since many of people in the camps in Nepal have been
forcibly exiled from Bhutan so, they have a right to return to Bhutan.
5. As a big power of South Asian region India also has to face strong of
criticism from international community for failing to solve the ethnic problem
existed between Bhutan and Nepal. Rajiv Sikri in his book, Challenge and
Strategy: Rethinking Indias Foreign Policy highlights that, the western power
such as America, Britain, and Netherlands involvement to solve the problem
of Nepali refugees of Bhutan somehow shows the weakness of India being
unable to solve its regional problem despite being a big power of the region
6. As of July 2011, the governments of Bhutan and Nepal had held at least
15 rounds of bilateral talks with no practical solution reached; although
Bhutanese state media echoed Bhutans insistence on continued talks with
Nepal, it has signalled its preference for third country resettlement.
7. The problem of ethnic Nepalese of Bhutan has been solved to a great
extent with the help of third party intervention since 2011. Of the total Bhutanese
resettled so far, the United states of America has taken 81,192, Canada has
taken 963, Denmark has taken 874, Norway has taken 6,271, Australia has
taken 5,357, New Zeland has taken 874, Norway has taken 561, the Netherlands
has taken 362, and the UK has taken 358.( Human Rights Watch). Most of the
people resettle in third country were much or less educated and a large portion
is comprised of young population. It is needless to mention here that settlement
of these refugees in western countries is related to solving the problem of
scarcity of manual labourers as well as for its IT and Packaging industry.
8. Introduction of democracy in Bhutan in 2008 and providing representation
to Nepalese in the parliament of Bhutan is also can be termed as one
204 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

consequence of ethnic problem. After the ethnic movement of Bhutan, the


newly elected government gives more focus avoiding further ethnic problem.
They focus on equality and more budgetary allocation is being provided to
southern region to solve the grievances of the people. However, the democratic
process in Bhutan has been criticised as the refugees from Nepal were not
included in voters list and were not allowed to participate in the elections.
So, we can say that since late 1980s the problem of ethnic Nepalese of Bhutan
yet to solve. Despite the third country settlement there are more than 10,000
refugees still are in camps. Different viewpoints of conflict engaging countries
make the issue more critical one. Though the people were living in the refugee
camps in Nepal since many years but Nepal refused to consider them as its
citizens. The third country settlement of refugees of Bhutan although brings
some relief among them but presence of 10,000 refugees in the camps of
Nepal is still a matter of concern. The conditions of women in refugee camps
are termed vulnerable and pathetic by the international human rights
organisations. So, what is needed that the democratically elect government of
both countries should try to negotiate the issue and focus should be given on
dignified repatriation of remaining a small portion of refugees to Bhutan.
Conclusion:
Ethnic situations or problems anywhere in the world have shown that
different ethnic groups can never be integrated through repression. Negotiation
and discussion is a best method to erase the proximity of conflict. In case of
ethnic Nepalese problem of Bhutan what is found that both Nepal and Bhutan
has been given less attention on negotiation process as a result of which the
people residing in camps has to face different problems. In this context of
solving the refugee problem, the role played by UN, UNHCR, and Amnesty
International is very much significant. As since 2007, the UN refugee agency,
UNHCR, started accepting applications from peoples of refugee camps for
moved to third countries. After almost a decade of the resettlement programme,
more than 105,000 Bhutanese refugees have moved abroad. The vast majority
have started new lives in the United States with about 90 percent of the refugees
now abroad; the Bhutanese refugee settlement program is actually a huge
success since more often refugees never get the option to move.
The Bhutanese refugees were given until Nov. 15 of 2016 to apply to go
abroad. By the end 2016, UNHCR stopped forwarding applications for
resettlement. UNHCR aims to conclude the last chapter of the Bhutanese
refugee situation, working closely with refugees, the host community and the
Governments of Nepal and Bhutan, said UNHCR Representative
Kevin J Allen. As the third-country resettlement programme concludes
at the end of 2016, UNHCR projects that almost 115,000 refugees will be
resettled, with only 10,000 behind in the camps. The remaining population
either wishes to return to Bhutan or be locally integrated. In the event no
repatriation takes place by 2019, the UNHCR and the international community
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 205

are working under the assumption that Nepal government will be forthcoming
in finding a local solution. They are also assuming that the government will
take responsibilities in next three years for health and education of refugees,
while giving them work permits. From Nepals side assurance has been given
to take a decision as early as possible on this issue by involving different
stakeholders.
======================
References :
1. Grover, Verinder (ed.,), Bhutan: Government and Politics, New Delhi: Deep
and Deep Publishers, 2000.
2. Pal, Prosenjit, Democracy in Bhutan, South Asia Politics, Vol-15, No.3, July
2016, pages.52.
3. Rajput, Madhu, Indo-Bhutan Relations through Prism of History, New Delhi:
Manak Publication, 2011.
4. Mitra, Debamitra, Indo Bhutan relations Political Process, Conflict and Crisis,
New Delhi: Academic Excellence publishers, 2010.
5. The Kathmandu Post, UNHCR to exist Bhutanese refugee camps by 2019,
published on- 18.08.2016.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Ethnic Conflict and Internal Displacement in Assam


* Shrutilekha Barman
==========================================================
Abstract- In the contemporary political scenario ethnic conflict has become a
serious threat to the stability and integrity of most of the Third World countries.
These ethnic conflicts generally lead to violence and cause loss of human lives
and population displacement. It also results unmanageable situation of internal
displacement and refugees in the world order. Although the problem of internal
displacement is similar with the refugee problem, the situation of internally
displaced person is more vulnerable as they cannot cross the international border.
While refugees have attracted international attention and receive a formalized,
institutionalized system for protection, IDPs fall into a largely unaddressed
category where responsibility is arguably with the state in which they are
displaced. United Nations has well formulated guiding principles to deal with
the issues of internally displaced persons. The United Nations defines internally
displaced persons as "Persons or group of persons who have been forced or
obliged to flee or to leave their homes or place of habitual residence in particular
as a result of or in order to avoid armed conflict, situation of generalized violence,
violation of human rights or natural or human made disasters and who have
not crossed an internationally recognized State border". In India, though the
government's response mechanisms have been unsuccessful in addressing IDP
needs, it has often rejected the aid of international organizations and attempted
to address its IDP situation domestically at the state level.
==========================================================
The North East of India is one of the most diverse regions of South Asia.
Home to over 213 different ethnic groups and rich in natural resources, its
only physical connection with India is through a narrow land corridor better
known as the Chickens Neck. This geographical isolation is among the reasons
for its widespread underdevelopment while numerous complex political and
other factors are responsible for a sense of alienation. The isolation of the area
has its roots as early as the time of British Imperialism and was sharpened
after independence, when the region was cut off from its traditional trading
partners: Bhutan, Myanmar and present-day Bangladesh. The migration of
different groups at different periods of history from neighbouring areas has
made the society in Assam rich and diverse in terms of race, religion, language
and culture. Several armed insurgent groups have been formed, many of which

===========================
* M.N.C Balika Mahavidyalaya
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 207

resort to ethnic cleansing in order to defend their interests against a real or


perceived ethnic enemy. At least 50,000 people have been killed in such conflicts
in the North-East since Indias independence in 1947. Violence has broken out
in the states of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh,
involving at least eight different ethnic groups (Bodos, Nagas, Kukis, Paites,
Mizos, Reangs, Bengalis and Chakmas). The largest forced displacement
movements have occurred in the states of Assam, Manipur and Tripura.
A report by the Asian Centre for Human Rights claims that there are
over 300000 IDPs in Assam which is the highest in the world during 2014. It
has been studied that the main cause of displacement in Assam is ethnic conflict.
Monirul Hussain in his report A Status Report on Displacement in Assam
and Manipur has also stated that we can find three kinds of IDPs in the North-
East India, i.e conflict induced IDPs, development induced IDPs and
environment induced IDPs. Sanjib Baruah in his book India against Itself:
Assam and the Politics of Nationality has also cited that ethnic violence in
Assam is largely due to Indias formally federal but actually centralized
government structure. Indian State has failed to fulfill the aspirations of various
ethnic communities residing in different parts of Assam. Baruah again in his
book Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India points
out the relationship between the politics of ethnic homeland and displacement
in Northeast India. According to Baruah, displacements in Assam in late 1990s
centres around the demand for a homeland for the Bodos on the north Bank of
the Brahmaputra.
In Assam, resentment among the Assamese against foreigners, mostly
immigrants from Bangladesh, has led to widespread violence and displacement
of Bengalis, Hindus and Muslims. Ethnic conflict erupted in Bodo area of
Western Assam after an accord was signed on a Bodo Autonomous Council
without defining its boundaries. When the Assam Government refused to
include several hundred villages in it on the plea that they did not have a Bodo
majority, efforts to create a majority resulted in attacks on Bengali Muslims
in 1993.This ethnic conflict of Bodo and Bengali Muslim in Kokrajhar and
Bongaigaon has resulted into a large number of population displacements.
About 3568 families consisting of 18000 persons were displaced in this conflict.
Again in 1994 a section of Bodos attacked ethnic Santhal and there were large
number of population displacement. In 1996 violent clashes between Bodos
and Adivasis claimed 198 lives and led to the displacement of 2, 02,648 people
belonging to both the communities in Kokrajhar and the undivided Bongaigaon
districts. In 1998 clashes between the two communities claimed 186 lives and
displaced about 94000 people.
The Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills districts have been the main
scenes of ethnic violence over the past few years and the situation has become
increasingly volatile. In March 2003, fighting erupted between the Dimasa
and Hmar tribes over land holding and governance in the North Cachar Hills.
208 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Up to 5,000 people were displaced as a result of this conflict. Women, children


and the elderly took shelter in relief camps in the states of Manipur and Mizoram
(The Telegraph, 20 June 2003). Today, normalcy has returned with a peace
accord having been signed by both tribes. In late 2005, the Karbi Anglong
district witnessed one of the worst and longest spells of ethnic violence of
Assam. Such violence continued unabated for over one month. The two militant
outfits of this districts- United Peoples Democratic Solidarity (UPDS) and
Dima Halam Daoga (DHD) fought with each other resulting in mass killing
and violence in the district. This conflict has also affected the Bodos living in
the district. Thousands of families has been rendered homeless with Karbis
attacking the Dimasas in some places and the Dimasas retaliating in full measure
in other areas.
Violent Clashes between Bodos and Muslims in July and August 2012
left 103 people and led to the displacement of 4.8 lakh people belonging to
both communities in BTAD areas and the neighbouring districts in Dhuburi,
Barpeta and Bongaigaon.
In December 2014 the National Democratic Front of Bodoland(S) has
attacked on the Adivasis in Sonitpur, Kokrajhar,Udalguri and Chirang districts
of Assam. According to Asian Centre for Human Rights more than 80 Adivasis
including women and children were killed. Following this, the Adivasis have
also attacked the Bodo civilian. These attacks resulted displacement of the
largest number of people in 2014 in Assam. About 2, 87,182 Adivasis and
13,091 Bodos were internally displaced. Following this attack the Adivasis
has been demanding the recognition of ST status to them. Recognizing the
Adivasis as a Scheduled Tribe will have wider political changes. It may be
mentioned here that the Bodoland Territorial Council runs the administration
in the four BTAD districts of Kokrajhar, Chirang, Baksa and Udalguri. Under
the provisions of Six Scheduled of the Indian Constitution, political rights such
as reservation of the Council seats are enjoyed exclusively by the STs. 34
seats of the 40 seats in BTC are reserved for STs. Bodo leaders feared at
granting ST status to Adivasis and Koch-Rajbonshis will bring political
disadvantage to them.
The IDPs in BTAD areas has been taking shelter in different state
sponsored relief camps. According to 2011 report 222802 people have taken
shelter in 91 relief camps in Kokrajhar district. In Chirang 33846 people have
been sent to 25 camps, in Sonitpur 9862 people have been sent in 10 camps
and in Udalguri 3860 are in 9 camps. The people in relief camps fear to return
their home as there is lack of security measures. It is pertinent to mention here
that the conditions of displaced persons living in various state sponsored relief
camps are not well. The Indian government has failed to adhere to standards
laid out in the UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement and to
International human rights standards in its response to displacement in Assam.
The people affected by ethnic conflict have not been rehabilitated properly.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 209

Food shortage, poor hygiene, lack of access to sanitation and inadequacy of


basic amenities are some of the problems faced by the IDPs. Absence of basic
facilities like water, proper clothing, health care, education, security has made
their life more miserable.
Some suggestions can be put forth for the improvement of conditions of
the IDPs. The government must observe the principles enumerated in the United
Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement while dealing with the
issues of IDPs. Civil society must come forward to help the affected people.
The displaced person must be rehabilitated properly. To prevent ethnic violence
the state and the central government must take proper measures to bring all
conflicting parties into the negotiating table to solve the problem in a democratic
manner. The issue of illegal immigrants needs proper attention in a very sensible
manner.
======================
References :
1. Hussain, M.(2006). Internally Displaced Persons in Indias North-East.
Economic & Political Weekly, 41(5):391-393.
2. Barua, S. (1999). India Against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi
3. Baruah, S. (2005). Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast
India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
4. Hussain, M. and Phanjoubam, P.(2007). A Status Report on Displacement in
Assam and Manipur, Mahanirman Calcutta Research Group, Calcutta.
5. Talukdar, S.(2015).Killing Fields. Frontline, Volume:32, Issue:01.
6. http://www.achrweb.org/reports/india/AssamIDPs2014.pdf
7. COE-DHMA, 2ND April 2004
8. Assam has Worlds highest number of people internally displaced by conflict,
The Hindu, January 2, 2015
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Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Human Rights and its Hindrances


* Priyanka Kakoti
==========================================================
Abstract- In order to live with dignity certain basic rights and freedoms are
necessary, which all Human beings are entitled to; these basic rights are called
Human Rights. Human rights demand recognition and respect for the inherent
dignity to ensure that everyone is protected against abuses which undermine
their dignity, and give the opportunities they need to realize their full potential,
free from discrimination. The issues and points of views regarding human rights
and dignity have always been talked, discussed, deliberated and planned. But
after the sixty years of Indian independence an atmosphere for a life of human
dignity and well-being is a matter of concern. This paper is an attempt to throw
light on a smaller issue which does violates the basic human right which is
being neglected often by the authorities.
==========================================================
Introduction: Human Dignity is The Basis of Fundamental Human Rights.
Human dignity is inviolable and it must be respected and protected. The dignity
of the human person is not only a fundamental right in itself, but constitutes
the basis of fundamental rights in international law. The 1948 Universal
Declaration of Human Rights enshrined this principle in its preamble:
recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of
all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and
peace in the world. For this reason the dignity of the human person is part of
the substance of any right protected by international human rights law. It must,
therefore, be respected, even where a right is restricted.
Human rights include civil and political rights, such as:
The right to freedom of expression
The right to freedom of religion or conscience
The right to property
The right to freedom of assembly
The right to privacy
The right to vote.
Human rights also cover economic and social rights, such as:
The right to an adequate standard of living
The right to adequate food, housing, water and sanitation
The rights you have at work
===========================
* Research Scholar, Gauhati University
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 211

The right to education


Human Rights have a projection of universality but as a matter of ground
reality they are not the same for all people and societies. For some, especially
the well-advanced west, they are predominantly matters of civil and political
liberty while for others, the developing and under-developed Asian, Africa
and Latin America, predominantly they are also matters of survival. Human
Rights are therefore about being citizen of the earth, being part of an earth
family. Human Rights in my view are exercised to their fullness through
participating in earth democracy-the democracy of all life. And as earthlings,
our human duties to protect the earth and all her beings are the ground from
which Human Rights emerge.
Human rights belong to everyone, everywhere, regardless of nationality,
sexuality, gender, race, religion or age. Human rights are the rights a person
has simply because he or she is a human being. Human rights are held by all
persons equally, universally, and forever. All human beings are born free and
equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. To violate a human
right would therefore be a failure to recognize the worth of human life. The
present study is an attempt to throw light on some situations where human
rights are violated due to the intentional law-breakers and how they are affecting
the dignity of the neglected citizens of Assam.
Objectives:
1. To check out how far the public administration officials are able to keep
an eye on the law-breakers in Assam.
2. To find out the hazards face by the general masses due to the law-breakers
in Assam.
Methodology: The study have been carried out through Observation method
.The present study have been based on mainly primary & partially secondary
sources of data which will be collected from the Morigaon district of Assam.
And further the Jagiroad area is selected because it is the busy area of Morigaon
district and Asias one of largest dry fish market exist here. Along with it the
Jagiroad railway station is the part and parcel mode of transport for the people
of Morigaon district.
Explanation : The Constitution of India is the major law in India. The
constitution is the framework for political principles, procedures, and powers
of government. It is a set of rules and regulations guiding the administration of
a country. Its also the longest constitution in the world with 448 articles, 22
parts and 12 schedules. The constitution was made the centre of law in 26
January, 1950. Our constitutional law provides a framework for the creation
of law and the protection of human rights. The law is important for a society,
for it serves as a norm of conduct for citizens. It was also made to provide for
proper guidelines and order upon the behaviour for all citizens. Rules are
intended to move us in a certain direction that we assume is good, or prohibit
212 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

movement in direction that we believe is bad.


The Founding Fathers of the Indian Constitution had a vision of the Indian
society, which they wanted to realize through the Constitution. That vision
was primarily reflected in the Preamble, the chapters on Fundamental Rights
and Directive Principles of State Policy is the product of human rights movement
in the country. It is the duty of the State to guarantee what is said in the
Constitution.
Law is enforced by the state. The objective of law is to bring order in the
society so that the members of society can progress and develop with some
sort of security regarding the future. The state makes laws. Disobedience of
state law invites penalty which is enforced by the government by the power of
the state. Those who follow the rules and regulation of the state can be called
as a responsible citizen. And on the other hand, one can break the law because
of unawareness or some may willingly break the law.
In most of the states of India and also in Assam, the public administration
departments are facing a deep problem from the law breakers who are willingly
breaking the rules for their own profit. The centre of discussion of the present
study is those law breakers of Assam and tries to explore the problems faced
by the general masses of Assam due to those law-breakers.
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through
social institutions to govern behaviour, wherever possible. It shapes politics,
economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of
relations between people. The administrative law is used to review the decisions
of government agencies. And the people who disobey the laws are regarded as
law breakers. Some of the examples of the common law breakers are street
vendors, shop-owners and hawkers who often occupy the footpaths which are
only meant for the pedestrians. And obstacles for walking are a Human Right
violation. Such violations are also seen in the area of Jagiroad. The Right to
Walk should come as naturally to humans as the right to breathe or live. But
the footpaths of Jagiroad has space for everyone but not for the pedestrians as
it is mostly occupied by street vendors, hawkers, shop-owners, second-hand
vehicle sellers and garages. Various types of commodities has clog up the
footpaths of Jagiroad and in some places vehicles are seen parked on the
footpaths by used car dealers and bike dealers. In some parts the vehicles are
parked on the footpaths due to the lack of adequate free and pay-and-park
facilities. Cars, two-wheelers and rickshaws are parked near the footpath,
forcing people to walk on the road. Thus, pedestrians including school-going
children and the elderly being forced to walk on the road.
Not only do pedestrians have to risk their lives by walking on the busy
road but their movements also hinder traffic. Some cases of accidents are
being experienced by the people of Jagiroad. The area meant for the footpath
has now been taken over for parking and marketing. The failure to provide the
common man with a wide enough footpath, free of encroachments, garbage to
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 213

walk on was the major challenge at hand.


Conclusion: After analysing the facts it can be concluded that the pedestrians
have become most neglected citizens. Although they are risking their lives but
there is no one to speak up for their rights. It is seen that people are busy in
fighting for rights to freedom of speech, free expression or religious practices
but no one is trying to protect their liberties against encroachment by others.
While struggling for bigger issues it is necessary to overlook the very basic
rights needed in everyday living. Those rights are waking up in the morning
and going out for a walk, or getting off the bus in the evening and walking
home. And those rights are being deteriorated daily but the traffic police do
not show any responsibility of taking actions against the illegal parking and
vendors. Footpaths are made so that the pedestrians can have a safe and hassle-
free walk, but it is sad to see that the authorities have failed to keep a check on
the law-breakers and turn a blind eye on the problem.
In order to safeguard the rights of the pedestrians, awareness should be
created in schools and colleges and issue should be discussed like right to
education. The government should provide right infrastructure for citizens to
be able to walk freely and the police officials must look over whether the rules
and regulations have been followed or not. Frequent raids should be held and
the gaps between two raids should be minimised. The hawkers on both sides
of the road, the encroaching vehicles, the garbage-filled pavements and also
the pavements that doubled up as public urinals should be removed. It is the
traffic polices responsibilities to clear footpaths because pedestrians are also
a part of traffic. And if illegal parking takes place then traffic police should
take strict against it and try to put efforts to improve the conditions of pavements
around the Jagiroad town and make them pedestrian-friendly.
======================
References :
1. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/
2. www.humanrightsinitiative.org
3. Datey, A., Darji, V., Patel, T., Mahadevia, D., (2012): Walking and Cycling in
Indian Cities: A Struggle for Reclaiming Road EdgesCentre for Urban Equity,
November, Working Paper-18.
4. Crudden, C.(2008): Human Dignity and Judicial Interpretation of Human
Rights The European Journal of International Law, Vol.19 No.4, pp.655-724.
5. Chandra, U. (2007): Human Rights 7 th ed., Allahabad law Agency
Publications,Allahabad.
6. Adne V. &Sendstad, (2010): Theories of human rights in relation to
understandings of human rights education: the relevance to diversityUniversity
of Birmingham.
7. Tomuschat,C. (2014): Human Rights: between idealism and realismOxford
university press.
8. (http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/2959/Tocs%20tomuschat.pdf)
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Issue of Land Rights and Ethnic Conflict in


Assam: A Lesson from BTAD
* Nipan Haloi
==========================================================
Abstract- Issue of land rights has become a major problem in North-East India.
Due to land issue so many ethnic conflicts have arises in different point of time
in various parts of Assam as well as in BTAD. We know that land is an inalienable
part of human being and without land no people can secure their life. Due to
this land issue ethnic conflict become acute in BTAD between Bodo and Non-
Bodo communities. Therefore, through this article an effort has been made to
study how the land right becomes source of ethnic conflict in the area. This
study tries to analyze the particular burning issue of Assam with special reference
to BTAD.
==========================================================
Keywords: Land Rights, Ethnic Conflict, Assam, BTAD.

Introduction: Land is an inalienable part of human being. In particular it is


the source of life for tribes and all other communities. The relations of people
to their land and their activities based on this relation often result in the creation
of culture, tradition, economic practices. Out of all these, identity formation is
developed and nurtured for all other political assertion. In the post liberalization
period, land and peoples alienation from it has become one of the major burning
issues especially for the tribes. For the tribal communities, land is inherently
synonymous to their existence itself and as such they cannot live without land.
Today, it is argued that more than seventy percent of the tribal families have
practically become landless whereas ninety percent of this population depends
on agriculture.1
In Northeast India, land has always been at the center of most of the
conflicts because of its importance in the life of the people of the region,
particularly its tribal communities.2 The majority of tribal communities have
not learned any other way of livelihood except agriculture. The current
development paradigm and initiatives have conveniently failed to reach out to
the tribal world of this country. So it is important for us to agree to a principle
that land cannot be separated from Tribes and Bodos are no difference in BTAD.
Land Rights and Protected Tribal Belts and Blocks in BTAD:
In the BTAD, there are 49 tribal belts and blocks that have been notified
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Dimoria College, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 215

under the Assam Land Revenue Regulation, 1886. The state government of
Assam has notified that these blocks and many of the areas in the BTAD are
tribal blocks where transfer or sell of land from tribals to non-tribals is
prohibited. However, for ages, the lands of the tribals have been alienated in
these tribal blocks and belts. We cannot ignore that protection of Tribal Belt
and Block in backward area for the Tribal people are very essential. But it is
due to the failure of government to protect that Tribal Belts and Blocks the
problem has been occurred in this area. Moreover, while protecting the rights
of one community by violating the rights of communities cant be termed as
just. In BTAD by creating Tribal Belts and Blocks the rights of Bodo community
has been trying to preserved which is very appreciated but the rights of other
communities have been violated because most of the area have been inhabited
by other Non-Bodo communities before India got independent or for a long
year.
Immigration Issue and Encroachment of Bodo lands by other
Communities:
The issue of Illegal migration and also the issue of land encroachment
has become one of the most burning issues in present context. Nani Gopal
Mahanta in his article Politics of Space and Violence in Bodoland said that
the issue of illegal migration remains the single most variable for xenophobic
identity crystallization in North-east India in general and Assam in particular.
However, the debate on immigration is marked by two mutually incompatible
schools of thought-one group believes that Assam is flooded with Bangladeshi
Muslim immigrants; the other school denies the existence of such immigration.
Illegal migration to Assam is neither a myth nor a complete reality.3 There are
many scholar and security experts who deny the existence of Bangladeshi
immigrants in Assam. Scholars like (Verghese and Desai 1980) hold that the
illegal immigration issue has been exaggerated. Moreover (Das 1980: 859,
Hussain 1995:223-26) hold that post 1971 migration from Bagladesh is more
a myth and that there is no need to generate hysteria about a culture-in-crisis
in order to expel a few thousand illegal migrants.4 Moreover according to
Zamser Ali there is no basis of the changing of the population pattern in BTAD
areas because of infiltration of the immigrants. He said that amongst the four
districts of BTAD, abnormal increase of population was shown in Chirang
districts by 103% during the period 1971 to 1991. During the said two decades
a major part of Chirang-Ripu Reserve Forest area was declared de-forest and
a number of 24,000 people were given settlement within that area called
Koilamoila-Amteka in the year 1974. Amongst them about 12,000 were
Muslims who lost their entire land for erosion of river in their native places in
present Barpeta and erstwhile Goalpara Districts. At the same time, about
12,000 Bodo people coming from West Bengal and other places of Assam
were also allowed to settle in tha said de-resurved areas. Moreover he also
said that during 1991 to 2001 the all India average decadal growth rate of
216 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

population was 21.54% and decadal growth rate in Assam was 18.92%. During
the stated period, the Kokrajhar District of BTAD showed a decadal growth
rate of 14.49%, in Chirang District the rate was-0.8%, in Baksa District the
growth rate was 10.02. Although the BTAD District are being inhabited by
Tribals, Adivashis-Santhals, Muslims and schedule caste population having a
tendency of high growth rate due to socio-economic under development, during
the decade of 2001 to 2011 the growth rate in Kokrjhar district was just
5.19%, Chirang 11.26%, Baksa 11.17%, and Udalguri 9.76%. During this
period the all India decadal growth rate of population was 17.64% and growth
rate of Assam was 16.93%.
It has to be mentioning that with regards to this land alienation problem,
to protect tribal land in Assam; the then colonial British Government enacted
the Assam Land Revenue Regulation, 1886. Chapter X of the Assam Land
Revenue Regulation, 1886 provides for creation of tribal blocks under Section
161 and prohibition of the transfer, exchange, lease, agreement or settlement
any land in any area or areas constituted into belts or blocks to the non-
tribals. But the question is that how far the other communities are aware of
this protected belts and blocks? And due to unawareness of this regulation so
many non tribal people buy this protected land from tribal community. They
have purchase the land from tribal people in a very cheap rate because at that
time some tribal people had more than hundred bighas of land and due to
some personal problem they sold their land to other non tribal people. But this
matter was not given so much important. And before the creation of BTAD the
land issue was not so much common to all. As a result the Bodo leader now
wants to say that they are being alienated by non tribal from their protected
land and so many non tribal people has encroached in their protected land
while the common people do not knew whether they were living in the protected
tribal belts or in the state of Assam. Thus due to land issue the conflict has
occurred between Bodos and Non Bodos in different places in Baksa district
of BTAD. As a result non tribal people have suffered more and consequently
so many Non tribal people have been forced to leave the area.
Ethnic Conflict in BTAD:
If one looks back at the history of Bodoland both major and minor clashes
between the Bodos and non Bodos took place, which severely harmed both
the communities. Though it greatly affected both communities (Bodo-Non
Bodo) but basically it was the non-Bodo community who has had to suffer
more. In this conflict so many people are forcefully displaced from the area.
Since the last decade of 20th century nine major clashes rocked Bodoland. The
chart below represents the casualties and number of persons displaced. 5
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 217

Table 1.1
Death and Displacement in the Conflict
Year Causes Displaced Communities Affected Deaths
1991- 93 Bodoland Movement 60,000 Hindu Bengalis 61
July 1994 Massacre at Kokrajhar 1000 Muslim Peasants 113
Barpeta, Bongaigaon
October 1994 Massacre at Bansbari 70,000 Muslim Peasants 90
Relief Camp, Barpeta Bengalis
May 1996 Bodo- Santhal Conflict 2,50,000 Santhals, Bodos, Rabhas 198
1998 Bodo- Santhal Conflict 82,000 - Do- 186
October 2008 Bodo- Muslim Conflict 2,00,000 Bodos, Muslims, Garos 64
Nepalis, Biharis, Rabhas
July, 2012 Bodo- Muslim Conflict 4,85,921 - Do - 109
May 2014 Bodo- Muslim Conflict 496 Bodos, Muslims 46
December Bodo- Adivasi 2,36,349 Bodos, Adivasis 76
2015

Source: Deputy Commissioners Office, Baksa and Kokrajhar.


Moreover, there are so many Non-Bodo leaders killed by Bodo militant
group for voicing against the separate demand of BTAD, land issue and for
getting equal opportunity in all aspects such as jobs, employment, roads, medical
facilities, political rights and so on.
Conclusion:
Therefore to bring peace in Assam in general and in BTAD in particular
some important steps need to be taken. For instance, the Non Bodo community
should get equal land and other rights in BTAD in every aspects of their life.
Without blaming anyone, it can be said that it is due to lack of proper
administrative steps the conflict in BTAD is reoccurring again and again. For
that the Assam government, BTAD administration and district administration
have to take moral responsibility for the intermittent reoccurrence of conflicts.
Moreover going beyond from the narrow politics they should take some
development schemes for all groups of people and equal rights should be
provided and protected for all. Apart from that, according to BTC Accord i.e.
50% and more than 50% Bodo living village can be included in BTC. But
without giving importance to the Accord so many non Bodo living villages has
been included in BTC area. So if they can fulfill this promise then so many
problems can be solved. 6Again, in another provision of BTC Accord it is
found that the land rights of the people living in BTAD area must be protected.
Nobody can force the Non Bodo people (Adivasi, Santhal, Assamese, Minority
Muslim, Garo, Rabha, Bengali, etc.) to leave the area. So, for solving the
Bodo-Non Bodo issue this provision and promise must be followed by BTAD
administration in letter and in sprit.
======================
References :
1. Barbora, Sanjay. (2002). Ethnic Politics and Land Use: Genesis of conflict in
Indias North-East, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, Issue No.13
218 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

2. Baruah, S. (2008), Territoriality, Indigeneity and Rights in the North-east


India.Economic & Political Weekly, Vol.43, Issue No. 12,
3. Brass, P. R. (2010).The Politics of India since Independence. United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press
4. Deka, Hira Moni. (2014) Politics of identity and the Bodo movement in Assam,
New Delhi: Astral International Pvt. Ltd, 110 002
5. Deka, M. H. (2014). Politics of Identity and the Bodo Movement in Assam,
New Delhi: Astral.
6. Dev, Bimal j (2006). Ethnic issues secularism and conflict resolution in North
East India, New Delhi: Concept publishing house.
7. Dutta Nandana. Question of Identity in Assam, Location, Migration, Hybridity.
New Delhi: Sage studies.
8. Gohain, H. (1985). Assam: A Burning Question. Guwahati: Spectrum
9. Gohain, H. (1989). Bodo agitation and Ideological Blinkers, Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. 24, Issue. 40.
10. Mahanta, Nani Gopal, (2013). Politics of Space and Violance in Bodoland,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.48, Issue No 23
11. Misra, Udayan. (2012). Bodoland: the Burden of History, Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol.47, Issue No.37
Foot Note:
1. Banerjee, Nirmalya. (2011). "Tribal Land Alienation and Ethnic Conflict:
Efficacy of Laws and Policies in BTAD Area", Refugee Watch, 37 June, p. 50.
2. Fernandes, Walter. and Barbora, Sanjay. (2009). Land, People and Politics:
contest over tribal Land in northeast India, North Eastern Social Research Centre,
p.1.
3. Mahanta, Nani Gopal. (2013). "Politics of Space and Violence in Bodoland",
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 48, Issue No. 23, p.55.
4. Das, S K. (1980). "Immigration and Demographic Transformation of 1891-
1981", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol-15, Issue-19, p.19.
5. Nurul, Hassan. & Mofidur, Rahman. (2015). "Bodo, Bodoland and Beyond
Bodoland", published in Frontier States Essays on Democracy, Society and
Security in North East India Edit.(S) Alaka Sarmah and Shubhrajeet Konwer,
Guwahati: DVS Publication, p.3.
6. Mannan, Abdul. (2013). BTAD -r Sanghat: Prachar Bonam Bastobota, Guwahati:
Angic Press, p.14.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Social Media- A new battleground for


Indian Political Parties
* Bapukan Saikia
==========================================================
Abstract- In the process of globalization, development of Information and
Communication Technologies has opened the path to interaction and
participation of social actors. Nowadays Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter etc.
become the battleground for political parties in India. It becomes an essential
part of campaigning. Viral videos, Cartoons, Memes related with politics are
circulated through these new media known as social media. In India, the largest
section of social media users are youth voters. So, the political parties targeted
these youth voters through these use of these media. The political parties form
their own social media teams and they generate propagating content such as
cartoons and memes. By this way the political parties are giving social media
users many moments to laugh also. Launching digital campaigns, the political
parties set up some election war rooms. This field has also become a tool for
common people to voice their concern. Through the platforms of social media
political parties can communicate directly with the voters. Now political parties
are spending crores of rupees on social media campaigns and on war rooms.
But they refused to give details about the expenses. With the increasing usage of
smartphones social media are also growing rapidly.
==========================================================
In recent years the term social media has become a popular way to
describe a collection of online systems that allow for the production, storage
and distribution of user-generated content (UGC). Social media allows for the
creation of a virtual social space where groups of users can come together in
synchronous and asynchronous interactions. These interactions can be
structured (such as threaded responses to blog posts that are moderated), semi-
structured (e.g. the discussion amongst groups of friends within extended
Facebook social networks), or unstructured in nature (such as in Twitter, where
topics are not owned but tied together through the ad hoc application of
hashtags that can be used to locate and link together posts by a variety of
different users).1
Role of social media in democracy: In the words of Abraham Lincoln,
Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people.
Around the 1780s with the introduction of newspapers, media came into
===========================
* M.Phil Scholar, Assam University
220 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

existence and since then it has matured by leaps and bounds. Media plays the
most important role in a Democracy and it keeps the Government active. With
the advent of social media including Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, YouTube
etc. dramatically changed the way campaigns are run in Politics. The social
media is seen as a place in which public opinion is formed, and where
interventions in public opinion are possible by an increasing array of institutions
and individuals.2The Digital News Report 2016 by the Reuters Institute for
the Study of Journalism found that 51% of their sample use social media as a
source of news. According to the Global Web Indexs first-quarter report for
2017, 94% of digital consumers aged 16-64 say they have an account on at
least one social media platform and 98% have visited/used one within the last
month; one in every three minutes spent online is devoted to social networking
and messaging, with digital consumers engaging for a daily average of over
two hours. At least 78% of the Internet population aged 16-64 is now networking
via a mobile.3
K. Sasikumar, senior media person, has said that the emergence of social
media has brought more democracy to news coverage. He said that the new-
generation web-based news services had the potential to cater to the vulnerable
and marginalised groups in society, which were mostly ignored by the
mainstream media. The people have already lost faith in the objectivity and
credibility of the mainstream media as most of them are owned by corporate
giants or political powers. The Fourth Estate is not constitutionally or
institutionally accountable to anybody. Media have become power centers now.
The social networking sites have a key role in the current context.4Social media
increased political participation of youth and women day by day. It has
reshaped the process of contemporary political communication by influencing
the way politicians interact with citizens and each other. Social media making
societies more democratic. In a democratic country it acts as a major pressure
group also.
Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics:
Indians are rated as one of the most active social media users in the
world. The Internets socio-economic impact is becoming more and more visible
in India. The Internet is helping people of India in almost all aspects of life
such as education, socialisation, healthcare, communication, entertainment and
development. Now, after transforming many facets of Indian life, the Internet
has found new use and is emerging as a tool for political strategists and leaders
of political parties.5The political impact and use of new media technologies
the internet, social media and mobile communicationhave been subject to
specific attention. Over this time, the use of new media has moved from being
a novelty for parties, candidates, civil society organisations and established
media to becoming an important-if still secondaryaspect of political
communication in the electoral process. This new significance is seen in the
professionalization of channel management by political actors, heightened risk
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 221

management by political organisations, and increased use of international


knowledge transfer and learning. These changes represent an example of the
adaptation of wholly new communication technologies into the political
environment, and the interplay between technological possibilities and the
structural context.6
In India the 16th Lok Sabha election held in 2014 we saw the new trend
in Indian politics. Social media played a proactive role in deciding which party
wins the most seats. Congress was defeated and whole and sole responsible
person for it was Mr. Narendra Modi. He used all digital platforms as well
as offline channels to reach his audience. For the first time in India social
media was used so extensively during elections.
A report published in April 2013 by the Internet and Mobile Association
of India (IAMAI) and the Mumbai-based Iris Knowledge Foundation, Facebook
users will have a tremendous impact over the results of the polls in 160 of
Indias 543 constituencies and the reason for this is the youth of India. As per
Indiaonlinepages site 2014,shows that the most popular parties and candidates
were Aam Aadmi Partys Arvind Kejriwal, from Bharatiya Janata Partys
Narendra Modi and Rahul Gandhi from Indian National Congress. Mr.
Narendra Modi has reached 3.97 million followers growing his follower base
by 28% percent since Jan 1. Not to be outdone, where as Mr. Arvind Kejriwal
has raced to 1.79 million, an amazing 79% growth from the start of the
year.7The Internet in India is offering opportunities for people to participate in
interactive political social media campaigns and become political activists. It
is also helping voters to better know and chose candidates. Metrics such as
voter data and candidate details such as attendance in Parliament, criminal
records, when available on social media, will change the way the voter sees
towards a candidate (IRIS Knowledge Foundation & IAMAI, 2013). As per
present circumstances, it can be easily seen that Internet use will shortly bring
a paradigm shift to Indian politics. Presently, the Internet is providing new
opportunities for political mobilization and participation in India. In fact,
changing a lot of things for both leaders and voters. These, however, are still
early days for the Internet in Indian politics, and one cannot predict with certainty
how much will Internet will impact Indian elections which are usually designed
around sentiments, public rallies, and low voter turnouts, television, print or
radio ads, popular welfare schemes.8It will not be very effective using it as a
mere campaign tool. But if used as a platform to share the latest decisions
made by the Government and used effectively for active citizen engagement,
social media will show positive results for future Indian elections.
Thus, the role of the social media cannot be over looked as it has been
used in positive and negative ways. The advantages and disadvantages of social
media are discussed below-
Advantages:
It gives a platform to speak its users.
222 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Through the means of social media, one can immediately publish


information in near-real time.
Citizens political engagement can be increased by online political
communication.
Easy process of dialogue with sympathizers and potential voters.
One can use this medium to raise voice against social and undemocratic
actions causing political out-rest.
Disadvantages:
It will be difficult to use lack of resources, expertise or need for control
for political parties.
Sometimes offensive online behavior on social media pages poses
potential threats to its users. There are sometimes misunderstandings in
comments.
Social media fosters an inclination to speak without thinking things
through.
Social media decreases Face-to-Face Communication Skills.
Social media can help create something which does not exist or may not
be as good as it is presented.
Conclusion:
Social media has finally arrived as an essential element of the
contemporary electoral practices of Indian political parties, with visible and
significant impacts on the conduct of the 2014 Lok Sabha election and elections
to come. No politicians can undermine the power of social media. It can be
used or has been used so far by the political parties as a game-changer during
the time of elections. Social media have also become one of the important
tools for nearly all of the worlds political movements. It can be a potent
weapon to spread ones ideology, or at least get it to reach more ears. Citizen
should be aware about the nature of information being shared or published
through social media. Because the information shared through social media
may not be correct at all time. Social media made democracy more inclusive
from which nothing can be hidden. Accordingly, now-a-days social media is
acting as a new form voice for both the citizens as well as their representatives
where by creating public profiles and public pages, the users are making people
aware of their various agendas. Because of this, common people can debate,
argue without any kind of hesitation.
======================
References :
1. Chen, Peter John, (2013), Social media ANU Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
j.ctt2jbkkn.11
2. Chen, Peter John, (2015), New Media in the Electoral Context: The new nor-
mal ANU Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt13wwvm6.10
3. http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/punjab-assembly-political-parties-social-media/
1/869440.html
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 223

4. http://www.hindustantimes.com/assembly-elections/social-media-the-other-
battleground-for-political-parties/story-kPLNL4NYpl5tALeYpGrLtJ.html.
5. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/practising-journalism-in-the-age-of-
social-media/article18378995.ece
6. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/lsquoSocial-media-
brought-more-democracy-to-news-coverage/article15721879.ece
7. Kalsnes, Bente, (2016), The Social Media Paradox Explained: Comparing Po-
litical Parties Facebook Strategy Versus Practice Social Media + Society.
8. Katkar, Amol Sheshrao, (2014), Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics A
Business Research Management Proposal, Indian Institute of Management
Kozhikkode.
9. Wani,Gayatri andAlone,Nilesh, (2014), A Survey on Impact of Social Media
on Election System International Journal of Computer Science and Informa-
tion Technologies, Vol. 5 (6), 7363-7366
Footnotes:
1. Peter John Chen, (2013), Social media ANU Press.(http://www.jstor.org/stable/
j.ctt2jbkkn.11)
2. Peter John Chen, (2013), Social media ANU Press. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/
j.ctt2jbkkn.11)
3. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/practising-journalism-in-the-age-of-
social-media/article18378995.ece
4. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/lsquoSocial-media-
brought-more-democracy-to-news-coverage/article15721879.ece
5. Amol Sheshrao Katkar, (2014), Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics A
Business Research Management Proposal Indian Institute of Management
Kozhikkode
6. Peter John Chen, (2015), "New Media in the Electoral Context: The new nor-
mal" ANU Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt13wwvm6.10
7. Gayatri Wani, Nilesh Alone, (2014), A Survey on Impact of Social Media on
ElectionSystem International Journal of Computer Science and Information
Technologies, Vol. 5 (6) , 7363-7366
8. Amol Sheshrao Katkar, (2014), Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics A
Business Research Management Proposal, Indian Institute of Management
Kozhikkode.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Political Empowerment and Education of Rural


Women: Among some Social Groups
* Dipalee Neog
==========================================================
Abstract- Rural Development includes measures to improve the rural
infrastructure, improve income of rural households and delivery systems
pertaining to education, health & safety mechanisms. Government of India has
taken many steps to develop rural India. Ministry of Rural Development through
Panchayati.Raj Institution (PRIs) has launched various development schemes
such as Sampoorna Swachchta Abhiyan, Gram Vikas Yojna etc. Through these
schemes Government of India seems to accomplish its dream of rural India's
development. Although some loopholes may also be seen. Without overcoming
these drawbacks Government of India won't be able to foster the growth of
rural India. The process of political empowerment is possible if proper socio-
economic environment is created for holistic development of each and every
individual and thereby the entire society. Panchayats are such organizations
which are not only close to masses but also have adequate representation of
women and marginalized sections at village, block and district levels. This is
perhaps the broadest representative base which exists in any country of the
world. Keeping this perspective in view an attempt has been made in this paper
to examine the participation level of women in the Gaon Panchayats in terms of
some indicators with regard to the identified social groups of Kamrup district
of Assam.
==========================================================
Objectives: The main objectives of the paper is
i) to see the womens participation in Panchayats among the various social
groups
ii) to see the education and leadership level of the women in Panchayats
Data base and Methodology: There has so far been no readily available
authentic study based on direct and recent survey of womens participation
level in Panchayats sectors in Assam. As such the present study is handicapped
by an acute paucity of data at virtually all stages dealing with the study. The
present study is based on both primary and secondary sources. Secondary
sources of data have been collected from different volumes of census of India,
statistical handbook of Assam, District Rural Development Agency (DRDA),
State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD), National Institute of Rural
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 225

Development (NIRD), Directorate of Panchayats and Rural Development


(PNRD), Office of the Election Commission, respective Block offices, District
Rural Development Agency (DRDA), Kamrup District etc, and different
published books and journals. For collection of primary data, women involved
directly in Panchayati Raj Institutions i.e.Gaon Panchayats are considered as
sample units. For the purpose, questionnaire is designed to collect information
about the gaon panchayats women who are elected in three tires Panchayati
Raj Institution and their involvement in the Government policies and
development programmes.
The first stage of sampling consists of identification of community
development blocks viz Boko, Chandrapur, Hajo, Kamalpur and Sonapur to
represent the Schedule Tribe, Schedule Caste, Char Community, General Caste
and Tea Garden community population respectively. The Schedule Tribe
population constitutes a major share i.e. 51.14 percent in Boko C.D. block
against district and state average of 9.93% and 2.41 percent respectively. The
Schedule Caste population is found at17.12 percent in Chandrapur block against
the district average of 6.76% and the State average of 6.85%. A large portion
of the Hajo C D block constitute of riverine sandbars or chars. The same is
considered for representing Char community. Likewise a good number of small
Tea gardens are found in Sonapur C.D. block and therefore the block is chosen
for understanding status of Tea garden community. Kamalpur C.D. block is
dominated by general caste people. The second stage of sampling considers
selection of two sample villages from each of the blocks. For this purpose
Composite Z-score method is employed using 11 socio economic indicators
implying status of women. In the present study, the Composite Z-score is
calculated based on 11 Socio-Economic indicators for which 2001 Census
data is used. The Z-score values of the villages of each block are grouped into
five categories like Low (Less than -7.5), Lower Medium (-7.5 to -3.5),
Medium (-3.5 to 0.5), Upper Medium (0.5 to 4.5) and High (4.5 to 8.5).
Based on Composite Z-score the blocks may be viewed as per their status of
women. For this purpose the village wise Z-scores are added up to find out the
total Z-score for each block. This is followed by finding out of mean Z-score
for the respective block. Kamalpur block depicts a relatively brighter picture
occupying the first rank in terms of Composite Z-score followed by Boko
Sonapur, Chandrapur and Hajo C.D. Block. As such, for selecting the sample
villages two villages, one from Lower Medium (LMV) and the other from
Upper Medium (UMV) from each block have been considered for selecting
the sample villages,.
With regard to the study on political participation of women, number of
gaon panchayats in the C.D. block is not uniform. There are 12 gaon panchayats
both in Kamalpur and Sonapur C.D. block. Maximum gaon panchayats are
seen in Hajo C.D. block with 20 numbers followed by Boko and Chandrapur
with 15 and 4 number respectively. (Table: 1). At this stage two gaon panchayats
226 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

from each C.D. block have been selected on the ground that the sample villages
must fall under the selected gaon panchayats for the present study. A total of
30 women members i.e 6 from each Gaon Panchayat, have been considered
as sample units which constitute 11%, 37%, 9%, 15% and 16% of total women
members of the selected gaon panchayats of Boko, Chandrapur, Hajo,
Kamalpur and Sonapur C.D. block respectively. All the primary and secondary
forms of qualitative data are transferred into quantitative forms and analyzed
with the help of suitable quantitative techniques. Weighted scores and others
statistical techniques have been adopted in the study. Results have been
displayed with the help of graphs and tables based on which inferences are
drawn.
Reservation of Womens seat in Panchayat:
Womens wider participation in politics is essential for the strengthening
of democratic processes and the polities, political movements of different
sections of the people have an important responsibility to ensure that women
are able to participate in the arena of active politics. Reservation can only link
women to the politics process but effectiveness can only be realisd when women
are incorporated into the mainstream of democratic politics in an organized
manner. (Kurukshetra, 2007). 73RD Amendment of the constitution in the year
1992 reserved 33% seats for women in panchayats. Involvement of women in
the panchayati raj Institutions is expected to bring qualitative change in the
matters relating to health, nutrition, children welfare, family care, drinking
water etc. (SIRD, 2004). As many as 8720 women were elected out of which
117 belong to Zila parishad 746 belong to Anchalik panchayats and 7857
belongs to gaon panchayats which comprises of 30%, 34.72% and 33.47% of
the total elected members of Zila parishad, Anchalik panchayats and Gaon
Panchayats respectively. Fortunately the Participation of women in the
panchayats seems to maintain the required percentage share of 33%.
Womens Participation in Panchayat:
At this backdrop of Panchayati Raj Institutions of Assam and participation
of women there in, the present study attempts to analyze involvement of women
in the gaon panchayats with respect to their religion and caste, age and marital
status, education and occupation. Moreover, level of awareness in various
dimensions leading to political empowerment has also been discussed. In the
study area i.e. in Kamrup district same picture is also revealed. Participation
of women at the block level shows a wide variation with 75% in Kamalpur
block followed by 45% in Chandrapur block, 37.5 % in Hajo block and 13.33%
in Boko block representing general, Schedule caste, Char community and
Schedule Tribe community respectively. In Anchalik panchayat female
participation is found to be highest in Hajo (50%) followed by Chandrapur,
Boko and Kamalpur C.D. block with 30%, 26.66 %, and 25% respectively. It
gives us a clear understanding that the women membership strength is highest
among Char communities, followed by Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 227

and General. But the leadership in terms of presidential seat is highest among
general caste in Kamalpur block among general caste. (Table: 2).
Participation with respect to Education and Leadership
Empowerment of women through education will lead to their greater
participation in government and community institutions and better
entrepreneurial opportunities. More women in parliament and cabinets, chief
executive officers in major corporations, top administrators, managers and
civil servants will quicken the pace of progress towards equality and
empowerment. Having women in top decision making positions will also lead
to a better integration of womens concerns into the formulation of national
policies and development plans which in turn would result in developing the
full potential of women. At the backdrop of dismal educational status of women
in the sample villages, it is natural that educational level of women members
in the gaon panchayats also remains at a similar state. As such a major share of
women (i.e 83%) members in the gaon panchayats of Hajo C.D. block have
education at below matriculation. 33% of women members are merely literate
only. Similar situation is also observed in the gaon panchayats of Sonapur
C.D. block. The picture is almost clear that women with a very poor educational
background will not be able to contribute to the gaon panchayats at a desired
level. (Fig: 1). It is already revealed in the present study that educational level
determines the decision making capacity of a women. Again decision making
capacity is the prerequisite for developing leadership. As shown in table 1
women are contributing in the gaon panchayats as simple members only. They
constitute 87% of total gaon panchayats women members. Women members
are not being able to achieve the status of president as 1 of 10 gaon panchayats
is having women president. However, 3 women members hold the post of
vice president. In percentage terms leadership at vice president level constitute
10% of the total gaon panchayats members (Fig: 2).
Table 1:
Participation of women members in panchayats election of
Assam; 2001
No of
Name Of the Panchayat Total of General
SC ST Women
panchayati Raj where elected Member
member member Member
Iinstitution election was members Of men
Held
Zila 236 19 18 117
20 390
parishad (60.51%) (4.87%) (4.61%) (30%)
Anchalik 1236 80 86 746
187 2148
panchayat (57.54%) (3.72%) (4.00%) (34.72%)
Gaon 14060 783 783 7857
2053 23471
panchayat (59.90%) (3.33) (3.31%) (33.47%)

Source: Director of Panchayat and Rural Development Guwahati.2001,


Figure in parenthesis means percentages
228 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Table 2:
Participation of Women member in panchayats among
some social groups, 2008
Name of Number No of Number of President Gaon Panchyat Anchalik
the C.D. Of Gaon president Member
blocks Panchayat
Male Female No Of Male Female
Member
seat
Boko 11 15 13 2 (13.33%) 15 11 4 (26.66%)
(general (86.7%) (73.4%)
caste)
Chandrapur 4 4 2 (50%) 2 (50%) 4 3 (75%) 1 (25%)
(sc)
Hajo (char) 20 20 10 (55%) 9 (45%) 20 14 (70%) 6 (30%)
Kamalpur 12 8 5 (2.5%) 3 (37.5%) 8 4 (50%) 4 (50%)
(gnl)
Sonapur 12 12 8 (66.7%) 4 (33.33%) 12 7 (58.4%) 5 (41.66%)
(tea grdn)

Source: Respected Block Offices Kamrup District, 2008. Figure in


parenthesis means percentages
Fig 1: Women participants with respect to Education in the Gaon Panchayats

Source: Field survey


Fig 2: Women participants with respect to Leadership in the Gaon Panchayats

Source: Field survey


Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 229

Women empowerment through involvement in gaon panchayats:


Political empowerment of women can be gauged by observing their level
of involvement in the Gaon Panchayats. In this context three parameters namely
whether a women member gain political focusing, self confidence and social
respect through their involvement in the Gaon Panchayats have been studied.
Table 3:
Women empowerment through involvement in gaon panchayats
Name of the Gain Gain self Gain social Total score
C.D. blocks political confidence respect Actual Expected
focusing
Boko C.D. 8 10 8 26 36
block
Chandrapur 6 6 6 18 36
C.D. block
Hajo C.D. 4 4 4 12 36
block
Kamalpur 10 6 8 24 36
C.D. block
Sonapur C.D. 6 4 6 16 36
block

Source: Field survey,


The self assessments of women with regard to the aforesaid parameters
have been considered here. These perception studies in terms of qualitative
response are quantified following a weighted score method, where positive
response is scored with 2. These scores are multiplied by number of women
respondent and thereby the total score for a block is found out which is termed
as actual score for the block. In an ideal situation every gaon panchayts women
is supposed to be gained through the aforesaid variables. The actual score is
therefore multiplied by the total number of women which is termed as expected
score. A sample of 6 women members three from each sample gaon panchayats
has been chosen for the analysis which is discussed in this chapter under the
head 6.2.1. As such the expected score for each C.D. block should be 12. The
actual scores are found to be much below the expected score in all the C.D.
blocks along all the components. In no situation, the actual score exceeds 10
against the expected score of 12. It gives us a clear understanding that women
welfare index for political empowerment is far below than that of an ideal
situation. (Table: 3).
Conclusion: Here an attempt has been made to see the womens participation
in Panchayats among some social groups. In the study it is discussed that
necessary amendments have been made in the Assam Panchayati Raj Act,
1994 for strengthening Panchayati Raj system and constitutional, administrative
and financial rules have been framed. In the Goan panchayats Secretaries post
are provincialised to strengthen the Panchayati Raj System in the state.
Participatory development of women in the gaon panchayats have been ensured
through regular holding of gram sabha. During the two session of Panchayati
230 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Raj Election womens participation in panchayats has been given special


emphasis. The Participation of women in the panchayats seems to maintain
the required percentage share of 33%. At the Zila parishad level 36% of the
elected representatives are women. At the intermediate level women won 37%
of the seats and the percentage was 38 at the Gaon Panchayat stage. Capacity
of the elected representatives has been developed through various training
progeammes. Educational level of women members in the gaon panchayats
remains at a poor state. A picture is almost clear that women with a very poor
educational background will not be able to contribute to the gaon panchayats
at a desired level. The gaon panchayats women constitute 87% as simple
members only. Women members are not being able to achieve the status of
president as 1 of 10 gaon panchayats is having women president. However, 3
women members hold the post of vice president. In percentage terms leadership
at vice president level constitute 10% of the total gaon panchayats members.
The study reveals that lack of awareness and participation in various aspects
of political field are due to poor support from the family members and shortage
of spare time to take up political activities because of busy daily time schedule.
As per the perception study based on weighted score method it is observed
that the impact of political involvement in the empowering process in terms of
gain political focusing, gain confidence and social respect impact is far below
the ideal situation. Like one small step for man, the whole study among several
others, is a humble attempt towards understanding womens participation with
special focus on the identified social groups in Assam.
======================
References :
1. Antony M.J (1989): Womens Rights: What every women should know about
her Rights and the low. Hind pocket Books pvt. Ltd.
2. Andrews, A.C (1982): Toward a Status-of-Women Index, Professional
Geographer, Vol.34, No. 1.
3. Batliwala, Srilatha.(1995):The Meaning of Womens empowerment. Womens
world (Harvard series on Population and International Health), pp- 23-34
4. Bartra S.L (1996): Employment for Women, Har Anand Publication, New Delhi,
110011, pp.10,16,17.
5. Baruah Dr. S.L (1992) Status of women in Assam ( with special reference to
non- Tribal societies. Omsons publications New Delhi. 110027.
6. Biju M.R. Editor (2006): Womens Empowerment politics & policies, Mittal
publications New Delhi.
7. Das Lipi, Mishra S.K.& S Lenka (2007): Social and Institutional Framwork for
ainstreaming women in agriculture. Kurukshetra The monthly journal,
published by Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi.
8. Devi Renu (1994): Women of Assam. Omsons publications Rajouri Garden.
New Delhi- 110027
9. Desai N. and Krishnaraj, M (1997): Women and Society in India, Ajanta
publications. Delhi.
10. Desai N. and Thakkar U (2001): Women in Indian Society, National Book Trust,
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India,New Delhi-110016, pp-2, 3.


11. Dutta & Ghose, (2002): Empowering Rural Women. Akansha Publishing House,
New Delhi- 110059, pp-8, 9.
12. DRDA (2004): Nilachal Pragotir Abirat Yatrat, Kamrup Jila Gramin Bikash
Abhikaran, A, annual journal, Published by District Rural development Agency,
Kamrup, Assam, pp- 4-31.
13. Govt. of Assam (2009): Plans and programmes for Rural Development, Published
by government of Assam, Guwahati 781006.
14. IFUW (2001): Empowering Women, http://www.ifuw.org/saap2001/
empowerment.htm. Visited on 10th February 2008 at 10 a.m.
15. Khorshed Alam (2006): The New Panchayati Raj System- The progress in
Assam; Annual Journal, Vol-5, North East India Council for Social Science
Research, October, 2006.
16. Kurukshetra (2008): A Journal on Rural Development, Government of India,
Vol.56, No.3, January, Ministry of Rural Development, pp-12-16.
17. Neog D.(2010): Status of Rural women in Hajo Community Development block
of Kamrup dstrict, Assam; A Geographical analysis, an unpublished M.Phil.
Dissertation, Global Open University, Nagaland.
18. SIRD (2005): A brief profile on Panchayati Raj in Assam published by State
Institute of Rural Development, Assam, Guwahati-22.
19. Soni Balbir (2001): Reform Perspectives for Rural Development. Dominate
Publishers and Distributors, Vol-2, New Delhi-110051.
20. Zippy Allison (1995): The Political of Empowerment, Social work, vol. 4 No2,
March, 1995.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Economic and Social Changes Medieval Haryana


(13th-18th Century CE)
* Suraj Bhan Bhardwaj
==========================================================
Abstract- This article traces the economic changes and their social impact in
Haryana in the medieval period (13th-18th century CE) in the broader context
of north India. Covering the rule of Delhi Sultanate, Mughal empire and post-
Mughal states, it explores such processes as the development of agricultural
regimes, introduction of new technologies, growth of artisanal production, trade,
and urbanization in the region, as also their social consequences, i.e., the
emergence and consolidation of heterogeneous but hierarchical classes of
landlords (zamindars) and peasants with variable land rights, their shifting
ethnic composition and economic status, and the working of a land revenue
system that led to progressive exploitation and impoverishment of the peasantry.
Further, it brings forth the role of imperial states (Delhi Sultanate, Mughal
empire) and their administrative systems in the region's economy and rural
society, as well as on the adverse economic impact of political contestations
among many aspirants to power and territorial control following the collapse
of Mughal empire.
==========================================================
Keywords: Haryana, zamindar/s, peasant/s, Sultanate, Jats, Rajputs, Meos,
qasba/s, Firoz Tughlaq, jagir, jagirdar/i, mansabdari
Haryana, unlike Bengal, Punjab or Gujarat, cannot claim to be a historical
region. It has always been considered a sub-region or a sub-tract in historical
writings.1 Moreover, its location has always been mentioned in a vague, never
specific, manner. Haryana is neither a geographical, nor a linguistic region,
much less a nationality. Hence the vagueness about its territorial limits. The
people of Haryana belong to motley traditions. Those living in the districts of
Faridabad and Gurgaon are culturally closer to the people of Braj country.
Those living in Mahendergarh, Sirsa and Hissar regions belong to the Rajasthani
(Bagri) culture. The imprint of Panjabi culture is clearly visible on the
inhabitants of Karnal and Ambala areas. Thus, only the inhabitants of the
remaining four districts, viz., Rohtak, Sonepat, Jind and Bhiwani can claim to
the legitimate representatives of the Haryanvi culture, as understood in popular
parlance. The people of the entire state of Haryana do not share a common
===========================
* Associate Professor, Department of History, Motilal Nehru College
University of Delhi, South Campus, New Delhi
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 233

dialect, much less a language, nor even a common culture, psychological make-
up, and dressing pattern. Most of the people of Haryana have had a varied and
chequered past. This cardinal fact of history seems to have been ignored while
the present state of Haryana was carved out of the former state of East Punjab
in 1966.
Using a variety of sources such as such as the medieval Indo-Persian
chronicles, the late medieval Rajasthani archival records2 and the 19th-century
colonial ethnographic accounts and land settlement reports, this essay attempts
a brief survey of economic development of Haryana in medieval period, showing
that changes in its economic life were not as swift as in its political life, but
also that the slow pace of economic changes does not imply changelessness,
but induced profound transformations in the rural society. Throughout the essay,
historical sub-region of Haryana will constantly be kept in focus in order to
demarcate Haryana from the rest of north India.
1. Rains and Agrarian Regimes:
Rains had on the lives of medieval people a pervasive impact, second
only to the feudal administration.3 Agriculture, too, in Haryana was largely
dependent on rain,4 though irrigation by canals and streams also played a
significant role in certain regions. For this, the great shifts in river courses
greatly affected the economy of the region, particularly the arid areas in the
west. Thus, desiccation in Haryana seems to have come in cycles depending
upon the ability of the Yamuna to feed the Chitang. It apparently fed that river
in the 7th and 8th centuries ce, when a stream of Hansi is mentioned.5 But by
the mid-14th century ce, the entire tract was arid and waterless; it was only
revived when Sultan Firoz Tughlaq (1351-86 ce) cut a canal from the Yamuna
and carried it to Hansi and Hissar.6. When Babar invaded India, he saw the
peasants of the Karnal-Kurukshetra regions using the Persian wheel for
irrigation.7 In the areas of Mewat (parts of present-day eastern Rajasthan and
south-eastern Haryana), dhenkli or a wooden scoop 8 was used as a means of
irrigation. In the southern regions, peasants used charas or a leather bucket9
as a means of irrigation. Despite all this, Haryana seems to have had vast
pastures and a favorable land-man ratio, making possible a larger per capital
area under cultivation per capita and inducing shifting cultivation in certain
areas.10
2. Trade, Trade Routes and Towns:
In the 14th century ce, the route from Ghazni and Kabul went to Multan
and from there ran across southern Punjab and southern Haryana to Delhi. Ibn
Battuta, a 13th-century north-African traveler, travelled from Ghazni to Delhi,
via Kabul, and then, after returning from a journey to Sehwan, took the route
to Delhi, passing through Abohar, Ajodhan (Pakpattan), Sarsuti (Sirsa) and
Hansi.11 The famous trade route which connected the maritime port of Surat
with its hinterland in North India passed through eastern Haryana. One variety
of indigo produced in Mewat was exported to the international markets through
234 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

this route.12 This part of Haryana had been involved into the vortex of world
trade during the 17th century ce.13 In the 17th century ce, two routes from
Afghanistan joined at Lahore: one from Kabul via the Khyber Pass, and the
other from Qandahar via Multan. From Lahore the route ran across north-
eastern Punjab and northern Haryana, before turning south at Ambala, to march
parallel to Yamuna, before reaching Delhi.14 Most of the important towns of
Haryana flourished along these three commercial routes of India. Thus, a wider
part of Haryana had been connected with the national and international markets.
Their fortunes were closely linked with politico-economic developments
elsewhere.15 The towns of Haryana were mainly functional transit posts and
not centres of craft production. Hence, their neighboring villages mainly
performed the task of hinterland for the distant markets. This is amply evident
from their monotonous uniformity. They merely played the role of transmitting
agrarian surplus from the countryside to the big capital cities. Hence, it should
not be a matter of surprise that the qasbas or towns of Haryana remained mere
adjuncts of the imperial cities like Delhi and Agra. They did not have any
autonomous role to play. Wealthy grain merchants from the neighboring villages
came and settled in these towns. They branched off into traders, usurers and
brokers according to their capacity. The functional role of the qasbas pre-
determined the supremacy of grain trade in these towns.
3. Economic Developments under Delhi Sultans (c. 13th-15th Century
ce): With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century began a
new process16 of growth of towns, increase in craft production and expansion
in commerce.17 The Haryana region being in close proximity of Delhi could
not have remained unaffected. The use of the Persian wheel began in certain
areas as already stated. Similarly, the spinning-wheel (charkha)18 might have
reached the villages of Haryana too. A regular supply of grain from the
neighboring areas was essential for the rulers of Delhi. It might have led to
some kind of monetization of the economy. The increasing attention given by
Sultan Firoz Tughlaq to Haryana was perhaps due to the disturbed conditions
in the Doab.19 Haryana began to figure in the revenue policy of the Sultans.
Hence, in due course of time, vigorous implementation of the revenue policy
in Haryana cannot be ruled out.
Perhaps during this period three inter-related developments took place
in the Haryana region. Firstly, the erstwhile Rajput aristocracy was suppressed
with a heavy hand and they were pushed down into the ranks of the zamindar
class. On the other hand, the Afghans in particular and other Muslims in general
acquired zamindaris in Haryana. Numerous members of the cultivating castes
also emerged as zamindars by 1600 ce in Delhi sarkar. 20 The Jats acquired
ascendancy in Delhi sarkar, while the Ahirs and Meos became dominant
zamindar castes in Rewari and Tijara sarkars respectively. In Hisar-Firozah
sarkar, Jats emerged as the main rivals of the Rajput zamindars. Secondly, the
one-way drain of surplus from the villages to the capital cities via small towns
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 235

was assured for all times to come.21 Thirdly, those castes that had directly
benefited from the introduction of new technology (e.g., Persian-wheel,
spinning-wheel, etc.) began to feel the need for a corresponding social status
in the Hindu caste system or even outside it. Thus, the economic consequences
of the Turkish conquest of India during the 13th and 14th centuries ce laid the
material foundation for the popular monotheistic movement of 15th and 16th
centuries ce.22 The movement needs to be studied in details for its historical
consequences. This movement had two important dimensions. Firstly, it was
an instrument of upward social mobility for low-caste people. Therefore, it
appealed to them more.23 Secondly, through the songs and preachings of the
leaders of this movement, many local dialects were elevated to the stature of
literary languages.24 This movement, however, evoked a feeble response in
Haryana. That could be one of the reasons for the failure of the Haryanvi
dialect to transform itself into a literary language. Though minor figures of the
movement like Garib Das, Chetram Das, Nischal Das and Haridas were born
in this region, their literary contribution is almost negligible. This explains
why there is nearly a complete absence of literary tradition in Haryana.
4. Economic Developments under Mughal Emperors (15th-17th
Century ce) With the establishment of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century,
the basic trends of social and economic history, set in motion during the
Sultanate period, continued to develop. Economic differentiation and social
stratification among the peasantry became increasingly intensified. For the
first time abundant material becomes available for construct a proper social
structure that existed under the Mughals. The larger part of Haryana formed
the Delhi and Hissar-Firoza sarkars of of Delhi suba (province).25 Subsequently,
Rewari sarkar was also brought under the Delhi suba.26 In all the regions of
present-day Haryana the following social structure got crystallized with minor
variations.
4.1 Class Structure of Peasantry:
Those who participated in agricultural production and paid land revenue
to the state or its nominee were known by the generic term of raivat which
means peasantry. The peasantry was comprised of various sections, demarcated
on the basis of their varying economic strength, social status and official position
within the village community. First, there were the low-caste landless
agricultural workers who sold their labor for wages. This vast body of landless
rural poor fulfilled the labor needs of the entire land-owning peasantry; through
the operation of the caste system, the landless were restrained from acquiring
land for cultivation.27 Secondly, there were small-scale dependent producers
who sold part of their labor and/or rented in draught animals and a significant
amount of other agricultural equipments. These peripatetic cultivators were
known as pahi28 and were mainly born of the depressed peasants of the third
category. The revenue administrators invariably used these wandering peasants
as a temporary substitute for runaway peasantry,29 by offering to them slightly
236 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

favorable terms of revenue rates but insecure terms of land tenure.30 Thirdly,
there were petty producers who were more or less self-sufficient in as much
as they did not hire out or hire in labor and who just about lived at the subsistence
level, though occasionally they contracted loans for purchasing agricultural
equipments.31 They formed the single largest section of the peasantry in the
region. Known as gaveti-palti, most of them belonged to the so-called middle
castes, viz. Jats, Gujars, Ahirs, Mallis, as well as Meos.32 The peasants of this
group paid land revenue at very high rates, as is evident from various pargana-
level revenue records such as dastur-al-amals and arsattas. Fourthly, there
were the owners of large family holdings, known as known as gharuhalas.
This group of peasant proprietors hired labor on a moderate scale, and leased
out livestock and equipments that yielded a relatively large income.33 The village
headman (patel) and record keeper (patwari) fall into this category.34 Lastly,
there were large-scale producers who depended entirely on hired labor. The
zamindars, qanungos and chaudharis termed as khudkashta cultivators belong
to this section of the peasantry.35 They paid land revenue fixed at the lowest
rates to the state. The state imposed limits on the expansion of land-holdings
of such privileged sections as khudkashta and gharuhala due to the fear of
decline in its total revenue.36 Thus, the conversion of high revenue-yielding
landholdings (gaveti-palti) into low revenue-yielding holdings (khudkashta-
gharuhala) was strictly forbidden. On the other hand, such holdings that largely
depended for cultivation on family labor were encouraged.
4.2 Class Structure of Zamindars:
The khudkashta cultivators were zamindars of all kinds. The gharuhalas
were the rich; the gavetis, the middle (a section of them were well-to-do
peasants); and the pahis, the poor peasants. At the bottom of this hierarchy
were the landless poor peasants called kamins. This economic stratification of
the peasantry did not correspond strictly to any caste classification. All the
castes had their own zamindars, as is evident from the zamindar column of the
Ain-i-Akbari.37 In Mewat, the Khanzadas had zamindaris but hardly a Khanzada
peasantry. Similarly, in Haryana, Rajputs had more zamindaris and fewer
peasants of the same caste.38 Thus, it is possible that a particular caste could
have a higher percentage of dominant peasantry than other.
The economy of the region was highly monetized. Therefore, the role of
the village moneylender and merchant was assuming added significance in
these centuries.39 The artisanal requirements of agriculturists were, by and
large, locally met.40 The income of the artisans was also taxed by the state,
though it was too meagre to figure prominently in the fiscal calculations of the
state. Often enough it was their services and sometimes their products rather
than contribution to taxes that the ruling class extorted gratis.41
Howsoever one may choose the mass of peasants, one ought not to forget
the fact that a section from them succeeded in acquiring hereditary rights which
were distant from and superior to those of the ordinary peasants. The holders
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 237

of such superior rights had been so dovetailed into the Mughal administrative
apparatus that they had become partners, albeit unequal, of the Mughal ruling
class in its exploitation of the peasantry.42 The heterogeneity of this intermediary
stratus needs to be emphasized.43 Many centuries of highly centralized and
despotic rule had insulated the erstwhile rulers of India into a cohesive class
combine and given it the generic nomenclature of zamindars.44 They never
gave up the ambition, and had the potential, of enlarging their zamindari into
large kingdoms. During the period under study their main function was to
keep the peasants tied to the land, get it tilled, collect the land revenue at
stipulated rates and pass it on to the nominees of the state.45 Erosion of the
ancestral zamindaris of some, and acquisition of new ones by others, was a
constant feature of Mughal times. Laws of inheritance, role of money and
royal pleasure worked as causal factors behind the occurrence of this
phenomenon.46
4.3 Land Revenue System and Exploitation of Peasantry:
In the Haryana region, there were two types of villages: zamindari and
raiyati (peasant-held).47 The former could not be transformed into the latter,
though new zamindaris were created in the raiyati villages. The relative
percentage of the raiyati and zamindari villages cannot be worked out due to
paucity of evidence. The administrative structure superimposed on all these
divisions consisted of three distinct elements. First, there were the officials
and agents of the assignee. Second, there were the permanent local officials
owing their position partly to birth and partly to imperial authority but unaffected
by the transfers of the assignees. Finally, there were full-fledged officials of
the imperial administrative tradition who could be used both to help and control
the assignees.48
Ideally, all these three elements were required to co-operate with and
work as a check upon each other. But in practice, they were often at loggerheads
with each other.49 The agents of the assignees (amils) and the full-fledged
imperial administrators (faujdars) were the real representatives of the will
and interest of the state. The imperial administration, conscious of its long-
term interest, always tried to fix the revenue demand in such a manner and at
such a point that it did not become self-defeating by making agricultural
production uneconomic for the peasants.50 On the other hand, this demand
was to be stabilized at a level where the bulk of the peasants surplus produce,
over and above his subsistence needs, could be appropriated in the form of
revenue.51 The intimate connection between the military power of the Mughal
state and the assignment system dictated a policy of absolute appropriation of
the surplus. Keeping in view this contingency, the Mughal state expected all
the jagirdars to pursue a developmental policy in their respective jagirs.52 But
the mansabdari-jagirdari system did not provide any incentive to individual
jagirdars to follow a developmental agricultural policy.53 Firstly, a jagirdar
could not reap the benefits of enhanced production unless and until his personal
238 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

rank was upgraded in tandem. Secondly, the frequent transfer of jagirs was a
constant disincentive to pursuing a long-term developmental policy.54
Conversely, the jagirdars position tempted him to extract from the cultivators
as much as possible.55 Thus, the imperial administration and the individual
jagirdars were ineluctably pursuing two divergent policies towards the
producers of surplus wealth.
As the state conceded these officials and zamindars a paltry sum as a
reward for their crucial function in the revenue administration, they tended to
press upon this bare subsistence also, hence their conflict with the state on the
one hand and the peasantry on the other.56
The economic burden on the peasantry of this region was immense, as is
evident from an arzdasht 1665.57 About 24 peasants belonging to eight villages
of pargana Rinsi (now in Gurgaon district) went to Delhi and complained to
the emperor that their life had become miserable because of the burden of
taxes. To highlight their plight the example of the peasants of village Akahera
(Rinsi) was given. They bemoaned the fact that of the 16,000 maunds of grain
produced by them in the kharif season, 8,000 maunds had been taken away by
the jagirdar as land revenue. From the remaining 8,000 maunds, they had to
pay dastur qanungoi, sehngi, takina and sehngi dihangi which totaled up to
4,500 maunds. Thus, the peasants were left with a bare 3,500 maunds. Face
to face with this situation they could hardly be said to have lodged an unjust
complaint. This was indeed a joint complaint of peasants belonging to eight
parganas and, therefore, suggests a general condition prevailing in those
parganas. These parganas were Rinsi, Behrohar, Mandawar, Dadri (jagirs of
Raja Bishan Singh); Faridabad and Sohna (jagirs of Zafar Khan) Pilgawa
(jagir of Murtaza Khan) and two parganas in the jagirs of Raja Jaswant Singh.
It may be emphasized here that most of these parganas were either those, or
contiguous to those that fall in the territory of Haryana. The increasing economic
burden on the peasantry created agrarian crisis which ultimately led to the
downfall of the Mughal empire.
5. Haryana under Post-Mughal States:
The states which emerged after the collapse of the Mughal empire were
mainly of two kinds. First were those that were founded by prominent Mughal
nobles breaking away from the central authority.58 Such states emerged in the
remoter provinces of the empire. In the neighborhood of the capital cities,
Agra and Delhi, successor states were formed through successful revolts. The
Sikh and Jat states fall in the second category. The widespread agrarian revolts
that gave birth to the Jat state of Bharatpur and the Sikh states of Punjab took
place in the background of a resurgence of zamindari power on the one hand
and rapid impoverishment of the peasantry on the other.59 Caste affinity often
formed a bridge between these two restive sectors of rural society.60 These
revolts were led by the zamindars.61 Barring the peripheral regions of Mewat
and Narnaul, the larger part of Haryana remained unaffected by these revolts.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 239

The Meos of Mewat and the Satnamis of Narnaul rose in revolt,62 but their
revolts were crushed and did not lead to significant historical consequences.
The non-occurrence of such agrarian revolts when the conditions for their
occurrence were ripe63 in Haryana intrigues a student of history. Does it point
to a state of helplessness, inertia and acceptance of servility on the part of the
zamindars of this region? As the local people failed to assert themselves,
Haryana was parceled out among ambitions freebooters. Numerous nawabis
sprang up in Farukhnagar, Loharu, Ferozpur, Dujana, Dadri, Bahadurgarh,
etc.64 The Sikhs carved out their fortunes in Jind and Kaithal.65 The Jats of
Bharatpur annexed Palwal and Hodal.66 George Thomas, a foreigner, also had
his day when he established himself at Hansi from where he commanded a
circle of 800 villages.67 In these conditions of political chaos, the Maratha
invaders could easily come and twist anyones arm and extort tribute.68 The
life and size of these nawabis were always in flux, as no fixed norms and
boundaries were observed by them. The combined impact of these happenings
was a wanton destruction of life in Haryana. It will not be an exaggeration to
say that the Haryana region suffered more during the 18th century than even
during the 12th century. Lack of accountability towards the people and absence
of fear from anyone made these nawabs more rapacious and oppressive.69A
systematic study of the economic conditions under these nawabs is a basic
desideratum. On top of it, most of these nawabs were given to leading a life of
debauchery.
Here it would be relevant to mention that all of these nawabs were not a
plantation from outside. Most of them had held zamindari or jagirdari rights
in the Haryana region during the preceding centuries. The Ain-i-Akbaris
zamindar column clearly shows a mushrooming of Muslim, especially Afghan,
zamindaris in this region before 1600 ce. Those among them who had enrolled
themselves in the Mughal army and received jagirs in Haryana, established
their nawabis after the decline of the empire.70 Thus, the birth of these nawabis
was not a sudden development. The material basis for their creation had already
been laid down during the preceding centuries.
The Rajput and Jat zamindars, who were very numerous and claimed
extensive zamindaris in Haryana, failed to establish even a small principality,
when the process of fragmentation had been under way. In the neighboring
regions, the Rajput state of Jaipur expanded enormously, while the Jats of
Punjab and Braj country established their states.71 The Jat and Rajput zamindars
of Haryana eventually surrendered to the Afghans without firing a single shot.
======================
References :
1. Abul-Fazl, The Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 2, trans. Blochmann; corr. and ann. Sir
Jadunath Sarkar, Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society, 1978, 3rd edn.
2. Ali, M. Athar, The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case, Modern Asian
Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 1975, pp. 385-96.
240 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

3. Banga, Indu, Agrarian System of the Sikhs (1749-1849), unpublished PhD


thesis, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 1974.
4. Bhatnagar, V. S., Life and Times of Sawai Jai Singh, 1688-1743, Delhi: Impex
India, 1974.
5. Chandra, Satish, Some Aspects of Indian Village Society in Northern India
during the 18th Century, IHR, vol. 1, no. 1, 1974, pp. 51-64.
6. Channing, F. C., Land Revenue Settlement of the Gurgaon District, Lahore:
Central Jail Press, 1882.
7. Dasgupta, Ashin, Trade and Politics in 18th Century India, in D. S. Richards
(ed.), Islam and the Trade of Asia: A Colloqium, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania, 1970, pp. 181-214.
8. Grover, B. R., Nature of Dehat-i-Taaluqa (Zamindari villages) and the Evolution
of the Taaluqri System during the Mughal Age, IESHR, vol. 2, no. 2, April
1965, pp. 166-172 and vol. 2, no.3, July 1966, pp. 259-75.
9. Nature of Land Rights in Mughal India, IESHR, vol. 1, no. 1, 1963, pp. 1-23.
10. Habib, Irfan, Forms of Class Struggle in Mughal India, paper presented at the
Indian History Congress, 41st session, Bombay, 1980; reprinted in idem., Essays
in Indian History: Towards a Marxist Perception, Delhi: Tulika, 1995, pp. 109-
60.
11. Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate: An Essay in Interpretation, IHR,
vol. 4, no. 2, 1978, pp. 292-98.
12. Emergence of Nationalities in India, Social Scientist, vol. 4, no. 1, 1975, pp.
14-20.
13. Potentialities of Capitalistic Development in the Economy of Mughal India,
Enquiry, New Series, vol. 3, no. 3, 1971, pp. 1-56.
14. Technological Changes and Society: 13th and 14th Centuries, Presidential
address, Section II, Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 31st Session,
Varanasi, 1969.
15. Distribution of Landed Property in Pre-British India, Enquiry, New Series,
vol. 2, no. 3, 1965, pp. 21-75.
16. The Historical Background of the Popular Monotheistic Movement of the 15th-
17th Centuries, paper presented at a seminar on Ideas in Medieval India, at
the Department of History, University of Delhi, 15-18 November 1965.
17. The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556-1707, Bombay: Asia Publishing
House, 1963.
18. Hasan, Nural, Zamindars under the Mughals, in R. E. Frykenberg (ed.), Land
Control and Social Structure in Indian History, Delhi: Manohar, 1979, pp. 17-
29.
19. Khan, I. R., Historical Geography of the Punjab and Sind with Special Reference
to River Changes, The Aligarh Muslim University Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 1934.
20. Moreland, W. H., Agrarian System of Muslim India, Cambridge: W. Heffer &
Sons, 1929.
21. Mukhia, Harbans, Illegal Extortions from Peasants, Artisans and Menials in
the Eighteenth Century Eastern Rajasthan, IESHR, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp.
231-45.
22. Purser, W. E. and H. C. Fanshawe, Report on the Land Revenue Settlement of
the Rohtak District of the Hissar Division of the Punjab, 1873-79, London,
1880.
23. Rana, R. P., Agrarian Revolts in Northern India during the late 17th and early
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 241

18th Century, IESHR, vol. 18, nos 3-4, 1981, pp. 287-325.
24. Raychaudhuri, Tapan and Irfan Habib (eds), The Cambridge Economic History
of India, vol. 1: c. 1200 c. 1750, London: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
25. Raychaudhuri, Tapan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, Review Essay,
Enquiry, New Series, vol. 2, no. 1, 1965, pp. 92-121.
26. Singh, Dilbagh, Caste and the Structure of Village Society in Eastern Rajasthan
during the Eighteenth Century, IHR, vol. 2, no. 2, 1976, pp. 299-311.
27. The Role of Mahajans in the Rural Economy of Eastern Rajasthan during the
18th Century, Social Scientist, vol. 2, no. 10, 1974, pp. 20-31.
28. Singh, K. Natwar, Maharaja Suraj Mal, 1707-1763: His Life and Times, London:
Allen & Unwin, 1981.
(Footnotes)
1. Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556-1707, Bombay: Asia
Publishing House, 1963, p. 16 and I. R. Khan, Historical Geography of the
Punjab and Sind with Special Reference to River Changes, The Aligarh Muslim
University Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 1934, pp. 31, 55.
2. The 16th-century chronicle extensively used in this essay is Ain-i-Akbari by
Abul-Fazl, a famous courtier of emperor Akbar. The Rajasthani archival records
available from the second half of the 17th century and referred to in this essay
are arzdashts and arsattas. Arzdashts are petitions or memorials addressed to
the Naruka Rajput chiefs of Amber written by amils (revenue officers), faujdars
(chief police officers) and other officials of Amber, posted in various parganas
which were held by the Amber rulers as jagirs (revenue-yielding land
assignments) or whose ijara (revenue collection right) was obtained by them
from Mughal mansabdars (Mughal officers holding military ranks). They contain
details of political, social and economic conditions prevailing in various
parganas. Arsattas are monthly treasury account of receipts and disbursements
under different heads, maintained in Rajasthani by the Amber state. Both are
dated in Vikram Samvat (vs) which is ahead of the Common Era (ce) by 57
years.
3. W. H. Moreland, Agrarian System of Muslim India, Cambridge: W. Heffer &
Sons, 1929.
4. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 16.
5. Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib (eds), The Cambridge Economic History
of India, vol. 1: c. 1200 c. 1750 (hereafter CEHI), London: Cambridge
University Press, 1982, p. 4.
6. CEHI, p. 4.
7. Irfan Habib, 'Technological Changes and Society: 13th and 14th Centuries',
Presidential address, Section II, Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 31st
Session, Varanasi, 1969, pp. 12-15.
8. Arsatta, pargana Firozpur Jhirka, Vikrami Samvat (hereafter vs) 1750/1693
ce; pargana Jalalpur, vs 1748/1691 ce.
9. Arzdasht,Vaisakh Vadi 12, vs 1722/1665 ce.
10. CEHI, p. 6.
11. CEHI, p. 12, n.1.
12. Habib, Agrarian System.
13. Ashin Dasgupta, Trade and Politics in 18th Century India, in D. S. Richards
(ed.), Islam and the Trade of Asia: A Colloqium, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania, 1970, pp. 181-214.
242 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

14. CEHI, p. 12.


15. Dasgupta, 'Trade and Politics', pp. 181-214.
16. Irfan Habib, Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate: An Essay in
Interpretation, Indian Historical Review, vol. 4, no. 2, 1978, pp. 292-98.
17. Habib, Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate.
18. There is a reference to the production of cotton in the territory of Sirsa in
the Delhi province. See Habib, Agrarian System, p. 33.
19. For a long period during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the doab area
was devastated due to a variety of causes.
20. Sarkar was an administrative sub-division of suba, a province during the Mughal
times.
21. Irfan Habib, Potentialities of Capitalistic Development in the Economy of
Mughal India, Enquiry, New Series, vol. 3, no. 3, 1971, p. 55.
23. Habib, The Historical Background of the Popular Monotheistic Movement.
24. Irfan Habib, Emergence of Nationalities in India, Social Scientist, vol. 4, no.
1, 1975, p.17.
25. Abul-Fazl, The Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 2, trans. Blochmann; corr. and ann. Sir
Jadunath Sarkar, pp. 291-301.
26. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 8.
27. Habib, Agrarian System, pp. 120-22; Tapan Raychaudhuri, The Agrarian System
of Mughal India, Review Essay, Enquiry, New Series, vol. 2, no. 1, 1965, pp.
97-99.
29. Singh, Caste and the Structure; Satish Chandra, Some Aspects of Indian
Village Society in Northern India during the 18th Century, IHR, vol. 1, no. 1,
974, pp. 51-64.
30. Arzadasht, Sawan Vadi 13, vs 1750/1693 ce; Asadh Sudi 2, vs 1762/1705 ce.
31. Singh, Caste and the Structure; Satish Chandra, Some Aspects of Indian
Village Society.
32. Singh, Caste and the Structure.
33. Singh, Caste and the Structure, pp. 299-311. The gharuhala cultivation could
not have been carried on with the help of family labour only, as has been suggested
by Dilbagh Singh on the basis of the extensive nature of this phenomenon. For
example, in pargana Hindon, a qanungo, viz. Neta, had his gharuhala holdings
spread over seven villages. Obviously, members of his family could not go to
each village to cultivate their fields. There are many other such instances which
would stand to qualify Singhs suggestion. See Arsatta, pargana Hindon (Kharif),
vs 1710/1713 ce.
34. Habib, Potentialitiesof Capitalistic Development, p. 19.
35. Habib, Potentialitiesof Capitalistic Development, p. 21.
36. Habib, Potentialities of Capitalist Development, pp. 21-22.
37. Dilbagh Singh, The Role of Mahajans in the Rural Economy of Eastern
Rajasthan during the 18th Century, Social Scientist, vol. 2, no. 10, 1974, pp.
20-31.
38. 38 Abul-Fazl, The Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 2, pp. 203-06.
39. Singh, The Role of Mahajans; Habib, Agrarian System, p. 239.
40. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 150; Dilbagh Singh, Local and Land Revenue
Administration of the State of Jaipur (c. 1750-1800), PhD thesis, Centre for
Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, 1975, p. 53; Harbans Mukhia,
Illegal Extortions from Peasants, Artisans and Menials in the Eighteenth entury
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 243

Eastern Rajasthan, IESHR, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 231-45; Nural Hasan,
Zamindars under the Mughals, in R. E. Frykenberg (ed.), Land Control and
Social Structure in Indian History, Delhi: Manohar, 1979, pp. 17-29.
41. See Mukhia, Illegal Extortions, pp. 231-45.
42. Hasan, Zamindars under the Mughals, pp. 17-29.
43. Habib, Distribution of Landed Property in Pre-British India, Enquiry, New
Series, vol. 2, no. 3, 1965, pp. 54-55.
45. Habib, Agrarian System, Chapter V.
46. Habib, Agrarian System, Chapter V.
47. This is amply born out by the classification of villages entered in the arsattas.
See also Habib, Agrarian System, p.141; B. R. Grover, Nature of Dehat-i-Taaluqa
(Zamindari villages) and the Evolution of the Taaluqri System during the Mughal
Age, IESHR, vol. 2, no. 2, April 1965, pp. 166-172 and vol. 2, no.3, July 1966,
pp. 259-75.
48. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 274. 49 Habib, Agrarian System, p.190.
50. Habib, Agrarian System, p.190.
51. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 319.
52. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 320.
53. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 320.
54. Arzdashts, Asadh Sudi 14, vs 1760/1703 ce; Jeth Sudi 3, vs 1761/1704 ce; Asadh
Vadi 9, vs 1762/1705 ce; Fagun Sudi 2, vs 1766/1709 ce.
55. Bhom (a remuneration of zamindari) was realized from the peasants at the rate
of three per cent of the land revenue in most of the parganas. Thus, the peasants
of Jalalpur, Khilohru, Umarni, Udai, Ismailpur, Akbarpur, Kohahri, etc., paid
bhom at the abovementioned rates. This amount was realized by the Raja of
Jaur from the peasants of those parganas which he brought under his zamindari.
Those smaller bhomias whose bhoms were annexed by the Raja into his
expanding zamindari were usually compensated by him by way of a kind of
muzra. The pargana officials and semi-officials were paid from its treasury
under miscellaneous heads. The dispossessed zamindars, active chaudharis,
qanungos and patels were either paid a fixed sum of a set percentage of the
jama (assessed revenue). It was a kind of commission and in both cases termed
as muzra. See arsattas, parganas Bhusavad, Sonkhar Kuthumbari, Bayana and
Toda Bhim, vs 1787/1730 ce.
56. This is quite evident from the zamindars frequent habit of cattle lifting and
causing other forms of harrassment to the peasants. See arzdashts, Bhadva Vadi
9, vs 1749/1692 ce; Chet Vadi 11, vs 1752/1695 ce; Fagun Sudi 5, vs 1755/1698
ce.
57 Arzdasht, Vaisakh Vadi 13, vs 1722/1665 ce.
58. M. Athar Ali, 'The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case', Modern Asian Studies,
vol. 9, no. 3, 1975, pp. 385-96.
59. R. P. Rana, Agrarian Revolts in Northern India during the late 17th and early
18th Century, IESHR, vol. 18, nos 3-4, 1981, pp. 287-325.
60. Rana, Agrarian Revolts.
61. Irfan Habib, Forms of Class Struggle in Mughal India, paper presented at the
Indian History Congress, 41st session, Bombay, 1980; reprinted in idem., Essays
in Indian History: Towards a Marxist Perception, Delhi: Tulika, 1995, pp. 109-
60.
62. Habib, Forms of Class Struggle.
244 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

63. Impoverishment of peasantry and existence of extensive zamindaris of those


castes which revolted elsewhere, were some of these objective conditions.
64. F. C. Channing, Land Revenue Settlement of the Gurgaon District, Lahore:
Central Jail Press, 1882, Chapter II; W. E. Purser and H. C. Fanshawe, Report
on the Land Revenue Settlement of the Rohtak District of the Hissar Division
of the Punjab, 1873-79, London, 1880, Sec. C.
65. Channing, Land Revenue Settlement of the Gurgaon District.
66. Channing, Land Revenue Settlement of the Gurgaon District.
67. Channing, Land Revenue Settlement of the Gurgaon District.
68. Channing, Land Revenue Settlement of the Gurgaon District.
69. A systematic study of the economic conditions under these nawabs is a basic
desideratum.
70. Channing, Land Revenue Settlement of the Gurgaon District; Purser and
Fanshawe, Report on the Land Revenue Settlement of the Rohtak District.
71. V. S. Bhatnagar, Life and Times of Sawai Jai Singh, 1688-1743, Delhi: Impex
India, 1974; K. Natwar Singh, Maharaja Suraj Mal, 1707-1763: His Life and
Times, London: Allen & Unwin, 1981; Indu Banga, Agrarian System of the
Sikhs (1749-1849), PhD thesis, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 1974.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Ancient Indian Revenue System as Reflected in the


Arthasastra : An Analysis
* Ratul Bujar Baruah
==========================================================
Abstract- The Mauryan era of ancient Indian history gave the world a peerless
work, the Arthasastra (AS) of Kautilya. It is no denying the fact that the AS is
the greatest treasure of Sanskrit literature particularly in governance. The work
deals with the statecraft and isssues of diplomacy, war, peace, security and
political system. The AS is divided into fifteen Adhikaranas or books. Book two
of the AS deals with the activities of the Heads of Departments and has chapters
on internal administration of a state along with Kautilya's observations on
revenue as well as tax systems. Kautilya while dealing with the political statecraft
refers to the seven Prakrities i.e. essential organs of the state. These are as
follows - Swami (the ruler), Amatya (the minister), Janapada (the population),
Durga (the fortified capital), Kosha (the treasury), Danda (the army), Mitra
(ally and friend).
==========================================================
It is the revenue upon which the security and prosperity of the people of
a state depends. The Kosha or the treasury should be full of money and valuable
metals and gems for the all round development of the state. According to the
AS, the prime duty of an administrator is the implementation of the measures
undertaken for the welfare of his subjects. For this a strong economy is a basic
requisite. Kautilya believed that a kingdom may turn into a prosperous one if
there exist a well-developed tax system. Therefore, utmost focus should be
laid on the treasury since all the activities of the state depend on finance. The
importance of fund (Kosha) was well realized by Kautilya. It was held that
prosperous treasury is a must for any infrastructural development and any
deterioration of fund would lead to a great national problem.1 Tax is a revenue
of the government through which it can increase its treasury. It is expected that
government should use the tax amount properly with a view to helping the
poor and needy people. The texts like Arthasastra, Manusamhita give us
information about ancient kings tax policy. In ancient India tax was imposed
on machines, tools, instruments made of various metals and mines. The metals
like Suvarna (gold), Rupya (silver), Sisadhatu (lead), Tamra (Copper),
Tiksnadhatu (iron), Kamsa (bronze), Vaikrintak (mercury) were found to be
used in ancient India. A good number of tools, instruments and weapons were
===========================
* KBV Sanskrit and Ancient Studies University
246 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

made from these metals. Revenue raised by taxes builds the lions share in
state income. Kautilya, with reference to the duties of Samaharta (the topmost
revenue officer), pointed out to some sources of income. Seven main sources
of income are Durga (fortified city), Rastra (Country part), Khani (Mines),
Setu (Irrigation work), Vana (forest), Vraja (animal herds)2 and Vanikapatha3
(trade routes). Kautilya refers to twenty four kinds of vyayasarira (heads of
expenditure) which includes expenses for construction of store house, armoury,
maintenance of Army etc.
Kautilya insisted much on maintaining a rich treasury upon which the
success of all the welfare schemes depends. According to him, the public
revenue should be utilized to give boost to the welfare activities. He pointed to
various heads where state should incur expenditure such as on national security,
public administration, salaries of the ministers and others, maintenance of army
and acquision of valuable gems, stones and ornaments. Though the state has
enough power to impose tax on public but it should not be excessive. The king
should pluck the ripe fruits from his kingdom just as one plucks them from a
garden, but should not take unripe fruits which cause provocation, lest this
should bring about his own destruction.4 Manu in his Manusamhita favours
the same idea by saying that just as the leech, the calf and the bee take their
own food step by step, the king should take the taxes from his subjects step by
step.5
During the time of Kautilya there was a well-organised revenue
administration to control the finance under the supervision of two officials,
viz. the Samaharta and Sannidhata. The status of the Samaharta was as equal
as Commander-in-Chief of the Army. All the superintendents of the king
responsible for the collection of tax from various sources viz. agriculture, liquor,
weaving, mines, forest products, tolls, ships had to submit report to the
Samaharta. The Samaharta had to monitor the following functions- Karaniyam
(What is to be done), Siddham (What has been done), Aya (income), Vyaya
(Expenditure) and Nivi (balance)6. He was supposed to raise the income and
minimize the expenditure. On the other hand, the Sannidhata seems to treasure
valuable things in the royal storehouse.7 There was the provision of officers
called Gopa and Sthanikas for local revenue administration. Under the guidance
and direction of the Samaharta, Gopa is to prepare various registers and
census lists of the villages.
There is the classification of land revenue in the AS as follows- (i) Sita -
the produce of the crown land (ii) Bhaga the kings share of produce (iii)
Bali the kings receipts from beggings (iv) Kara- periodical taxes. The AS
refers to Sita as comprising all kinds of crops that are brought in by
Superintendent of agriculture. Bhaga was nothing but traditional grain share.
The AS further classifies revenue into three anayajata (accidental revenue),
vartamana (running revenue) and paryusita (outstanding revenue). What
is received from external sources is called anayajata, which is received day
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 247

after day is termed Vartamana, whatever has been brought forward from the
year before last, whatever is in the hands of others is termed as paryusita. All
these things bear testimony to the fact that there were different rates of revenues
for various kinds of land. Kautilya refers to some cases where fine can be
imposed. It is stated that when minerals and other commodities are purchased
from mines, a fine of 600 panas shall be imposed and when flower or fruits
are purchased from flower or fruit gardens, a fine of 54 panas shall be imposed.
Further, when any kind of grass or grain is purchased from filed, a fine of 53
panas shall be imposed. In accordance with the customs of countries or of
communities, the rate of toll shall be fixed on commodities and fines shall be
fixed in proportion to the gravity of offences. Having divided the kingdom into
four districts and having also subdivided the villages as of first, middle and
lowest rank, the king should exempt them from taxation in the following manner
those villages that supply soldiers, those that pay their taxes in the form of
grains, cattle, gold or raw material, those that supply free labour and dairy
products in lieu of taxes should be exempted from taxation.
Kautilya advocated the theory of division of power among various
machineries of monarchical governance. So he insisted on the appointment of
Akshapatakadhyaksha (Superintendent of records and accounts) for recovering
fines for loss due to neglect or fraud and also for Kosadhyaksha (Superintendent
of treasury) for taking charge of gems, pearls and forest product etc. There
was the mention about the wage system in the AS. The term Vetanam (wage)
found place in the commentary Parasaramadhava on Naradasmriti.8 Kautilya
laid down ground rules for the payment of salaries and wages to the employees.
One quarter of the state-revenue was earnmarked to be spent on payment and
wages. Salaries were given on a liberal basis. The purpose behind the high
salaries was to prevent discontent among the employees and ensure efficiency.
Kautilya conceived some sort of punishment for the cheating or ignorance
on the part of collection of revenue from different sources. If the officer who is
in charge of the treasury causes loss in money, he shall be whipped, while his
abettors shall receive half the punishment. He shall be censured if the loss in
due to ignorance. The collector shall attend to the business of revenue collection
assisted by trustworthy persons.
Kautilya wrote this treatise for Chandragupta Maurya and disclosed at
the very outset that it has been written as a guide for those who govern. Kautilya
was interested in establishing such a machinery through which the king
preserves the integrity and solidarity of the state and generates much power.
As in the present set-up, the importance of vision, mission and motivation was
explained in the AS. Undoubtedly, Kautilyas thoughts on revenue and its
management policy are being adopted by various government machineries in
modern period also. All the powerful kings of ancient India including the great
Ashoka had learnt AS and practiced it to bring peace and prosperity to their
kingdoms. In fact, the AS written in Sanskrit, makes the oldest language of the
248 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

world more relevant and vibrant for ages to come. A deeper study of the AS on
the part of our administrators will provide a perspective to the art of governance
and policy making. It is now high time for the Indian scholars to place it amongst
globally well known treatises of this nature.
======================
References :
1. alpakoso hi raja paurajanapadaneva grasate. AS., II. I.
2. gomahisamajavikam kharostramasvatarasca vrajah. ibid., II. I.
3. sthalapatho varipathasca vanipathah. ibid., II. I.
4. AS., V. 2
5. Manusamhita, VII. 129
6. samaharta durgam rastram khanim setum vanam vrajam vanikapatham cavekset.
ibid., II.6.I
7. sannidhata kosagriham panyagriham kosthagaram kupyagrihamayudhagaram
bandhanagaram ca karayet. ibid, II.5.I
8. vetanam karmamulyam as found in Ancient India, R.C. Mazumdar, P.80
Bibliography :
1. Ancient India, R.C. Mazumdar, Motilal Benarasidas Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1977.
2. Kautilya Arthasastram, ed. by Vasasyati Gaurola, pub. by. Chowkhamba
Vidyabhawan, Varanasi, 2009.
3. Prachim evam madhyayoger bharatvarser rajanaitik cinta, A.Basu, pub. by
Sribhumi Publishing House, Kolkata, 2010.
4. Samskrita-Bharati, published by University of Calcutta, 2010.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Impact of Environmental Changes on Habitation and


Economy of the mishing Community
(A micro-regional study on downstream part of the Jia-
Bharali river)
* Chayanika Bhuyan
==========================================================
Abstract- Sustenance of natural environment is the basic requirement for human
living and their socio-economic activities. Its degradation is likely to induct
multifaceted problems associated with health, culture, economic and habitat.
Over last few decades environmental degradation added a new dimension of
environmental hazards worldwide that found expression in uncertainty of weather,
unprecedented flood and drought bank line migration and erosion of river, annual
distribution of temperature and rainfall etc. which infuse uncertainty almost all
parameters of life and living. The effect of such undesired changes affected the
eco-friendly tribal communities all over the world. The present paper intends to
highlight on the impact of such environmental degradation on the life and living
of the Mishing - a plain tribal community of the Brahmaputra valley of Assam.
The paper presents the extent of adaptational changes the community had to
make in their age-long habitational and economic behaviour. It tries to present
what extent they had to drift from their traditional way of life and living with
realising about such drifting by the community. It is imperative that unless
environmental degradation can be contained to an optimal level the nature
loving tribal community would have to lose their ethno cultural identity which
is reflected in their unique way of life.
==========================================================
Keywords: Environmental hazard, Degradation, adaptational change, habitation,
economic behaviour.
Over last few decades more particularly since 1980s fast deterioration
of the natural environment mainly due to emission of greater proportion of
green house gases, deforestation, global warming, over cropping of arable
land and unpredictability of weather condition affected in speedy changes in
the environment. Such environmental changes have affected almost all spheres
of human life and living from habitat to economy and from resource base to
survival strategy. The consequences of environmental changes acquire an
unprecedented hazardous stride in developing countries like India, which have
limited resource to contain environmental degradation to the desired level.
===========================
* Research Scholar, Gauhati University
250 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

The nature loving tribal communities and their economy are the worst sufferers
of such environmental problems. With this the paper intends to have a visit on
a plain tribal community of Assam, the Mishing in this regard. As the Mishing
tribal habitation spread over a wide area extending over upper and central
Brahmaputra valley, it is not possible to carry out a study covering the entire
region. A micro regional study is carried out in the above context covering the
downstream part of the Jia-Bharali river containing two Mishing habitational
clusters namely Baligaon(A) and Dharikati(B) cluster consisting of total eight
Mishing villages.(Fig 1)

Jia-Bharali is a major north bank tributary to the Brahmaputra of Assam.


The river originating in the Aka hills of Arunachal Pradesh flows down for
about 126 km before emptying into the Brahmaputra. The downstream part of
the river passing through Sonitpur district covers a distance of 33 km recording
a total fall of 91 meters. This dowmstream part of the river has long been a
preferential habitational site of the Mishing people. Even if temporal shifting a
few Mishing villages are to be found due to the shifting course of the river
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 251

over last century. The present two habitational clusters are located around the
point of intersection of latitude of 260 38 North and 920 47 East. The eight
villages covered by both the clusters are Baligaon, Bokagaon, Kekokuli,
Towbhanga, Dharikati, Palengaon, Gorgaon and SonaiMiri.
Objectives: The objectives of the study are:
1. To assess environment and disaster related migration and habitational
shift of Mishing people since 1980s.
2. Micro-level changes in the economic behaviour and activities of the
Mishing people and their relationship with weather and environmental
changes.
Methodology: To attain at the objectives of the work a detailed investigation
has been made through field study and collection of primary data and
information on the central theme.
In this work secondary data are used only to prepare the locational map
of the study area and to collect population data from Census of India. A standard
questionnaire accommodating the objectives is prepared to collect first hand
data and information from Mishing families by random sampling method in 8
(eight) selected exclusively Mishing villages. These villages appear in two
clusters and provide group character in the activity which is also being studied.
The nature of the work is strictly socio-cultural and the economic activities
studied provide mostly non-parametric information rather than quantitative
data. Thus, methodological limitation of the work is to contain the study within
the domain of information analysis. Such a limitation maintains little scope for
presentation of data tables or statistical analysis but maintain scope for logistic
model. Among almost all the tribal communities of the N-E India a socio-
economic change from self-sustained agrarian economy towards market oriental
non-agricultural activities is of very recent origin. The major contributors for
such a change are physiographic and environment like weather variations,
deforestation, flood and bank erosion, shortage of agricultural land, changing
life style with increased literacy rate and social interaction. It thus, appears to
be too early to search for a clear dimension of socio-economic change.
Therefore, the paper intends to identify basic inputs of change imparted by
weather variation and natural hazards on the economy and habitat of the Mishing
Community.
Analysis:
The habitation and economy of the Mishing people are closely associated
with the natural environment. They prefer to live close to river and forest
wherefrom they traditionally derive their economic necessities for their day to
day living. The alluvial soil replenished by flood water, fish and floating wood
from the river, various herbs and edible leafy and root supplements which they
used as foods are their traditional resource base. The table below exhibits their
intimacy with river and forest and aloofness from urbanisation. (Table 1)
252 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Table 1
The distance of villages from river, forest and urban centres
Cluster Villages Distance from Distance Areal distance from Areal distance
the river Jia- from forest National Highway from Urban
Bharali (in Km) (NH 52) Centre
(in Km) (in Km) (in Km)
Baligaon 1.5 12 3 30
A Bokagaon
Towbhanga 0.5 7 2.5 50
Kekokuli
Dharikati
B Gorgaon 1 6.5 2 32
Palengaon
Sonaimiri

Source: Field study.


The economy of the Mishing community had always been sulf-sustain.
It was the natural environment choosen by the community for their living that
had been providing scope to carry out their self-sustained and self-reliant
economy. Paddy cultivation secured paramount importance among their
agricultural activities in the region apart from raising various vegetable such
as potato, sweet potato, arom, brinjal etc along with allied agricultural activities
such poultry, duckery, piggeries and dry fish production which are suited to
their habitational environment. Till national independence of India the Mishing
people like many other tribal communities were accustomed to barter system
of economy, they exchanged food and other produced items against the items
they required in lieu, reflecting their self-sustainable character of economy.
Even at present, though they are convergent in monetary system of economy,
barter system prevails within the inter family and inter villages transactions of
the community.
Environmental degradation caused mainly by deforestation, weather
uncertainty, variation in seasons, difference in the intensity and periodicity of
temperature and rainfall have effected in untimely flood, severe bank erosion,
shifting river course and variation in crops suitability have found to be effected
in their habitat and economy.
The apparent changes in their habitation and economy emerging since
1980s are The depletion of forest cover in and around the Mishing habitational
clusters not only increased the physical distance of forest from their habitation
but also caused scarcity of various leafy herbal and root food supplements
which were traditionally available from the forest compelling them to change
their food habit. Deforestation also minimises their dependence on forest as a
resource base.
Untimely and overgrowing flood due to increase bed siltation compelled
to shift a number of earlier Mishing villages such as Sikom, Koroiani Miri,
Silonipam etc were completely washed away by the shifting course of river.
Under such circumstances, the habitants had to migrate to the present localities.
Out of all the eight Mishing villages covered by the above mention cluster
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 253

such three villages namely Towbhanga Mirigaon, Baligaon, Dharikati have


migrated from their earlier habitational location due to flood and bank erosion.
Recurrence of flood along the downstream part was common even earlier but
its growing dimension and severe bank erosion was a later addition to
environmental hazard.

Plate 1: Bank erosion threatening existence Plate 2: Pad dy field close to river bank
of Mishing settlement.(Downstream Jia-Bharali) vulnerable to flood damage and uncertain
harvest prospect.
Traditionally, the Mishing families used to live in houses with raised
T
platforms or Chang ghar. This house type was adopted by them to protect
themselves from normal flood water and wild animals but, scarcity of building
materials for erecting Chang ghar. Presently they have adopted in large number
a house type a keen to any other community living in Assam. The only difference
in their present housing style is the retention of traditional elevated room meant
for the kitchen called Meram adjacent to their newly adopted structure.

Plate 3: Traditional Chang ghar Plate 4: Modified form of Chang ghar

ChangedChanged weather conditions have also affected their cropping pattern.


Traditionally they were adapted to broadcast rice of Bau Dhan that grew
luxuriantly keeping a balance with growing flood water. Now they have changed
their paddy cultivation into transplantation form like other communities likewise
they grow arom, sweet potatoes, potatoes and brinjal that grows abundantly in
the alluvial soil that reappears along the river bank after recession of flood.
But now they have to change their crop selection according to the variability of
weather along with their food habit.
Environmental degradation in the Mishing habitational areas along the
Jia-Bharali river had effected a new entry in the economic consideration of the
254 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Mishing people commercialisation of their economic activities apart from


imparting a wide range of changes in their habitational and food behaviour.
Prominent changes taking place during the recent decades are-
Growing initiative in the commercialisation of agricultural activities by
identifying the market potential and weather suitability of crop; for instance
arom and hot chilly or Bhut Jolokia are now widely produced by the Mishing
people in the studied clusters which have high market demand both in national
and international market. A chain of growers, procurers and marketers are
found to be grown very recently in the above two item of commercial crops.
Earlier the allied agricultural activities particularly pig, duck, and poultry rearing
and fish production which are earlier produced for family consumption have
also acquired a commercial thrust at present a significant number of commercial
piggery, duckery, poultry farm and fisheries have grown up in all these eight
Mishing villages serving as a major supplier of these food items to the
neighbouring local market. The traditional Mishing handloom fabrics having
attractive design and colour choice were traditionally woven by the Mishing
women folk exclusively used for their family intimates. But recently the
inhabitant of the Mishing villages in the studied clusters have started commercial
production of their well designed handloom fabrics which have growing demand
both in the internal and external markets.
Earlier the Mishing weavers were accustomed to use of loin looms
but now to keep pace with market demand they have started adopting handloom
and powerloom in large numbers.

Plate 5: Loin loom Plate 6: Handloom


The
The table given below shows the use of the loin looms and handlooms by
Mishing women. (Table 2
Table 2, Village-wise use of Loin loom and Handloom
Name of the village Loin loom Handloom
Traditional Mechanized
Baligaon 300 200 50
Towbhanga 220 100 29
Kekokuli 140 50 21
Bokagaon 250 170 35
Dharikati 102 50 10
Sonai Miri 68 42 5
Paleng Gaon 55 30 2
Gorgaon 45 15 5
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 255

Fig 2
Thus, environmental changes have brought in a wide range of
transformation in the sphere of ethnic tradition of the Mishing community
mainly in their habitational behaviour and economic activities which the
communities never experienced till 1980s since their migration into the
Brahmaputra valley towards the dawn of the 16th century A.D from the Abor
hills of Arunachal Pradesh.
Summary and Conclusion:
The fundamental micro-level changes in the habitation and economic
behaviour of the Mishing community can be viewed by some scholars through
the spectrum of social change, literacy and exposure to audio-visual media
over the same period of time. There is no doubt, these fundamental changes in
life style of remote areas in India might have been influenced to some extent
and contributed to such changes significantly. But, it is also a matter of concern
that a community that have certain socio-economic practices within 3-4 decades.
Unless natural forces make them realize to accept such changes. It is also a
matter of investigation to what extent the micro-level changes, the elements of
weather at their individual status exert a compulsive force on the life and living
of the tribal community like the Mishing.
======================
References :
1. Baruah, P.C. (2010): Cultural Traditions and Customary Laws of the Mishings
of Assam Spectrum Publication, Guwahati.
2. Baruah, P.K. (2002): Missing Jonajivan: Chinta Bichitra Directorate of Assam
Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes, Guwahati.
3. Kagyung, B. (ed) (1989): Mishing Dharma Biswas, Mishing Sanskritir Alekhya,
Saraighat Printers, Guwahati.
4. Kuli, J.J. (2003): Mising Sanskriti (in Assamese) Kaustubh Prakashan,
Dibrugarh.
5. Mili, G. (ed) (1994): Jia Bharalir Rengani, Souvenir, Second Bi-Annual
Conference, Mishing Driribi Kebang, Baligaon.
6. Mipun, J. (1987): The Mishings of Assam: Development of a New Lifestyle
Lowyers Bookstall, Guwahati.
256 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

7. Padun, N. (1989): Mishing Sanskriti, Mishing Sanskritir Alekhya, Saraighat


Printers, Guwahati.
8. Payeng, S. (2006): Mishing Janajati (in Assamese)
9. Pegu, G. (2010): The Mising of the Brahmaputra valley and their oral literature
N.L Publications, Guwahati.
10. Pegu, I. (1989): Mishing Dharma Biswas aru Parampara, Mishing Sanskritir
Alekhya, Saraighat Printers, Guwahati.
11. Pegu, N. (1981): The Mishings of the Brahmaputra valley Kulajan, Dhemaji,
Assam
12. Pegu, Dr. N.C. (1981): The Mishings of Brahmaputra Valley, published by M.
Pegu, Dhemaji, Assam.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Prison Reform in India


* S. K. Rai
==========================================================
Abstract- Punishing the offenders is the primary function of all civil societies.
Prisons are known to have existed throughout the history. Existence of prisons
can be traced back to the ancient period. It was believed that rigorous isolation
and custodial measures would reform the offenders. Experience, however, belied
this expectation and often imprisonment had the opposite effect. With the
development of behavioural sciences, it began to federalize that reformation of
offenders was not possible by detention alone. Prisons are not normal places.
The prisoners are deprived of freedom and personal contacts with family and
friends. The utility of prison as an institution for rehabilitation of offenders and
preparing them for normal life has always been a controversial issue. There are
quite a large number of offenders who are otherwise well behaved and are
persons of respectable class of society but they fall prey to criminality on account
of momentary impulsiveness, provocation or due to situational circumstances.
There is yet another class of prisoners who are otherwise innocent but have to
bear the rigours of prison life due to miscarriage of justice. Obviously such
persons find it difficult to adjust themselves to the prison surrounding and find
life inside the prison most painful and disgusting.
==========================================================
The real purpose of sending criminals to prison is to transform them into
honest and law abiding citizens by inculcating in them a distaste for crime and
criminality. But in actual practice, the prison authorities try to bring out
reformation of inmates by use of force and compulsive methods. Consequently,
the change in the inmates is temporary and lasts only till they are in the prison
and as soon as they are released they again get attracted towards criminality. It
is for this reason that the modern trend is to lay down greater emphasis on the
prisoners so that they can be rehabilitated to normal life in the community.
This objective can be achieved through probation and parole. The sincerity,
devotion and tactfulness of the prison officials also help the in the process of
offenders rehabilitation.
Concept of prison reforms:
The existence of prisons in our society is an ancient phenomenon since
Vedic period where the anti-social elements were kept in a place identified by
the rulers to protect the society against crime. Prisons were considered as a
House of Captives where prisoners were kept for retributory and deterrent
===========================
* Associate Professor of Law, BKD College, Jhansi (U.P.)
258 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

punishment. Initially there was a belief that rigorous isolation and custodial
measures would reform the offenders. In due course it is being substituted by
the modern concept of social defence.Various problems prevailing in prisons
are acknowledged by government and authorities from time to time. John Locke,
the great English political theorist of seventeenth century expressed that men
were basically good but laws were still needed to keep down The few desperate
men in society. The aim of the society as expressed in its criminal law is to
safeguard its own existence to maintain order and to make it possible for all
citizens to lead a good life, free from molestation of others. The law enforcement
agencies have been given the powers by the society to curtail the freedom of
its citizens by taking them into custody in connection with their deviant conduct.
Before the 1700s, governments seldom imprisoned criminals for
punishment. Instead, people were imprisoned while awaiting trial or
punishment. Common punishments at that time included branding, imposing
fines, whipping, and capital punishment (execution). The authorities punished
most offenders in public in order to discourage other people from breaking the
law. Some criminals were punished by being made to row the oars on ships
called galleys. However, English and French rulers kept their political enemies
in as such addition; people who owed money and defaulted on payments were
held in debtors prisons. In many such cases, offenders families could stay
with them and come and go as they pleased . During the 1700s, many people
including British Judge Sir William Blackstone criticized use of executions
and other harsh punishments. As a result, governments turned more and more
to imprisonment as a form of punishment. Early prisons were dark, dirty and
overcrowded. They locked all types of prisoners together, including men,
women, children, dangerous criminals, debtors and the insane. During the late
1700s, the British reformer John Howard toured Europe to observe prison
conditions. His book The State of the Prisons in England and Wales (1777)
influenced the passage of a law that led to the construction of the first British
prisons designed partly for reform. These prisons attempted to make their
inmates feel penitent (sorry for doing wrong) and became known as
penitentiaries .
Prisoners Reforms: Prior independence and Post-independence:
The modern prison system in India was originated by TB Macaulay in
1835. A committee namely Prison Discipline Committee,1836 was appointed,
which submitted its report on1838. The committee recommended increased
rigorousness of treatment while rejecting all humanitarian needs and reforms
for the prisoners. Following the recommendations of the Macaulay Committee
between1836-1838, Central Prisons were constructed from 1846.The
contemporary Prison administration in India is thus a legacy of British rule. It
is based on the notion that the best criminal code can be of little use to a
community unless there is good machinery for the infliction of punishments.
In 1864, the Second Commission of Inquiry into Jail Management and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 259

Discipline made similar recommendations as the 1836Committee. In addition,


this Commission made some specific suggestions regarding accommodation
for prisoners, improvement in diet, clothing, bedding and medical care.
Accordingly, the Government of India appointed the All India Jail Manual
Committee In1957 to prepare a model prison manual. The committee
submitted its report in 1960. In 1957, the Eighth Conference of the Inspector
Generals of Prisons also supported the recommendations of Dr. Reckless
regarding prison reform. The report made forceful pleas for formulating a
uniform policy and latest methods relating to jail administration, probation,
after-care, juvenile and remand homes, certified and reformatory school,
borstals and protective homes, suppression of immoral traffic etc. The report
also suggested amendments in the Prison Act 1894 to provide a legal base for
correctional work.
The Indian Jail Reforms Committee 1919-20 which was appointed to
suggest measures for prison reforms was headed by Sir Alexender Cardio. It
visited many prisons and came to the conclusion that prisons should have not
only deterring influence but they should have a reforming effect on inmates.
As a measure of prison reform, the Jail Committee further recommended that
the maximum intake capacity of each jail should be fixed, depending on its
shape and size. A Jail Reform Committee, 1946 was constituted in the year
1946 for the formation of the jails. This committee gave the suggestions as:
a. The child offenders should be treated differently
b. Modern jails should be constructed
c. The classification of offenders should be scientific such as; Women
offenders Habitual offenders, Handicapped offenders.
Prison reforms after independence of India:
After independence of India, the work on the reformation of jails speeded
up. It was accepted that prisoners are also human beings and have right of
humanitarian. So in 1956 the punishment of transportation (Kala-pani) was
substituted by the imprisonment for life. In 1949 Pakawasha Committe gave
the permission to take work from the prisoners in making the roads and for
that wages shall be paid. The treatment of prisoners on psychological and
psychiatric basis received some attention as a measure of prison reform during
1950s. As G. B Vold rightly observed, the rehabilitation activities of the
modern prison are generally of two kinds, namely psychological and psychiatric
treatment and Educational or vocational training programmes. The Government
of India invited Dr. W. C. Reckless, a technical expert of the United Nations
on Crime prevention and treatment of offenders, to male recommendations on
Prison reforms in 1951. Later on the Committee was appointed to prepare an
All India Jail Manual in 1957 on the basis of the suggestions made by the Dr.
Walter Rackless.
The All India Jails Manual Committee 1957-59 was appointed by the
government to prepare a model prison manual. The committee was asked to
260 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

examine the problems of prison administration and to make suggestions for


improvements to be adopted uniformly throughout the India. The report was
presented in 1960.they not only enunciated principles for an efficient
management of prisons, but also lay down scientific guidelines for corrective
treatment of prisoners.
Mulla Committee:
All India Committee on Jail Reforms 1980-83 was constituted by the
government of India under the chairmanship of Justice Anand Narain Mulla.
The committee suggested setting up of a National Prison Cmmission as a
continuing body to bring about modernisation of prisons in India. The basic
objective of the Committee was to review the laws, rules and regulations
keeping in view the overall objective of protecting society and rehabilitating
offenders. It recommended a total ban on the heinous practice of clubbing
together juvenile offenders with hardened criminals in prisons. To constitute
an All India Service called the Indian Prisons and Correctional Service for the
recruitment of Prison Officials. After-care, rehabilitation and probation should
constitute an integral part of prison service. The Mulla Committee submitted
its reportin1983. Some other recommendations of Mulla Jail Committee were
as follows:
1. The conditions of prison should be improved by making adequate
arrangements for food, clothing, sanitation and ventilation etc.
2. The prison staff should be properly trained and organised into different
cadres.
3. The media and public men should be allowed to visit prison so that they
may have first hand information about the conditions inside prison and
be willing to co-operate with prison officials in rehabilitation work.
4. Lodging of undertrial in jails should be reduced to bare minimum and
they should be kept separate from the convicted prisoners.
5. The Government should make an endeavour to provide adequate
resources and funds for prison reforms.
Juvenile Justice Act, 1986:
In the year 1986, a Juvenile Justice Act was enacted and observation
homes, special homes, and juvenile homes were constituted, where the
neglected children and juvenile delinquent can be admitted and the juvenile
delinquent cannot be tried with the non juvenile delinquent offenders and cannot
be kept within the prison. Many provisions were made regarding the orders
that could be passed against the juvenile offenders and what cannot be passed
against the juvenile offenders. Under this Act juvenile means a boy below the
age of 16 years and a girl below the age of 18 years. Krishna Iyer Committee:
In 1987, the Government of India appointed the Justice Krishna Iyer Committee
to undertake a study on the situation of women prisoners in India. It has
recommended induction of more women in the police force in view of their
special role in tackling women and child offenders
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 261

Krishna Iyer Committee on Jail Reform


In 1987, the Government of India appointed the Justice Krishna Iyer
Committee to undertake a study on the situation of women prisoners in India.
It has recommended induction of more women in the police force in view of
their special role in tackling women and child offenders. The National Expert
Committee on Women Prisoners headed by Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer report
submitted its report to the Government in February 1988.
Various State Jail Reform Committees
The period from 1937 to 1947 was important in the history of Indian
prisons because it aroused public consciousness and general awareness for
prison reforms at least in some progressive States like, West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu, and Maharashtra etc. Efforts of some of the eminent freedom fighters
who had known firsthand the conditions in prisons succeeded in persuading
the governments of these progressive States to appoint committees to further
enquire into prison conditions and suggest improvements in consonance with
their local conditions. Some of the Committees appointed during the period
were:
1. The Mysore Committee on Prison Reforms, 1940-41;
2. The U.P. Jail Reforms Committee, 1946; and
3. The Bombay Jail Reforms Committee, 1946-48.
In the late thirties, the U.P. Government appointed a Jail Enquiry
Committee and in pursuance of its recommendations, the First Jail Training
School in India was established at Lucknow in 1940 for the training of jail
officers and warders. When India gained independence in 1947, the memories
of horrible conditions in prisons were still fresh in the minds of political leaders
and they, on assumption of power, embarked upon effecting prison reforms.
However, the Constitution of India which came into force in 1950 retained the
position of the Government of India Act, 1935 in the matter of prisons and
kept Prisons as a State subject by including it in List IIState List, of the
Seventh Schedule (Entry 4) . The first decade after independence was marked
by strenuous efforts for improvements in living conditions in prisons. A number
of Jail Reforms Committees were appointed by the State Governments, to
achieve a certain measure of humanization of prison conditions and to put the
treatment of offenders on a scientific footing. Some of the committees which
made notable recommendations on these lines were:
1. The East Punjab Jail Reforms Committee, 1948-49;
2. The Madras Jail Reforms Committee, 1950-51;
3. The Jail Reforms Committee of Orissa, 1952-55;
4. The Jail Reforms Committee of Travancore and Cochin,1953-55;
5. The U.P. Jail Industries Inquiry Committee, 1955-56; and
6. The Maharashtra Jail Industries Reorganization Committee, 1958-59.
While local Committees were being appointed by State Governments to
suggest prison reforms, the Government of India invited technical assistance
262 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

in this field from the United Nations .


Steps Taken by Government of India for Administration of Prison
Reforms in India:
The Government of India requested to State Government and different
Union Territories to bring out changes so as to make proper administration of
changes. Various states from time to time had adopted such recommendations
in their prison manuals. These recommendations can be summed up as follows:
1. To revise their prison manuals on the lines of the Model Prison Manual
by the end of the year.
2. To appoint Review Committees for the under trial prisoners at the district
and state levels;
3. To provide legal aid to indigent prisoners and to appoint whole-time or
part-time law officers in prisons;
4. To enforce existing provisions with respect to grant of bail and to liberalize
bail system after considering all its aspects;
5. To strictly adhere to the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure,
1973, with regard to the limitations on time for investigation and inquiry;
6. To ensure that no child in conflict with law be sent to the prison for want
of specialized services under the Central Children Act, 1960.
7. To have at least one Borstal School set up under the Borstal Schools
Act, 1929 for youthful offenders in each State;
8. To create separate facilities for the care, treatment and rehabilitation of
women offenders;
9. To arrange for the treatment of lunatics in specialized institutions;
10. To provide special camp accommodation under conditions of minimum
security to political agitators coming to prisons;
11. To prepare a time bound programme for improvement in the living
conditions of prisoners with priority attention to sanitary facilities, water
supply, electrification and to send
1. it to the Ministry of Home Affairs for approval;
12. To develop systematically the programmes of education, training and
work in prisons;
13. To strengthen the machinery for inspection, supervision and monitoring
of prison development programme and to ensure that the financial
provisions made for up gradation of prison administration by the Seventh
Finance Commission are properly utilized.
14. To organize a systematic programme of prison personnel training on
State and Regional level;
15. To abolish the system of convict officers in a phased manner;
16. To mobilize additional resources for modernization of prisons and
development of correctional services in prison;
17. To set up a State Board of Visitors to visit prisons at regular periodicity
and to report on conditions prevailing in the prisons for consideration of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 263

the State Government;


18. To examine and furnish views to Government of India on proposal for
setting up of the National Board of Visitors
The government recently announced a Rs. 4,000-crore package for prison
reforms as part of the National Prison Policy being implemented by the Centre.
This policy will redefine prisons as correctional homes. News reports have
mentioned that State governments will be encouraged to sell off prisons situated
in prime areas to generate funds to create modern buildings elsewhere. These
buildings will have cells with cushioned beds and clean toilets, closed-circuit
TV cameras, video-conferencing facilities, and space for yoga, sports and extra-
curricular activities. The plan includes building 200 prisons to add to the 1,300
that exist in the country.
The situation of the prisons in our country came into focus in the early
1980s, when as part of the National Police Commission K.F. Rustomji
highlighted prison conditions and the plight of undertrial prisoners. Activists
such as Sheela Barse filed public interest litigation petitions on custodial
conditions, and judges like Justice P.N. Bhagwati and Justice V.R. Krishna
Iyer passed landmark judgments. These steps brought much needed relief to
thousands of undertrials, who were released on personal bond or simply
discharged. However, the situation on the ground seems to get worse by the
The government has set up working groups, committees and commissions to
investigate the issue and offer solutions. The more important among them
were the Justice Mulla Committee Report on Prison Reforms (1982-83) and
the Justice Krishna Iyer Committee on Women Prisoners (1986-87). These
reports have, by far, given the most comprehensive accounts of what ails our
prisons, and suggested a slew of measures. The latest Draft National Policy
on Prison Reforms and Correctional Administration, 2007, prepared by the
Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D), is but old wine in a
new bottle.
The draft policy includes suggestions for some welcome changes to the
Prisons Act of 1894. These include the introduction of a provision to provide
for aftercare and rehabilitation services and the appointment of officers to
provide legal aid for prisoners. Also envisaged are the establishment of a
Research and Development wing, and financial assistance to non-governmental
organisations working for the rehabilitation of prisoners and community-based
alternatives to imprisonment for offenders convicted for relatively minor
offences.
However, there are some rather disconcerting suggestions in the report.
For example, the committee has recommended that prisoners sentenced to
simple imprisonment should be compulsorily made to work. This suggestion
de facto eliminates the difference between simple and rigorous imprisonment,
and goes against the principle of deterrence, one of the foundations of modern
criminal jurisprudence. The prison administration should instead create
264 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

educational and vocational training avenues for undertrial prisoners and


prisoners sentenced to simple imprisonment. Another suggestion of the
committee is to amend Section 305-B of the Code of Criminal Procedure,
making it mandatory for the trial judge to award the maximum sentence in
cases where the accused contests the charge levelled against him or her. This
is an outrageous suggestion that goes against all principles of fair trial, as set
out by Article 21 and Article 22 of the Constitution.
The committee has suggested awarding compensation to victims of
crimes from the wages earned by prisoners serving rigorous imprisonment.
Deductions from the wages of a prisoner after he or she has been sentenced to
imprisonment (as punishment) amounts to punishing the person twice over
a case of double jeopardy. In countries across the world where a system of
victim compensation exists, it is awarded out of state funds (as in Australia),
and not by pinching the pocket of the prisoner, who in any case gets a pittance
as wages in prison.
A worrying suggestion of the committee is the inclusion of senior police
officers in prison administration to elicit the cooperation of the police. This is
in keeping with the recent trend of deputing Indian Police Service officers in
prison departments, instead of the earlier practice of prison cadre officers leading
their departments. Ensuring the cooperation of the police cannot be a ground
for the inclusion of police officers in prison administration. As with the police
or the judiciary, correctional services form a specialised area that requires
training and qualification. Each cannot be replaced by the other: they have
very specific roles and functions based on the principle of separation of powers,
a foundation of any functioning democracy.
In seeking to improve prison conditions, we have to first address the low
personnel- population ratio compared to countries that have more effective
justice delivery systems. Governments tend to refuse to fill up vacancies and
augment the staff strength across criminal justice wings. We need to create
departments of correctional services, instead of just renaming prisons as
correctional homes. We need to give financial and infrastructure support to
voluntary organisations working on the rights, welfare and rehabilitation of
custodialised populations. Cosmetic surgery alone will not solve problems.
Let us not get seduced by cushioned beds, western toilets and single cell
facilities to house our prisoners, in the name of prison reform.
======================
References :
1. https://www.google.co.in/ Arnav Sood Prison Reforms In Indian Prison System
2. https://www.google.co.in/ Kaustubh Rote PRISON REFORM AND SOCIAL
CHANGE IN INDIA
3. https://www.google.co.in/ Bureau of Police Research & Development
NATIONAL POLICY ON PRISON REFORMS AND CORRECTIONAL
ADMINISTRATION
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 265

4. www.newresearchjournal.com/multieducation Zubair Ahmed Jail reforms


in India: A study of Indian jail reform committees
5. https://www.google.co.in/ Vijay Raghavan It is not prison buildings, but what
goes on inside them, that need change.
6. https://www.google.co.in/nidhibeniwal Role of Judiciary in Protecting the
Rights of Prisoners
7. National Policy on Prison Reforms and Correctional Administration, Bureau of
Police Research & Development, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of
India, New Delhi, 2007.available at : www.bprd.nic.in.
8. Paranjape NV. Criminology & Penology with Victimology, Central Law
Publications; Sixteenth Edition; 2014, p-479.
9. Prisons in India: An overview of reforms and current situation, pp.31-53;
available at www.rajprisons.nic.in..
10. Bureau of Police Research & Development, Ministry of Home Affairs, New
Delhi. Implementation of the Recommendations of All-India Committee on Jail
Reform (1980-83); Volume I; 2003; available at: www.mha1.nic.in.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Victims of Crime in India and the Criminal Justice


System: A Brief Study
* Rupali Debbarma
==========================================================
Abstract- The victims of crime are those who have formerly endured injury or
are possibly suffering as an outcome of crimes having been committed. The
direct family or dependents of the direct victims, who are harmfully affected,
are also included within the meaning of the term "Victims". The quandary of the
victims does not finish with the crime but it persists. It may even increase,
following the crimes; since they have to face the rigors of the actuality, such as
deficient support system, dearth of social backing, and sense of anxiety. They
also experience the intricacy of police inquiry, magisterial investigation and
criminal trial. The impact of victimization on different kinds of victims due to
different types of crimes has been varied such as physical, psychological and
financial. Through this paper writer has endeavored to check the situation of
victims of crime in India and the Criminal Justice System.The paper also stresses
the need to provide support to crime victims. The author of the present paper
has also recommended some of the imperative steps that are to be implemented
by the law enforcement agencies in India to improve the position of victims in
the criminal justice system.
==========================================================
Key words: Victims, Crime, Criminal Justice System

Introduction: The victim has been forgotten specie in Indian jurisprudence


since beginning of modern Criminal Justice System1. Victim is at the core of
any crime made punishable by the organized society within whose jurisdiction
it occurs. It is the pain of deprivation suffered by victim which provides the
cause for criminal action. The recorded history of early human civilizations
would show that whenever a crime situation occurred, the affected citizen (the
victim) was expected to approach the ruler in his court to lodge a formal
complaint and seek the offender being brought to justice2. India has inherited,
from erstwhile British rulers, the common law system of adversarial criminal
justice. The penal philosophy in India has accepted the concepts of prevention
of crime, treatment and rehabilitation of criminals, which have been reiterated
by many judgments of the Supreme Court. But in true sense Victims have no
rights under the criminal justice system, and the state undertakes the full

===========================
* Assistant Professor, Gauhati University
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 267

responsibility to prosecute and punish the offenders by treating the victims as


mere witnesses3.
Meaning of Victim: The legal definition4 of victim includes a person who
has suffered direct or threatened physical, emotional or pecuniary harm as a
result of the commission of crime; or in the case of victim being an institutional
entity, any of the harms by an individual or authorized representative of another
entity.Thus victim of crime refers to any person, group or entity who has suffered
injury, or loss due to illegal activity and the harm may be physical mental or
economic. As per UN Declaration of Basic principles of justice for victims,
19855, Victim is defined as persons who, individually or collectively, have
suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering,
economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through
acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within the
member states, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power.
Thus any person who has suffered harm because of violation of criminal law is
a victim. Harm may be physical, mental, economic or emotional in nature.
Objective of the Study:
To check the status of victims of crime in India and the Criminal Justice
System
To analyze the rights of the victims of crime as well as judicial
pronouncements made by the Apex Court in India.
Methodology: This article is based on doctrinal method. Doctrinal method
consists of primary and secondary data based on books, articles, internet
materials, statutes as well as landmark judgments pronounced by the Judiciary.
Rights of Victims: In India as we follow adversary system of trial, wherein
the state and the accused competes, hence victims rights get itself submerge
in the public interest in prosecution and conviction of the offender. Fair trial
rights of the accused are given predominance in the Criminal justice
administration in the country and hence the victims do not get their due attention.
This situation was highlighted even by the Apex Court in Rattan singh v. State
of Punjab6 wherein it was observed that It is a weakness of our jurisprudence
that victims of crime and the distress of the dependents of the victim do not
attract the attention of law. In fact the victim reparation is still the vanishing
point of our criminal law. This is the deficiency in the system, which must be
rectified by the legislature.
The Right of Attend: Crime victims and their families be given the right to
be present during criminal justice proceedings. This right is important to victims,
who often want to see the criminal justice process at work. They may want to
hear counsels arguments and view the reactions of the judge, witnesses and
the defendant7.
Right to be Heard: One of the most significant rights for crime victims is the
right to be heard during critical criminal justice proceedings that affect their
interests. Such participation is the primary means by which victims play a
268 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

proactive role in the criminal justice process. When a crime victim is allowed
to speak at the sentencing hearing, or to submit a victim impact statement
regarding the impact of the offence on the victim and the victims family, there
is an acknowledgment by the criminal justice system of the personal nature of
the crime and of the harm suffered8.
The Right to be Informed: The criminal justice system is often required to
provide general information of interest to victims. If victims or their families
are given the right to be notified of important, scheduled criminal proceedings
and the outcomes of those proceedings, when hearings have been cancelled
and rescheduled it will be helpful for them to follow9.
The Right to Protection: It is important to give crime victims the right to
protection during the criminal justice process. This right may take the form of
a generally stated right to protection, or may include specific protective
measures.
Measures to protect crime victims take various forms. Some examples include:
i) Police escorts to and from court;
ii) Secure waiting areas separate from those of the accused and his/her
family, witnesses and
iii) Friends during court proceedings;
iv) Witness protection programs;
v) Residence relocation; and
vi) Denial of bail or imposition of specific conditions of bail releasesuch
as no contact ordersfor defendants found to present a danger to the
community or to protect the safety of victims and/or witnesses10.
6) The Right to Restitutions: The term restitution generally refers to
restoration of the harm caused by the defendant, most commonly in the form
of payment for damages.
Restitution should cover any out-of-pocket losses directly relating to
the crime, including:
Medical expenses;
Therapy costs;
Prescription charges;
Counseling costs;
Lost wages;
Expenses related to participating in the criminal justice process (such as
travel costs and child care expenses);
Lost or damaged property;
Insurance deductibles; and
Other expenses that resulted directly from the crime.
As per Criminal procedure code Amendment Act, 2008, Section 357 A
was inserted whichspecificallyrecognized victims right to compensation.The
code of criminal procedure (Amendment) Act, 2008, has made tremendous
contributionin filling the gaps in the law as far as victims rights are concerned.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 269

Apart from providing forvarious protection schemes for victim/witness


protection especially in rape cases, the Act also provided for right to counsel
for the victim, right to appeal against adverse order passed by the trial court
and also incorporated Section 357 A which provided for victimcompensation
scheme. As per Criminal law Amendment Act, 2013, victims of acid attack
are granted compensationwhich could be utilized in their rehabilitation. Apart
from these, there are also otherenactments like fatal accidents Act, 1855, The
Motor vehicles Act, 1988, and theProbation of offenders Act, 1958 which
provide for compensation to the victim. It is really a matter of great solacethat
some new legislations like The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence
Act, 2005, The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act,
2007, The Scheduled, Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of
Atrocities) Act, 1989 provides for mandatorycompensation.
Role o Judiciary in Emancipating Rights of Victims: Justice traditionally
has been understood to involve prosecution, conviction and punishment of
guilty in order to restore public order, security and respect for rule of law. The
victims, survivors and witnesses go to the altar of the court for a variety of
reasons: the desire for the truth to be known, to speak for the dead, to demand
accountability and to demand justice.
Lalitakumari v. Govt. of U.P and others11, wherein the Supreme Court
while citing reference to its ruling in State of Haryana v. BhajanLal12, reaffirmed
the position that, subject to certain limited exceptions, as a matter of general
practice the police is duty bound to straightway record an FIR under section
154 Cr.PC, where the information discloses the commission of a cognizable
offence. This has significantly cemented and strengthened, for the victims, the
right of access to justice.
Section 164-A which provides for the medical examination of a victim
of rape, was introduced by the Amendment Act, 2005, in congruence with the
172nd Law Commission Reports recommendation. The recommendatory efforts
find their root in the Supreme Courts directive in Sakshi v. Union of India13.
In the case of Nagina Devi v. State of U.P14, the Allahabad High Court cited
the law and the mandatory requirement under section 164-A (1)for the
investigation officer to send the aggrieved woman for the medical examination,
to the registered medical within twenty four hours. This period of twenty four
hours is to be computed from the time when the information concerning the
commission of rape comes to their knowledge.
The 2013 Amendment in the Criminal Procedure and Indian Penal Code
has brought in significant changes, as far as rights of the victims to medical
assistance, both in terms of treatment and examination for evidence collection
is concerned. The right has now been supplemented by right of victims of
specified offences to be provided with the first aid or medical treatment, free
of cost making it the statutory duty of all hospitals irrespective of the fact as to
whether it is public or private, whether run by central government, the state
270 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

government, local bodies, or any other person; and for it to be reported to the
police, breach of such duty being a new penal offence punishment for non-
treatment of victim15.
Conclusion: The brief review of the existing legal framework in relation to
rights of victims of crime reveals that expect in the area of providing
compensation very little has been done either statutorily or through schemes to
address the entire range of problem faced by victims of crime. There is a need
to take a fresh look at the position in which the victim of a crime is placed in
our criminal justice system.
The Malimath Committee16 has recommended that , the victim has a
right to be represent by an advocate of his/her choice; provided that an advocate
shall be provided at the cost of the state if the victim is not in a position to
afford a lawyer. This fails to acknowledge that the present state of
implementation of the statutory provision concerning free legal aid in the
criminal justice system leaves much to be desired. The reform of the criminal
justice system as a whole will have to be simultaneous with the reform of the
legal aid system before a victim of crime can be guaranteed an effective right
of representation in a criminal trial.
The limitation of the resources of the state in making adequate provision
in the form of a victim assistance fund ought not to be tolerated any longer.
The attempt at devising a statutory scheme of witness protection will have to
be preceded by a wide range of consultations by the law making body with not
only victims of crime but other statutory body like national human rights
commission, legal professionals, sociologist, professional from the field of
medicines etc., it would be appropriate to develop alternative forms of dispute
resolution without diluting the need for providing fair and equal justice to
victims of crime.
======================
References :
1. G.S Bajpai and ShriyaGauba, victim justice- A paradigm shift in Criminal
Justice System in India, published by Thomson Reuters, First Edition (2016).
2. http://www.eurasiareview.com/22022016-rights-of-victims-in-indias-criminal-
justice-system-analysis/.
3. https://www.jdicere.com/rights-of-victims-in-the-indian-criminal-justice-
system-by-shreya-singh/.
4. http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/victim
5. http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/article/victims-rights-in-india-1315-
1.html
Endnotes:
1. G.S Bajpai and ShriyaGauba,victim justice- A paradigm shift in Criminal Justice
System in India, published by Thomson Reuters, First Edition (2016).
2. Ibid
3. Ibid
4. http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/victim
5. Supra note 1 at p74.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 271

6. AIR 1980 SC 84
7. http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/article/victims-rights-in-india-1315-
1.html
8. Ibid
9. Ibid
10. Ibid
11. 2014 (2) SCC 1
12. 1992 Supp. (1) SCC335
13. AIR 2004 SC 3566
14. (2010)70 ACC 512
15. Supra note 1 at 79
16. Supra note 1 at 7
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Human Rights Violations in North Korea


* Nabanita Das
==========================================================
Abstract- North Korea officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is
a socialist and totalitarian state is under the rule of the Kim family. The country
was ruled by the founding leader Kim II Sung followed by his son Kim Jong II
and grandson and current ruler Kim Jon Un. North Korean situation is critical
after being under the dictatorship of the Kim family over 3 generations. They
rule with a regime where they don't let their people think for themselves.
==========================================================
Human rights in North Korea are severely limited. It is currently a society
where respect for human rights has yet to exist, human rights are severely
limited. Human rights cannot co-exist with absolutism of the Great Leader.
Only the Great Leader has absolute human rights; all others are simply his
vassals. An individuals fate and human rights belong not to the individual but
to the Great Leader. No matter how much the Great Leader and his agents
infringe on the peoples human rights, it is considered acts of blameless morality.
In North Korea, no one can question or have the right to oppose the Great
Leaders behaviour or his agents infringement of human rights.A 2014 UN
Commission of Inquiry found thatthe abuses in North Korea were without
parallel in the contemporary world. They include extermination, murder,
enslavement, torture, imprisonment, rape, forced abortion, and other sexual
violence. North Korea operates secretive prison camps where perceived
opponents of the government are sent to face torture and abuse, starvation
rations, and forced labour. Fear of collective punishment is used to silence
dissent. There is no independent Media, functioning civil society, or religious
freedom.
The people of North Korea dont know much of the outside world. They
can be executed for making unauthorized international phone calls. They are
kept under a constant brainwash to worship the regime. The radio, television
broadcast movies, TV shows and music all are propaganda about the Kim
family and the regime. They teach people to hate outsiders. According to Hyeon-
Seo Lee a defector from North Korea in 1977 making her way through China
to South Korea, in her new book The Girl with Seven Names shares the
story of her harrowing journey. When she was asked how it was growing up in
North Korea? She replied that as North Korean we were very happy because
===========================
* Assistant Professor, K.H.Saikia College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 273

we dont know whats going on in the outside world. We didnt know, we


were all suffering. It thought the whole world was like that. We were not the
master of our life because its always the regime make decisions for us. So we
are quite truly, we become human robot from the regime. Lee also said that
before actually learning our parents name, they learned the names of the regime
first; they were worshipped as God not as human beings. They were living
under a virtual prison and were the most severely brain washed human beings
in the world. They were also taught to hate the Americans symbolise in military
uniforms and during the childhood all have to play a game where they have to
stab, beat the American statue made up of cardboard.
There was forced abortion, infanticide and sexual violence. According
to the UNcommissions findings, North Korean women who became pregnant
after having fled to China have been subjected to forced abortions once
repatriated to DPRK. While forced abortions are also said to be carried out on
other women held in detention, the commission reported the abortions
performed on repatriated women are an act of hostility towards Korean women
who have had sexual intercourse with Chinese men and become pregnant.
The perpetrators of forced abortion and infanticide appear to be driven by
official ideology that emphasizes the importance of maintaining the purity of
the Korean race at all costs, the commission wrote. Not all women were
subjected to forced abortions. Others saw their babies killed shortly after birth.
One witness testified to the commission regarding a woman who became
pregnant after a guard raped her. She carried the baby to term while detained
in a prison camp punishment block but the infant was thrown in the feeding
bowl for the dogs.The same witness said he was aware of a girl who was
punished and tortured after being raped. He explained the girl was tortured
by pressing a burning hot stove hook on her breast, and was later forced into
hard labour in a coal mine. He said she lost eventually her legs in an accident
at the site.Myung Sook Lee defector from North Korea and entered South
Korea in 2008 said that if you caught by the border patrol, you get beaten up
everywhere, your face, your body. The male officers strip you naked on the
spot to see if you brought any money from china and even check private parts
with their hands. Lee was also forced to give birth, when the policemen were
watching. Then they lay the baby face down right in front of her eyes so that it
would die and ultimately the baby died crying for 2 hours.
The North Korean children dont have any rights. There is prevalence of
universal system of education from elementary to high school but the reality is
much different from what people accept. A defector Gwang Seong Jeong
entered South Korea in 2006 said that the children have to go back to home to
get lunch as there is no cafeteria, no dining. They were also asked to do manual
labour, sent to factories, carry stone and sand from the riverbank and also have
to do harvesting. The children are also given special assignments like to bring
animal skin, rubber, copper, or scrap metals for these special assignments but
274 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

if you dont, they dont let you go home He said. Some students decided not
to go to school in the first place. Another student said that, there is also the
prevalence of Kkotjebi and euphemism for child beggars. In spring the students
spread plastic bags on the ground and slept there also used the bags as blankets,
woken up early in the morning. There were also lots of kids who sleep outside
even in the winter where many were frozen to death. A scientist defacted from
the North Korea and fled to Finland has revealed that the North Korea has
experiment chemical weapon test with disable children to see how they die.
The children who are born in prison camps are seen as prisoners because their
blood is guilty which are buried alive or are given as savage to dogs.
The torture which is carried out by the North Korean government is
another example of Human rights violation. North Korean interrogators
are said to have beaten prisoners arrested for unauthorized travel to China or
other politically sensitive conduct. One torture victim told the UNcommission
he was beaten with a wooden club until he could no longer scream and he
suffered enduring injuries to his kidneys as a result.Another torture victim,
Mr, Kim Kwang-il, said police subjected to him to what was called the pigeon
torture position and beat his chest until he threw up blood. He said he wound
up confessing to crimes he did not commit. Not all of the victims were adults.
The commission spoke with 16-year-old Kim Hyuk, a former prisoner who
was forcibly repatriated from neighbouring China as a boy. He said he was
also put through pigeon torture and was kept at the interrogation centre until
he was 17 and could be tried as an adult. Torturing people by knee and wood
torture method practice against the enemies of the state whose family members
have escaped from the country, due to this practiced they couldnt walk after a
week and result in the death of the detainee.
Persons accused of serious political offenses are usually sent to political
prison camps, operated by North Koreas National Security Agency. These
camps are characterized by systematic abuses and often deadly conditions,
including meagre rations that lead to near-starvation, virtually no medical care,
lack of proper housing and clothes, regular mistreatment including sexual
assault and torture by guards, and executions. People held in political prisoner
camps face backbreaking forced labour at logging, mining, agricultural, and
other worksites. These are characterized by exposure to harsh weather,
rudimentary tools, and lack of safety equipment, all of which create a significant
risk of accident. Death rates in these camps are reportedly extremely high.There
is alsonoprevalence of human rights in political prisonercamps. There are six
prison camps in North Korea with 80,000 to 120,000 people are imprisoned
in the camps an estimate made byUnited States and South Korean officials.
They keep them as slaves, not carrying about the age or condition of the
prisoners, they are faced with deplorable conditions, forced labour, torture,
inhuman treatments and even execution which is considered merciful comparing
it to the work they must do all while being led near starvation.Hye Sook Kim
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 275

detained in political prison camp said when you go inside a political prison
camp they tell you to never ask what you are guilty of. If you do, you become
a traitor and will be executed in public. She also said that political prisoners
are literally treated worse than dogs.
The prison camps are divided into two totally controlled zones for
prisoners with life sentence, and are also deprived of citizenship and zone for
ideological reformation for prisoners to be released and retaining citizenship.
The prisoners are turn into slaves and machines where they have to work all
the time.The political prisoners almost die within three years. They didnt even
know their human rights are violated, they didnt even know the word human
rights. They beat up the criminal half dead drag them by the gag in his mouth
and tie him to the post with his eyes covered then, they yell, in the name of the
people shoot the anti- revolutionary convict. And three soldiers shoot 3 shoots,
and they also yell, if they try to escape they will end up like this.Only 25
minutes from summary trial to public execution, no process of appeal, and no
defense from an attorney reveal by a detainee.In January of 2016,U.S. student
Otto Warmbier was arrested in Pyongyang for allegedly attempting to steal a
propaganda poster at a hotel. He was sentenced to 15 years hard labour, then
fell into a coma 15 months ago from which he never awoke., has again put an
international focus on the widespread human rights violations allegedly being
committed by the Kim Jong Un government.
There is also prevalence of guilt by association a system in which family
members of a criminal are also held accountable and punished. The family of
Gil-Nam Oh detained in Yodok Political Prison Camp had escape from the
camp but his wife and daughter are suffering in the prison camps. They are
given the punishment because of their association with Gil- Nam Oh. There
are many political prisoners in North Korea whose guilt was established by
nothing more than association.
Through witness testimony, the commission found evidence that
starvation was also used as a form of torture and extermination in its prison
camps. For political criminals, they gave us a fistful of corn kernels once a
month after 15 days; we would run out of food, so we had to cut grass to
cook porridge, to stay alive. Even fit men, healthy people, after three months,
would suffer from malnutrition, witness Kang Chol-hwan, a political prisoner
in the 1980s, testified.
There is no freedom of movement. It is illegal to leave a country without
the regimes permission. If someone wants to travel a specific country they
should give a specific reason and purpose without which the regimes will not
give access and if they want to leave the country without permission they will
be relocated to less favourable parts of the country as a punishment and if
someone is caught while escaping is shot to dead.In 2011 two people were
executed in front of 500 spectators because they tried to escape from the country.
The North Korean rulers also prohibit the people from seeking ways to fend
276 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

for themselves, and continue to subject the starving masses to forced labour.
The North Korean rulers use armed forces to stop the people from seeking out
their relatives living in China to ask for help. Even if some of the people manage
to cross the river and reach the Northeast region of China, the North Korean
rulers dispatch security agents to arrest and drag them back home like escaped
slaves and subject them to barbaric punishment.
The role of international actors is an important one in North Korean
situation. In a 372-page United Nations report on human rights in
the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea are harrowing. The investigation
looked at years of violations from the countrys founding leader Kim Il Sung,
his son Kim Jong Il and grandson and current ruler Kim Jong Un.The UN
report on Human Rights abuses in North Korea and describes the violations as
CRIME AGAINST HUMANITY which is seen in 9 areas. Violations of
freedom of expression, ideology and religion, discrimination based on origin,
violations of the right to movement, violation of the right to food/ right to life,
arbitrary detention, torture, violations associated to prison camps and abduction
of foreigners. It also recommended to international community and to UN that
to refer human rights violations in North Korea to UN Security council and to
build up stronger and continued UN efforts to enhance human rights situation
in North Korea and humanitarian aid to Pyongyang the nations capital to
continue.
Pyongyangs record of cooperation with UN human rights mechanisms
remains among the worst in the world. Since 2013, its human rights record
has been the subject of more focused UN attention than ever before, including
at the Human Rights Council and Security Council, as detailed above. On
September 21, the HRC held a plenary panel on the situation of human rights
in North Korea, addressing international abductions, enforced disappearances,
and other alleged crimes. In January 2015, United States President Barack
Obama issued an executive order imposing sanctions following the hacking of
Sonys computers in late 2014, allegedly by groups connected to North Korea.
The US sanctions on North Korea included a human rights clause for the first
time.
The North Korean governments view of human rights is conditional
rather than universal. They give importance on collective rights than individual
rights. The government said their constitution guarantees human rights, the
law respect human rights but this all are misconception. Rights in North
Korea rather they dont have any rights.There is no freedom of movement, no
freedom of speech, civil rights are rejected, and deathpenalty is given without
a justified judicial process.The focussed should be on people, on human rights.
More attention should be given on liberty by words not by bullets. People in
North Korea should little by little be aware of the outside culture and what
actually happening to them. It is not a good situation to live in and more and
more people should try to come out of the country where the NGOs and other
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 277

organisations play an important role.Factionalist or enemies of the class,


whoever they are, must be exterminated over three generations.- Kim II sung
1970s. The words of the quotation are still practiced in North Korea. The
inhuman, brutal, violation of human rights at this moment growing up pressure
as giving up lives as human beings. The violations deserve criminal investigation
and a strong role should be played by international community by which lives
of people in North Korea are safe and secure.
======================
References :
1. North Korea | World | Asia | Human Rights Watch available at https://
www.hrw.org/asia/north-korea
2. Report on Human Rights Abuses or Censorship in North Korea available at
https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/259366.htm
3. Examples of North Korea human rights violations from UN report available at
http://globalnews.ca/news/1157373/examples-of-human-rights-violation-from-
the-un-report-on-north-korea/
4. Warmbiers Death Puts Focus on North Korean Human Rights Violations
available at https://www.voanews.com/a/wawrmbier-death-puts-focus-on-north-
korea-human-rights-violations/3907618.html
5. Human rights in North Korea available athttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Human_rights_in_North_Korea.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Judicial Interpretation and the Right to Education


* Chandana Borah
==========================================================
Abstract- At the end with the words of Justice UNTWALIA "who has compared
Judiciary to a watching tower above all the big structures of the other limbs of
the State from which it keeps a watch like a sentinel on the functions of the other
limbs of the state as to whether they are working in accordance with the law and
the Constitution, the Constitution being supreme." In India, Judiciary occupies
a unique place. Its function is to maintain the rule of law in the country and to
assure that the Government runs according to law.
==========================================================
If you are planning for a year, sow rice; if you are planning for a
decade plant trees; if you are planning for a lifetime, educate people.
Chinese proverb.
In a democratic country like India, education is one of the basic human
needs. Education gives a person human dignity and also contributes to the
development of nation. The main purpose of making education as a fundamental
right is to abolish illiteracy from the country. The popular maxim boni judicis
est ampliare jurisdiction1 means it is the duty of a good judge to extend the
jurisdiction. It is one of the principles that law must keep pace with the society
to retain its relevance and if society moves law cannot remain static. The Indian
judiciary in its number of decisions expanded the horizon of article 21, which
guarantees to all the right to life, includes all those rights which are necessary
to the dignified enjoyment of life and dignity of the individual can be ensured
only when it is accompanied by the right to education.2 For achieving equal
opportunities to all and to strengthen the framework of democracy the
Constitution of India by its 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added a new Article
21A and make right to education a fundamental right.
Object: The main object of this paper is the initiatives taken by Indian Judiciary
regarding implementation of right to education in India. As it is one of the
important function of the Court is to safeguarding the supremacy of the
Constitution by interpreting and applying its provisions and keeping all
authorities within the constitutional framework.
Right to Life and Personal Liberty: The first Chief Justice of India J. H.
Kania said that the Supreme Court would declare and interpret the law of the
land and it would be able to make a substantial contribution towards the
===========================
* Research Scholar, Gauhati University
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 279

formation of India into a great unit retaining its civilisation and traditions. He
trusted that the people of India would also maintain the independence, honour
and dignity of the Supreme Court.3 In A.K Gopalan Case4, the Supreme Court
placed Article- 21 of the Constitution of India in a very narrow sense and
observed that the procedure established by a law made by the State. The Court
refused to accept the principles of natural justice. The Court had viewed that
Article-19 which provide freedoms to its citizen does not included under the
purview of Article-21 as because, Article- 19 postulated legal capacity to
exercise the rights guaranteed by it. It appears that the honourable court followed
with the sentence drafted Committee that No person shall be deprived of his
life and personal liberty without due process of law.
Life of law is not logic but experience with this quote, the Supreme
Court has changed its view in Maneka Gandhis case5. The procedure
established by law under article 21 must be just, fair and not arbitrary. It must
pass the test of reasonableness and the procedure should be in conformity with
the principles of natural justice and it would be no procedure unless it and all
requirement of Article-21 would not be satisfied.6
The progress of the society is dependent upon proper application of law
to its need the path from Gopalan to Maneka Gandhi was covered by an attempt
of the judiciary to mould and shape the law to respond to the societys desire
that liberty must be effectively protected.
Right to Education- A Fundamental Right: The Indian judiciary is in number
of cases declaring educational right as an essential requisite to enjoy right to
life as it was imperative to lead a life of dignity.7
The Supreme Court in Mohini Jain vs. State of karnataka8, decided the
matters relating to capitation of fee in educational institution and heads that
right to life and dignity as those which cannot be assured unless they are
accompanied with the right to education. Every citizen has a right to education
under the Constitution. After ten years from the decision of Mohini Jain9, the
Constitution of India amended Article-21 and added a new Article- 21-A, which
provides the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children
between the ages of 6-14 years in such a manner as the state may by law
determined. This Act has also amended Aricle-45 of the Constitution of and
directing the state to provide early childhood care and education for all children
untill they complete the age of 6 years and added Aricle-51-A (k) that it is the
fundamental duty to every guardians shall provide opportunities for education
to his wards. The Apex Court, in Unnikrishnans10 case viewed that the right
though it flows from Article-21 is not an absolute right but must be read in the
light of the provisions of Articles-45 and 41. Thus, essentially the supreme
education has provided that every citizen of this country has a right to free
education until he completes the age of 14 years.
In the year 2010, the Supreme Court, In Ng. Koman Vs. State of
Manipur11 held that shifting of school from one village (where there is no
280 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

governmental school) to another village would deprived the school going


children of 6-14 years from their fundamental rights to education under Article-
21- A.
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009- Following
86th amendment of the Constitution, the Parliament of India has passed the
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. The passing
of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009
marks a historic moment for the children of India. The Act provides a solid
platform to reach the unreached with specific provisions for disadvantaged
groups, child labourers, migrant children, children with special needs, or social,
cultural, economic, linguistic, gender groups etc.12
In Ashok Kumar Thakur13, the Apex Court has urged that the central
government should enact following legislations in this regard-
a) Provides low income parents or guardians with financial incentives such
that they may afford to send their children to schools.
b) Criminally penalizes those who receives financial incentives and despite
such payment send their children to work.
c) Penalizes employers who preclude children from attending schools.
d) The penalty should include imprisonment. The state is obligated under
Article 21-A to implement free and compulsory education in toto.
e) The government should continue to increase the education budget and
make earnest efforts to ensure that children go to school and receive
quality education.
Minorities and Education- Minorities have suffered from arbitrary
discrimination and repression, they were not among the mainstream of the
society. The cultural and religious rights of minorities and minorities are
protected by the Constitution of India under Article- 25 (1) and 29 (1). All
educational institutions of minority and majority religious and linguistic
communities, who do not receive any financial aid or support from the state
have an unfettered right to administer their educational institutions on religion
and linguistic basis, provided that they should admit 25% of their strength,
children from weaker sections and disadvantage groups. The articles contained
from Articles- 25 to 30 fully recognise rights of individuals and institutions of
religious and linguistic communities to impart even religious education and
education based on a particular thought or philosophy.14 In T.M.A Foundations
case15, one of the questions which arose was the meaning and content of the
expression minorities in Article-30. Here, the word minority derived from
the word minor and ity which means small in Number. The Supreme
Court opined that the word minority literally means a non-dominant group. It
has also said that for determination of minority status, the unit will be the state
and not the whole of India.
A.M Patrani vs. Ke Shavan,16 it was held that the word minority is not
defined in the Constitution and in absence of special definition it must be held
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 281

that any community, religion or linguistic, which is numerically less than 50%
of the population of the State is entitled to the right under Article- 30.
Protection of interest of Minorities: Article29 (1) of the Constitution of India
provides for any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any
part thereof having a distinct language, scriptural or cultural of its own shall
have the right to conserve the same17.
Secondly, no citizen shall be denied admission in to any educational
institutions maintained by the State of receiving aid out of the state funds only
of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
Article- 30 (1) held that all minorities whether based on religion or language,
shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice. In making any law providing for compulsory acquisition of any property
of an educational institution established and administered by a minority referred
in clause (1), the state shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined
under such law for the acquisition of such property would not restrict or abrogate
the right guaranteed under that clause.18
Clause (2) provides that the State shall not in granting aid to the educational
institutions, discriminate against any educational institutions on the ground
that it is under the management of a minority whether based on religion or
language.19
After the Constitution came into force Articles- 29 and 30 came for the
consideration of the High Courts and Supreme Court. The use of expression
right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice in
Article- 30 (1) gives the right very wide amplitude.20
In one aspect, it was decided that the minority educational institutions have the
right to conduct and manage the affairs of the institution, any attempt by the
State governments university or Board interfere with the administration of the
institutions amounting to abridgement of the guaranteed by Article- 30 (1).21
Secondly, the minority educational institutions, which receive grants from the
state, are bound by the rules and regulations framed by it same as of
governmental educational institutions and also admit students from other
communities belonging to the majority.22
Thirdly, minority educational institutions are entitled to certain percentage
of reservation of seats to admit students of their own choice and state cannot
implement its policy on reservation.23
The right to establish and administer can be regulated by the State or the
Universities or the affiliation authority by imposing conditions to ensure
excellence in education like preserving the minimum qualification, courses of
study, and curriculum etc. But, in case of private unaided institutions, the
institutions should enjoy the maximum autonomy in the matter administration.24
In case of government aided institutions, the government will have a strong
voice in the administration including admission and fee structure. The private
unaided institutions can generate reasonable revenue surplus for the
282 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

development of the institution. Again in private aided institutions, the


government has authority to impose its own conditions and can put any fetters
on the freedom of the management.25
The Supreme Court further clarified the ratios laid down T.M.A
Foundations case26, in Islamic Academy of Education27, where in all these
cases the court makes it clear that the Government cannot fix rigid fees structure.
Each institution is entitled to fix its own fee structure taking into consideration
the need to generate funds to run the institutions and to provide facilities for
the benefits of the students. The court further viewed that the state has no
power to interfere with private professional minorities and non- minorities. So
long as admission is done on a transparent basis and merit is adequately taken
care of by such institutions.
Later on the Apex court has extended the scope and contents of Articles 29
and 30, in P.A Inamdar.28 The court has classified the educational institutions
into-
a) Unaided and unrecognised minority educational institutions.
b) Unaided minority educational institutions.
c) Aided minority educational institutions.
d) Unaided professional educational institutions.
At present in the name of the minority status, it is only economically
elite groups, who have been reaping the fruits constitutional benefits. Large
numbers of people belonging to minority are deprived from getting education
in their own institutions.
After the observation of the Supreme Court in different case laws, the
Union of India brought the Constitution (104th) Amendment Bill that enables
the state under Article- 15 (5) to provide socially and educationally backward
classes, besides the schedule castes and schedule tribes in private unaided
educational institutions. The proposed legislation makes it very clear regarding
the extent of its applicability that it would keep minority professional educational
institutions out of its purview under the bill. Thus, the scope of the constitutional
amendment is limited to private unaided educationally institutions other than
the minority institutions.29
Under Article-30 of the Constitution reservation for socially and
educationally backward classes is not permissible. However, there is an urgent
need to reserve quota for weaker section, down trodden and under privileged
class even in the minority in aided and unaided educational institutions. The
basic tenet is that minority community is to uplift the poor class and voluntarily
to provide reservation for socially and educationally backward class within the
minority communities.30
Right to Education and Child Labour: In a democratic country like India,
child labour is an incurable disease. Children in India are understood as an
asset to the family income. There are two main reasons for employing children
are to supplement the family income when it has not been sufficient to meet
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 283

the requirement of the family and secondly, the children were taught as a
traditional craft at a very early age to make them proficient in a job which
would then be a source of income to them on gaining adulthood. It is a
recognised fact that in childhood the body is more flexible and pliable and can
band, twist, stretch more easily to acquire postures required for particular
job.31
The Constitution of India imposes an obligation on every organ of the
state including the judiciary to transform the status quo in to a new human
order in which there will be equality of status and opportunity for all. Therefore,
judiciary has socio- economic destination and to perform creative function for
the community at large. It has played a significant role in promoting child
welfare.32
In Vikram Deo Singh 33 the Supreme Court has rightly held that it is the
least the minimum conditions ensuring childs dignity. The court has a parental
role while directing the government to persuade the workmen to send their
children to nearby school and arrange not only for the fee to be paid but also to
provide free of charge, books and other facilities such as transportation.
In various cases, the Supreme Court has given warning to the employers and
the law enforcing authorities not to employ children in hazardous occupation
and to implement the scheme for the welfare of children as enshrined in the
labour laws.34
Suggestions: Few suggestions are given below-
1. Under the Constitution, if any persons fundamental right is violated
then he may proceed to the Supreme Court under Article- 32 and also to the
High Court under Article- 226. But it is not possible for an indigent person to
go to the High Court or Supreme Court to establish his right. In such cases
their rights are being violated continuously. Keeping these things in mind, the
Supreme Court or the High Courts should established under their jurisdiction
some mobile courts within the whole territory, which only can entertain such
kind of cases.
2. Some monitoring agencies should be set up place to place so that they
can monitor the whole thing of an individual and also have the power to take
up their cases in the High Courts and Supreme Court.
Conclusion: At the end with the words of Justice UNTWALIA who has
compared Judiciary to a watching tower above all the big structures of the
other limbs of the State from which it keeps a watch like a sentinel on the
functions of the other limbs of the state as to whether they are working in
accordance with the law and the Constitution, the Constitution being supreme.
In India, Judiciary occupies a unique place. Its function is to maintain the rule
of law in the country and to assure that the Government runs according to law.
======================
References :
1. Anand, A.S Justice for Women; Universal Law Publishing Co. 3rd Edition. P-
284 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

60.
2. Mohini Jain vs. State of Karnataka, AIR 1992 SC 1858.
3. Supra-1 Pp-61& 62
4. A.K Gopalan vs. State of Madrass, AIR 1950 SC 27.
5. Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597.
6. Supra-1 P-63.
7. Nagarathana A. Right to Education of Children with special Need....... Indian
Legal Framework compiled by Singh Subhas Chandra, Gender Violence, Serials
Publications, New Delhi (India), 1st Publication 2011, P-155.
8. Supra-2.
9. Ibid.
10. Unnikrishnan vs. State of Andhra- Pradesh, AIR 1993 SC 2178.
11. AIR 2010, Gau- 102.
12. Hussain Dr. Naushad, Right to Education Retrospect and Prospects, Shipra
Publication, New Delhi. 1st Publication 2014, p IX.
13. Ashok Kumar Thakur vs.Union of India, (2008) 6SCC1.
14. Dharmadhikari Justice D. M, Right to Education, published in Supreme Court
Journal Section, vol. 3, 2010.
15. T.M.A Pai Foundation vs. State of Karnataka (2002) 8SCC 481.
16. A.M Patrani vs. Ke Shavan, AIR 1965 Ker 75.
17. N.S Dr. Sreenivasulu, Human Rights many sides to a coin, Legal publications,
New Delh, Edition-2008 p-82.
18. Ibid p-86.
19. Id.
20. Ibid p-90.
21. Id.
22. Id.
23. Id.
24. Ibid pp-93-94.
25. Id.
26. Supra-15.
27. Islamic Academy of Education vs. State of Karnataka (2003) 6SCC 697.
28. P.A Inamdar vs.State of Maharastra (2005) 6SCJ 746.
29. Supra- 17 p-96.
30. Ibid pp-97-98.
31. Singh Dr. Devinder, Child Labour and Right to Education, Central Law
Publication. Allahabad, 1st Edition 2013 p-3.
32. Ibid p-141.
33. Vikram Deo Singh vs. State of Bihar, AIR 1988 SC1782.
34. Asid Workers Case, AIR 1982 Sc 1473.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Prisoners' Rights: An Evolving Jurisprudence


* Farida Ahmed
**ChandanaSarmah
==========================================================
Abstract- All human being rare born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Everyone has right to life, liberty and a security of person. Each individual
should be treated with respect, dignity and equality. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood. A human being is a living creature and in the same manner humanity
is a living and ever evolving concept. Both are united from within and cannot be
separated.
==========================================================
Convicts are not by mere reason of the conviction denuded of all the
fundamental rights which they otherwise possess-
Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer
The criminal justice system deals with the accused and the victim. But,
in situations involving the State power and authority such as prisons, police
custody, etc., it is often noticed that the accused himself becomes a victim of
torture and in many instances even death. The institution of criminal justice
has evolved not only to protect human rights of those endangered by anti-
social elements but also to restore the human dignity of those who have gone
out of the prescribed social order. The Apex Court of our country has fully
established that a person who violates law does not become non-person and he
continues to be entitled to all human rights with limitation of legal provision. A
convict lodged in a prison is not denuded of all his fundamental right though it
is true that he does not enjoy all the fundamental rights like other persons
because of the fetters imposed on him in accordance with the law.1 Human
rights are a basic element of correctional justice. Human beings, by virtue of
their being human posess certain basic and inalienable rights which are
commonly known as human rights.2 They have their origin form natural law
which is superior to man-made law and human dignity is the backbone of the
human rights. These are the rights of a man which are not given to him like a
subsidy and which can be taken away. These rights are inherent. The history of
judicial protection of human rights in India revolves around articles 14, 19, 21,
32 and 226 of the Constitution of India. In recent time the National Human
Rights Commission (NHRC) becomes a very vital mechanism in safeguarding
===========================
* Research Scholar, Gauhati University
286 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

the interest of the prisoners.


The Commission proposed the uniform structure of the prison rules &
regulations to be incorporated by the States & Union Territories in their
respective prison manuals. It quoted All India Committee on Jail Reforms
1980-83 and recommended a separate chapter on the rights of the prisoners in
the ensuring law as under. 3
1.Right to human dignity.
2.Right to basic minimum needs.
3.Right to communication.
4.Right to access to law and speedy trial.
The Indian State is a signatory to various international instruments of
human rights. Like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states
that, No one shall be subjects to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment of punishment.4
The United Nation Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which states,
All persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with humanity and with
respect for the inherent dignity of the human person.5
Meaning and Definition of Prisoner: Prisoners are persons who are by legal
process committed to penal institutions. A prisoner, also known as an inmate
or detainee, is a person who is deprived of liberty against their will. This can
be by confinement, captivity or by forcible restraint. The term applies
particularly to those on trial or serving a prison sentence in a prison. Prisoner
is a legal term for a person who is imprisoned.6
A prisoner is a person who is kept in a prison as a punishment for a
crime that they have committed.7
The Prisons Act, 1894 give definition about prisoner. According to section
3 (2) of this Act, Criminal Prisoner means any prisoner duly committed to
custody under the writ, warrant or order of any court or authority exercising
criminal jurisdiction, or by order of a court-martial.
According to section 3(3) of this Act, Convicted Criminal Prisoner
means any criminal prisoner under sentence of a court or court-martial, and
includes a person detained in prison under the provisions of chapter VIII of the
Code of Criminal Procedure, 1882 (10 of 1882) or under the Prisoners Act,
1871 (5 of 1871).
According to section 3 (4) of this Act, Civil Prisoner means any prisoner
who is not a criminal prisoner.
Prisoners Rights under the Constitution of India: In the pre-independent
India when citizen did not have any fundamental freedoms, it was not possible
to think of prisoners right. But after independent India when the Constitution
was adopted and people got their fundamental rights guaranteed, prisoners
rights also began to draw the attention of the legislators and the judiciary. The
Constitution of India not enumerates any short of fundamental rights to the
prisoners specifically, but at the same time it also cannot be said that it is not
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 287

available to the prisoners except expressly excluded. Article 14 of the


Constitution of India says about the remedies against arbitrary actions and
discretion in terms of education, recreational facilities, doctrine of natural justice,
etc., for the prisoners. Similarly Article 15 protects the rights of prisoners to
the extent that these are curtailed by the term of prisonization and provides a
potent remedy against discrimination based on arbitrary and unjust grounds.
Also Article 17, provides remedy for any violation of civil rights on the basis
of birth in any particular caste, creed, religion etc. of the prisoners. Article 21
guarantees the right to life & personal liberty & thereby prohibits any inhuman
cruel or degrading treatment to any person whether (s) he is a national or
foreigner.
Thus, the fundamental rights, which also include basic human rights,
continue to be available to a prisoner.
The human rights of prisoners are
1. Rights to human dignity;
2. Right to be released on the due date;
3. Right against torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment;
4. Right against arbitrary prison punishment;
5. Right to basic minimum needs;
6. Right to access to law;
7. Right to meet spouse or next to kin;
8. Right to consult lawyer or doctor;
9. Right to privacy;
10. Right to information;
11. Right to freedom of religion;
12. Right to make a telephone call;
13. Right to meaningful & gainful employment;
14. Right to adequate food, water and nutrition;
15. Right to communication;
16. Right to conjugal and family visit; etc.
Some Landmark Judgment on Prisoners Right: The Judiciary through the
process of judicial activism has expanded the scope of the various rights of the
prisoners enshrined in Part III of the Indian Constitution. The court has
recognized the right to speedy trial, right to physical protection, right to
expression to meet family, etc. The Supreme Court of India, in its judgments
on various aspects of prison administration, has laid down three broad principles
regarding imprisonment and custody.
1. A person in prison does not become a non-person.
2. A person in prison is entitled to all human rights within the limitations of
imprisonment &
3. There is no justification in aggravating the suffering already inherent in
the process of incarceration.8
In Sunil Batra (ii) v. Delhi Administration,9 the Supreme Court held that the
288 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

writ of habeas corpus can be issued not only for relating a person from illegal
detention but also for protecting prisoners from inhuman and barbarous
treatment in jail.
In Charles Sobhraji v. Supdtt. Central Jail, Tihar10 case it was held that
there was no arbitrary power to put an under-trial under bar fetters.
In Hussainara Khatun (iv) v. Home Secy, State of Bihar11, the PIL was filed by
an advocate, exposed the failure of the release of over 40,000 under-trial
prisoners. Right to speedy justice emerged as a basic fundamental right which
has been denied to these prisoners.
In Citizen for Democracy v. State of Assam12, the Supreme Court declared
that handcuffs and other fetters shall not be forced upon a prisoner while lodge
in jail or while in transport or transit from one jail to another jail or to the court
or back.
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India13, case was landmark in Indian
Jurisprudence. The Maneka principle was extended to prison conditions and
particularly to the plight of under-trials.
The High Court of M.P. in S.P. Anand v. State of Madhya Pradesh has
extensively dealt with the basic right which are available to prisoners despite
curtailment of their right to liberty.
The decision of State of Andhra Pradesh v. Chalaram Krishna Reddy15
was relied upon to urge that a prisoner whether convict, under-trial or a detenu
continues to enjoy the fundamental rights including to life which is one of the
basic human rights.
In Dilip K. Basu v. State of West Bengal & Others16, the Supreme Court
held that CCTV cameras will help to go a long way in preventing violation of
human rights of those incarcerating in jails. It will also help the authorities in
maintaining proper discipline among the inmates & taking corrected measures
wherever abuses are noticed.
Recently, the Punjab & Haryana High Court, in the case of Jasvir Singh
and Another v. State of Punjab & others17, has ruled that the right to procreate
of a convict falls within the right to life & personal liberty guaranteed U/A 21
of the Constitution of India.
Through the mechanism of PIL, courts seeks to protect human right in the
following ways:
1. By creating a new regime of human right by expending the meaning of
fundamental right to equality, life and personal liberty. In this process right to
speedy trial, free legal aid, dignity, means of livelihood, education, housing,
medical care, clean environment, right against torture, sexual harassment,
solitary confinement, bondage and servitude exploitation and so on emerged
as human rights. These new reconceptualised rights provide legal resources to
activate the courts for their enforcement through PIL.
2. By democratization of access to justice. This is done by relaxing the
traditional rule of locus-standi. Any public spirited citizen or social action group
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 289

can approach the constitutional courts on behalf of the oppressed classes. Courts
attention can be drawn even by writing a letter or sending a telegram. This has
been called epistolary jurisprudence.
3. By fashioning new kinds of relief under the courts writ jurisdiction. For
eg.- the court can award interim compensation to the victims of governmental
lawlessness.
4. By judicial monitoring of State institution such as jails, womens
protective homes, juvenile homes, mental asylums and the like. Through judicial
invigilation, the court seeks gradual improvement in their management and
administration. This has been characterized as creeping jurisdiction in which
the court takes over the administration of these institutions for protecting human
rights.
5. By devising new techniques of fact-finding. In most of the cases, the
court has appointed its own socio-legal commissions of inquiry or has deputed
its own officials for investigation. It has taken the help of the NHRC or CBI or
Experts to enquire into human rights violations. This may be called investigative
litigation.
Conclusion: Though the prisoners rights are more or less recognized by prison
administration but the real challenge is regarding their poor implementation.
In India, various reformative measures by the government has been taken to
improve the general condition of prisoners but still the condition of prisoners
is far from satisfactory. The fact that these rights are not sometimes made
available to prisoners is well documented. There are innumerable judgements
of S.C and H.Cs showing how prisoners rights are violated. The judgements
highlighted the highly unsatisfactory conditions prevailing inside the prisons
and the failure of the prison authorities to provide an environment which is
conductive to the maintenance of prisoners rights, partly rooted in the belief
that the prisoners do not deserve all the rights & the protections that the
Constitution provides to all citizens. Besides being morally wrong and legally
invalid, this belief does not show adequate recognition of some basic facts
about the prison population.
======================
References :
1. Prof. N.V. Paranjape : Criminology and Penology (14th Edn.), 2009, P406, Central
Law Publications.
2. Dr. H.O. Agarwal : Human Rights, Universal Book Traders, New Delhi, 2002,
P2
3. Dr. S. S. Srivastava: Criminology & Criminal Administration (3rd Edn.), 2007,
Pp273-274, Central Law Agency.
4. Article 5, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
5. Article 10, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966.
6. https://en.m.wikipedia, org/wiki/prison-in-india (accessed on 23.06.2017 at
11:30 am)
7. www.collinsdictionary.com (accesses on 23.06.2017 at 11:45 am.)
290 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

8. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/prison-in-india (accessed on 23.06.2017 at 5:00


pm)
9. AIR 1980 SC 1759
10. AIR 1978 SC 1514
11. (1980) 1 SCC 98, This case was finally disposed in August, 1995.
12. (1995) 3 SCC 743
13. AIR 1978, SC 597
14. AIR 2007 MP 166
15. (2000) 5 SCC 712
16. (2015) 41 SCC 800
17. 2015 Cri LJ 2282, 2015 (1) RCR (Criminal) 509
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Euthanasia- An Analytical and Comparative study of


its legality on International Dimensions & Views And
Indian Perspective & Scenario
* Meu Amoeba Oasis
==========================================================
Abstract- Legal acceptability of euthanasia in a country like India is a key
issue for the legalisation of it. In international dimension where on one hand,
accepts the concept of euthanasia and many countries legalises it and have
laws related to it, on the other hand India have take few steps regarding
legalisation of this concept and have partially legalised it. European countries
like Netherland, Belgium and Luxemburg have legalised where India lacks
behind. Indian perspective states that legality of it could create a chaos but in
rare cases like Aruna Shanbaug this concept plays a crucial relieving role. This
article discusses the crucial and legal differences and similarities between the
acceptability in India and internationally about this concept. As Indian scenario
is totally different and has a different acceptability condition. Therefore, it is
need for the delivery of knowledge of the concept and more and more study and
research and most importantly legal statute with guidelines and criteria.
==========================================================
Keywords: Euthanasia, international dimensions, Indian scenario, legal
acceptability
Introduction Euthanasia is a broad term for mercy killing and it also seems
that it contradicts the most basic principle of morality and natural law which is
killing is wrong. Euthanasia attracts its controversies because it pits the plight
of suffering, dying individuals against religious believes, legal traditions and
Medical ethics. This issue has a focus on human dignity and an
acknowledgement of peoples mutual independency giving rise to new
sensitivities in the form of an increased manifestation of solidarity of the people
on its acceptability. Three European countries Netherland, Belgium and
Luxemburg have legalised both physician assisted suicide and euthanasia and
the states Oregon and Washington have passed euthanasia law regulating
physician assisted suicide and euthanasia. In India passive euthanasia is legal.
The Supreme Court of India legalised it, which means removal of life support
systems or instruments from the patient if the patient is brain dead and is
solely kept alive on instruments and in ventilation. The decision was made as
a part of the verdict in the case involving Aruna Shanbaug, who had been in
===========================
* B.A.LLB (NEHU), LLM (DU)
292 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Persistent Vegetative State until her death. In case of other countries who has
worked upon and passed down statues regarding euthanasia and has legalised
euthanasia, there is not much of a difference in legal acceptability but still
India stands few steps behind. Oregons euthanasia law states that a person
maybe allowed assisted suicide if they fulfil certain criteria under the law. In
India whereas in no condition such assisted suicide is accepted legally. This
article concentrates on the comparative analysis of international legal scenario
and India and to lean its norms of legal acceptance.
Objectives of the paper:
* To study the Indian legal perspective and scenario on the subject matter
of euthanasia.
* To make a study on the acceptability and refusal of the legal stand of
euthanasia internationally.
* To establish a comparative study on legal acceptability between
International dimensions and Indian perspective.
* To learn the possibilities of acceptance of euthanasia in India and
internationally by legal norms.
Methodology: In order to understand and review the current status the
following methodology are used:
* Data collected both from primary sources as well as secondary sources.
* Studying law various decisions passed down by Supreme Court and
High Courts in India and narrowing down to specific famous cases related
to the issue.
* Studying relevant documents/Law journal/Law books/medical journals/
articles published in newspapers, magazines and periodicals.
* Extracting the relevant portions from internet, legal websites/news
websites/blog pages/ E-books.
Discussion:
On March 7th, 2011 the Supreme Court of India legalised it which means
removal of life support systems or instruments from the patient if the patient is
brain dead and is solely kept alive on instruments and in ventilation. The decision
was made as a part of the verdict in the case involving Aruna Shanbaug, who
had been in Persistent Vegetative State until her death in 2015. The High court
rejected active euthanasia by means of lethal injection.1 In international scenario
the legal status of euthanasia in various countries are: Canada its illegal and
considered as aid and abet suicide under Section 241(b) of the Criminal
Code of Canada, Oregon it is legal only with certain terms and conditions to
be fulfilled, Washington legalised, Vermont legalised, California (effective from
mid 2016), Montana it is de facto legal, Denmark is yet to legalise, Finland
there is a grey area regarding this concept, France there is support for
decriminalization of voluntary euthanasia, Ireland it is illegal, Switzerland it is
criminal. European countries Netherland and Belgium it is legalised.
Luxemburg became the third European country to decriminalise euthanasia,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 293

the countrys parliament passed a bill legalising euthanasia on 20 th


February,2008. In 19th March, 2009 the bill was passed.2
In the absence of legislation on the controversial issue of euthanasia, the
Supreme Court of India has stepped in and ruled that administering a lethal
injection to end a life cannot be permitted. In the case of Aruna Shanbaug
where she had been lying for almost 37 years after being brutally attacked and
raped, it then changes the standpoint and angel of the concept. Supreme Court
in India laid down certain guidelines for euthanasia and made distinction
between passive euthanasia and active euthanasia.
In Indian context, people are demanding repeal of Section 309 IPC which
criminalises attempt to suicide and considering as euthanasia as a part of such
a subject matter. Whereas both the concepts are totally different, legalising
euthanasia does not mean decriminalising suicide. In this subject matter people
must first understand that euthanasia is provided to a person under what
circumstances and why, i.e., only when a person is in vegetative state, brain
dead, totally immobile, suffering from a chronic disease which anyway would
kill the person and euthanasia would just decrease the time of suffering.
Oregon has a well maintained law on euthanasia with guidelines like the person
must be terminally ill, must have six months or less to live, must make two
oral requests on assisted dying, must make one written request, must convince
two physicians that he/she is dying and taking the decision is voluntary, person
must not have influenced by depression, person must wait 15 days, person
must be informed bout feasible alternatives but not limited to comfort care,
hospice care and pain control.3
In New York in 1828 there was a law passed as anti-euthanasia law. In
subsequent years many other states followed suits with similar laws. Several
advocates, including doctors promoted euthanasia after the American Civil
War. At the beginning of the 1900s support for euthanasia peaked in the USA,
and then rose up again during the 1930s. In 1935 euthanasia societies emerged
in England, and in 1938 in the USA.
Suggestions :
In Indian scenario it is very difficult to put on perfectly managed legal
statute unlike many countries the study has shown in international perspective.
India cannot maybe create a perfectly polished law like Oregon and Luxemburg
but can accept the concept step by step.
* India can also lay down guidelines like Oregon, just with stricter criteria
and courts interference on whether to be allowed or not.
* Should be provided in rarest of the rare cases, after al lot of study and
investigation on the patient, so that another person should not suffer for almost
37 years.
* For checking on the guidelines a committee can be setup. The committee
can decide the physicians and doctors who would investigate the patients
condition, need for euthanasia and then send report on the basis of which
294 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

euthanasia will be allowed or rejected.


Conclusion: Etymologically, euthanasia means a good or happy death. Many
might wonder if death could ever be a happy event. The biggest fear of the
legal acceptability is the right being misused which is the foremost reason
shown by the anti-euthanasia lobby in opposing the concept. But in countries
it has been an accepted norm. The International perspective have changed a
lot and some countries are in the path of accepting the concept legally. The
people are more ready to embrace a compassionate approach to euthanasia if
it is carefully managed and monitored as. India can also in the long run and
future change a lot of legal acceptance of this concept by ironing the creases
and embellishing it.
References
1. Sudha Umashankar, The fight for dignity in death 14th February, 2010 (Sunday),
The Hindu Pg.7.
2. Santosh K. Chaturvedi, Grey Matter; Right to Die?, 8th April, 2007 (Sunday),
Hindustan times(Lucknow), Pg.10.
3. Deigh J., (2004), Physician-Assisted Suicide and Voluntary Euthanasia: Some
Relevant Differences, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology ,Vol. 88
No. 3 Pg.1155-1165
4. Health Care Analysis; Vol. 12 No. 3 Pg. 225-240
5. Murkey P.N. & Singh K.S, (2008), Euthanasia (Mercy Killing), Journal Ind.
Acad. Forensic Med. &Toxico, Vol-30 no.2, Pg.92-95..
6. Dyck Arthur J., When Killing Is Wrong- Physician-Assisted Suicide and the
Courts, (Cleveland, Ohio :Pilgrim Press 2001), Pg. 47-58. (E-book)
7. Derek Humphry, Final Exit, (Bristol Highway, Johnson City : Carol Publishing.
Inc 1991). Pg. 72-76. (E-book)
8. Rita Marker, Deadly Compassion, (1350 Avenue of the Americas, New York :
William Morrow &Company. Inc. 1991). Pg.7-9.
Footnotes:
1
2
3. National Review Online; Disabling Assisted Suicide, Why a deadly movement
hasnt been contagious; Smith, W.J.; on Jan. 19, 2004; from (http://
www.petersingerlinks.com/taking.htm)
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

A Comparative Study on the Library Facilities of


Government and Private Secondary Schools in
Nagaon District
* Himakshi Borah
==========================================================
Abstract- Education is a lifelong process and libraries are proper agencies for
providing all requisite reading materials to one and all for attaining proper
education throughout once lifetime. Library is a backbone of an institution. "A
Library has been rightly charged with the function of collecting preserving,
preparing and dissemination knowledge with an aim- the aim being the fulfilment
of the purpose of the parent body." The general aim of libraries is the provision
of reading facilities to the public so that their personality is enlightened. Library
can play a vital role in education. Every school have library. It contains books
of various subjects taught in the school. It also contains different newspaper,
magazines, storybooks etc.
==========================================================
Secondary Education and Libraries: India is now a secular democratic
republic and is governed by parliamentary system of government. Democratic
government depends for its ultimate success upon the education of all the
people and upon the widest diffusion of knowledge. The constitution of India
provides Equality of Opportunity one of the fundamental rights and Free
Compulsory Education as one of the directive principles of state policy.
Traditional schools in India are also be oriented to the pattern of the Basic
Education which is based on Mahatma Gandhis concept of Education through
life. In order to orient the traditional schools towards the basic pattern by
introducing an integrated curriculum for use in both the types of schools
especially at the elementary level, principal Mathur has strongly urged that
provision of a good school library is necessary and must be given immediate
attention, orientation or no orientation.
The requisite standard of a school library organisation are of the following:
Appropriate housing and equipment of the high school library.
Professionally trained librarian.
Scientific selection and care of books and materials and the proper
classification and cataloguing of this material.
Educational Implication of this Study: In the present study an investigation
===========================
* M.Phil, Research Scholar, Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankardeva
Viswavidyalaya, Assam
296 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

will be made regarding the library facilities available for the student in
Secondary schools in and around Nagaon city.. It is necessary to find out the
library facilities for the students available at present, so that suggestions may
be made to improve the situation and there by the students may be helped in
becoming library minded. If they can develop their reading habits in the library
in school they can perform their studies quite independently in other subsequent
educational career.
Area of the Study: The two schools where the survey was conducted were:
1. Kujidah Higher Secondary School:
Kujidah H. S. School is government school and it is located in Nagaon
district and this school was established in the year of 1954.
2. Sankar dev Vidya Nitketon Hatichung:
It is a private school located in Brahmingaon of Nagaon district and it
was established in the year of 1993.
Objectives of the Study:
1. To find out the services offered by the library in Government and Private
Secondary Schools in Nagaon district.
2. To make a comparative study of library facilities (infrastructure, books,
staff, and time table) available in private schools and government schools.
Hypotheses of the Study:
1. The library facilities available in the schools are satisfactory.
2. There is difference between the two schools with regard to library
facilities.
Review of Related Literature:
The Review:
It has been found from research survey report that much research work
has been done on public library system and college library service but very
few research works has been done on school library service.
1. Hazarika Deba, Library facilities and promotion of reading habits in
the Secondary schools with special reference to Sibsagar district, a dissertation,
Gauhati University, 2000. In his dissertation Hazarika mentioned that the
schools in the past entirely were dependent upon the text books. The school of
the past concentrated upon drilling the child in a service of mental exercise.
The child, who is surrounding with good books of all kinds, learns beyond the
class room routines and through extensive reading he is able to develop
judgement about books. This brings into play the use of school library as a
common literacy laboratory and an indispensable agency for importing real
education through dynamic method of teaching. He noticed that the lack of
reading habit among the school children is an academic problem which leads
to a social problem.
It has been found from research survey report that much research work
has been done on public library system and college library service but very
few research works has been done on school library service.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 297

2. A study of the Organisation of Library in Secondary Schools with special


reference to Golaghat district. by Mrs. Alakananda Barman, 1985 - 1986
3. A Study on Library Facilities in Secondary and Higher Secondary
Schools with special reference to city of Guwahati by Kushal Haloi, 1994
1995
4. Role of Library Facilities Developing Reading Habits Among Secondary
School Students-by Binod Jyoti Das, 1998-1999
Methodology used in the Study:
The investigator used Descriptive Survey Method for this study.
Tools Used: The tools used for study are questionnaire and observation
Sample: For the present study the investigator selected the samples according
to her own judgement based on experiences for including a given student in
the sample. The sample so selected is called judgement or purposive sample.
The samples selected are as follows-
Head of the Institution
Librarian or library in-charge
Students: Some students studying in class VIII and IX have been included
in the present study.
Data Collection: The investigator used both Primary and secondary sources
of data collection.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data:
Analysis of first Objective:
The library facilities available in the two schools are analyzed with the
help of following tables
Table: 1
Analysis of the questionnaire by the students
Objective 1: To find out the services offered by the library in both govt. and
private secondary schools.
Q no. Responses of the students Total responses Percentage of the
responses
Kujidah H. S. Sankar Dev Kujidah Sankar Kujidah H. Sankar
School Vidya H. S. Dev S. School Dev Vidya
Niketon School Vidya Niketon
Yes No Yes No Niketon Yes No Yes No
4 16 0 16 0 16 16 100 0 100 0
5 16 0 16 0 16 16 100 0 100 0
7 16 0 16 0 16 16 100 0 100 0
9 16 0 16 0 16 16 100 0 100 0
10 16 0 16 0 16 16 100 0 100 0
13 16 0 0 16 16 16 100 0 0 100
14 16 0 16 0 16 16 100 0 100 0

Table: 2
Analysis of the questionnaire by the Librarian or Library In-Charge
298 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Q Responses Total responses Percentage of the responses


No. Kujidah H. Sankar Dev Kujidah Sankar Kujidah H. Sankar Dev
S. School Vidya H. S. Dev S. School Vidya
Niketon School Vidya Niketon
Yes No Yes No Niketon Yes No Yes No
3 1 0 1 0 1 1 100 0 100 0
6 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 100 100 0
18 1 0 1 0 1 1 100 0 100 0
19 1 0 1 0 1 1 100 0 100 0
20 1 0 1 0 1 1 100 0 100 0
22 1 0 0 1 1 1 100 0 0 100
25 1 0 1 0 1 1 100 0 100 0
26 1 0 0 1 1 1 100 0 0 100
27 1 0 1 0 1 1 100 0 100 0
28 1 0 1 0 1 1 100 0 100 0
32 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 100 0 100

From the table no. 1 and 2 it can be said that necessary facilities for
library in the school are available in both schools. In these Tables only closed
items are analysed. The open items also show that library facilities are available
in both schools which are analysed in second objective. From this analysis we
can say our first hypothesis The library facilities available in the schools are
satisfactory can be accepted.
Analysis of the second Objective:
Objective 2: To make a comparative study of library facilities (infrastructure,
books, staff, time-table) available in private School and Govt. School.
On the analysis of the responses from the librarian, head of the institution and
students of the various questions, it is observed that every teacher and student
has responded to the questions according to the library facilities available in
their schools. so, there were significant variations in their replies.
Infrastructure: It is shown from the questionnaire that in Govt. School there
is good building facility for the library. In a separate building library is located.
About 20 students can sit at a time in the reading room.
In the private school, the library room is located in the main building. About
15 students can set at a time in the library
Books: From the analysis of the questionnaire it is shown that in the Kujidah
H. S. School there are above 3000 books in the library. And in the Sankardev
Vidya Niketon there were above 2500 books available.
Staff: In Kujidah H. S. School there is no librarian, but a female science teacher
is the in-charge of the school library.
In Sankardev Vidya Niketon there is a B. Lib qualified librarian in the school
library. In both the schools they have library committee.
Time Table: The library is open in all school days in both the schools. In
Kujidah H. S. School the books are issued twice in a week, and there is a
library period in the time table. The students are issued books on Monday and
Friday, and they can take the books for 15 days only.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 299

In Sankardev Vidya Niketon the books are issued only once in a week.
There are not any library classes in the time-table. Students can go to the
library daily, library cards are issued to every student. Without the library
cards books are not issued. The books are issued for 15 days.
From this analysis we have seen various differences in both the schools.
According to this analysis there are better facilities available in the govt.
secondary school than the private.
But there is not a qualified librarian in the govt. school library.
Our second hypothesis there is difference between the two schools with regard
to library facilities can be accepted.
Major Findings: The school in Nagaon district has to face lots of problems.
The major findings of the study are summarised below
The library room is not well decorated to attract the children in both of
the schools. And in the reading room, the seat capacity is very small.
There is not a well qualified librarian in the govt. secondary school. And
in both the schools librarian and the library in-charge is directly responsible
for the library functions.
There are limited numbers of books available in both the library.
Books are not systematically arranged in the libraries. There are not
open shelves in the private school library, so students get troubled for reading
the books when they need.
Suggestions: There are various drawbacks in the government and private school
library. For the development of library the investigator has given the following
suggestions-
School library should be planned and organised scientifically according
to the needs and situation of teaching and learning process.
The school library should possess a separate attractive building with
attractive and beautiful furniture. There should be well illustrated books and
sufficient audio visual materials to attract the children and to motive them.
Financial problem is one of the main barriers in the development of
libraries. It is therefore the responsibility of the school authority to manage the
library found.
Trained libraries with requisite qualified with good salaries should be
appointed in school.
Conclusion: From this study we have seen that there are various problems in
both schools regarding library facilities. They have a library but they are not
well managed. In government school library there is no qualified librarian and
in private school library there is no proper time-table for library users. The
two libraries can not fulfil the demands of the students.
We are now entering in to the information age. At this moment the need
of the well organised service libraries in the govt. secondary schools is deeply
needed. The govt. should give financial assistance to each and every school
for the proper development. Every school should have a trained librarian so
300 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

that he can fulfil the needs of the students.


======================
References :
1. Koul, Lokesh, Methodology of Educational Research, Vikash publishing Pvt.
Ltd.
2. Sharma R A, Educational Research
3. Abraham J, Library Extension Service
4. Gyanjyoti, the Magazine of Kujidah H. S. School.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

A Comparative Study of Adjustment Ability and


Aggression between Semi Contact Sport Players
* Shipra Rai
**Pankaj Pandey
==========================================================
Abstract- The purpose of the study was to investigate the comparison of
adjustment and aggression between basketball and football players. Participants
for the present study were taken from college level football and basketball players
at Delhi region. For the purpose of this study thirty male football and basketball
players 17 to 25 years of age were selected. Adjustment ability questionnaire
prepared by Dr. A.K.P Sinha and DR. R.P. Singh and aggression questionnaire
by Buss and Perry were applied to assess above mention variables. To compare
the selected psychological variable between semi contact game players
independent t test was applied.Results: The result of the studyrevealed that
selected semi contact game players not statistically significant different in health
adjustment and aggression whereas basketball players more social and emotional
adjust ability.
==========================================================
Keywords: Aggression, Emotional, Semi contact game, Adjustment

Introduction :Sport has always been look upon as a form of physical activity
and ability of an individual. It is said that if all human organism work accordingly
to their viability then chances of an individuals success is more. In sports
everyone wants to give their best and they put in a lot of efforts to maintain
their training of fitness status but the recent scenario has changed and to attain
an optimum level of performance efficiently and effectively one need to train
the psychological characteristics of the person as well.It has been observed
through the participation, competition and tournaments that physical fitness
component alone is not the key to achieve the desired goal performance and
satisfaction.Human are composite in nature and therefore there mind is a set
of mental process which consists of recognition, realization, awareness,
understanding, interpretation, observation and judgement. All these aspects
are inter-related which the sportsperson need to strengthen along with his/her
===========================
* M.P.Ed Scholar, Amity School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences,
Amity University, Sector-125, Noida (U.P) , Pin- 201303.
** Assistant Professor , Amity School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences,
Amity University, Sector-125, Noida (U.P) , Pin- 201303
302 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

physical ability which enhances the overall performance of the


sportsperson.Aggression is viewed as a form of action administered towards
the goals of harming and injuring the other person. It can have a negative as
well as positive result on an individual and on their performance.Dhingraet. al.
(2005) assert that adjustment isa continuous process through which one changes
to be in proper adjustment with hisenvironment, others, and himself. Although
adjustment contains many aspects like social,emotional, physical and
educational dimensions; the best aspect is social adjustment whichis the
prerequisite to the other aspects of adjustment (Mazaheri, Baghiyan, &
Fatehizadeh,2006).Emotional andsocial adjustment resulting from positive self-
concept can provide the person with some kind of ability to face the difficulties,
and higher self-esteem strengthens ones ability toefficiently tackle with the
psychological pressures (Wilbum& Smith, 2005) . Football and basketball are
two such semi contacts sport where striking and containing physical contact
between the competitors imitating full power techniques. The techniques are
confined to limited power and displaying the opponent unconscious is debarred.
Both these games are known as semi contact game because while quite strong
impact is standard, its not necessary to the sport.
Methodology :
Selection of Subjects: The present study was confined to the college level
students who have participated atdifferent semi contact sports. Keeping in
mind the purpose of the study, 30 players each of football and basketball game
was selected as subjects for the study.
Selection of Variables: The following variable was selected for the study:
1. Adjustment ability
i. Social Adjustment
ii. Emotional Adjustment
iii. Health Adjustment
2. Aggression
i. Physical Aggression
ii. Verbal Aggression
iii. Hostile Aggression
Criterion measures :For this study adjustment ability questionnaire prepared
by Dr. A.K.P Sinha and DR. R.P. Singh and aggression questionnaire by Buss
and Perry were used.
Collection of Data: The data was collected from the selected participants
from college level football and basketball players.The scoring of the
questionnaire was done as per the procedure described in the respective
manuals.
Statistical technique:To Compare selectedaggression and adjustment ability
between football and basketball college level players descriptive statistics and
independent t test were used . The level of significance was kept at 0.05.
Result and discussion :
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 303

Significance of difference in the mean of health adjustment between


football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Std. t value
Difference Deviation
Health Football 30 5.3667 .266 2.28161
Adjustment .418
Basketball 30 5.1000 2.64380

*Significance at .05 level


The above table 1 depicts that the difference of .266 in the means of
health adjustment between football and basketball college level player is
statistically not significant at .05 level of confidence in the obtained t value is
.418 if less than the tabulated value 2.
Table 2: Significance of difference in the mean of social adjustment
between football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Std. t value
Difference Deviation
Social Football 30 7.5667 1.7333 3.08146
Adjustment 2.590
Basketball 30 9.3000 1.98529

*Significance at .05 level


The table 2 depicts that the difference of 1.7333 in the means of social
adjustment between football and basketball college level player is statistically
significant difference at .05 level of confidence. The obtained t value is 2.590
which is higher than the required tabulated value 2.0.

Table 3 Significance of difference in the mean of emotional adjustment


between football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Std. t Value
Difference Deviation
Emotional Football 30 9.6000 3.0667 3.51940
Adjustment 2.710
Basketball 30 12.6667 5.10127

*Significance at .05 level


The above table depicts that the difference of 3.0667 in the means of emotional
adjustment between football and basketball college level player is statistically
significant differenceat .05 level of confidence in the obtained t value is 2.710
is higher than the tabulated value 2.
Table 4 Significance of difference in the mean of physical aggression
between football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Std. t Value
Difference Deviation
Physical Football 30 24.5667 6.10078
Aggression 1.1 .672
Basketball 30 23.4667 6.56917

*Significance at .05 level


304 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

The above table depicts that the difference of 1.1 in the means of Physical
aggression between football and basketball college level player is statistically
not significant at .05 level of confidence in the obtained t value is .672 is less
than the tabulated value 2.
Table 5 Significance of difference in the mean of verbal between
football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Std. Deviation t Value
Difference
Verbal Football 30 17.1000 4.05437
0.2333 .249
Basketball 30 16.8667 3.13746

*significant at .05level
The above table consisting the variable of Verbal depicts thatthe difference
of 0.2333 in the means of aggression between football and basketball college
level player is statistically not significant at .05 level of confidence in the obtained
T value is .249 is less than the tabulated value 2.
Table 6: Significance of difference in the mean of hostile between
football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Difference Std. t
Deviation
Hostile Football 30 23.9667 3.22152
0.4334 .549
Basketball 30 23.5333 2.88556

*significant at .05level
The above table consisting the variable of Hostile depicts thatthe
difference of 0.4334 in the means of aggression between football and basketball
college level player is statistically not significant at .05 level of confidence in
the obtained T value is .549 is less than the tabulated value 2.
Findings: The finding of the study reveals some facts related to the adjustment
and aggression. After data analysing there were no significant difference found
between football and basketball group in term of health adjustment , physical
aggression, verbal aggression and hostile aggression whereas social and
emotional adjustment found significant difference .
Conclusion:On the basis of the finding obtained from the present study it is
observed that selected semi contact game players not statistically significant
different in health adjustment and aggression. It is also concluded that basketball
players have more emotional adjust and social adjustment ability than football
players.
======================
References :
1. Burdette, A., & Weeks, J. (2012). Maternal Religious Attendance and low birth
weight. Social science & medicine, 74(12), 1961-1967
2. Dhingra, R., Manhas, S. and N. Thakur(2005), Establishing connectivity of
emotional quotient (EQ), spiritual quotient (SQ) with social adjustment: A study
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 305

of Kashmiri migrant women, J. Hum. Ecol,Vol.18, No. 4, pp. 313-317


3. Dr. Md. Mahmood Alam (2016),Social adjustment and social maturity as
predictors of academic achievement among adolescents, international journal
of informative and futuristic research, 3(12):4495-4507.
4. Lalit Mohan Tiwari(2011), A Comparative Study of Aggression between
University Level Throwers and Jumpers, International, Journal of Health,
Physical Education and Computer Science in Sports. 3(1):39-42.
5. Mazaheri, A., Baghiyan, I. and M. Fatehizadeh(2006),The effects of group
training of self-esteem on the social adjustment of the university student,
DaneshvarRaftarScientic Research Periadical, Vol.13, No. 16, pp. 49-56.
6. Nagra, V. and Kaur, M.(2013) , Social Maturity among Student Teachers,
InternationalJournal of Education and Psychological Research (IJEPR), 2013;
Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 10-16.
7. Nasir, R. and Lin, L.S. ,(2012) The relationship between self-concept and
career awareness amongst students, Asian Social Science, 2012, Vol. 9, No. 1,
p. 193.
8. Rajesh Kumar(2013), Comparative study of aggression in women Cricket
players of different levels of participation, International, journal of Physical
education, Sports and yogic Sciences. 2013; 2(2):17-18.
9. Samira Mashhoodi(2013). The comparison of the aggression of young and adult
athletes in individual or team sports. European, Journal of Experimental Biology.
3(1):661-663.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Secondary Level Students and Higher


Education- A Study
* Rani Deka
==========================================================
Abstract- The Higher education system in India has undergone unprecedented
growth and expansion especially during last two decades. The quality of a nation
depends upon the quality of its citizens which in turn, depends upon the quality
of their education. The progress of any society and the people in it heavily
depends on 'Education'. Education is only way of growth and development of
human life. The foremost aim of Higher education is to meet the needs of the
society. The development of higher education has occupied the modern age and
their wonders are perceptible all-round. Higher education institutes are
considered as the foundation of a nation. Study habits and positive attitudes
towards higher education, effectively taught to most students through Higher
Education. This study is conducted with the view to know the better concept and
understanding about the secondary level students towards Higher Education.
200 samples were selected by using purposive sampling method to collect the
relevant data for the present study. For preparing this study considering all
relevant materials that include-different books, university news, journals etc.
are consulted and survey method is used..
==========================================================
Key words: Higher education, Quality education.

Introduction:
To develop the talents of individuals in a society Education is a basic
right. Higher education is of paramount importance for economic and social
development. Education can create a new outlook. It is powerful device to
change human nature in a desirable way. Higher Education is considered as
the apex of formal education. It includes greater specialization necessitated by
rapid socio-economic and industrial development. Higher Education is a part
of the larger socio-economic system and hence the university has a dynamic
role to play in changing the society by changing the thinking process of youth
people. This will be possible only with the help of high standard education.
Higher education has come to the centre stage and in today the most important
agent for change and development. Higher education is a powerful tool to
build knowledge based society. Education is not static. It is a dynamic process
and life- long exercise. It plays a vital role in the overall development and
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Patidarrang College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 307

growth of a country. The progress of any society and the people in it heavily
depends on Education. Education is only way of growth and development of
human life. Education is a dynamic process and lifelong exercise. The quality
of a nation depends upon the quality of its citizens, which in turn depends
upon the quality of their education.
Higher Education is the aggregate of systematized knowledge and
practical skills that allow theoretical and practical problems to be solved by a
given type of training, utilising and creatively developing the modern
achievements of science, technology and culture. The term Higher education
is also applied to the training of highly skilled specialists in the field of
economics, science, technology and culture at various types of higher schools
which accept higher persons who have successfully completed general
education schools or secondary education institutions.
The foremost aim of Higher education is to meet the needs of the society.
The development of higher education has occupied the modern age and their
wonders are perceptible all round. Higher educational institutes are considered
as the foundation of a nation. The quality of education provided by these
institutes creates the quality of people who administer the country. With the
advancement of scientific knowledge and gradual development of mans
outlook, it is believed that education should enable the individual to earn their
living. After completing education, specially after secondary education, students
are confused regarding their earnings. Occupation is one of the primary concern
of every student passing 10+2, specially in rural areas. Understandingly,
educational aspiration at this stage is a crucial factor as it gives direction to
ones future. According to needs and changing social circumstances educational
programmes have been changing. As a result students are often confused
whether to take higher education or not. Specially many students of remote
area engaged in small service but do not prefer higher education.
Indian Higher Education system is the third largest system in the world.
In India Higher Education has a tremendous growth since the country had
independence in 1947. The country had 24 universities and about 636 colleges
only in 1950 to cater the need of higher education. As per the latest 2011
census, about 8.15% (68 millions) Indians are graduates. Indians higher
education system has expanded at a fast pace by adding nearly 20,000 colleges
and more than 8millions students in a decade from 2001 to 2010 2011. As of
2016, India has 799 universities, with a break up of 44 central universities,
540 state universities, 122 deemed universities , 90 private universities, 5
institutions established and functioning under the State Act, 75 Institutes of
National Importance which include AIIMS, IITs and NITs among others.
Other institutions include 39,071 colleges as Government Degree Colleges
and Private Degree colleges including 1800 exclusive womens colleges
functioning under these universities and institutions as reported by the UGC
in 2016.
308 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and


technology. Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number
of technology institutes. Distance learning and Open education is also a feature
of the Indian higher education system, and is looked after by the Distance
Education Council. Indira Gandhi National University is the largest university
in the world by number of students, having approximately 3.5 million students
across the globe.
Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (
IITs), National Institute of Technology ( NITs), Indian Institutes of Information
Technology (IIITs), Indian Institutes of Management ( IIMs), International
Institute of Information Technology ( IIIT), University of Mumbai and
Jawaharlal Nehru University have been globally acclaimed for their standard
of education.
The University Grants Commission estimated that in 2013-14, an
estimated 22849 PhDs and 20425 MPhil degrees were awarded. Over half of
these were in the fields of Science, Engineering/Technology, Medicine and
Agriculture. As of 2014-15, over 178,000 students were enrolled in research
programs.
Significance of the Study: Students play a very significant and vital role in a
country. They are the future and the heart of the country. Education is concerned
with human resource development. The role of higher education is economically
change of society through human resource development is very much significant
in the developing countries.
Kamrup District: Kamrup District is situated in the Brahmaputra valley region
of Assam. The Kamrup District has undergone jurisdictional changes during
the last decade. The total area in the district is 3105 sq km ( rural 3031.46 sq
km and urban 73.54 sq km). As per census 2011 out of total population of
kamrup 9.38% people lived in urban regions while 90.62% lives in the rural
areas. The average literacy rate in urban areas 87.9% while that is the rural
areas is 74.2%. Also sex ratio of urban areas in Kamrup District is 969 while
that of rural areas is 947. In rural areas of Kamrup male population was 706,140
while female population was 669,008. All over the Assam, Kamrup district
can be said as the place of significant in the expansion of the Higher education.
It should be noted here that in the history of the Higher education of Assam,
the first college was established in the heart of Guwahati of Kamrup District,
in the year of 1901 which name is Cotton College. The first University was
established in the year 1948 which name is Gauhati University. In the year
of 1920, the first technical institute was established at Gauhati of Kamrup
District. In 1948, the Assam Engineering Institute was started as degree level
technical institute in this area and the Assam Engineering College in the year
of 1955. It should be mentioned that, along with the Government higher
educational institutions, many private institutions have been emerged since
the last decade in our state. In the rural area also there are established many
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 309

Government schools, higher secondary schools, colleges and many private


schools and institutions are also established since the last decade in rural areas
of Kamrup District. These institutions have been established to here to meet
up with the urgent needs and demands of the students through Higher
Education.
The present study is conducted with the view to know the better concept
and understanding about the secondary level students attitude towards Higher
Education.
Objectives:
1. To study the attitude of the boys and girls towards Higher education.
2. To study the attitude of the students towards Arts and Science.
3. To study the attitude rural and urban students towards Higher Education.
Methodology: During the time of data collection survey method was used by
the investigator.
Sample: The investigator has selected 200 students of secondary level to collect
the relevant data from Kamrup (Rural) District.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Table No: 1
Gender Attitude to Higher Education
Boys Interested
Girls Less no. are interested
From the data collection the investigator has confirmed that,
comparatively the boys are more interested to Higher Education. They are
interested to acquire knowledge through Higher Education.
But girls are less interested for Higher Education.
Table No: 2
Attitude between science and arts students towards Higher Education.
Stream No. of students
Science Not more students
Arts More students
More students are interested to arts stream than science stream. Students
are preferred arts stream for Higher Education.
Table No: 3
Area Higher Education
Urban More interested
Rural Less interested
From the data collection the investigator has confirmed that the urban
students are more interested to Higher Education than rural students.
Major Findings of this Study:
1. It is found that most of the students have not positive attitiude on Higher
educstion.
2. This study shows that there is a significant difference between boys and
girls students towards Higher education.
310 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

3. The students have not sufficient knowledge towards Higher education.


4. Comparitively boys are more interested to higher education than girls.
5. Boys students are more interested to science stream than arts stream.
6. Most girls students prefer arts stream.
7. Rural students are less interested towards Higher education.
8. Lack of judgement, reasoning power are the major problems for the
rural students.
9. Attitude of the students is not positive towards changing enviornment of
todays life.
10. The ratio of girls students are less than boy students towards Higher
education.
Suggestion: The present study brings out the fact that the secondary levels
students of Kamrup (rural) district have not much positive attitude on Higher
Education. So on the basis of this study the investigator has suggested to
improve the schools infrastructure facilities, for developing the students
attitude. For affective education in secondary level there should be introduced
new schemes and modification of the existing institutional plans and policies.
The shortage of qualified teachers has caused a big setback in secondary level
specially in remote areas. There should be introduced and effective recruitment
policies to secondary level students which will developed their mind set and
proceed to acquire higher knowledge and thinking power through Higher
Education.
Conclusion: In conclusion it is revealed that the secondary level students of
Kamrup (rural) district is lacking but they have become aware about their
educational right. For development the district Kamrup (rural) the secondary
levels students play an important role. The students are interested to vocational
education than Higher Education for development of economic side. Girl
students ratio are very low than boy students towards Higher Education.
Judgement, reasoning power, thinking capacity are the major problem of rural
students. We can meet the challenges of Higher Education by broadening our
vision, developing skills and integrating all those aspects which hence their
direct or indirect bearing or human resource development.
======================
References :
1. Deka, Goswami & Ali (2007), Educational Essays on Higher Education
Guwahati: Ashok Book Stall.
2. Gurupandi, M; S.Autharani (2010) : Higher Education in India, Third concept:
An international journal of ideas vol. 24 pp 24-27, june 2010.
3. Baishya , B. Occupational aspiration of tribal students of higher secondary level:
a study : The Clarion: published by Centre for Environment Education and
Economic Development Guwahati India vol 3 No. 2. pp- 113-117, Aug 2014.
4. Kalita, U; H. Gohain (2015) : Quality Maintenance of Higher Education:
Role of Teachers and Students. Pratibhan: Womens Studies Research Cell,
Rangia College vol-IV. pp 13-17. Jan -2015.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Behaviour code /Ethics for a Noble Profession-


Teaching
* Suneeta Khanna Ganguly
==========================================================
Abstract- Many professions throughout the ages have set some ethical guidelines
for themselves that express their attitudes and sense of responsibility that
members are required to show towards their work, articulate some common
values and show certain respect to their profession.But some might do follow
these codes very religiously and some do not.With the same theme in mind the -
teacher, one of the noble and priceless profession which never demands anything
in return do possess any strict behaviour code (in school /college). If there
would have been such strict behaviour code for such profession with general
and specific factor then the students facing problem related to teacher and
academics might have lessen to some extend. And students taking irrelevent
stress and burden would not move with certain abrupt steps on themselves and
on others.Thus. this wisest profession should have a wide range of behaviour
codes in dealing with children of different age or different gender. This paper
of ours would really highlight the importance of behaviour codes and its strict
implementation on schools and colleges.
==========================================================
Introduction:
Professional ethics encompasses the personal, organizational and
corporate standards of behaviour expected of professionals. The term
professionalism originally applied to vows of a religious order to be at par
with their profession. Profession like Doctor, Lawyer ,Magician, Teacher,
clerks, police personal etc all do have certain or the other professional ethics
in and out. So, a profession is generally characterized by a sufficiently long
period of academic training organized body of knowledge based on an
appropriate duration of formal and rigorous professional training with practical
experience in the field and a code of professional ethics which binds its members
into a fraternity. But when teaching as a profession is taken into account then
a lot of professionalism aspects are attach to it.
What exactly the teaching profession highlights-
Teaching may be regarded as one of the noble and wisest profession
indeed which never ever demands anything in return.The teaching profession
is based on the concept of teachers as experts who have been assigned
===========================
* Research Scholar, Gauhati University
312 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

specialized tasks by society, which has also prepared them for such tasks by
providing them with the necessary high level of education. The profession
then demands that the representatives selected to perform these tasks should
demonstrate high ethical standards in all situations, even though the tasks may
frequently be difficult to define precisely or call for rapid decisions. lt is essential
for society to be able to rely on persons of this kind to exercise a high level of
professional skill. The sense of responsibility attached to the practising of a
profession is based on knowledge and vocational skills on one hand and the
values and norms that form the foundation of the work on the other. Both are
essential, and neither can replace the other. Good ethical principles cannot
compensate for poor professional skills, and good professional skills cannot
make up for a lack of ethical principles. Thus teachers should feel obliged by
their sense of responsibility to pay constant attention for maintaining their
professional skills, and also to show particular sensitivity in the perception of
ethical problems and readiness to observe the highest standards of professional
ethics when resolving such situations.
The Code of Professional Ethics of a teacher: As I have already said that
every profession have code or its rules or principles which he has to abide
by it. There are some examples which highlights the professional codes .
1. Medical practitioners take the Hippocratic oath. is an oath historically
taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to
practice medicine ethically
2. Magicians take oath to guard against exposing the secrets of magic .
3. Teachers move towards self regulation , to adhere to the ethical principles
as well. etc .Such examples displays certain codes which abide by certain
aspects .
Parameters of a Teacher: We all very profoundly understand what should
be the quality of a teacher. So some are specified below:
1. Teacher as a Role Model: We all know that No people can rise
above the level of its teachers-NPE. The dressing- style and content of
communication really matters a lot for a student and for the overall upliftment
of the students personality development. They get inspiration and motivation
from such teacher. And always tend try to make them their ideal person in
their life.
2. Teachers Personality: Personality is one of the dynamic characteristics
of an individual with its multiple dimensions.A Teachers personality should be
radiant, pleasing ,impressive personality appearance, refinement, pleasant
manners, industry, enthusiasm at all times,if he /she is mentally and physically
healthy.
3. Teachers Mental Health: Mental and physical health is an utmost
ingredient to become a perfect teacher. It is very important to know the perfect
status of a teacher with respect to its health .It can be said that a neurotic
teacher may spread fear, nervousness and worry in the classroom.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 313

4. Teachers Social Adjustment: A good teacher is always a very good


facilitator.She should not be quiet, retreating and introverted. She should be
socially adjusted individual i.e one should have the capacity of getting adjusted
and adapted in all types of situations comes to him/her.
5. Teachers Qualities and responsibilities: Teachers Professional
Efficiency : A teachers true devotion towards teaching can not only seen in the
.mastery over subject, fair knowledge of current affairs ,her dynamic nature of
being with the student etc. apart from this there are other multiple responsibility
which a teacher runs.
Teachers Academic Professional Training Teachers Accountability. A
teacher is constantly under the scrutiny of his students and the society. make
professional growth continuous through study and research contribution of
knowledge .Teachers and the Students love and affection irrespective of their
school performance -Encourage students to improve their attainments . it is
therefore the duty of the teacher to refrain from physical punishment, sexual
abuse, mental and emotional harassment.
According to the code of ethics, the main duty of teacher lies towards
the well-being of students. It stresses that teachers must treat all children equally
irrespective of their caste, religion, gender and class. It specifically cautioned
teachers against subjecting any child to fear, trauma, anxiety, physical
punishment and mental and emotional harassment and from any act involving
sexual abuse of the child.
The code also maintained the triangle that teacher should have a good
and cordial relationship with parents of the students and that the teachers should
not hide any information about the child from their guardians.
The results of a teachers work are often visible only after a considerable
time lag, in that good Learning experiences tend to promote lifelong learning.
Teachers can play a significant role in both the generation of positive learning
experiences and the reinforcement of learners self-esteem. Thus a teachers
work is a matter of providing opportunities for upbringing, instruction and
learning for the ultimate benefit of individual learners. ln addition, a teacher is
expected to meet up to societys requirements concerning the implementation
of the goals of teaching, which means that, on account of changes taking place
in society, many teachers are obliged in the course of their work to take care of
things for which they cannot bear sole responsibility.
It is important to respect the childs rights. Many times teachers prohibit
students to express their feelings. Before imposing discipline among students,
it is important teachers must show disciplinary behaviour themselves,
Now here comes our conduct and code of behaviour of a teacher. Have we
ever thought or wonder about the guidelines of what a teachers behaviour
should be?
It is always said by the elders that one should always respect the behaviour
of the person but not the person himself . Because behaviour is more needed
314 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

in respect to the person.


Yes we know that there has been developed certain rules and codes for
the teachers too in related to behaviour (dos and donts) but how much of
these are applied and till how much it has been followed. And how many have
worked into it and have taken serious care of it.Do we really need to think
about this matter.
It is the utmost important issue(behaviour codes ) that needs serious
discussion and layout to safeguard our childs healthy future. So I strongly feel
to take this picture into account and have a matter of concern and lay out a
plan of ideas and implement such plans as an important matter for good
physical and mental health wellbeing of the child.
Behaviour codes are generally use to reduce the deformity of certain
teachers behaviour which leads to certain devastating destruction in the minds
of children .This sometimes creates a heavy trauma for certain children ,which
ultimately are force to take a deadly form or steps.Such codes can be different
to different age and sex.So in order to remove this some important steps
should be taken more implicitely as well as explicitly.
At the conclusion I just wanted to emphasis that in this regard to teaching
profession ,behaviour codes should also be an important issue .This means
that when any recruitment for any job is given for any profession then it
should either have tested behaviour code along with their qualitative and
quantitative qualification.
======================
References :
1. Carr David (London ) Professionalism and Ethics in Teaching (2000)
2. Davis Caryl,July 27,2009 Teachers must model ethical behaviour
3. M. Govindarajan , S. Senthilkumar, Professional Ethics and Human Values.
4. Thompson Meryl and Tomlinson John, Professional ethics and the teacher
5. Zeiger Stacy, Professional Code of ethics for Teachers
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Higher Education: An Important Catalyst in the


development of rural areas in North-East India
* Kashmiri Das
==========================================================
Abstract- Higher education system can be regarded as a boon for the development
of the economy because of its strategic role in transforming the society into a
knowledge hub and in eliminating various types of traditional rules and
regulations, customs, superstitions that are unnecessarily acting as a hindrance
in the overall development. The need for making higher education accessible to
the rural population is utmost important in the sense that more than half of the
Indian population resides in villages and remote areas and they are ignorant
about the benefits of higher education. Without the development of this part of
the country, a nation cannot claim itself to be developed in the real sense.
Moreover, since the North-Eastern region is lagging behind in terms of education,
health, transport and communication and other basic amenities, therefore special
emphasis should be given for its holistic development. This paper tries to bring
out a comparison among the higher educational institutions in North-East India
as compared to the other states and also the varied obstacles faced in the
provision of higher education in the rural areas of the North-East India.
==========================================================
Keywords: Higher education, North-East, economic development, growth, India
Introduction: The North-Eastern States of India comprises of eight small
states. They are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur,
Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. The uniqueness of this reason lies in its diversity
that can be seen with respect to culture, religion, language, mesmerizing
landscapes, abundant natural resources and unique identity of each and every
community residing in this region. It covers almost 8 percent of Indias total
land mass and has high strategic and economic importance as it shares
international boundaries with China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan.
Despite being the treasure of huge natural resources, this region could not
develop at par with the rest of India. The development of any region does not
imply the upliftment of its urban areas only, but also the development of its
rural areas that forms an integral part of the economy. Without proper
development of rural areas, a nation cannot claim itself to be developed in the
real sense of the term. Most of the rural areas of North-Eastern region suffer
from lack of infrastructure, good quality education, health facilities, transport,
===========================
* Gauhati University
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communication, power and so on. The primary requirement for the development
of any region requires the establishment of proper educational facilities and
also enrolment of maximum number of students. Education is a key indicator
of economic growth and development because it is only the educated section
of people that can bring about social, economic and political changes, reduce
poverty, unemployment to a considerable level. The role of higher education
in this respect is immense because people acquiring higher education can
engage themselves in various research and development programmes,
innovative ideas that can positively impact the development of backward regions
of any region.
Objectives:
1) To bring out a comparison of the number of universities and colleges in
N-E region compared to the other states of India.
2) To analyze the obstacles in providing higher education in the rural areas
of N-E region.
Methodology: The study is based on secondary data collected from UGC
Annual Report and other journals and research articles. The paper is descriptive
in nature.
Objectives:
1) To analyze the number of universities and colleges in N-E states compared
to rest of India- Here we provide a table depicting the number of higher
educational institutions in India.
NORTH-EASTERN NO. OF UNIVERSITIES NO. OF COLLEGES
STATES
ASSAM 18 554
ARUNACHAL PRADESH 9 29
MANIPUR 3 89
MEGHALAYA 9 69
MIZORAM 2 29
NAGALAND 3 67
TRIPURA 3 55
SIKKIM 6 25
OTHER STATES NO. OF UNIVERSITIES NO. OF COLLEGES
ANDHRA PRADESH 25 2549
BIHAR 20 772
CHATTISGARH 22 740
GOA 1 68
GUJARAT 52 2204
HARYANA 40 1132
HIMACHAL PRADESH 22 364
JAMMU AND KASHMIR 11 345
JHARKHAND 13 340
KARNATAKA 51 3804
KERALA 16 1388
MADHYA PRADESH 42 3015
MAHARASHTRA 48 4871
ORISSA 18 1094
PUNJAB 25 1080
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 317

RAJASTHAN 71 3175
TAMIL NADU 52 2432
TELANGANA 21 2540
UTTAR PRADESH 64 6665
UTTARAKHAND 25 463
WEST BENGAL 35 1108
CHANDIGARH 2 26
DELHI 22 219
PUDUCHERRY 2 95

Source: UGC Annual Report 2015-2016.


The category of university includes Central, State, Deemed and institutes
established under State Legislative Act.
The above table gives an overview of the number of higher educational
institutions in all the states of India that includes colleges and universities. It is
clear that except Assam, the number of universities and colleges in other North-
Eastern states is much lower as compared to rest of India. Moreover the states
with the highest number of higher educational institutions include Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh
where not a single state from the North- East is included. This implies that the
North-Eastern states are lagging behind with respect to the expansion of higher
educational institutions. It can also be seen that most of these institutions are
located in urban areas thereby creating an unequal pattern of development of
the various regions particularly the rural areas because these are the regions
which face discrimination when it comes to their development. This has
narrowed the growth of the rural areas. Again the transformation of the economy
into a knowledge hub has intensified the significance of education especially
higher education. But the higher educational institutions in the North- East
region are still largely concentrated in and around the capital cities. Therefore
people from remote areas find it difficult to continue higher studies. Besides
this, the technical and professional courses offered by the private institutes are
very expensive and beyond the imagination of the deprived sections of people.
Increment in the number of higher educational institutes in the rural areas
might bring down rural- urban disparity to a large extent.
2) Challenges in providing higher education in the rural areas of North-
East- The North-East region of India is facing many obstacles in its path of
making higher education affordable for each and every individual. Some of
these obstacles are discussed below-
i) Opportunity: The North-East faces grave impediments in terms of
employment generation. This is the main reason for people migrating from
North-East to other parts of India. Lack of proper infrastructure and continuous
threats of insurgency has kept many industrialists from investing whole heartedly
in this region. Moreover, a number of professional institutions that has come
up in recent times are finding it difficult to place their students due to lack of
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employment opportunities.
ii) Awareness- People from the North-East especially from rural areas are
still ignorant about higher education and also about the emerging areas of
professional courses. The lack of knowledge about various courses, institutes,
scholarships and training programmes, has been a major factor for which rural
students could not frame clear goals and planning.
iii) Accessibility- North-East region is among the remotest and toughest
parts in terms of accessibility. The entire region is surrounded by hilly areas,
forest cover, rivers and the international borders. Except Assam and Tripura,
the connectivity to other North-Eastern states through railways is almost absent.
Even though air services are available, it is also affected by adverse climatic
conditions. The road connectivity is also poor and there urgent need for
development. Under such adverse conditions, poor people from the remote
areas could not afford to come to the elite urban cities for higher education.
iv) Affordability- Higher education is becoming expensive for most of the
rural North-Eastern population as these people mostly depends on agriculture
for their living which provides subsistence income. Therefore higher education
becomes a luxury for them. Even though a certain section of the higher class
and upper middle income class are going to developed cities and even abroad
for pursuing higher education , but for the poor people it remains a dream out
of their reach.
Conclusion: The people of North-East are facing grave problem regarding
affordability and availability of higher education particularly among the rural
masses. Ignorance, superstitions, lack of scope for employment opportunities,
frequent problems of terrorism are some of the common features that can be
witnessed in this region. Absence of proper educational institutions demotivate
the youth from fulfilling their dreams and aspirations and they start involving
themselves in other trifle activities that promise no better life. However, a
section of people from this region have been able to migrate to faraway cities
like Delhi, Pune, Hyderabad, Bangalore etc. to pursue higher studies and lead
a better standard of living. It is therefore a sad situation where the poor have
no option but to remain poor, underdeveloped and underprivileged with little
or no hope for change.
The only way to address this problem is to create opportunities for the
poor. The first and most important step towards this is to promote higher
education in North-East because the more the people are educated ,the more
they can contribute in transforming the society into a knowledge hub and in
eliminating traditional rules and customs, social dogmas and superstitions ,
ignorance that are hampering the society from its overall development. The
government today is providing various incentives like financial assistance,
scholarships, and free books among others to those aspiring for higher education.
It has also allowed the private sector to invest in higher education sector. As a
result, a number of universities, colleges, and institutes have come up in and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 319

around cities like Guwahati, Shillong etc. But the facilities of higher education
should not be limited to cities like Guwahati. People from the remote parts
should have equal accessibility to university and college degrees. The private
sector along with the government can join hands in this endeavor by constructing
social overhead capital like transport and communication, power, electricity,
health facilities etc in a phased manner. This would help in providing higher
education at the most efficient manner to the rural people of North-East and
help in rejuvenating their dreams and aspirations for socio- economic
development, peace and prosperity.
======================
References :
1. UGC Annual Report, 2015-2016.
2. Akhtar, Shamim .(2013): Role of Higher Education in dealing with the socio-
economic problems of North-East India.
3. Dr. Saikia, Mridul.(2013): Challenges of Higher Education in Assam for
development of Human Resources, Volume 2, Issue 11, PP: 41-44.
4. Nath, Hiranya: A few thoughts on Higher Education in Assam.
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Interdisciplinary Nature of Education: Relationship


with Management Definition of Management
* Monika Rabha
==========================================================
Abstract- Management is the process of reaching organizational goals by
working with and through people and other organizational resources. Good
management is the backbone of successful organizations.The term ' management'
has been defined by different writers in different ways. According to Henri Fayol,''
to manage is to forecast and plan, to coordinate and control.'' Brech defined
management as a social process which constitutes planning, controlling,
coordinating and motivating. Van Eeet and Peterson define management as a
set of activities directed at the efficient and effective utilization of resources in
the pursuit of one or more goals.
==========================================================
Concepts of management in education- Management means different things
to different people at different times, and a variety of definitions have been
offered. The term management itself, derives from the verb to manage
which means-
1.To handle.
2.To control.
3.To make and keep submissive.
4.To organize.
Management is described as an art, a science, an organization, a person,
a discipline or a process.
Management as an art- As an art, management is about carrying out
organizational functions and tasks through people. This art involves the
application of techniques in-
1. Human and public relations.
2. The delegation of an authority, assigning and sharing responsibilities
and duties.
3. Communication, including decision making and problem solving.
4. Managing change.
Management as a science- Management here is concerned with establishing
a philosophy, laws, theories, principles, processes and practices which can be
applied in various situations, including schools.
Management as an organization- As an organization, management is about
===========================
* Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 321

creating formal structures and an establishment based on goals, objectives,


targets, functions and tasks. For example, social and welfare organizations in
government management can refer to education and health services, while
public security management services could refer to the police and military.
Management as a person- Management may be seen as a person or a group
of people. For example, a teacher could say the school management has changed
the timetable in the middle of the term. This could be referring to one, as the
head alone, or to all the senior staffs, or it could refer to the members of the
board of governors or school committee.
Management as a discipline- In this sense, management is a field of study
with various subjects and topics. Knowledge, skills and attitudes in management
can be acquired through learning, from experiences and from certificate courses.
Management is a collection of processes, including such things as decision
making, problem solving and action planning. These processes involve the
management of resources including humans, material, financial and time.
The function of managers- The five main functions of managers are-
1.Planning.
2.Organizing.
3.Directing.
4.Supervising.
5.Evaluating.
These may be seen to form a management cycle as shown below-
Application of management in education- Educational organizations refers
to a group of individuals located in a specific place or institution whose purpose
is to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes to students in order to achieve pre-
determined educational objectives. Such organizations include schools,
colleges, training institutes and universities. Educational management is an
applied field of management. Educational management refers to the application
of theory and practice of management to the field of education.
Contribution of theories of management- Henri Fayol, a French mining
engineer, mining executive and author and his colleagues developed scientific
theory of management. He introduced 14 principles of management which are
based on a fundamental truth. These principles of management serve as a
guidelines for decision making and management actions.
These principles are given below-
1. Division of work- In practice, employees are specialized in different
areas and they have different skills. According to him, specialization promotes
efficiency of the workforce and increase productivity.
2. Authority and responsibility- Management has the authority to give
orders to the employees of the organization. With authority comes this
responsibility. According to Henri Fayol, the accompanying power or authority
gives the management the right to give orders to the subordinates.
3. Discipline- This third principle of management is about obedience. It is
322 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

a core value of organization for good conduct and respectful interactions.


4. Unity of command- The management principle unity of command
means that an individual employee should receive orders from one manager
and that the employee is answerable to that manager.
5. Unity of direction- It means focus and unity. All activities must be
carried out by one group that forms a team. All employees deliver the same
activities that can be linked to the same objectives.
6. Subordination of individual interest- In order to have an organization
function well, Henri Fayol indicated that personal interests are subordinates to
the interests of the organization.
7. Remuneration- Motivation and productivity are close to one another
for smooth running of an organization. Therefore, remuneration should be
sufficient to keep employees motivated and productive.
8. The degree of centralization- Fayol defined centralization as lowering
the importance of the subordinate.
9. Scaler chain- This principle states that there should be a clear line in the
area of authority [from top to bottom and all managers at all levels]
10. Order- According to this principle, employees in an organization must
have the right resources at their disposal so that they can function properly in
an organization.
11. Equity- Employees must be treated kindly and equally.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel- It represents deployment and managing
of personnel and this should be in balance with the service that is provided
from the organization.
13. Initiative- It states employees should be allowed to express new ideas.
This encourages interest and involvement and created added value for the
company.
14. Espirit de corps- It stands for striving the involvement and unity of the
employees. Managers are responsible for the development of morale in the
workplace.
In addition to the fourteen principles, Fayol recognized five processes
which he referred to as the basic elements administration. These are planning,
organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
Fredrick W. Taylor [1856-1915] considered as the father of scientific
management movement developed the following scientific management
principles-
1. This principle stipulated that all works must be measured by accurate
and standard observation. He believed that productivity should be measured
in terms of time and motion. Managers should gather information, analyze it
and rules and regulations should be set for workers.
2. Management is expected to plan , facilitate and set standard of work.
Managers should scientifically select and train workers.
3. Managers should ensure that the techniques developed by science are
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 323

used by the workers.


4. Managers should apply the work equally between workers and
themselves, where managers apply scientific management theories to planning
and the workers perform the tasks pursuant to the plans.
The human relations movement- This movement was initiated by a social
psychologist, Mary Parker Follett [1863-1933]. She proposed the following
major principles-
1. Employers and employees should solve their differences through
conferences and cooperation. This democratic way of solving problems should
be done in this following way-
* listening to each others different views/situations.
* Accepting each others view points and understanding each other better.
* Integrating their view points and becoming united in the pursuit of the
common goal.
2. Coordination must start at an early stage in the management process.
This will result in making the best plans of any organization and implementing
these plans with success.
3. Coordination must be continuous process. The process of coordination
must begin when the organization starts and it must continue until the
organization exists. The sharing of ideas and working together between the
administrators and workers should continue for the betterment of the
administration and the works.
4. Coordination is the result of reciprocal understanding of all factors in
the situation. The decisions and actions of all the people [managers and
employees] and departments of the organizations are inter-related. Therefore
before taking any decision or action all managers must first find out the effect
of that decision or action on other persons and departments in the organization.
Elton Mayo [1880] disseminated Folletts principles and became the
strongest contributor to the human relations movement. He found out that
sociological and physiological factors were the strongest elements influencing
workers production.
The human relations movement according to Mayo, had the following
two major principles-
1. Satisfaction- This principle stated that the organization with the most
satisfied workers would be the most efficient.
2. Democracy- This principle pointed out that democracy must prevail in
any organization.
* Employees participation in decision making.
* Delegation of responsibilities to the workers by the administration.
* Open channels of communication between employers and workers as
well as among workers.
Application of human relations movement to educational management-
Through human relations movement-
324 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

1. Workers were provided with opportunities to enhance their personal


growth and development.
2. Organizations were concerned with people and their needs. Workers
were recognized as social psychological human beings.
The Behavioural Science Movement[1950-1970]
Chester Bernard [1886-1961] initiated this movement in the 1940s, also
referred to as the social science movement. He stressed the need for a systematic
conceptual scheme of administrative behaviour within a social science
framework. He advocated the recognition of the workers as psychological social
beings.
To achieve this, administrators/managers should be equipped with some
knowledge of social sciences disciplines such as psychology, sociology,
government and economics. A good administrator/manager has a good insight
of the working situation, the job and the worker himself.
Application of behavioural science movement in educational
management- This movement has two important effects. They are-
1. It advocates administrators emerging from different disciplines and not
necessarily from educational institutions.
2. It reveals that, today those who train as school administrators are also
expected to have some knowledge of social sciences like economics and
governments.
At the end, it can be said that there is a close relationship between
education and management. Good management results in an orderly integration
of education and society. However, interdisciplinary approach is a technique
or tool that establishes reciprocal relationship for better understanding of the
subject. No knowledge is permanent unless we correlate one subject with the
other. Interdisciplinary approach is an excellent means to creating harmony
between various levels and faculties. It is required for a long term plan for any
specific study. Knowledge is a unity and in order to maintain its unitary nature
it is essential to adopt interdisciplinary approach.
References-
1. Aram, J.D (2004)Concepts of Interdisciplinary: Configurations of Knowledge
and action. Human Relations. 57(4), 379-412.
2. Chettiparamb, A(2007) Interdisplinary: a literature review. The interdisciplinary
Teaching and Learning Group, Subject centre for languages, Linguistics and
Area Studies, School of Humanities publication, University of Southampton.
3. Christie, F. & Martin, J. (eds) (2011) Disciplinarity: Functional Linguistic and
Sociological Perspectives. New York: Continuum International Publishing
Group.
4. Kanakia, R. (2007). Talk tout benefits approach, as well as some pitfalls. Standard
report.
5. Szouk, R (2007) How and why to Teach Interdisciplinary Research Practice.
Journal of Research practice, 3(2).
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

A Commentary on the Character of Rose in Nadine


Gordimet's Burger's Daughter
* A.L. Gautam
**Jyoti Shukla
==========================================================
Abstract- Winner of one of South Africa's top literary awards The CAN prize,
Nadine Gordimer's Seventh novel Burger's Daughter (1979) is based on the life
of Rose Burger the daughter of a very famous white liberal communist Lioner
Burger. A leader of the whiter left wing, a doctor by profession, Burger was
sentenced to life imprisonment and later died of lung infection. He left his wife
alone to ply herself in a country where her skin color-white made her a member
of the oppressor class and her liberal heritage alienated her from this powered
class. She was the offspring of a man who had sided with the blacks and had
betrayed his own people. She had to carry a permanent imprent on her
personality. Her life and career as the Shadows of Lionel Burger overcast her
presence everywhere.
==========================================================
This novel explore the life of the only surviving relative of a prominent
leader of the revolt-Lionel Burgers only daughter-Rosa Burger. It provides a
close insight into the life of the communist leader, from the domestic angle,
from the perspective of his daughter. Rosa in the novel is her parents only
serving child. Her brother had died young by getting drowned in their private
swimming pool. Lionel Burger and Bram fisher have similarities and were
active members sentenced to life imprisonment. Abroun Fisher was popular
in real life as Lionel Burger in the novel and his death propably created the
same impact as Burger The touchstone of Barm Fishers was worshipped as
much but the black as Lionel Burger. Both have successful career and have
risked their lives for antiapartheid revolution. The well known critic Jean-
Marie Volet rightfully says, It all began when Rosas father, Lionel Burger,
realized in the 1920s the terrifying contradiction that white people worship
the God of Justice and practice discrimination on grounds of the colour of
skin; profess the compassion of the Son of Man and deny the humanity of the
black people they live among. This contradiction that splits the very foundations
of Lionels life leads him to embrace Marxism and to devote his life to the
pursuit of the end of racialism and injustice. Unfortunately, the communist
===========================
* Professor of English, Retd. Principal, T.R.S. College Rewa (M.P.)
** Research Scholar, Government T. R. S. College, Rewa (M.P.)
326 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

ideals and associated discipline that comforted the resolve of young South
African revolutionaries did not bring the expected societal changes and came
unstuck in the decades to follow. Thus the quandary facing Rosa after her
militant parents death: Was it her duty and destiny to take up the torch, to
submit to party discipline and to follow in the footsteps of her parents, in spite
of Stalins Great Terror, the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution, the Iron
Curtain and the prospect of being muzzled, placed under house-arrest and
ultimately, arbitrarily imprisoned by the autocratic authorities of her own
country?
For Rosa, answering these questions is far from obvious as she has been
enculturated in a milieu dominated by a sense of family and social duty that
goes beyond ratiocination, a milieu that demands total commitment. As one of
her friends puts it: Perhaps nobody preached Marx and Lenin [at your place...].
It was all taken in with your breakfast cornflakes. The people who came to
your house werent there for tea-parties with your mother, or bridge evenings
with cigars. They werent your fathers golf-playing fellow doctors, or ladies
your mother went shopping with, ay? They came together to make a revolution.
That was ordinary to you. That intention. It was ordinary. It was the normal
atmosphere in that house. (Jean-Marie Volet, April 2011)
The novel is based on commitment and ideology, objectives and failure
about exploitation and suffering and above all about betrayal and trust. It
presents the reality, the private life of a popular leaders daughter facing the
harsh realities of life. Through illusions of mistrust and adoration the surround
her. This novel is a document of personal anguish against the invasion of polities
into the privacies and intricacy of personal life. This novel questions the
authenticity of public commitments against personal commitment were not
Lionel Burger also responsible for his own family, his own children. The novel
state with apparent heroic sacrifice of Lionel Burger gradually unfolds. The
ironic trail of sufferance under lying his public heroism. Its an empathetic
projection of Rosa Burgers inavoidble protest against her society, her people
for whom her father not only laid his life, but also that of Rosa Brugers inavdible
protest against her society, her people for whom her father not only laid his life
but also of Rosa Burger above all against her own father who ignored his
parental responsibility under the pressures of ideology, public image and
political commitments. Rosa Burgers life, affections and identity are all
overshadowed by her fathers personality, his actions and his beliefs. Rosas
entire life is threatened by the ghost of her father. The anti-apartheid struggle
which claimed her parent, has invaded her very existence.
Nadine Gordimer adopt a deliberate reflect Rosa Thoughts and emotions
to a leval of near transparency. Her silence countess the volumes of her fathers
heroic court room speech. Rosas own narration, is very much in the stream of
consciousness technique. Nadine Gordimer explores the deep turbulence hidden
beneath Rosas serene-composed smile. Rosa throughout the narrative refers
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 327

to her father as Lionel in the manner of a detached stranger. The novel runs in
these pasts. The first past is really; form where the protagonist Rosa takes a
flight into the realm of romance and then past there is back to reality again.
Rosa moves away from the association of her leftist parents to associate distantly
related to Rosas mother who a bourgeois while, had respect for Lionel to
Rosas mother had respect for Lionel Burger as a person but none for his
political beliefs. Its brand vermilion who makes it possible for Rosa to obtain
a passport so that she may get away, for a short while from the realities of her
country to a cozy foreign lad. The well known critic Abdulmomin Mosid AlL
Rubaiee, says What Gardimer Seeks in Burgers Daughter is state racial
neutrality, in which neither black nor whites are privileged. She achieves the
through deconstructing dominant hierarchies of her time. These subversions
constitute the different stages of the protagonist development in this
bildungsroman. This novel has a political texture, which is marked by the
racial struggle against the separating apartheid in South Africa. Hence the all-
encompassing hierarchies are white/black, unity/separation and freedom/
slavery. Gordimers revolting character, Rosa, daughter of Lionel Burger, the
renowned communist leader becomes the vehicle of the subversion of the
dominant hierarchies of the time. In other words, as the protagonist of a
bildungsroman, Rosas development, her movement from innocence to
experience is set on the bedrock of deconstructing these binaries. The process
of this subversion in symbolized in Rosas experiences of early puberty which
is the tension between creation and deconstruction. Thus Gordimer eroticizes
her protagonist evolvement.
The novel is divided into three parts, each part presenting one facet of
Rosas life, whose development is presented by reversing the hierarchies in
each aspect. In this novel, Gordimer shifts repeatedly from the first-person
an anonymous reporter; this continuous shift provides simultaneous views of
both external and internal lives of the protagonist; therefore the narrative course
represents the binary of speech/silence or subjective/objective. Gordimers
continuous shift between the two narrations is one strategy of the writer towards
a natural narrative. The title of novel, bearing the name Daughter makes another
hierarchy that of male/female in which, this time the privileged term is the
female side which has been marginalized by the male dominance. The priority
of female side is embedded in Rosas narrative, which takes form of
apostrophe. (Abdulmomin Mosid Al Rubaiee, the University of
Mysore.)
Past I begin with Lionel Burgers trail his death and Rosas dispossession
of her home and her heritage with dispossesses her. This past reflects over
Lionel Burgers life in flash back; Rosa falls back upon recollection. She never
had a stable protected childhood always managing with either of the parents
Rosa fall in love with a person only to keep her feelings to herself had not
political activism been the main source of Rosas exploitation; Rosa finally
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obtains her passport to distance herself from this path, neglect and struggle for
survival which was her past and was also her present.
The last part of the novel depicts the return of Rosa after a brief spell of
romance in France amongst finally dresses dating ladies and affair with a
married professor. Rosa returns to her country, keeping up the faith of Brandt
vermeulert and living up to being Burgers Daughters. She returns to political
activism and the novel ends with Rosa serving a life term.
The novel explores many aspects of apartheid. The scarifies of political
involvement, the ultimate pathetic of a white liberal political activist, the legacy
of suffering of political activities, the cultural and social segregation of whites
and blacks and the life of exploited black-how dwell in township areas. Rosa
as she moves from whites to the blacks exposes many segments of South
African society. Lionel Burger was a successful doctor and novel was his
household lacking the resources to keep up the social entertainment. Flora
Donaldson on the other hand is the pragmatic social worker, who ensures
there economic society through her husbands income.
Burgers Daughter was written at a time when ideologies specially
communism was undergoing a phase of being questioned and speculated. The
novel is like an introspective speculation on the value and worth of political
commitment. These commitment should be evaluated in terms of achievement
and effectiveness, it should be pragmatic and not foolishly idealistic.
Rosa is a white political activists daughter. In the novel, she gets
disillusioned. The novel describes her escape from the harsh realities of her
country and her parents. She finally returns both to her country and her parents.
The characters of this novel resemble real life. The novel questions our faith in
humanity. It shows how even white people were victims of apartheid. The
novel and a positive note of hope for the achievement of multi racial ideal,
even thought, the rays emanate from the prison cells.
======================
References :
1 Book Review by Jean-Marie Volet, April, 2011(aflit.arts.uwa.edu.au/
reviewinGordimers
2 Review by ABDULMOMIN MOSID AL-RUBAIEE (University of Mysore)
3 Newman, Judie, edu. (2003) Nadine Gordimers Burgers Daughter(New York:
Oxford University)
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Understanding Nationalism in the writings of


Lakshinath Bezbaroa : An Introspection
* Parag Nath
==========================================================
Abstract- The crucial role played by literature in the social phenomena, may
be catastrophe or renaissance in the world history, and doesn't require wide
illustration. In nationalism also, its importance knows no bound which has
been discussed in this paper. Dissemination of English language and literature
among the Indians does not merely create a class of office workers in the British
regime, but arouses a revivalist sense to their language, culture and heritage.
As soon as the natives introduced with the world history, economics and political
scenario around the globe through the English books, a tendency to trace back
their past through the mother tongue started crippling in their minds. In India,
the literary renaissance based on folklore grew up in three metropolitan cities-
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in the second half of 19th century. A brand of
young Assamese scholars settled in Calcutta to meet their academic challenges,
were influenced by those ideals. Moreover, Assamese language was temporarily
banished from 1836 to 1873. Among those Calcutta based young stars;
Lakshminath Bezbaroa was one whose folkloric fabrication in literature hurt
both the above two challenges in the right time in right way. He was resembled
to a great deal with folklorists like Natesa Sastri and their formulations.
Bezbaroa's plight to achieve the same has been remembered in this paper.
==========================================================
Indian Nationalism in literature: Although ideas linking folklore and the
nation were expressed across British India, they were most articulate in the
three metropolitan centers- Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. Bombay had the
Indian Antiquary and several intellectuals, but the most prominent revival of
folklore in nationalist discourse occurred in Calcutta. Here, Calcutta being the
capital of British India, swadeshi was already in the air in 1860s, Bengali
intellectuals and writers could enter into the concept of folklore through the
Asiatic Societys journal through books like Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal
(1872) by Dalton. It is not surprising that the first published collection of Indian
folktales by an Indian was written by a Bengali (L.B.Days Folktales of Bengal,
London, 1883). Looking ahead, the first folklore journal run and edited by an
Indian began in Calcutta(Folklore, 1956). The linchpin of the connection
between the folklore revival and early Indian nationalism, however, was the

===========================
* Assistant Professor, Sankardev College, Shillong
330 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Tagore family. Throughout the 1870s, they staged melas, which included the
display of folk arts and crafts, folk theatre and popular songs. Rabindranath
Tagore , who lived in England for two years at the end of the decade, began to
collect what he considered to be disappearing folk genres- ballads, nursery
rhymes, legends and myths. In 1894, he gave a famous lecture entitled Bengali
national Literature and he formed the Bengali Literary Society (Bangiya Sahitya
Parisad), which was dedicated to the preservation of Bengali literature,
including folklore. A few years later, in 1897 and 1898, Tagore published two
volumes of stories, mostly rewritten from oral sources. In Calcutta, as in Europe,
folklore was revived and rewritten by intellectuals as an act of restoration, to
preserve a national identity in an era of foreign cultural domination.
In Madras, unlike in Calcutta or Bombay, two separate constructions of
folklore and the nation emerged in the late nineteenth century, where ideas
linking folklore to nationalist thinking were not so well known, although both
were rested on purity, antiquity and loss
The first formulation drew heavily on a feeling of cultural subjugation
and emphasized the notion of a buried Dravidian culture, attributed not just
to British colonialism but to Brahminical Sanskritic domination as well. The
Formulation of a folk Dravidian nation, largely built up by British writers over
the course of the nineteenth century, resembled the European ideas who resorted
to the image of the buried Dravidian. They believed the Dravidian race as
pre-Aryan.. Tamils had imagined an ancient and pure Tamil-especially in the
verses of the low born Vallular and made responsible the northern influence
for corruption, before at least 5oo years before European contact. The image
of a Dravidian culture observed by northern culture resembles the perception
of German Folk culture under French domination, and Finnish folk culture
under Swedish. Like Herder in Germany, and Elias Lonnrot in Finland, one
scholar gave a second formulation of Folklore and the nation in Madras.
The second formulation of folklore and the nation, which arose from a
less ideological and more personal sense of loss, invoked the image of the
vanishing village. This formulation was single handedly mastered by Pandit
Natesa Sastri(1859-1906),who advanced folklore as a national literature in
Madras..
Nationalism in Assamese literature: Where as the first formulation of folklore
and nationalism was upper handed by the European scholars in Madras to
give Tamil its rightful status against the North Indian Brahmanic Sanskritic
domination, the same role had been played by the Missionaries in Assam when
they had discovered that the Bengali was imposed only when Assamese is
unique with distinct literary feature.
Assam was engaged in an unfortunate struggle for identity and existence
for nearly half a century of the initial period of British (Neog, 1993, p.7)
A few service holders and officers from Bengal persuaded their boss
that Assamese was only a dialect or corrupted form of Bengali and prayed to
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 331

dislodge the same from schools and offices Moreover, large quantities of native
Assamese people hardly understood the Bengali, the then official language of
Assam. When the Missionaries started collecting folklore materials in Assam,
they found it quite amazing that the so called old language had hardly any
direct bearing with the Bengali. Many ancient Assamese literary texts on
folklore, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Saivism and on Ayurveda were collected
and most of them received prompt recognition through the print media. As
soon as the first printing press was established at Sibsagar in 1846 and published
a journal Orunodoi, literary materials advocating the authenticity of the
dislodged language found expression. Yet, the missionaries had to appear in a
long marathon accompanying a brand of native writers till the enthronement
on its deserved position in 1873. Like the writers of the first formulation in the
Madras episode, a brand of writers, basically young Assamese students settled
in Calcutta for education including Lakshminath Bezbaroa, Manik Chandra
baroa, Hemchandra Goswami and Chandra Kumar Agarwala dedicated whole
heartedly to write and to do something for the betterment of the language.
Assam Literary Society was formed in 1872 and Asomiya bhasa unnati sadhini
sabha was established in 1888 by them. The societys journal Jonaki heralded
a new era in the history of Assamese literature. Hemchandra Barbuda,
Gunabhiram Barua and Anandaram Dhekial Phukan were the harbingers of
this romantic nationalism. Newspapers like the Assam Bilashini (1871), ),
Assam Mihir(1872), Assam Darpan(1874), the Mau (1886) and the Assam
Bandhu(1885) played a pioneering role in the field of Assamese nationalism
as well as journalism.
The three men most responsible for the rethronement of the banished
language were Dr. Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and one native Assamese
Nidhi Levi Farwell.Dr. Browns contribution includes the Assamese translation
of the New Testament, composition of the Assamese grammar Grammatical
Notes on the Assamese language next (second to write Assamese grammar
next to Robinson), publication of lots of prayers, old Assamese texts and history
in collaboration with his consort Eliza Brown etc. Dr. Bronson wrote Assamese
dictionary in 1867 and lost his wife and daughter in such a literay expedition.
Nidhi Levi Farwell (A converted name of Nidhiram Keot, a native Assamese)
was a regular writer in the journal Orunodoi and a writer of a few books on
Assamese literature. Other native Assamese non Christian writers were
Anandaram Dhekial Phukon. Dutiram Hazarika, Harakanta Sadaramin,
Dinanath Bezbaroa, Lalit Chandra Goswami etc.
Local scholars and enthusiasts started collecting and publishing books
(specially on folklore) of Assam in the later period of the nineteenth century
Significantly, some of Assumes works include Bhadrasen Boras
Ramcharit(1899), a collection of riddles, and Phulkonwar(1903 and
Manikonwar (1903) both ballad texts; Gopal Chandra Dass Asomiya
Patantarmala(1900), a collection of proverbs; Lakshminath Bezbaroas Burhi
332 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Air Sadhu(1911), and Kakadeuta aru Natilora(1912),both collections of tales;


and Jogesh Chandra Tamulis Nichukani(1916), a collection of folksongs.The
three earlier notable English publications by Assamese scholars are : Hem
Chandra Baruas Marriage Customs of the People of Assam (1892) and
Benudhar Rajkhowas Assamese Demonology (1905) and Assamese Popular
Superstitions(1920) (Datta , 1999,p.2)
Lakshminath Bezbaroa, who tried for the revival of the Mahapurushia
cult and the folk treasures, bore fruits in the nationalistic process towards the
early part of the twentieth century .He is said to be the torch bearer because of
his deliberate refusal to nurture the Bengali language and appeal for the mother
tongue although he was the bridegroom of the great Tagore family of Calcutta,
the founderstone of Bengali literature and nationalism. Timber business in
Sambalpur and his stay outside the home state scarcely allowed him to write
and move freely which most writers generally deserved. Yet his nostalgic
childhood full with orthodox Vaishnavite paraphernalia and sound folk heritage
hardly excuse him from paying a deaf ear to these appeals. There might be
some other reasons for which this person felt a deep allegiance to his nation
and to the reservoir of folk heritage despite of his status and space of livelihood.
First, as soon as he got married with a Bengali virgin avoiding his familial
consent and co-operation in Calcutta, he became outcast and a person of
insignificant status in the eyes of his orthodox society. Perhaps, his emotion
and nostalgic past arose and tried to console his broken mind by doing something
genuine for the society as well as the nation. More over, the period was too
much crucial, Assamese language had just been released and the newly educated
youths had already become accustomed in the air of Romantic nationalism in
Europe. At that time Calcutta was the capital of British India and could be
addressed as the brain of India. Besides, Bezbaroa made marital relationship
to such a family of Calcutta which for the first time attempted to interlink
folklore with the nation as mentioned in the previous heading.
Despite of literary talents in almost all the literary sectors practiced
generally by the romanticists of his era, people very often like to welcome him
as a folktale collector. His magnum opus bearing this very fact are Burhi Air
Sadhu(Grandmothers tale,1911) and kakadeuta aru Natilora(Grand father
and grandson,1912) where he admitted that some of these collected tales had
been coloured and rearranged keeping the functions of the characters remain
unchanged. But the spirit of Bezbaroa behind these collections draws more
significance in context of the present topic concerned. The introduction of
Burhi Air Sadhu contains a short history of folklore at international level,
description of origin of folktales and its role in nationalism.
No any race or nation has imposed so high status to folktales like the
Assamese who name it as Sadhukatha i.c lore of the honest or honest sayings.
The European call it folktale, the Bengalis as Rupkatha Asare galpa.
Literature and folktales are the bones and brains of the nation. The language is
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 333

called the mother and the folktales as the lore of the pious by the Assamese
people. Yet it is ironical that the Assamese and the Bengali language are
considered as symmetrical (Bezbaroa, 1911quoted in Datta, 1999, P.13-14)
In this context, eminent folklorist Prof. Birendranath Datta opines-
.the preface contains an oblique reference to Assamese being
an independent language with its own genius and not being in any why
subordinate to Bengali. Later collections of folklore material were similarly
prompted by the urge to find out and give proper value to such objects of
national wealth as well as to inspire the young generations with the
consciousness about their rich folk heritage. We have thus the national spirit
working at the regional or sub-national level quite early in Assam(ibid)
Bezbaroas Sadhukathar Kuki(A basket of folktales) bears a literary
style, midway between the folktales and infancy of Assamese short stories.
There are thirty seven stories entitled- Bhadari, Swargarohan, Nakaon,Amaloi
nepahoribo, RatanMunda, Kanya, Putraban pita, Shivaprasad,Chor,Dhowa
khowa, Bhemppuria Mouzadar, Seuti, Amar sanchar,Jayanti, Malati,
Dactorbabu,Mulakhowa burha, Gharpota Koka etc. where maladies and ill
temper of the newly educated Assamese society are jeered at, the superstitions
and prejudices of the Brahmonical orthodox society are placed in the laughing
stock, cultural exploitation and economic subjugation by the outsiders are
threatened. His few dramas based on folktales were Litikai, Sikorpoti Nikorpoti,
Pachoni and Gadadhar roja filled with humorous sense like the Guru
Simpleton of Natesa Sastri.
His remaining folktale collections namely Surabhi (1909), Jonbiri (1913)
and Junuka (1913) are sound testimonials of his folkloric excavation to the
nationalility formation. Surabhi was published in the sweet memory of his
deceased daughter Surabhi. His own business institution, Timber and store
agency published Junuka to entertain the children where tales from
Hitopadesh, Panchatantra and oral sources were expressed with a moral
diction at the end of each tale. A few tales along with the moral dictions are
written in verse so that children can swallow easily.
His poetic excellence venerating the past glory of Assam as well as
India also scores no less mark when compared with his championship in folktale
collection. He was definitely a peoples poet who has given national pride
some of its highest expression.
He is the composer of the noted Assamese patriotic song O Mor Aponar
Desh. This is a voluntarily exiles dream of his motherland from a distant
place. The past glory of Assam was a matter of pride for Lakshminath Bezbaroa
and on the basis of that he cultivated the national spirit in the hearts of the
Assamese people.
Asomar jatiya sangeet
O mor aponar desh
..........
334 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Mukhani tomar
Hepah mor palowa nai
Bezbaroa
(O my native land, you are so lovely to me with your uniqueness,
faithfulness and enrichment. O my melodious mother tongue, you are precious
all over the world. O my birthplace let me have a sight of your lovely face to
come down my thirst)
He also composed another patriotic song Asom sangeet(1915) where
he tried to draw the nationalistic (sub-nationalistic) sentiment of Assamese
people by citing the glorious chapter in the history of Assam. Here he highlights
spiritual colossus Sankardeva; the legendary hero Lachit Barphukan; the symbol
of tolerance and dedication, Joymoti; Bhaskarvarman, the pride of North-East
India, the wise king with literary and artistic excellence, who greeted the Chinese
scholar Hiun Tsang; occupies a stanza in this poem. At last, he suggests singing
the glory of Assam with traditional instruments like drum.
Asom sangeet

Aami asomiya nahao dukhia kihar dukhiya hom


.
Joy ai asom bol
Bezbaroa
(We, the Assamese never become insolvent, as we possess everything
in the name of nation; countless, but we are apathetic to it. Assam is already
sanctified by the pure monotheistic faith preached by Sankardeva, by the
enourmous strength on the shoulders gifted by the legendary hero Lachit
Barphukan and by the chastised blood of Ahom heroine Joymoti. Sing the
glory of victorious Assam accomanying the traditional instruments as the
motherland is again in the wake of upliftment It is not a funny matter that
Bhaskaravarman, the valiant king of ancient kamrupa occupied a dignified
position in the list of Indian kings)
His most outstanding patriotic poem is Bin Boragi (the troubadour) where
he portrays various mythical, legendary and historical figures and their pathetic
life-styles but boastful activities to raise the nationalistic (regional/sub-national)
zeal.
Suna oi boragi
Ananda kahini
..............
Boja, aru bar boja
(Bezbaroa in Neog, 1971, p.202-203)
(Oh troubadar, sing the glory of Assam highlighting the activities of
king Ban, Bhagadatta, Narakasura, Vismaka and Bhaskarvarman. You also
appreciate saints like Sankardeva, Madhabdeva and the noble king Rudrasingha
to raise my lost spirit. You dont forget to admire the two koch heroes Chilaraya
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 335

and Naranarayana)
A die hard lover of Assam, Assamese language, culture and tradition he
was at the same time a proud Indian too, always aware of the past glories of
India. It is reflected in the Bin- Boragi (1912) as.
Sita10 air batori
Jadihe kaisa
..........
Dukhat lagiba byatha!
( Bezbaroa in Neog,1971, p-200-201)
(Donot sing, O troubadour; dont sing the tragic story of Sita, Nal-
Damayanti, Chinta-Sribatsa and the legend of Joymoti. Otherwise, I would be
drowning in the sea of spiritlessness).
Again the poet is overwhelmed with grief by remembering the ill fates
of Assam and warns the troubadour not to play the concert of those events.
Jadihe gaisa

Sok mor uthalay


(Bezbaroa in Neog, 1971, p.201)
(Donot sing how Badan Barphukan invited the Burmese to invade Assam;
dont narrate the devastation caused by the Morans in the heart of Assam. Let
your instrument be not allowed to play the pathetic events of Maniram Dewan
and Piyoli Phukan, the two patriots, who were hung brutally by the British
people)
Another significant contribution of Lakshminath Bezbaroa is his
Sankardeva(1912) and Mahapurush Sri Sankardeva and Sri
Madhabdeva(1916) two biographical works on the two saints of Assam. He
focussed their poetic, drammatic excellences and established them as social
reformers. Thereby he drew a line of difference between them and other
religious preachers of the Neo-Vaishnavite movement. He shows in the process
of uniqueness of the Assamese sub-nation which is linked in history with the
larger Indian nation (Sharma, 2000)
Bezbaroa, keeping the view of nationalism (sub-nationalism), contributed
dramas like Belimar, Chakradhaj Singha and Joymoti Kunwari (1915).
The hidden motive behind these compositions was to inspire a subjugated
nation and to give them self-confidence. His drama Belimar (sun-set, 1915)
shows the reasons why the Ahoms had to lose their freedom to the British,
internal chaos among the royal officers; their narrow visions and selfishness
were the historical causes for the downfall of the Ahom Kingdom. Chakradhaj
Singha (1915) were written to remind the Assamese people about the glorious
chapters of the Ahom period so that they would not bow down to other nations
(invaders).His drama Joymoti Kunwari (1915) highlights the tragic story of a
couple where the husband (Gadapani) sacrificed his beloved for the sake of
the kingdom and his beloved (Joymoti) sacrificed her life to safeguard the
336 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

husband as well as the kingdom. This became the ultimate source of inspiration
to get freedom.
His only novel Padum Kunwari(1905) is also a reflection of patriotism
(regionalism) where the heroic activities of two brothers Haradatta and Birdatta
are vividly described.
At the introduction of the drama Joymoti Kunwari Bezbaroa
comments... Only the characters and the dialogues are borrowed from the
period when the event was committed. But the chief object of the drama is to
enlighten the universal truth and the noble instincts which are common asset
in all countries
In the short stories Milaramar atma jiboni, Molok guin guin and Nangalu
Chandra Das, he jeered at the newly educated Assamese youth who had
possessed a passive mentality towards the native language, culture and tradition.
If we peep into the profession and passion, he did not run on the smooth
mosaic which most scholars of his time deserved. Having completed his
academic life in 1895 in Calcutta and being a bridegroom of the same city,
Bezbaroa couldnot motivate himelf to return to his homeland Assam. Although
he was offered the job of Extra Assistant Commissioner for two times, he
refused to do that as he never had dreamt of becoming an armed chaired
gentleman. He started timber business with a reputed Assamese businessman
Bholanath Baroa whose only job became to supply Sal timbers to the Railway
Company. In 1903-04, he launched it separately but left with a desperate mood.
In 1916, he again joined in a new company and went to Sambalpur in connection
with his duty in 1917. After a few years, he started again his previous timber
business. In 1937, He returned to his homeland Assam to relieve his broken
health and breathed his last in 1938.
Bezbaroa comes to this discussion not for his personal and professional
status, but for his service to the mother tongue in its jeopardy. His collection of
folktales, portray of mythical and legendary stories in the literary pieces like
dramas and poetry, drawing of folk imagery in his other contributions added
necessary nutrients to the paralyzed language. Resembling Madras, two
constructions on intimation between folklore and nationalism appeared in Assam
also. In Madras, the first formulation was in favour of the folk Dravidian culture
against the Tamil aggression, while in Assam, it was advocating for the
Assamese language against the Bengali.
Here, the remarkable point is that the Assamese language was offered
rightful status in 1872, when Bezbaroa was four, as he was born in 1868. So
he had nothing to do in the campaigning for the language. But the official
calendre seldom coincided with the practical happenings. The Bengali was
not dislodged as soon as the notification of the government was found. The
Assamese had to wait up to the last decade of the century to come round
which allowed teenaged Lakshminath a scope to do something. But his effort
delimited his age limit. So Lakshminath was definitely among the connoisseurs
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 337

of the first formulations. Again, his nostalgia for the past glory of Assam
echoed in his writings, especially his preface of the book Burhi Air Sadhu
(Grand mothers tale) embolded the second formulation of Vanishing village
leading to national literature.
All his writings were the outcome of his deep love to the motherland and
its assets. Dr. Grierson is of the opinion that Assamese literature is essentially
a national product. It always has been national and it is so still. Bezbaroas
literature is not a deviation from it.
======================
References :
1. Adam Kuper& Jessika Kuper, 1996, The Social Science Encyclopaedia,
Routledge, London.
2. Barua hem,1954, The Red River and the Blue Hill, Lawyers Book Stall, Guwahati
3. Bezbaroa Lakshminath,1911, Burhi Air Sadhu, Lawyers Book Stall,Panbazar,
Guwahati.
4. Bezbaroa Lakshminath, 1905, Padum Kunwari
5. Bhuyan Arun,2000, Nationalist Upsurge in Assam, Government of Assam,
Dispur.
6. Datta Birendranath, 1990, Ethnicity, nationalism and sub-nationalism.
Nationality, Ethnicity and cultural identity in North-East India
7. Datta Birendranath, 1999, Folkloric Foragings in Indias North-
East,ABILAC,NorthGuwahati.
8. Deka Namita,1994,Banhir patot chintar rengani, Banalata, Panbazar.
9. Gohain Hiren, 2001, The Study of folklore, Indian Folklore, B.R.Publishing
Corporation, Delhi.
10. Handoo Jawaharlal,2000, Theoretical essays in Indian Folklore, Zooni
Publications,Mysore.
11. Neog Maheswar, 1993, Orunodoi sambad patra Asom Prakashan parishad,
Guwahati
12. Shastri Dr. Biswanarayan,1998,Lakshminath Bezbaroar Sahitya pratibha,
Sharaighat Prakashan, Guwahati-781021
13. Sing Chandrika,1995, Indian Nationalism and National Movement, OMSONS
Publications, New Delhi.
14. Sigh Yogendra, 2000, The sinificance of culture in the understanding of social
change in contemporary India,Culture change in India Identity&Globalization,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Ethnic conflict in Assam : A Study with special


reference to Umakanta Sarma's the Bharandas
* Deluar Hussain
==========================================================
Abstract- Assam is an ancient land with various indigenous tribes. People
belonging to different castes and sub castes have been living here since ancient
time. In the course of time, more people migrated to this land and settled
themselves in various corners of the state. These diverse people lived here in
peace and harmony. They even assimilated partially with others and shared
their culture and tradition among themselves. But soon they became more aware
of their personal culture and tradition. They became concerned for their own
culture and tradition. They thought to preserve each one's language and literature
separately. Simultaneously, the people of one community started to consider
the other as enemy. Some from particular community thought that they were
exploited by others. They used to make their own organization to save their own
culture and literature. But unfortunately, it made the social atmosphere worse.
The ethnic conflict arose among various communities of the state that shattered
the unity of the state. The paper would focus upon the ethnic conflict of the state
with special reference to Umakanta Sarma's novel, The Bharandas..
==========================================================
Keywords: Ethnic conflict, Community, Exploitation, unity and diversity
Assam is a multi-cultured state. It is geographically a perfect place to
support living of all castes and communities. Seeing the good prospect of life
living here, the people of other communities also migrated to this state from
distant lands and settled here permanently. As a result, the people belonging to
Hindu, Muslim and Christian religion are found living in Assam. During the
partition of the country, the people belonging to both Hindu and Muslim
community came to settle in Assam. The government allotted them land and
other facilities. Besides, in post independence period, during the Bangladesh
independence war, some more groups of people migrated to Assam. Thus, it
became a multi-cultured state with different linguistic groups who were living
in peace. Gradually, a sense of deprivation crawled among various ethnic
communities of the state. They felt a kind of insecurity among themselves.
Especially, the Bodos started thinking the Assamese as their enemy initially.
They thought that their language, literature and culture are in threat due to the
Assamese community. They also considered them exploited and dominated
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Hari Gayatri Das College, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 339

because the people of Assamese community worked in full fledged to develop


their own language and culture. Accordingly, some conflicts took place between
these two communities. Though the maximum Bodos and Assamese were
Hindu by religion but the conflicts arose for the protection of their own literature
and culture which were different from each others in many ways. So, the conflict
between the Bodos and Assamese were not religious conflicts but social
conflicts. The Bodos felt insecurity among themselves due to the rise of
Assamese language and culture. So, they were pulling out themselves from
the greater Assamese society for their ethnic security and self development.
This, in reality, not only disturbed the developmental process but also social
harmony of the state.
The social conflict became the more intense matter after the settlement
of East Bengal origin Muslim and Bengali Hindus who migrated here after the
partition of the country and the formation of Bangladesh. The Bodos saw that
the tribal lands were occupied by the immigrants with the help of the
government. This time, they came into conflict with Bengali Muslim and Bengali
Hindus for the preservation of their land. The Bodos also came into conflict
with other tribes like Santhals who also settled in the Bodo tribal belt. Gradually,
the Bodo movement took place. The young boys from the Bodo community
organized students groups (Association) and raised their demands for the
autonomous council for them. Some of them also formed terrorist groups and
the demanded a separate state for them. They also carried out various destructive
activities that damaged many lives and property of the Non-Bodos. During the
year, 1992 and 2006, many social conflicts took place in Assam. The Bodos
came into conflict with Muslims and Santhals. The Bodos burnt down the
houses of Santhals and Muslims. During Assam agitation movement, many
people from the minority community were mercilessly killed in Nellie. There
was an ethnic clash between the Rabhas and the Garos in 2011-2012. There
are almost seventy ethnic groups in Assam who speak different dialects of
languages. More often, the conflict arose among them in various issues. Most
of the clashes took place due to identity crisis and land encroachment. The
historians and writers have recorded these clashes in their own genre. The
prominent writer, Umakanta Sarma has portrayed one of such social conflict
through his novel, The Bharandas.
Umakanta Sarma has written a number of novels that clearly reflects the
greater Assamese society. Being a brilliant alumnus of the university of the
University of Calcutta and later of the University of Illinois, he taught philosophy
in various colleges before taking up the job of director of higher education,
Assam and Meghalaya. He has begged several awards for his writings. He
was awarded with The Assam Valley Literary Award, 1997 (commonly known
as the Magor Award). (Sarma. Spectrum, back Cover page). The Bharandas
was translated by P. Katoky from the writers original Assamese version,
Bharanda Pakhir Jaak (The flocks of Bharandas birds) (1992). The title is
340 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

symbolic. It refers to the Bharandas bird of The Panchatantra that had two
mouths and one single belly. One day, the one mouth ate up one sweet fruit
without sharing it to other. In retaliation, the other ate up one poisonous fruit
secretly without sharing. As a result, the bird died. The writer hints out the
Bharandas like situation in Assam through this novel. The community violence
and destruction among the ethnic tribes proved to be suicidal like Bharandas.
The novel begins with a prologue that shows the people belonging to Bodo,
Kachari and others were living in peace until the migration took place to their
land. They were worshipping their own gods without any social conflicts. But
suddenly, there came conflict, diversity and division and disgrace to the state.
The epilogue of the novel shows conflicts and clashes and great nuisance to
human life.
The novel begins with day to day life of some particular communities
like Assamese, Bodo, Kachari and Muslim. It focuses socio-political
aspirations of the communities. Gradually,it also shows their crave for the
ethnic identify. The young generation became conscious for preserving their
culture and cultural institutions. The old generation was different from the
young; they did not understand the plan and policies of the young. These two
generations obviously represented two sets of values. The anxiety of the young
increased against all outsiders, especially against the Muslim, Nepalese and
other local communities. They were having their main grudge against the
Assamese because they were more privileged, dominating and developed group.
Thus, the relationship between the Bodos and Assamese that had been since
the ancient time was loosen. The village Seshakhuli was the centre of conflict.
After the independence, there was no such significant development in
Seshakhuli with the Bodo community. So, they became rebellious. The Bodo
youth demanded strong movement for their deprivation and development in
the state. One of the major characters Ranjila says, When the external forces
smash our bastion, we shall become all uprooted. What shall we then do?
(Sarma 2000:46) They also started collecting their oral songs and ballads to
preserve their culture under the leadership of professor Basumatory.
The young people like Alit and Urmila prepared themselves for taking
extreme steps in their political struggle to achieve their goal. They were young
revolutionaries. Whereas Ranen and Ranjila did not support the violent way in
order to save their culture. Alit thought that the Bodo culture could be preserved
through violence activity only. Hence, he took the leadership in forming
extremist groups. He planned to achieve autonomy for his community only by
violent means. He and his fellow revolutionaries were very much concerned of
their land that was occupied by the non-tribal people. They organized a meeting
at Daimabeel and condemned the land encroachers. The young men agitated
about the influx of the homeless people to their place. The people living in the
villages far from Seshakhuli showed the similar concern. The elderly people
were not much worried about it. The matter was debated in the villages. The
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 341

students joined it. They argued and expressed their suspicion of some nefarious
design against the local people. It, gradually created conflict and clashes among
the communities living in and around Seshakhuli. (Sarma, 2000. P. 104)
Some serious doubt had arisen in the minds of the people of Seshakhuli.
They thought that their identity would be in crisis in near future. They sensed
a kind of danger. Now the question was that whether the danger would harm
the Seshakhuli alone, or the Bodos alone or the country as a whole. (105).The
socially concerned persons organized several meeting to discuss their problems.
The Bodo and Non-Bodos were gradually aware of their problems. Some Bodo
youths were threatening some Muslim settlers to vacate the land that they
occupied. They once met Abdul, the matabbar (Village Head) and asked him
to leave the land that he was cultivating. They also abused him and threatened
dire consequences if he would not leave that place. The Mandal also threatened
him to evict his lands on behalf of Assamese. The Bodos suddenly turned
offensive towards the Muslim who migrated from Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
A Bodo youth said, The land youre speaking about belongs to Bodos, to
none else. You can be driven out by us- we Bodos can drive you out. (119)
The Bodo youths were picking up various unpleasant activities in the market
place with the Non-Bodos and disturbing peace in the region. They once slapped
and kicked Banamali for using rough words to the defaulter who failed to pay
the price due on paddy that the defaulter had taken from the shop of Abdul
Miya where Banamali worked. They also fined Banamali with rupees one
hundred fifty. Banamali got perplexed and fell flat on his gaddi. His assistant
somehow managed the amount and gave it to the young men and the situation
came under control. (124). Some other youths also threatened the Marwari
businessmen, Ramlal to pay them a sum of five thousand at once. They also
told him that he was earning lakhs of rupees from this land, so he must pay
them; otherwise he would face the dire consequences. Ramlal, out of fear paid
them four thousand rupees and got saved. Ramlals only fault was that he was
not from the Bodo community. Some naughty boys pelted stones to the Non-
Bodo people who happened to pass through the Bodo villages. (128). The
Bodo revolutionary boys also burnt down two primary schools at Rupaganj.
Alit was openly going for organizing extremist group for the good of
their motherland. (?) He said, Ranen, Im going. Your path is totally different
from mine. . A day will come when we shall emerge triumphant: the Bodo
will emerge triumphant. (131). There were ideological differences between
Alit and Ranen. Ranen was moderate leader. The peace loving Assamese
teacher, Devakanta was attacked by the Bodo miscreants. Thus, the racial
conflict and discrimination was breeding in the Bodo majority areas. They also
stood against Bengali. Alit and his friends joined the group who discriminated
the Bengalis. Alit and his group decided to raise funds for their organization by
collecting money from the wealthy people. Apart from forming a student
organization, they were also engaged with the extremist group. They were
342 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

prepared to resist any outsiders entry to their land.


Alit, Urmila and their companions started their mission of works in full
swing to secure their culture and identity in the society. The extremist youths
made various camps in the name Bodo liberation and engaged in violent
activities. They were led under the commandership of Alit. They forcefully
occupied the particular houses of the villagers and compelled them to supply
food and other needs to them. They also started to torture the house owners.
They villagers complained against them. They said to Alit, We are not going
to accept your words. We have tolerated this nuisance too long. Only because
of you, weve fed your hooligans. They have now misbehaved with our sisters.
Expel them this instant from the village; otherwise we shall bury them alive.
(204). At this, the youth from the camp came out and challenged the villagers.
Alit ordered them to go inside and make no noise. They disobeyed Alits order.
All of a sudden, the young men pushed Alit down. Another one kicked him at
the back. They hit him to bleeding. Some local youths from the village came
out immediately and a fight started. They thrashed the outsiders roundly and
drove them out from the village during night. It was most unfortunate that Alit
was badly beaten up by his own men, by his own organization. At last he
confessed his guilt in his delirium, You said to me once, Ranen that I was
creating monsters which would devour us all, myself not excluded. Perhaps,
you were right. I myself dont mind being eaten up by the demons, but do
these things make any discrimination? . I was totally confused. (205). Thus,
the liberation movement proved to be self harming too.
======================
References :
1. Barpujari. H.K. 1993. The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume V. Guwahati,
Publication Board of Assam
2. Bhattacharyya. Pramod. Chandra. 1991. Asamar Janajati. (Edited). Guwahati.
Lawyers Book Stall.
3. Bordoloi. B.N. 1990. Constraints of Tribal Development in North-East India,
Guwahati- Saraighat Printers
4. Sarma. Umakanta. 1999. In the Forest, The Songs and Shackles. Guwahati &
Delhi. Spectrum Publications.
5. Sarma. Umakanta, 2000, The Bharandas. (Translated by Dr. P.Kotoky). Guwahati
& Delhi. Spectrum Publications.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

The Role and Need of Puppetry in Behavior Change


Communication for Rural India: An Overview
* Garima Upadhyay
==========================================================
Abstract- The link between diet and chronic disease has long been recognized
and as a result, nutrition education has become a necessary and important part
of personal development, health, and physical education.. The ultimate goal of
nutrition education is to change behavior. (thus the use of the term "behavior
change communication"). Without communication, any message, howsoever,
important cannot reach to the people/community. Therefore, it is the most
important, effective and inevitable part of any system/society. Though India has
been experiencing a media explosion , the most important point is the selection
of media for rural development in terms of its adaptability and accessibility.
Traditional media such as drama, dance, folklore, puppets find their full
expression in its diversity, beauty, and gaiety. Even the modern media are
attracted by the rich cultural diversity of the traditional media and have begun
to exploit them for commercial purposes. Over the years, puppetry has developed
into a powerful media of communication. In developing countries and India in
particular, raising the level of awareness, and bringing about behavioural
changes across different group of health and nutrition functionaries folk media
should be an integral part of any communication programme for rural
development. Whenever possible, these should be integrated with mass media
to obtain maximum benefit.
==========================================================
Keywords: Rural, nutrition education, communication, behavior change
communication, puppetry.
India is the second most populated country in the world after China
having a population of more than one billion. About 72.2% of the total population
is living in rural areas. The term rural in Indian administrative context is
defined as those non-municipal areas of the country, which, by and large, are
represented by the agricultural productive system and lack certain urban
amenities and facilities. Despite, the fact that a large amount of money is being
spent on development programmes, not much has been achieved. Rural
development encompasses improvements at the level of living, including
employment, education, health and nutrition, housing and variety of related
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Department of Home-Science, Vasant Kanya
Mahavidyalaya, Kamaccha,Varanasi-221010
344 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

social services. Therefore, an Information Education Communication (IEC)


strategy are relevant for creating awareness in the community about health
and nutrition, their remedial measures and services available.
Peoples participation is an effective tool for getting people involved in a
programme of community interest. IEC is one such strategy, which could help
obtain the desired results by touching those areas, which need necessary thrust
and constant hammering. The IEC strategy incorporates three components: (i)
Information (ii) Education (iii) Communication. Information requirements of
rural people fall into several broad fields under two categories (a) Information
for development (b) information about development. This information serves
as an advice, counseling, support, practical aid, referral services etc. Getting
extensive, elaborate, intensive information and knowledge about any subject
implies getting educated. Education helps eliminate misgivings, doubts,
misconception and myths about a subject and thus create awareness, interest
and desire to adopt and put into practice the essence of knowledge which in
turn brings about changes in behavior and perception of the society.
Dissemination of ideas, information, and knowledge is only possible when
communication channel is properly used.
The link between diet and chronic disease has long been recognized and
as a result, nutrition education has become a necessary and important part of
personal development, health, and physical education. Also, possessing
knowledge about food and its nutritional content is valuable at any age, as
people continue to make eating choices throughout the course of their lifetime.
Although Nutrition Education contributes to all the pillars of food and nutrition
security, it is mainly concerned with whatever influences food consumption
and dietary practices: food habits and food purchasing, food preparation, food
safety and environmental conditions. Many causes of poor nutrition are attitudes
and practices that can be influenced by education: food taboos, long established
dietary and snacking habits, agricultural production decisions, food distribution
in the family, and ideas about child feeding, misleading food advertising, and
ignorance of food hygiene or negative attitude to vegetables. NE is becoming
critically necessary in countries affected by globalization and urbanization,
which are experiencing a dangerous dietary transition to cheap processed foods
rich in sugar, fat, and salt.
Behaviour Communication: Meaning
Thus, Nutrition education is any combination of educational strategies
accompanied by environmental supports, designed to facilitate voluntary
adoption of food-choices and other food- and- nutrition related behaviors
conducive to health and well-being. Nutrition education is delivered through
multiple venues and involves activities at the individual, community and policy
levels. (Contento 2007). This definition extends beyond perceiving education
as purely a process of providing information, to one that encompasses
information and communication strategeies (motivational), the provision of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 345

skills (where the goal is to facilitate peoples ability to take action), and the
changes to food environment (to support and reinforce the actions on information
and skills). Under this definition, the ultimate goal of nutrition education is to
change behavior (thus the use of the term behavior change
communication).Communication is a means of medium of disseminating/
getting information or knowledge. Success of communication lies in its strategic
nature, medium of communication, use of language and prevailing ground
realities, beliefs, practices and other socio-economic factors of the society.
Without this, any message, howsoever, important cannot reach to the people/
community. Therefore, it is the most important, effective and inevitable part of
any system/society.
For generations rural people living in isolated villages without access to
modern means of communication have relied on the spoken word and traditional
forms of communication as a means of sharing knowledge and information
and providing entertainment. For illiterate rural women in particular, occasions
for information exchange have consisted solely in local festivities, family
gatherings, traditional and religious associations, interaction with itinerant
merchants and encounters at market place or water wells. However, women
have made use of the oral tradition to ensure their own as well as their families
survival, and as a result, have developed a rich communication environment.
They have lived creative lives, transmitting culture, knowledge, customs and
history through traditional forms of communication such as poetry, proverbs,
songs, stories, dances and play. Since communication is a product of culture
and culture determines the code, structure, meaning and context of the
communication that takes place. Though India has been experiencing a media
explosion , the most important point is the selection of media for rural
development in terms of its adaptability and accessibility. Traditional media
such as drama, dance, folklore, puppets find their full expression in its diversity,
beauty and gaiety. Even the modern media are attracted by the rich cultural
diversity of the traditional media and have begun to exploit them for commercial
purposes. Use of traditional media ensures respect for traditional values,
symbols and realities and, at the same time ensures that such media productions
appeal to rural audiences.
Over the years, puppetry has developed into a powerful medial of
communication. Adaptability is its ideal nature. In contrast to mass media puppet
shows are live which allows the puppeteer the advantage of being able to
adapt a show to the local ambience. In the recent years, puppets have come to
be increasingly used in the field of communication. Puppets are being used for
varied purposes such as educating children, encouraging scientific methods of
farming, promoting the use of fertilizers etc.
Puppetry in India:
Puppetry is one of the most ancient forms of entertainment in the world.
Traditionally, India has a rich heritage of puppetry. The history dates back to
346 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

around the 5th century B.C. The early puppet shows in India mostly dealt with
histories of great kings, princes and heroes and political satire. Religious
portrayals of puppetry developed in South India with shadow puppets
performing stories from Ramayana and Mahabharata. Besides dealing with
religious themes, Indian puppetry also conveys useful messages from
Panchatantra and other mythological and historical epics. The stories, taken
from the epics, are full of vibrant action to create tension in audiences mind,
leading to enjoyment. Music is used live , thus effecting instantaneous rapport
with the audience. The main show is usually preceded by dancer-puppets for
entertaining the viewers. The comic character called, Vidushak, is an Indian
innovation and helps to create a lot of laughter by his antics and repartees. The
audience participation in traditional puppetry is an interesting feature, seen
almost all over the country. In the Rajasthani string puppet show, for instance,
the rural audience is easily provoked into singing and dancing along with the
puppets. Quite often, both adults and children enter into a dialogue with the
puppeteers and the latter have to be ready with quick-witted answers. String
puppets of Rajasthan and Orrisa do not have legs, but this does not prevent the
audience to accept the dancing marionettes as complete and beautiful. Shadow
puppets are all two-dimensional and are often composite figures, but the
audience accepts them and mentally conjures up the missing elements and
movements.
Many development planners in the Third World now appreciate the use
of folk media as a mode of communication to explain development programmes.
This may be because of the ineffectiveness of mass media in reaching those at
whom the messages are targeted. Therefore, decision makers have started to
take a second look at the use of folk media to generate local participation in
development projects.
Behaviour Communication and Puppetry:
In the 1974 meeting in New Delhi, the seminar workshop of UNESCO
discussions focused specially on the potentiality of the various forms of
traditional media and the technique of their production as well as integration
with the mass media for motivational purposes. This particular seminar-
workshop was notable for it generated a number of guiding principles on how
to use the traditional or folk media for promoting development programmes.
If live performances of puppet theatre can be called live puppetry, it has in
the contemporary age entered into another incarnation: canned puppetry: (found
its forte in the 1980s in India) shown through television and and film media,
after performances were recorded or video taped or filmed. While live puppetry
could seldom go beyond the confines of its local performance and reach a
mass audience, canned puppetry is ideal for repeated viewing through television,
video and cinema. The contemporary puppetry in India has not distracted from
prime objectives, but is even more entertaining because of the competition
from the other mass media. The main aspects for contemporary puppetry are:
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 347

profusion of gimmicks (special lighting effect, smoke-screens, magical


appearance and disappearance); use of modern contraptions (change of stage
and setting, mechanical means for sophisticated manipulation of puppets);
interventions by jokers; mixing of puppet categories (mixing rod with gloves;
traditional puppets with human moppets); intermingling of live persons and
puppet characters (to create comic effects, to make serious commentary, to be
narrator); use of elaborate music; black theatre (using black lamp to show
floating or flying motions against dark background); and so on.
First award winning film produced was Hattogol Vijoy in 1961 by
Raghunath Goswami. The Song and Drama Division of Government of India
makes wide use of puppets in its campaign to promote various government
projects. Significant television and film activities on puppetry has been for
educational use, such as (a) Door Darshan producing short educational puppet
based stories for children and adults from their centres for educational television.
(b) NCERT producing educational films for children ending with a moral (c)
Television serials on puppets include: the noted actress Kamini Kaushal
showing a puppet serial; Puppet serial Budde Baba ki potli, adapted from
Arabian Nights stories; Tar-Ram-Tu attempting lessons on alphabets and
numbers, sponsored by University grants Commission. Occassional uses
include Delhi Door Darshan sponsoring puppet based programmes for
entertainment as well as social education.
Regarding films, puppets were used imaginatively in some commercial
cinemas. Life Insurance Corporation of India used puppets to educate rural
massed about Life Insurance.
Puppetry is an indigenous theatre form of India, from time immemorial;
it has been a popular and appreciated form of entertainment in rural India.
Although, puppetry has been used by various international and national
organizations for promoting developmental programmes, it can be used for
imparting nutrition education in rural areas. The people can identify the situation
similar to theirs and it will appeal all the age groups at personal and intimate
level. Since, nutrition education is the need for all the physiological groups, so
if prepared in organized way (by using familiar and colloquial dialect) one
show can have the impact on every member of a family and retention of
knowledge will be more as it involves audience participation. So in developing
countries and India in particular, raising the level of awareness, and bringing
about behavioral changes across different group of health and nutrition
functionaries and services seekers requires a concerted approach and folk media
should be an integral part of any communication programme for rural
development. Whenever possible, these should be integrated with modern mass
media to obtain maximum benefit.
======================
References :
1. Girard, A. (1982). Cultural industries: a handicap or a new opportunity for
348 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

cultural development? In: Cultural Industries: A Challenge for the future of


Culture. Paris: UNESCO
2. Servaes,J. (1986). Development theory and communication policy: power to
the people. European Journal of Communication. Vol. 1:203
3. Weete,F. (1988).Mass Communication and Development: Impact depends on
strategies. Africa Media Review 3, 1:39
4. Contento,I.(2007). Nutrition Education: Linking Theory, Research and Practice.
Sudbury, M.A: Jones and Barlett Publishers
5. Sharma,M.(2005). Health Education in India: A Strength, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) Analysis.The International Electronic
Journal of Health Education,8:80-85
6. Sobol, A. (2004). Mutual Respect: Re-examining Puppetry in India. Summer
2004 issue of the subcontinental, vol.2, Issue 2
7. Cropp,James,H.(1972). Rural Sociology and Rural Development, Rural
Sociology, vol.87, No.4
8. William R. Lassey (1977). Planning in Rural Environment, New York, Mc Graw
Hill Book Co.
9. World bank,(1975). Rural DevelopmentSector, Policy paper, Washington,
10. University News 2006 vol. 44, No. 40, Oct. 2-8
11. University News 2006 vol. 44, No. 47, Nov. 20-26
12. Ministry of health and family welfare. Department of Health. Available: [online]
Accessed Nov. 1, 2004
13. Centre for Health Education, training and Nutrition Awareness. Available:
[online] Accessed Nov. 25,2004
14. www.puppetryindia.org
15. www.aahperd.org
16. http://www.fao.org/docrep/X2550E/X2550e05.htm
17. http://www.developmentgateway.org
18. www.subcontinental.org
19. www.comminit.org/strategic thinking
20. www.sne.org
21. www.puppetools.com
22. www.wphna.org/the-enact-project-education-for-effective-nutrition-in-action
23. www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/Nutrition EdRTC.ppdf
24. https://connectwithwords.wordpress.com/2014/03/04/role-of-folk-media-in-
promoting-health-nutrition/
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Normal Stages in the Development of the Larvae of


Rana Tigrina Daud and Bufo Andersonii Bouleng
* Umesh Shukla
==========================================================
Abstract- While engaged in studying the development of the pectoral girdle of
Rana tigrina Daud. and of Bufo andersonii Bouleng., the author found that the
normal stages of the development of the larvae of these anurans have not hitherto
been described in sufficient detail. Paucity of information, therefore, hindered
the progress of the main work in hand. Therefore, the stages of the larvae of
these for (Rana tigrina and Bufo andersonii) were first determined and are
being described in the present paper.
==========================================================
Before 1976 when Taylor and Kollros described in detail the normal
stages of the larvae of Rana pipiens, some workers had described stages of
the tadpoles of several anurans, for instance Wintrebert (1945) in the case of
Rana temporaria and R. viridis, Tschernoff (1967) in R. ovalis (Rana
temporaria), Emmett and Allen (1967) in R. piplens, Schreiber (1987) in Bufo
vulgaris and Eakin and Harris (l985) in Hyla. Most of them distinguished the
several stages either on the basis of the length of the body or the, ratio of the
length of the tail to that of the body. But these characters are extremely variable
and therefore unreliable, as also pointed out Taylor and Kollros (1986), Since,
in amphibians generally, individuals at the same level of morphological
development may vary widely in size, due to different conditions of feeding or
temperature, and also since significant morphological changes often occur with
but slight accompanying changes in absolute or relative measurements of body
parts, criteria based on size alone prove inadequate. With this fact in view,
the stages of the larvae of Rana tigrina and Bufo andersonii described here
are based mainly on the morphological characters and the age, even
pigmentation and colour have not been taken into account as they also were
found to vary considerably.
Material and Methods:
The material for the present study consisted of tadpoles of Rana tigrina
Daud. and Bufo andersonii Bouleng., which were graded into twelve successive
stages (vide infra). The stages were collected from about a dozen adult
individuals of both sexes that were kept in a tank and allowed to breed. The
fertilized eggs were transferred to a number of glass aquaria (4 x 2 x 1.6")
===========================
* Department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra (U.P.)
350 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

in which they developed.Starting with stage 20 of Pollister and Moore (1977)


a number of tadpoles were taken out, every twelve hours, killed and preserved
in 70 per cent alcohol.
Results and Discussion:
Numbering of Stages: In numbering the stages of the larvae of Rana tigrina
and Bufo andersonii Taylor and Kollros (1986) were followed. They numbered
the stages of the larvae of Rana pipiens by Roman numerals in order to
distinguish them from the embryonic stages which Shumway (1990, 1992)
numbered by Arabic numerals. Thus if we were to consider the entire
development of R. pipiens, embryonic and larval, Taylor and Kollros stage I
would actually mean the 26th stage of the development as it follows the 25th
embryonic stage described by Shumway. However, this kind of gradation will
not hold good in the case of Rana tigrina and Bufo andersonii, because in
them, like the larval period the embryonic periods are also completed in a
comparatively shorter period of time, so that all the twenty five embryonic
stages described by Shumway, in the case of R. pipiens, are not distinctly
defined in the Indian species.
The Developmental Stages: According to Taylor and Kollros (1986), the
larval period in Rana pipiens extends over 85-90 days. They described 25
stages of the larvae of this species and grouped them into (a) Limb bud stages
(b) Paddle stages, (c) Foot stages, and (d) Metamorphic stages, containing
five, five, seven and eight stages respectively. However, in Rana tigrina and
Bufo andersonii the larval period lasts only up to 20 and 15 days respectively.
In each case, only 12 stages of the larvae are defined which are grouped into
(a) Limb bud, (b) Paddle, (c) Foot, (d) Three-legged and (e) Metamorphic
phases containing one, two, three, one, and five stages respectively. The
occurrence of only twelve larval stages in R. tigrina and B. andersonii, as
compared to twenty five of R. pipiens, is perhaps due to a faster rate of changes
in the former species.
Description of the Stages:
1. Limb-bud Phase: According to Taylor and Kollros (1986), the limb-bud
appears in R. pipiens one week after the beginning of feeding, but in Rana
tigrina and Bufo andersonii, they not only appear with the onset of feeding
but also grow very fast so that by the time the onset of feeding is detected by
the presence of particles in the gut, they are practically as long as their diameter.
Therefore, in Rana tigrina and Bufo andersonii, a single stage (Stage I),
corresponding to the five stages reported in R. pipiens (Taylor and Kollros),
occurs.
Stage I (Limb-bud Stage) - The buds of the hind limbs project backwards as
blunt stumps and are as long as or longer than their diameter; horny jaws are
present; opercular folds grow back over the external gills; gut coiled and situated
mainly towards the left side of the body; and tail piece present.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 351

Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina Bufo andersonii


Total length 10-14 9-11
Length of body 4-6 4-5
Length of tail 6-8 5-6
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.50-l.33 1.25-1.20

2. Paddle Phase: Taylor and Kollros (1986) described five paddle stages in
the case of Rana pipiens. In the first (stage VI), the distal end of the hind limb
is flattened medio-laterally to form the foot-paddle; there are no inter-digital
indications of the paddle margin, while the remaining four (VII, VIII, IX, X)
stages are differentiated on the basis of indentation between the toes which
appear one by one; the indentation between the fifth and the fourth toes appear
first, followed by those between the fourth and the third; the third and the
second and the second and the first toes. However, in Rana tigrina and Bufo
andersonii, although the first stage of this group (Stage II) compares with that
(Stage VI) in Rana pipiens, the indentations between all the toes appear
simultaneously, so that a single stage (Stage III) of R. tigrina corresponds to
the stages VII, VIII, IX, and X of R. pipiens, (Taylor and Kollros, 1986).
Stage II (Paddle Stage) - Stump of the hind-limb projecting backwards and
nearly as long as or more than twice its diameter; its distal end dorso-medially
flattened to form a distinct paddle; horny jaws and tail-piece present.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina Bufo andersonii
Total length 15-19 11-13
Length of body 6-7 5-6
Length of tail 9-12 6-7
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.83-1.71 1.20-1.16

Stage III (Inter-digitation Stage) - Hind limb extends straight back along the
side of the body, it shows demarcation into ankle and shank andMeasurements
the margin ofin mm. Rana tigrina Bufo anders
the foot-paddle is indented between all the five toes; horny jaws
Total and tail piece
length 19-26 12-16
present. Length of body 7-9 5-7
Length of tail 11-12 7-9
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.57-1.33 l.40-1.28

3. Foot Phase: Taylor and Kollros (1986) recognise seven stages in this group
in Rana pipiens based on the gradual appearance and development of the
webs and the sub-articular pads in the foot. But in Rana tigrina and Bufo
andersonii changes are rapid, hence only three stages are distinct.
Stage IV (Web-formation Stage) - Hind limb extends almost straightly
backwards along the side of the body; it shows distinct demarcation into ankle
and shank; foot has all the five toes well differentiated with rudiments of webs
between them; horny jaws and tail piece present.
352 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Stage V (Folded limb Stage) - Hind limb distinctly folded at the joints and
demarcated into foot, ankle, shank and thigh; foot well formed, toes with webs
present between them; horny jaws and tail piece are present.

Stage VI (Sub-articular Pad Stage) - Hind limb with distinct foot, ankle,
shank and thigh and folded joints; toes with webs between them; sub-articular
pads of all the three rows (proximal, middle and distal) present; the phalangeal
joints distinct. Horny jaws present but tail piece much reduced; fore-limb well
developed covered with a thin skin; skin window (Taylor and Kollros, 1986)
a transparent disc-shaped area in the wall of the gill chamber, distinct.

4. Three Legged Phase


The author has found that in the tadpoles of Rana tigrina and Bufo andersonii
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina
tigrina Bufo anders
anders
invariably one of the fore-limbs first projects out of the skinRana
covering the gill Bufo
Total length 30-38
24-32
36-42
40-45 17-21
15-18
20-24
23.26
chamber. Gene1y it is the left limb which comes Out first, although
Length of body 12-15
16-17
8-12
17-18
Taylor and 7-8
8-9
8-9
Kollros (1986) speaking about stage
Length of tail XX say that one or both fore-legs
16-20
20-25
18.28
23-27 have 10-14
12-15
8-10
15-17
protruded. Ratio of length of tail with body 1.50-1.53
2.00-1.33
1.25-1.47
1.35-1.50 1.42-1.75
1.14-1.25
1.50-1.66
1.87-1.83
Stage VII (Three-legged Stage) - Hind limb folded; feet, ankle, shank and
thigh distinct; the thigh constricted at its proximal end so that it appears to be
abutting against the body. One of the fore-limbs, generally the left one, projects
out through the opercular fold 1ut the other one, though well developed, is still
below it. Horny jaws are present but the tail piece absent.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 353

5. Metamorphic Phase: Taylor and Kollros (1986) include eight stages in this
group first three of which (stage XVIII, XIX and XX) are distinguished by the
disappearance of the tail piece, clearance of the skin window and emergence
of either one or both of the fore-limbs in Rana tigrina and Bufo andersonii,
however, the tail piece appears earlier and the clearance of the skin window
and the emergence of one of the fore-limbs, usually the left one, occur rapidly,
so that stage XVIII, XIX and XX in Rana pipiens correspond to the stage VII
(three-legged stage) of the Indian forms.
The remaining five stages of this group (stage XXI, XXII, XXIII, XXIV
and XXV) belonging to Rana pipiens (Taylor and Kollros, 1986) are mainly
based on the gradual widening of the gape of the mouth and the reduction of
the tail. The metamorphic stages (VIII, IX, X, XI and XII) in Rana tigrina and
Bufo andersonii are also based mainly on these characters and correspond
proximately with their counterparts in Rana pipiens.
Stage VIII (Limb Stage) - Both the fore-limbs emerged out of the opercular
cavity; horny jaws present, tail piece absent arid the tail much longer than the
hind limbs.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina Bufo andersonii
Total length 41-46 24-26
Length of body 17-18 8-9
Length of tail 24-28 16-17
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.41-1.55 2.00-1.88

Stage IX (Mouth Stage) - Horny jaws absent; the gape of the mouth extends
to a middle point between the nostril and the anterior margin of the eye, or up
to the anterior margin of the eye. Dorsal and ventral tail fins shrunken, tail
reduced in length, being equal to or slightly longer than the extended hind
limb and all four limbs well developed.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina anders
Bufo anderso
Total length 28-35
36-40 15-17
18-22
Length of body 18-19
17-18 9
Length of tail 19-22
10-16 9-13
6-8
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.11-1.33
0.55-0.84 1.00-1.44
0.66-0.88

Stage X (Short-tail Stage) - Gape of the mouth wide, the angle of the mouth
extending up to the middle of the eye. Tail fins practically absent and the tail
distinctly shorter than the extended hind limb.
354 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Stage XI (Tail-stub Stage) - Tail reduced to a stub, gape of the mouth very
large, the angle of the mouth extending up to the hinder margin of the eye.

Stage XII (Adult Stage, Young) - Tail lost; angle of the mouth extends beyond
the hinder border of the eye; limbs stout.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina Bufo andersonii
Length of body 18-19 8-9
Conclusion: The author has extended Shumways (1990) work by describing
twelve larval (tadpole stages) in Rana tigrina Daud. and Bufo andersonii
Bouleng.) basing them mainly on the morphological characters. The stages
recognised on age group basis constitute essentially an arbitrary series.
Therefore, the total development is comprised in a series of periods, each
extending from one stage to the next. In general practice the points and periods
are not sharply demarcated and it is convenient to describe each period in
terms of stages that indicates it.
The larval period in Rana tigrina Daud. and Bufo andersonii Bouleng.
is very short and extends up to only 20 and 15 days respectively.
Twelve stages of the larvae are described in each species which are grouped
into five phases marked by the (a) limb-bud, (b) foot-paddle, (c) foot, (d)
three leggedness and (e) metamorphosis.
The limb-buds appear almost simultaneously with the on set of feeding
and grow very fast.
In the stages of the paddle phase the distal end of the limb-bud
Measurements in m.m.
is flattenedBufo anderson
Rana tigrina
medio-dorsally, on the Total
margin of
length which interdigital indentations
22-27between all 10-14
the toes appear almost simultaneously.
Length of body The paddle phase comprises
18-19 of paddle 8-9
stages and the inter-digitation
Length ofstages.
tail 4-8 2-5
The foot phase isRatio of length
based on theof appearance
tail with body and development
0.22-0.42 of webs 0.25-0.55
and sub-articular pads in which (a) webs formation stage (b) folded limb stage
and (c) sub-articular pad stage can be made out.
The three-legged phase which has not been regarded as a distinct stage
in Rara pipiens by Taylor and Kollros (1986) has been mentioned in Rana
tigrina and Bufo andersonii.
The metamorphic phase is based on the gradual widening of the gape of
the mouth and reduction of the tails and includes five stages: (a) limb-stage,
(b) mouth stage, (c) short-tail stage, (d) tail-stub stage and (e) adult stage
(young).
======================
References :
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 355

1. Eakin, R.M. & Harris, M. (1985). Incompatibility between amphibian host and
xenoplatic grafts as related to J. Exp. Zool., 98: 35-64.
2. Emmet, A. D. & Allen, F.P. (1967). Nutttritional studies on the growth of frog
larvae (Rana pipiens) . J. Biol. Chem., 38 : 325-344.
3. Idem. (1942) Stages in the normal development of Rana pipiens. II. Identification
of stages from sectional material. Anal. Rec., 83 : 309-315.
4. Idem. 1905. Essai tie sriation en stades successifs des derniers temps de la vie
larvaire chez les Anoures, d aprsles caractres morphologiques des mmbre
postrieus. Compt. Rend. Soc. d Boil., 59 : 690-692.
5. Pollister, A. W. & Moore, J.A. (1977). Tables for the normal development of
Rana sylvatica. Anat Rec., 68 : 489-493.
6. Schreiber, G. (1987) La deilnizione degli Stadi della metamorfosi del Bufo.
Rend. R. Accad. aaz. Lincei, 25 : 243-348.
7. Shumway, W. (1990). Stages In the normal development of Rana pipiens. I.
External Form. Anat. Rec., 78: 139-144.
8. Taylor, A. Cecil & Kollros, Jurry J. (1986). Stages in the normal development
of Rana pipiens Larvae. Anal. Rec., 94 : 7-22.
9. Tschernoff, N. D. (1967). Zur Embryonalentwickelung der hinteren Extremitten
der Frosches. Anat. Anz., 30 : 593-612.
10. Wintrebert, M. P. (1945). Sue Iorder dapparition des orteils et la premier
development des membres chez les Anoures. Compt. Rend. Soc. d. Biol., 59 :
576-578.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017

Prevalence of Menopausal symptoms among the


Misings of Majuli, Assam
* ParismitaSaikia
**ChandanaSarmah
==========================================================
Abstract- Menopause is defined as the time when ovaries cease functioning and
menstrual period stop, marking the end of reproductive years.The term
menopause is derived from the Greek words "menos" meaning month and 'pausos'
meaning an ending. Diagnosis of menopause is mostly retrospective and a women
is considers to have reached menopause when she has stopped having a monthly
period for 12 consecutive months.Prevalence of menopausal symptoms is higher
in premenopausal women than the post menopausal women. 53.22%
premenopausal women and 46.77% post menopausal women experienced hot
flush. Forgetfulness (77.5%) is the most common vasomotor symptoms among
the study population. This symptom is higher in postmenopausal women (61.93%)
than the premenopausal women (38.06%). some other common symptoms are
menstrual problems, join pains, backache, mood swings, depression, skin and
hair problem, eye problem etc.
==========================================================
Keywords: Menopause, Majuli, Mising, Hot flushes, night sweats etc.
Introduction: Menopause is the permanent cessation of menstruation resulting
from the loss of follicular activity of the ovaries. According to WHO, menopause
is the time of a womens life when reproductive capacity ceases. The ovaries
stop functioning and their production of steroid and peptide hormones falls.
The term menopause is derived from the Greek words menos meaning month
and pausos meaning an ending. Diagnosis of menopause is mostly
retrospective and a women is considers to have reached menopause when she
has stopped having a monthly period for 12 consecutive months. Menopause
can occur naturally (spontaneously) on an average around 51 years of age (40-
60 years) or may be induced through medical intervention like surgery,
chemotherapy or pelvic radiation therapy (Soulesetal., 2001).The underlying
physiology of menopause derives from a process that begins early in fetal
development when some seven millions oocytes form by the fifth month. These
immediately begin to dwindle in number by birth and it is around four hundred
by the age of menarche. Over the course of the reproductive years only a few
===========================
* Research Scholar, Gauhati University
** Assistant Professor, Gauhati University
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 357

hundred at most go through meiotic division during ovulation and the rest
gradually disappear through a process of follicular atresia, in which the follicle,
the oocytes itself or both shrink and cease to be viable. When so few follicles
remain to produce sufficient estrogen to induce ovulation, the menstrual cycles
stop and menopause ensues (Wiley et al., 2009).
Age at menopause is a marker for aging and health. Early menopause is
associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease (25%), early decline
in cognitive function, lower bone mineral density and osteoporosis. Delayed
menopause although has been associated with increased risk of breast and
endometrial cancer, it is also associated with greater life expectancy reduced
all cause mortality (cf. Srivastava et al., 2014). Every womans menopausal
experience is unique. Some women may have all of the symptoms of
menopause; other may have just a few (Pathak and Parashar, 2010). Lifestyle,
demographic factors, and attitudes all influence a womans perception of
menopause. The menopause experience is often perceived as merely the
cessation of menses. A woman may view the end of fertility as liberation from
the possibility of pregnancy, or she may grieve for the children she never had.
For women who have had an unexpected early menopause, either natural or
induced, their experience may be more negative. The level of menopause related
symptoms will also have an influence. Some women will have troublesome
symptoms, whereas others may navigate the transition with few or even no
symptoms at all (Avis et al., 2001). Thus, study on the bio-social aspect of
menopause will bring to light the population variation on both the perception
and experience of menopause.
Women may experience many symptoms around the time of menopause,
some of these may be from the result of cessation of ovarian function and
related menopausal events and others may be from the ageing process or from
the socio-environmental stresses of the mid life years (WHO,1994). The most
common menopausal symptoms include hot flashes and night sweats,
depression, tiredness, urogenital problems and sexual problems.
Although menopause has become an important and interesting subject
in recent years, the studies on menopause or menopause related health problems
are very few in the North East India especially in Assam. Again, Menopause
related studies among the Mising women are very less. So the present study is
an attempt to study the prevalence of different menopausal symptoms among
the Misings of Majuli.
Materials and Methods:
Study area: The present study has been undertaken among the Mising women
of Majuli. Majuli is the subdivision of Jorhat district of Assam with its
headquarters at Garamur. Geographically it is between 2645 north latitude
to 2722 north latitude and in between 9339 east longitude to 9435 east
longitudes. As per the census 2001 the total area of Majuli is 421.65sq.km.The
Island is surrounded by the river Brahmaputra on the south, its channel Luit
358 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

Kherkatiasuti on the north and the Subansiririver on the extreme North-West.


The Island has 144 villages and as per 2001 census the total population is
153,362. The samples were selected from five villages namely; Barpamua,
LakhimiBarpamua, KumarbariGaon, Barpothar, JengraiGaon, which are under
the jurisdiction of the UjaniMajuli Development Block and in the
JengraimukhGaonPanchayat and namoniserepaigaon of serepaigaonpanchayat.
The Misings: Mising is a distinct tribe inhabiting the areas north of the
Brahmaputra River in upper Assam. They are the second largest plain tribes
of Assam. As per the census of India, 2001 the population of the Misings in the
state of Assam at the time of enumeration was 587,310(Male 299,790 and
female 287,520) which constitute 17.3% of the total scheduled tribes population
of Assam. The Misings in general belong to the Tibeto- Burman family of the
great mongoloid race. In the long back they used to live in the hilly areas in
between the Siang and Subansiri districts of present day Arunachal Pradesh
and came down the plains of Assam around 14th -15thcentury. Since then they
used to settle on the riverside areas of the Brahmaputra and the Subansiri
rivers of Assam. They are mostly found in the districts of Dhemaji, Lakhimpur,
Jorhat, Sibsagar, Golaghat, Sonitpur and Tinsukia. They are also sparsely found
to inhabit in the Koliabar area of Nagoan and Goalpara district (Pegu, 2013).
The Mising women are expert in handloom and weaving art. Traditionally the
Misings dwell in stilted houses. The Misings are traditionally agriculturist and
their economic structure is based on production of rice, mustard seeds, black
pulses and certain varieties of crops such jute, potato, vegetables etc.Rice is
their staple food. Along with the rice they take locally available vegetables.
Rice bear is their favourite beverage.
Method: The present study is a cross sectional study. A pre-structured survey
schedule with in depth interview technique is used to collect socio demographic
data like age, occupation, income, educational status, family members, and
marital status. The pre structured survey schedule is also used to collect data
on prevalence of menopausal symptoms such as vasomotor, psychological,
urinary problems, sexual life and other somatic symptoms and prevalence of
different types of disease among the menopausal women (40-55 years) of the
study area. Age at menopause is estimated by using retrospective method in
which women were asked to recall the age at what age they get menstruating
and stopped their menstruation. After data collection for processing and analysis
the data Microsoft office excel 2007 and SPSS 16 has been used.
Sample size: Total sample size of the present study is 200 (104 post menopausal
and 96 premenopausal women). The sample has been distributed into four
different age groups at an interval of four years.
Results and discussion: Table 1 shows the percentage distribution of the
participants according to their education and marital status. Out of the 200
participants the total illiterate women in this study is 92(46%). Highest number
of illiterate women is 33(60%) belongs to the age group (52-55).Total 108 i.e.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 359

54 % women are literate among which 12(6%) are literate up to Primary (I-
IV) level and9(4.5%) literate upto the Middle(V-VII) level. 25.5% literate
women read upto the HSLC level and only 7% women literate up to the higher
secondary level. Again Among the 54% literate women only 4% women were
graduate.
The participants of the study are mostly married. Total number of married
woman is 180(90%) and only 4% are unmarried. There are 12 widows at the
time of investigation while no divorce women are found in the study area. The
maximum number of women of the village married in the age of 20-23
years.With regard to the family types, the number of nuclear family is higher
than the joint family.118 families i.e. 59% belong to the nuclear family while
81 families i.e. 41% belong to the joint family. Agriculture is the main occupation
of all the families in the villages. They have mainly depend on production of
rice, mustard seeds, black pulses and certain varieties of other crops such as
jute, potato, different leafy vegetables etc. Very few women have government
job.Highest number of samples of this study i.e. 178(89) have engaged in
agriculture and only 22(11%) woman have government job like teaching,
anganwadi workers and nurse. Monthly income of most of the families (64%)
is less than equal 7000/- and 28.5% families have monthly income between
8000/- to 20000/-. Only 7.5% families have income more than 25000/-.
Table1:
Distribution of sample according to educational status and marital
status

Age group 40-43 % 44-47 % 48-51 % 52-55 % Tota


Educationalstatus 7 17.5 27 50.9 25 48.07 33 60 92
Primary 0 0 3 5.7 5 9.6 4 7.27 12
Middle 2 5 4 7.5 0 0 3 5.45 9
Hslc 20 50 10 18.9 11 21.15 10 18.18 51
Hsslc 8 20 7 13.2 8 15.38 5 9.09 28
Graduate 3 7.5 2 3.8 3 5.76 0 0 8
Total 40 20 53 26.5 52 26 55 27.5 200
Table2: Marital status
2 Unmarried 5 4 7.54 1 1.92 1 1.81 8
Distribution of sample according to occupational pattern and Family
37 Married 92.5 47 88.67 47 90.38 49 89.09 180
income ofthe samples 1 Widow 2.5 2 3.77 4 7.69 5 9.09 12
Total 40 20 53 26.5 52 26 55 27.5 200
Types of Occupation Number of women %
Agriculture 178 89
Govt. service 22 11
Total 200 100
Family income Number of family %
7000 128 64
8000-20000 57 28.5
25000 15 7.5
Total 200 100

Mean age at menopause in the present group is 46.15 3.32 years. Mean
360 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

age at menopause in India is in the range of 482 years(Gupta etal.,2014).


Menopausal symptoms:
Vasomotor Symptoms: Menopause is associated with the onset of certain
Vasomotor Symptoms, which include hot flashes and night sweats. Vasomotor
flash is sudden onset of reddening of the skin over the head, neck and chest,
accompanied by an increase in heart rate (Gupta et.al., ). It is the most common
symptom of menopause and occurs in more than 705 of the women. Upto
63% of women experience hot flush in late menopausal transition ( Gutherie
et al., 1996). It peaks in first year after last menses, lasting in 50% women for
4-5 years but in some (25% ) for longer than 5 years and upto 15 years in 10%
(Gupta et.al., 2014). The table 5 states that prevalence of menopausal symptoms
is higher in premenopausal women than the post menopausal women. 53.22%
premenopausal women and 46.77% post menopausal women of the present
study experienced hot flush. 51.48 % premenopausal and 48.51% post
menopausal women of the present study experienced night sweats.
Forgetfulness (77.5) is the most common vasomotor symptoms among the
study population.This symptom is higher in postmenopausal women (61.93%)
than the premenopausal women (38.06%). In the Study of womens health
across the Nation (SWAN) study, hot flushes and night sweats were reported
by 57% women in perimenopause and almost 50% women in post menopause
at least upto 55 years of age (N Santoro et al., 2004).Prevalence of Hot flushes
varies in different ethnicities. The higher rates are seen in African Americans
(46%), followed by Hispanics(34%), whites(31%), Chinese (21%),
Japanese(18%) and lowest prevalence is observed in China(10%) and other
Asian nations(RC Thurston et al., 2011).
Psychological symptoms: Psychological symptoms, including depressed
mood, anxiety, irritability, mood swings, lethargy and lack of energy, have
been associated with the menopause. The hormonal changes associated with
perimenopause trigger depression, irritability and anxiety in some women.
Freeman identified an increased risk for clinically significant depression during
perimenopause as compared to premenopause or postmenpause (EW Freeman,
2010). The prevalence of depressive symptoms in India varies from 14 to
24.7% ( Dutta et al., 2012).In the present study 43.75% premenopausal and
56.25% postmenopausal women experienced depression. The percentage of
mood swings (52.5%) and irritability (63.33%) is higher in case of
premenopusal women than the postmenopausal women of the present study
group.
Urogenital and sexual problems: The lower urinary and genital tracts have
a common embryological origin and are approximated closely in adult women.
Oestrogen receptors and progesterone receptors are present in the vagina,
urethra, bladder and pelvic floor musculature. Oestrogen deficiency after
menopause causes atropic changes within the urogenital tract and is associated
with urinary symptoms, such as frequency, urgency, nocturia, incontinence
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 361

and recurrent infection. These symptoms may coexist with those of vaginal
atrophy, including dyspareunia, itching, burning and dryness (Rees and Purdie,
2006).
Among the urinary problems frequency (22.5), urgency (27.5), vaginal
irritation and itching (37.5) is most common urinary problems among the both
premenopausal and postmenopausal women. The percentage of urinary
problems experienced by premenopausal women is higher than the
postmenopausal women. Frequency (60%), urgency (54.54), Dysuria
(77.27%), vaginal dryness (80%) and vaginal itching and irritation is (61.33)
is most frequent among the premenopausal women.Changes in sexual
behaviour and activity are not uncommon in menopausal women. Interest in
sexual activities declines in both sexes with increasing age and this change
seems to be more pronounced in women. The US National Health and Social
Life Survey, which was undertaken in people aged 18-59 years, reported that
sexual dysfunction is more prevalent for women (43%) than men (31%). Further
population studies show that the percentage of women with scores that indicate
sexual dysfunction rises from 42% to 88% during the early to late menopausal
transition (Rees and Purdie, 2006). Low desire, difficulty with vaginal
lubrication and inability to climax are some important sexual problems of
menopausal women. In the present study group 48.38% premenopausal and
51.61% postmenopausal women shows loss of sexual desire.
Musculoskeletal problems: Musculoskeletal problems like joint pains, muscle
aches, pain in the back of neck and head are often experienced by menopausal
women. According to the study of Dugan et al., 2006 menopausal women
reported increased musculoskeletal and body ache as compared to
premenopausal women.Backache (39.5%) and Muscle or joint pain(54.78) is
common among the both premenopausal and postmenopausal women among
the Mising women of the present study.
Menstrual problems: Most of the women have experienced scanty bleeding
(29.5) at the time of menstruation. Only 3% women of this study have
experienced post menopausal bleeding. 59.09% premenopausal women have
pain during the menstrual periods and this is higher thanpercentage of the post
menopausal women (40.9%). 33.5 % of the total women have no problem
during their menstruation. One of the most common menopausal symptoms
among the Mising women of the study area is Fatigue (25%). Dizziness(9.5%),
dryness of skin(44%), loss of hair(11%) is some other problems of the
menopausal women of the study group.Eye problem including eye itching,
excessive watering, low vision is higher in premenopausal women (57.85%)
than the post menopausal women (42.14%).
Conclusion: Menopause has become an important subject in recent years.
Now a days menopause is welcomed as a favourable event in some part of
rural India unlike in the west. It is attributed to the many perceived benefits of
menopause such as freedom from cultural restrictions imposed on younger
362 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112

women and the burden of childbirth as well as is comforts associated with


menstruation. Postmenopausal women in some part of India said to enjoy a
higher social status assigning to ageing women (Madhukumar, 2012; Aaron et
al., 2002). Most of the Mising women of Majuli accepted menopause positively
and very less number of women take this negatively because they faced many
health issues after menopause.
Table: 4
Prevalence of menopausal symptom
Symptoms Premen Post Total Premenopa Post Total
opausal menopaus usal women menopausal
women al women women
N % N % N %
ACentral Nervous System
Hot Flush 66 53.22 58 46.77 124 62
Night Sweets 52 51.48 49 48.51 101 50.5
Rapid heart beat 49 56.32 38 43.67 87 43.5
Forgetfulness 59 38.06 96 61.93 155 77.5
Headache 63 55.75 50 44.24 113 56.5
B.Urinary Problems
Frequency 27 60 18 40 45 22.5
Urgency 30 54.54 25 45.45 55 27.5
Urinary track infection 8 61.53 5 38.46 13 6.5
Dysuria 17 77.27 5 22.72 22 11
Vaginal dryness 8 80 2 20 10 5
Vaginal irritation and itching 46 61.33 29 38.66 75 37.5
C.Muskuloskeletalproblems
Backache 47 59.49 32 40.5 79 39.5
Muscle or joint pain 63 54.78 52 45.21 115 57.5
D.Mood disorder
Depression 7 43.75 9 56.25 16 8
Irritability 19 63.33 11 36.66 30 15
Mood swing 21 52.5 19 47.5 40 20
E.Menstrual problem
Pain 13 59.09 9 40.9 22 11
Heavy bleeding 13 30.95 29 69.04 42 21
Scanty bleeding 25 42.37 34 57.62 59 29.5
Post menopausal bleeding 6 3
No problem 44 65.67 23 34.32 67 33.5
others 2 33.33 4 66.66 6 3
F.Sexual behaviour
Loss of sexual desire 15 48.38 16 51.61 31 15.5
G.General symptoms
Fatigue 27 54 23 46 50 25
Dizziness 12 63.15 7 36.84 19 9.5
Dryness of skin 49 55.68 39 44.31 88 44
Loss of hair 14 63.63 8 36.36 22 11
Eye problem 70 57.85 51 42.14 121 60.5
Abnormal skin sensation 7 53.84 6 46.15 13 6.5

======================
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