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8 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
made. This lack of access can have deleterious effects on health outcomes and
can lead to infections and diseases associated with inadequate water supply
and sanitation and can also lead to diarrhoea, stunting and mortality among
children.
India has a population of almost 1.2 billion people. 55% of this popula-
tion (nearly 600 million people) has no access to toilets. Most of these num-
bers are made up by people who live in urban slums and rural areas. A large
populace in the rural areas still defecates in the open. Slum dwellers in major
metropolitan cities, reside along railway tracks and have no access to toilets or
a running supply of water. The situation in urban areas in terms of scale is not
as serious as rural areas.This situation as is as alarming as it sounds and calls
for urgent action.
Lack of sanitation an issue for rural women:
Lack of sanitation has severely adverse repercussions on each citizen of
our nation but the this problem has hi the rural women the hardest.No issue
touches the lives of women as intimately as that of access to sanitation. Al-
though men also suffer from the burden of poor sanitation, they are more likely
to resort to other means to relieve themselves. In many slums, men urinate and
defecate along railway tracks and in open spaces. But women - whose anatomy,
modesty and susceptibility to attack does not allow them to discreetly relieve
themselves in public - have no choice but to wait until dark, usually early in the
morning when there is less risk of being accosted. In low income settlements
where there are no individual toilets, women have to queue for long periods to
gain access to public toilets; some have to bear the indignity of having to def-
ecate in the open due to the lack of consideration to their different sanitation
and privacy needs and poor access to toilet facilities.
There is emerging evidence that suggests that this lack of access to sani-
tation can alsoexposethem to the possibility of sexual harassment or assaultand
sexual abuse.In response to the shame and fear associated with open defeca-
tion, women restrict their mobility and also adopt risky practices such as inad-
equate food and water intake for long hours to avoid the need to urinate or
defecate. This lack of adequate nutrition along with poor sanitation and hy-
giene practices can worsen the situation for pregnant women and lead to poor
pregnancy outcomes leading to maternal and child under-nutrition.
For women living in slums, a long wait at the public toilet can mean that
children are left unattended, or that a household chore is delayed. Unhygienic
public toilets and latrines threaten the health of women, who are prone to re-
productive tract infections caused by poor sanitation. For women who are
menstruating, the need for adequate sanitation becomes even more acute.
Adolescent girls were more vulnerable to sexual harassment and assault
when they went out for defecation. The need for privacy and dignity was greatly
felt in managing menstrual hygiene by adolescent girls.Newly married women
and pregnant women were at a greater health risk due to self-imposed food
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 15
restrictions to avoid defecation during the day while married women with chil-
dren were burdened with domestic sanitation responsibilities. Older women
were prone to physical injuries while going out in the fields at night.
Women expressed the need for household toilet facilities mainly due to
reasons of safety and security.Toilet construction remained out of reach for the
very poor.Government-made toilets were poorly constructed, without any doors,
roof or safe enclosures, raising safety concerns and making them inconvenient
for women.Gender inequality in household financial decision making was an
important constraint against toilet construction.
Studies show that in India majority of the girls drop out of school be-
cause of lack of toilets. Only 22% of them manage to even complete class 10.
The Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan:
Our Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi identified the lack of sanitation
in the country as a major issue facing our nation in the 21st century and and
launched an ambitious mission to clean India, The Clean India Initiative.
He urged every citizen of India to devote at least hundred hours every
year, that is two hours every week towards cleanliness. He further added that
we couldn't let India remain unclean any longer.
He appealed to everyone, particularly political and religious leadership,
mayors, sarpanchs and captains of industry to plan and wholeheartedly engage
in the task of cleaning your homes, work places, villages, cities and surround-
ings. He also added that the construction of toilets was of much priority as
compared to building of temples.
On 2nd October 2014, 'Swachh Bharat Mission', the biggest ever clean-
liness drive was launched to ensure hygiene, waste management & sanitation
in India. It aimed to eradicate open defecation by 2nd Oct 2019 as a tribute to
Mahatma Gandhi on his 150th birthday.Through this program, government
builds toilets and community toilets for schools, houses and public places.
Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan (SBA) is a centrally sponsored scheme. Fund-
ing for this program was set as 2 lakh crore. For North Eastern & Special
category states, funding will be in 90:10 ratio by centre and state. And for all
other states, funding will be in 75:25 ratio.World Bank has approved $1.5
billion to support this massive scale initiative.
As per Government reports, as of June 2017, over 1 lakh community
and public toilets have been constructed under this programme. 885 cities
have been declared open defecation free. 2.29 crore household toilets are still
under construction.Toilets and dustbins will be setup for every 500 metres in
cities. States of Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are open defecation free.
The issue of sanitation and the unhygienic conditions in India has finally
come into limelight and is recognised by each citizen of our nation. This is the
biggest step towards the Clean India.This program has dedicated staff to con-
duct awareness programs and to work towards behavioural change. Dignity to
the cleaning staff is also a major aspect addressed by this programme. It has
16 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
goal is clear to everyone on the team. With the help of this skill the manager
get the work done through subordinate in a effective manner and they boost up
the morale of the employees and motivate employees to strive for better
performance.
Control-Controlling is the process of checking the efficiency of the individuals
and the groups in fulfilling the plans and goals. Managers are going to check
or measure the actual performance of employees against the standardized one
in order to know the deviations. If there are some deviations then he is going to
take some corrective actions to remove the errors.
Other skills required are:-
Knowledge - Knowledge helps one gain respect. The HR managers must be
an expert in his own field to gain the confidence and respect of his sub ordinates.
He must have a comprehensive knowledge of concepts, principles and theories
related to HRM and other related fields and also he must have practical exposure
to these concepts and principles in real life situations.
Intelligence- Intelligence means the mental ability to properly understand
the nature of the problem existing in a situations or event which may require a
solution. The HR manager should be able to understand the situation quickly
and to act before it becomes unmanageable.
Empathy- Empathy means to put you in place of another. It pertains to
looking at events or situation from others point of view. It is the softer side of
listening and truth. The HR manager should be able to understand how people
feel, why they feel that way, and what you can do to make them feel differently.
Empathy is especially important when managers are dealing with their
employees. HR manager should honor others opinion, sentiments, rights,
beliefs and values.
Communication ability-Communication is the process of exchanging the
ides, information, views etc. A manager has a lot of communication with his
employees and others. The role of HR manager is to get work done through
others therefore he must have good communication skills to share his ideas
effectively with employees and persuade them to work. It is desirable for
manager to have a functional knowledge of the languages of the employees to
effectively communicate with them.
Emotional stability- Organization has gathering of different peoples
belonging to different culture, caste, states.Therefore it is a great challenge for
manager to co ordinate them in an efficient manner. It is often difficult to
predict the responses of employees. They usually behave differently in different
situations .hence, it is essential for HR manager to have emotional maturity
and tolerance in dealing with the employees. Manager should always be rational
and not emotional in his approach.
Conceptual ability-Conceptual power is the ability to summarize and learn
from past experiences, and to use that knowledge to adapt to future similar, or
even dissimilar, problems and situations. Through conceptual power HR
20 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Manager forecast the problem and take preventive measures in advance against
uncertainty.
Motivating ability- Motivation is reinforcement for employees. Motivation
is a blend of natural desires for a particular employee and the environment
created for them which motivate them for effective performance in the
organization and persuade to give their best in the organization
Analytical ability-Analytical ability means to analyze the situations or
conditions in an organization. The HR Manager must analyze the pros and
cons of different decisions taken by him which will be implemented in future.
With the help of analytical ability HR Manager visualise, create and solve
complex problems and
make decisions that make sense based on available information. Such skills
include demonstration of the ability to apply logical thinking to gathering and
analyzing information, designing and testing solutions to problems, and
formulating plans
Dispute resolution-An industrial dispute is basically a difference of opinion
between the employer and the employee over one or more issues. HR Manager
should have the quality and skills of managing dispute in the organization so
that there is congenial working environment which may lead to the productivity
of an
employee as well as of organization.
Decision making Skills -Decision making can be referred as the mental
processes or cognitive process which involve solving problems by selecting
one course of action from various alternatives and which must be quick in
nature. Some decisions are of such nature that they involve conflicts or
dissatisfaction but HR Manager should have skills to implement those decisions
if they are for the betterment of the organization by convincing others present
in the organization. A important part of decision making skills is in knowing
and implementing good decision making
techniques.
Leadership skills -Leadership is the behavior of the leader which influences
the employees and persuades them to perform their duties willingly. The HR
Manager provides leadership and guidance to the workers and their groups.
He insures effective communication in the organization and influences the
workers for extending their cooperation in extending the organizational
objectives.
Human relation approach-The HR Manager should have human approach
to human problems. His attitude toward operative workforce should be
sympathetic in dealing with their problems. It is the social responsibility of
HR Manager to serve all the employees equally so that this will facilitate
industrial and harmony in the organization. The healthy environment makes
the employees happy and a happy worker is a productive worker.
Technical ability-Today we people are living in the era of technology so it is
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 21
5. http://management.about.com/od/managementskills/Management_Skills.htm
6. http://www.slideshare.net/mgrtbx/skills-to-make-you-an-effective-manage
7. http://www.business2community.com/human-resources/5-essential-human-
resource-management-skills
8. https://www.villanovau.com/resources/hr/essential-skills-human-resources
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_skill
10. http://www.personneltoday.com/articles/2007/04/10/40020/what-are-the-key-
skills-for-the-hr-practitioner-of-thefuture-
11. by-rachel.html
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
Welfare, New and Renewable Energy, Science and Technology, Women and
Child Development and Tribal affairs etc. In addition, to strengthen the grass
root level democracy, the Government is constantly endeavouring to empower
Panchayat Raj Institutions in terms of functions, powers and finance. Grama
Sabha, NGOs, Self-Help Groups and PRIs have been accorded adequate roles
to make participatory democracy meaningful and effective.
Strategies and programs for rural development: The rural economy is an
integral part of the overall Indian economy. As majority of the poor reside in
the rural areas, the prime goal of rural development is to improve the quality
of life of the rural people by alleviating poverty through the instrument of self-
employment and wage employment programmes, by providing community
infrastructure facilities such as drinking water, electricity, road connectivity,
health facilities, rural housing and education and promoting decentralization
of powers to strengthen the Panchayati raj institutions etc. The various strategies
and programs of the Government for rural development are discussed below:
Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP): First introduced in 1978-
79, IRDP has provided assistance to rural poor in the form of subsidy and
bank credit for productive employment opportunities through successive plan
periods. Subsequently, Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment
(TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA),
Supply of Improved Tool Kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA) and Ganga Kalyan
Yojana (GKY) were introduced as sub-programs of IRDP to take care of the
specific needs of the rural population.
Wage Employment Programs: Anti-poverty strategies, like assistance to the
rural poor families to bring them above the poverty line by ensuring appreciable
sustained level of income through the process of social mobilization, training
and capacity building. Wage Employment Programs have sought to achieve
multiple objectives. They not only provide employment opportunities during
lean agricultural seasons but also in times of floods, droughts and other natural
calamities. They create rural infrastructure which supports further economic
activity. It encompasses Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY),
Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) and National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (NREGA) etc. NREGA is an act of parliament. It is not merely
a scheme or policy. It aims at enhancing the livelihood security of the people in
rural areas by guaranteeing hundred days of wage employment in a financial
year, to a rural household whose members volunteer to do unskilled manual
work. The objective of the Act is to create durable assets and strengthen the
livelihood resource base of the rural poor.
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS): EAS was launched in October 1993
covering 1,778 drought-prone, desert, tribal and hill area blocks. It was later
extended to all the blocks in 1997-98. The EAS was designed to provide
employment in the form of manual work in the lean agricultural season. The
works taken up under the program were expected to lead to the creation of
26 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
durable economic and social infrastructure and address the felt-needs of the
people.
Food for Work Program: The Food for Work program was started in 2000-
01 as a component of the EAS in eight notified drought-affected states of
Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan,
Maharastra and Uttaranchal. The program aims at food provision through wage
employment. Food grains are supplied to states free of cost. However, lifting
of food grains for the scheme from Food Corporation of India (FCI) godowns
has been slow.
Rural Housing: Initiated in 1985-86, the IAY is the core program for providing
free housing to families in rural areas. It targets scheduled castes (SCs)/
scheduled tribes (STs), households and freed bonded laborers. The rural housing
program has certainly enabled many BPL families to acquire pucca houses.
The coverage of the beneficiaries is limited given the resource constraints.
The Samagra Awas Yojana (SAY) was taken up in 25 blocks to ensure
convergence of housing, provision of safe drinking water, sanitation and
common drainage facilities. The Housing and Urban Development Corporation
(HUDCO) has extended its activities to the rural areas, providing loans at a
concessional rate of interest to economically weaker sections and low-income
group households for construction of houses.
Social Security Programs: Democratic decentralization and centrally
supported Social Assistance Programs were two major initiatives of the
government in the 1990s. The National Social Assistance Program (NSAP),
launched in August 1995 marks a significant step towards fulfillment of the
Directive Principles of State Policy. The NSAP has three components: a)
National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS); b) National Family Benefit
Scheme (NFBS); c) National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS). The NSAP
is a centrally-sponsored program that aims at ensuring a minimum national
standard of social assistance over and above the assistance that states provide
from their own resources. The NOAPS provides a monthly pension of Rs. 75
to destitute BPL persons above the age of 65. The NFBS is a scheme for BPL
families who are given Rs. 10,000 in the event of the death of the breadwinner.
The NMBS provides Rs. 500 to support nutritional intake for pregnant women.
In addition to NSAP, the Annapurna scheme was launched from 1st April
2000 to provide food security to senior citizens who were eligible for pension
under NOAPS but could not receive it due to budget constraints.
Land Reforms: In an agro-based economy, the structure of land ownership is
central to the wellbeing of the people. The government has strived to change
the ownership pattern of cultivable land, the abolition of intermediaries, the
abolition of zamindari, ceiling laws, security of tenure to tenants, consolidation
of land holdings and banning of tenancy are a few measures undertaken.
Furthermore, a land record management system is a pre-condition for an
effective land reform program. In 1987-88, a centrally-sponsored scheme for
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 27
GOI has allocated 17.28 lakh MT of food grains out of which 15.04 lakh MT
food grains have been utilized. 6.95 lakh works were sanctioned out of which
6.25 lakh were completed and 176.23 lakh mandays were generated.
Under PMGSY 13,500 Kms roads were completed. In Rastriya Sam
Vikas Yojana, 12,504 works were sanctioned. Out of this, 11,496 works were
completed. Under DPIP, 41,978 common interest groups of 2.84 lakh families
were benefited during the plan period. M.P. Rural Livelihood project is under
implementation in 827 villages of 8 districts. Under this scheme 4,000 families
were benefited during the Xth Plan period.
The state has been a frontrunner in implementation of NREGS. Nearly
1500 lakh mandays have been generated under Madhya Pradesh Grameen
Rojgar Guarantee Yojana.
Target and strategy of the XIth Five Year Plan (2007-2012)
Adequate provision has been made for the state share in continuing
Centrally Sponsored Schemes like Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
(SAGSY), Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), Integrated Waste Land Development
Programme (IWDP), Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Mid Day Meal
Scheme, DRDA Administration and National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (NREGS).
Besides these, World Bank aided DPAP project is being implemented in
14 districts for the last 6 years. Support for this will continue under the second
phase of the scheme in the eleventh plan. Similarly, M.P. Rural Livelyhood
Programme (MPRLP) is being implemented with the help of Department of
International Development (DFID). Water and Land Management Institute
(WALMI), DRDA Administration Yojana, Gokul Gram and Godan Yojana
and community development programme are proposed to be continued into
the XIth Plan.
Besides these, the State Government is supporting 5 new schemes
namely, State Rural Road Connectivity Scheme, C.M. Rural Housing 90
Scheme, Master Plan Scheme, SGSY scheme, Training IEC scheme and
Sutradhar scheme.
As a successor to Rashtriya Sum Vikas Yojana (RSVY), Backward
Regional Grant Fund (BRGF) scheme will be implemented in 24 of the 48
districts.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS)
State of Madhya Pradesh has been the frontrunner in implementation of
this scheme. NREGS was launched in 18 districts of M.P. from 02.02.06. The
central share of the scheme is 90 %. The objective of the scheme is to provide
a minimum of 100 days unskilled employment to adult members of rural
families. 44.19 lakh families have registered, out of which 44.10 lakh families
have been provided job cards.
During the financial year, 1, 48,229 works have been sanctioned upto
31.12.06, out of which 74,185 works have been completed and 74,044 works
30 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
are in progress. Of the total sanctioned works, 1, 11,327 works are of water
conservation, while 22,593 are of rural connectivity. In this scheme, a provision
of Rs. 282.29 crores and Rs. 1998.82 crores has been provided for the annual
plan 2007-08 and 2007-2012.
The target man-days for the year 2007-08 is 2,600 lakhs and for the XIth
five year plan, it is 17,300 lakh man-days.
M.P. Rural Livelihood Programme (MPRLP)
An amount of Rs. 23.15 crores was available in the scheme for the year
2006-07 as per previous balance and other receipts in which state share is Rs.
0.49 crores out of which upto November 2006 Rs. 22.42 crores spent which is
96.05% of total available fund. For the year 2006-07 the target for livelihood
programme is 25,000 families against which upto November 2006, the
achievement is 16,700 families and the percentage is 66.80.
For the year 2007-08, Rs.31.40 crores ceiling is proposed in which Rs.
0.80 crores is state share. Hence, accordingly for the XIth five year plan ceiling
is proposed for Rs. 224.80 crores.
For the year 2007-08, the target is 80,000 families, hence, accordingly
for the XIth five year plan the number of beneficiaries is 3.20 lakh families.
District Poverty Initiatives Program (DPIP)
The DPIP programme, which focuses its activities in over 53 Blocks in
14 districts of MP, will alleviate poverty by improving the capacity and
opportunities for poor and disadvantaged people with special focus on women.
The project period is 5 years. The overall project cost is Rs. 600 crores out of
which World Bank loan would be Rs. 500 crores and the remaining amount
will come from the Government of Madhya Pradesh and from rural
communities as their contributions during project implementation.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna is being implemented in the state
with effect from 25.12.2000. For the proper monitoring and implementation
of the scheme, M.P. Rural Road Development Authority was formed. The
objective of the scheme is that by the end of Xth five year plan, all villages
having more than 500 habitants should be linked with major roads having 12
months connectivity. A distance of 26,544 km long road construction works
were sanctioned upto September 2006 out of which 11,153 km roads
constructions completed. A number of 2,115 villages having more than 1,000
habitants and 576 villages having 500 habitants are linked with 12 month
connectivity roads. Now this scheme is included in Bharat Nirman Scheme
from 2006-07 onwards. Under this scheme, new and upgradation of 48000
km roads is proposed. By the end of 2009, all villages having 1000 habitants
will be connected with newly constructed roads.
Rs.100 crores allocated for the year 2007-08 and for the XIth Five year
plan, an amount of Rs. 500 crores is proposed. The state government target
for the year 2007-08 is 4,000 kms and for the XIth five year plan 20,000 km
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 31
accordingly.
Backward Regional Grant Fund
The scheme is sanctioned by the Ministry of Panchayatraj in 2006-07.
The duration of the scheme is five years. For each district, every year about
Rs. 15 crores will be sanctioned and this programme will cover 24 backward
districts of the state. Total fund for this scheme is provided by the Panchayatraj
Ministry, Government of India.
For the year 2007-08, the plan outlay is Rs. 423.39 crores and for XIth
five year plan outlay is Rs. 2,256.95 crores is proposed.
Table 1: The XIth plan allocation under various schemes/programmes
S. Proposed out lay XIth Five Year
Scheme/Programme
No. (2007-2012) (Lakh Rs.)
1. SJGSY 29656.12
2. SGRY 18016.64
3. DPIP9SS (EAP) / EAPII Phase 23158.72
4 Rural roads 50000.00
5 Indira Avas Yojana 27766.71
6 IWDP 10598.56
7 DRDA 6012.36
8 DPAP 21294.84
9 Gramin Ajivika Pariyaojna 22480.00
10 National Rural Rojgar Gurantee Scheme 199881.85
11 MP Rojgar Gurantee Council 3800.00
12 Mid day meal 69.462.00
13 BRGF 225695.00
14 Community Development 29265.20
15 Walmi 1250.00
16 Raod maintenance 2030.00
17 State rural road Connectivity 8647.60
18 CM Awas Yojana (Apna Ghar) 6200.00
19 State SGSY 1800.00
20 Training 50.00
21 Master Plan 1363.00
22 Sutradhar scheme 50.00
23 Gokul Gram adhosanrachan 5000.00
24 Godan Yojana 1000.00
Grand Total 7,64,478.50
Source: Ministry of Rural Development
Table 2: Scheme-wise physical targets proposed for XIth Five year
plan
Proposed target
Sl.
Scheme/Programme Unit XIth Five Year
No.
(2007-2012)
1. SJGSY No. of beneficiaries in 4.52
lakhs
state schemes. An outlay of Rs. 1, 29,196.60 lakh is proposed for Annual Plan
2007-08, of which Rs. 6,720.00 lakh has been allocated for new schemes.
Suggestions:
Although concerted efforts have been initiated by the Government of
India through several plans and measures to alleviate poverty in rural India,
there still remains much more to be done to bring prosperity in the lives of the
people in rural areas. At present, technology dissemination is uneven and slow
in the rural areas. Good efforts of organizations developing technologies, devices
and products for rural areas could not yield high success. Experiences of many
countries suggest that technological development fuelled by demand has a
higher dissemination rate. However, in India, technology developers for rural
areas have been catering to needs (with small improvement), rather than creating
demand. There is no industry linkage machinery to create demand-based-
technology market for rural communities. Besides, there is also an imbalance
between strategies and effective management programmes. Propagation of
technology/schemes for rural development is slow and there is a lacking in
wider participation of different stakeholders. An ideal approach may therefore,
include the government, panchayats, village personals, researchers, industries,
NGOs and private companies to not only help in reducing this imbalance, but
also to have a multiplier effect on the overall economy.
======================
References :
1. Ministry of rural development, Govt. of India, Chapter VII- Rural Development,
pp. 88-99.
2. Planning Commission, Govt. of India, Eleventh five year plan (2007-2012)
Vol. I, Inclusive growth.
3. Overview of the National Conference of Ministers of State Governments of
Rural Development, Panchayati Raj and Rural Roads, 27-28 January, 2003,
New Delhi.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
1. Introduction: Libraries can no longer cater for people who want fast,
easy access to unlimited, full-text content using interfaces that require no critical
thought or evaluation (Bell, 2004). Fast and (Caron et al., 2015) found that
students admired the organisation of (an) OPAC, but preferred to use the
web in spite of its disorganised state. University students use Internet for
Online searching for fulfilling academic tasks. In this study, there is an attempt
to understand their online search behavior. The study tries to understand the
experiences, perceptions and satisfaction of students from online search engine
and their online search results. Searching and finding information is a human
trait. Information is the ultimate need of human beings. For ages information
has acted as directions for development and betterment. Thus searching and
finding information is an important part of growing. With the advent of Web
based technologies searching and finding has transformed. Individuals have
===========================
* Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 35
access to a large amount of data online with the usage of online search engines
like Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Moreover, this has also created knowledge
sharing communities where users share information through social networking
platforms and others.
2.0 Review of Literature:
2.1 Students views on Online Search results:
Craven and Griffiths (2002) for example report two independent studies
with two very different groups of students (one visually impaired, one not)
both of which report that the average number of pages evaluated was only
one. They summarise that Overwhelming numbers of both sets of participants
looked at only the first page of results while the Craven study goes even
further to report that All looked at only the first page of returned results
usually just the first two or three hits, before pursuing one of these links
further or reformulating the query a pattern of behaviour which, they say, is
reiterated in other studies. Although not reporting this precise finding,
Spink (2002 ) - illustrates that for users generally the incidence of one page
only viewing is certainly a rising trend. They give figures from three iterations
of an extensive longitudinal study which show clearly that between 1997 and
2001 the number of users viewing only the first page rose from 28.6 to 50.5
per cent, while the number viewing three or more pages fell from 51.9 to 29.2
per cent, with over 70 per cent of users looking at two pages or fewer by
2001. Brophy et al. (2004) report Unlike the academic researcher who usually
has a requirement to locate the key paper in his or her field in order to ensure
that an approach or finding has not been overlooked, learners are often satisfied
with any resource which comes close to meeting their expressed need and
there are often many alternatives available. This finding might in fact mitigate
in favour of resources such as the RDN. If high quality, precisely targeted
resources can be delivered to the learner with the minimum of effort on his or
her part, this should overcome the two obstacles of reluctance to look beyond
the first page or two of results, and making do with whatever they find there.
3.0 Research Methodology:
3.1 General Information of the Study Area:
The Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) was established in 1936
and is a deemed university fully funded by the University Grants Commission,
Government of India. TISS offers over 50 Masters Degree from its Mumbai,
Tuljapur, Guwahati and Hyderabad Campuses and 3 Bachelors programmes
from its Guwahati, Tuljapur, and Hyderabad Campuses. TISS is a research
university with M. Phil. and Ph. D. programme and basic and applied research
in a range of areas.
3.2 Need and Significance of Study:
The value and need of the study relates to preferences for online
information formats and content by students, and thus to the quality and
effectiveness of user/information interactions. Given the trends identified in
36 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
the literature, online information tools, learning materials and other services
are here to stay, making this investigation important.
This study is significant because a better understanding of online behavior of
university students will help educators across a range of disciplines plan and
create improved online search learning assessments and activities.
3.3 Research Objectives of the study
Research Objectives of the study include:
1. To understand the extent to which students trust in online search results,
2. To find out the satisfaction with the outcomes of online search results,
3. To find out the Confidence on Online Search Engine and Information,
and
4. To find out the Experience of Online Search Engines.
3.4 Respondents/ Participants of Study:
The web questionnaire was distributed via email to the Tata Institute of
Social Sciences, Mumbai (Guwahati and Mumbai Campus) out of which 100
responses were received. Thus, 100 responses were recorded for the study.
Table 1- Details of Respondents/ Participants of Study
Groups Number Gender Course Years
Bachelors students n1 = 50 Male 26 Three
Female 24
Masters students n2 = 50 Males 25 Two
Female 25
comparison to 19 percent of the total students who agree that they are not fair
and unbiased source of information.
The difference of opinion between the Masters and Bachelors students
are same as we can see from the figure above (34 percent of Masters students
agreed online search engine information are fair and unbiased in comparison
to 28 percent of Bachelors students; and 10 percent of the Masters students
agreed online search engines are not fair and unbiased in comparison to 9
percent of the Bachelors students).
14 percent of the total students didnt know whether online search engine
provide fair or unfair and unbiased source of information (11 percent of the
Bachelors students in comparison to 3 percent of Masters students).
5.1.1.2 In general how much of the information you find using Online
Search Engines do you think is accurate and trustworthy?
5.1.3.2 How confident do you feel about your own searching abilities
when using as Online Search Engine to find information online?
etc., were functioning in the interest of the Assamese tea planters who supported
the British colonial government.1 The time was also ripe for growing nationalist
activities all over India while Assam legged far behind. In such situation the
lack of a mouthpiece which could focus on the common problem of the
Assamese people and generate public opinion to bring about awareness against
the colonial exploitation was well acquainted by some middle class patriotic
people of Dibrugarh town. Chandrakumar Agarwala, Benudhar Rajkhowa,
Maheswar Baruah etc. were among them.
Discussion:
Chandrakumar Agarwala started his career as a tea planter and owned
the Tamulbari Tea Estate, Dibrugarh.2 Before he settled in Dibrugarh,
Chandrakumar had left for Calcutta for higher education which offered him an
opportunity to introduce himself to the progressive minded people as well as
nationalistic ideas of Bengal. His birth in the famous family of Haribilas
Agarwala, one of the apostles of the new age in Assam, was also helpful to
cope up with congenial environment of Bengal. In Calcutta, his meeting with
Assamese stalwarts Lakshminath Bezbaruah and Hemchandra Goswami led
to the formation of the Trimurti3 (the trio), and thus inaugurated a cultural
nationalism through their literary activities. They organized the Assamese youths
who lived at that time in Calcutta for pursuing higher studies and formed few
literary societies with their help. They also started a monthly Assamese journal
named Jonaki in 1888 which was conducted by Chandrakumar Agarwala.4
The journal lived short but the experience that Chandrakumar acquired had
influenced him immensely and his inspirations for the foundation of the Sadiniya
Asomiya can be seen from this backdrop. After he had settled in Dibrugarh,
Chandrakumar founded the Assam Printers and Publishers Limited with some
of his associates like Sadananda Duwerah, Nilamoni Phukan etc., and started
the publication of the Sadiniya Asomiya on 28th August, the day of death
anniversary of the religious father Sri Sri Madhabdev.5 The foundation day
was specially selected to commemorate the unity and strength offered by the
great man to the formation of the Assamese society. The Sadiniya Asomiya
was also founded with the same purpose. The dream came to be true in the
hands of educated and patriotic editors like Sadananda Duwerah, Maheswar
Baruah, Omeo Kumar Das etc. The office of the press was shifted to Guwahati
in 1921.6 The newspaper continued even after the death of Chandrakumar
Agarwala in 1938. It became more popular and widespread since the emergence
of its daily publication on 26th January, 1946.7
Womens question on child marriage and widow remarriage, which stood
as burning problems in the patriarchal Assamese society during the colonial
period, became hotly debated topics in the pages of the Sadiniya Asomiya
from the beginning of its publications. Though these social practices were
slowly gaining ground in the 19th century, there was still a large number of
people till the end of the second decade of the 20th century who continued to
48 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
oppose them, or at least prescribed a middle path. One news report entitled
Bidhaba Bibah Samparke Andolan, published in the editorial column of the
Sadiniya Asomiya, it is informed that some local people from Jorhat had
involved in debate in a meeting organized to find out a solution regarding
widow remarriage, and in doing so the attendants were divided into three
separate opinions and could not come to an unanimous decision.8 Another
meeting also held at Jorhat town on 13th July, 1924 in the Assamese Theatre
Hall, which was organized for the same purpose by prominent persons like
Chandra Kamal Bezbaruah, Chandradhar Baruah, etc. and was attended by
about 200 people including few gentlemen from Kamrup, Nagaon, Sivasagar
and Golaghat etc. Most of the attendants made their comment in support of
widow remarriage, while a few others opposed it.9
Such debate and discourses on womens issues drew the attention of
contemporary Assamese intelligentsia like Kamalakanta Bhattacharyya, whose
writing frequently appeared in the Sadiniya Asomiya. In one of his writings
entitled Brahman Bidhaba Kanya Bibah Samparke Jukti Bichar, Kamalakanta
criticised the Assamese Hindu society for the prevailing superstitions and social
evils like casteism and untouchability. Advocating widow remarriage, he
explained that the prohibition of widow remarriage was degrading the Hindu
religion and had lost all of its prestige in front of the civilized nations in the
world. Kamalakanta suggested to take care of girl children- to educate them,
to marry them unless they are fit both mentally and physically, to understand
the responsibility of motherhood and to marry them only to the legible, otherwise
it is better to allow them remain unmarried. He also vehemently criticised the
contemporary conservative Hindu society for not taking interest in the upliftment
of the widows.10 One of the religious heads Garamuriya Satradhikar
Pitambadeva Goswami was upset by the pathetic condition of the Assamese
Hindu widows and wanted to set up a bidhaba-ashram (shelter-house for
widows) for the widows where they could live happily and maintain the life of
widowhood. Such progressive measures and thoughts of the Satradhikar was
a significant socio-religious change in and departure from the traditional outlook
of the patriarchal Satra institutions of Assam.11
Some news items about sufferings of the widows and the debate on the
widow remarriage in lower Assam also appeared in the pages of the Sadiniya
Asomiya. Prabin Chandra Deka from Barama of Nalbari, who often wrote in
this newspaper, informs that a Brahmin widow named Rajatpriya, the daughter
of late Dhirnath Sarma of Bangaon, a village in undivided Kamrup district,
became pregnant due to her physical relations with someone that she refused
to confess the name. Her unborn child was disapproved and declared illegitimate
by the Hindu society of the village. As punishment the society claimed her
marriage with an outcast. Her family was also threatened with social
excommunication unless they were purified themselves and made monetary
penalty. On hearing the news Prabin Chandra Deka reached the village to save
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 49
the life of the widow and her family. Ultimately, Rajatpriya was taken to
Guwahati, where Dr. Harekrishna Das and his wife agreed to offer shelter. In
this way the life of the widow was saved.12 Another synonymous incident, as
referred to by the same writer, occurred in the village Bel-Pukhuri in Bahjani
Mouza. The victim, - Kanchanpriya, a Hindu widow and daughter of Harakanta
Nath was saved at last by arranging her marriage to Lambharam Kachari of
Mohia Gaon. Lambharam agreed to the proposal after he was persuaded by
Prabin Ch. Deka.13
An interesting news from the national level regarding child marriage
was published in the Sadiniya Asomiya. The incident took place in Ahmedabad,
where the marriage of a seven years minor Brahmin girl was arranged with a
man aged 57 years. However, legal action was taken against both the parties
and the marriage was thus stopped and broken at the initiative of social
reformers of that locality. Though this news looked like unimportant,
undoubtedly it was published with an intention to warn the patriarchal society
who supported child marriage and to spread the message about the
consequences they might faced.14
The Sadiniya Asomiya also condemned the polygamy which was a
common practice in the Assamese society and which affected the status of the
women. It condemned the act of Kanakaeswar Dutta, an aged teacher of
Kakajan mior school, who newly married a sixteen years girl, despite the
existence of his first wife and five children from her side. Thus the nespaper
attacked the practice of polygamy and tried to generate public opinion against
such unsocial custom.15
The system of dowry, which was slowly gaining ground in the Assamese
Hindu society and upset the prestige of the Assamese women, was also another
sensitive issue that was questioned and criticised in the pages of the the Sadiniya
Asomiya. Some economically backward youths used to take money in advance
from the family of a girl and promised her to marry later on. This system had
soon spread among Assamese people and became a popular tradition even
among educated youths. It is informed that one Assamese graduate serving
under the government borrowed money from a rich and influential person and
promising to marry the latters daughter. Such deal was against the ethics of
not only the women, but also the Assamese society. When the news revealed,
both the parties were criticised by the people. They were also warned to stop
and dismiss the agreement. On the other hand the writer, who reported the
news to the Sadiniya Asomiya, applauded the Assamese women for their efforts
to come out of their houses by breaking the barriers of such patriarchal
domination to participate in the national movement. He added that womens
efforts to become economically self-dependent through spinning and weaving
was actually a struggle for their self-assertion against the patriarchal domination,
which at the same time also helped in the propagation of swadeshi (indigenous)
and boycott of foreign goods against the colonial exploitation.16
50 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
of national leaders like Amrit Kaur to the 11th annual conference of the Asom
mahila Samiti, where resolution on the demand for release of Naga Queen
Guidilieu and resolution on demand for contesting election of the Local Boards,
taken under her Presidentship, had draw the attention of the editor.20
Focussing on the Mahila Samiti branches in the interior places, organized
by women irrespective of caste, community and religion was a noteworthy
and highly commendable characteristic of the Sadiniya Asomiya. It is informed
that in a meeting of the North Lakhimpur Mahila Samiti, the women condemned
the tradition of polygamy and took resolution to demand its abolition. Before
the meeting started, the attendants held condolence to mourn the death of
Narayani Handique.21 Another news item informs us that the Dokra (Kokrajhar)
Bodo Mahila Sanmila was held, simultaneously with the Bodo Yuva Sanmillan,
on 12th April, 1941 at Natun Bhatarmari Jyoti Ashram under the Presidentship
Pujati Brahma. It was a gathering about 24 thousand Bodo men and women.
This was reported to the newspaper by Rupwati Brahma, the Secretary and
Himanibala Brahma, the Assistant Secretary of the Dokra Bodo Mahila
Sanmilan.22 On the other hand we it is also informed by the same newspaper
that the first annual conference of the Majuli Mahila Sanmilan was held at
Ratanpur Baghar Gaon on 13th May, 1945 under the Presidentship of
Bolinarayan Baruah. Bodheswari Das, a prominent woman freedom fighter
from Majuli was the Secretary of that Mahila Sanmilan. It was in the presence
of the people of that locality including women such as Lilawati Lahan, Kusum
Kumari Bora etc., that a resolution to demand compulsory education for both
boys and girls was adopted.23
Conclusion: In can be concluded that the Sadiniya Asomiya, during the period
of its existence from 1918 to 1958, raised the voices on womens questions
such as widow remarriage, prohibition of child marriage, and ban on purdah,
dowry and polygamy etc. It played an important role in the circulation of
progressive ideas within the Assamese society and accelerated the pace of the
womens movement in this region. Thought failed to survive, the newspaper
identified itself as a dominant form of mass media for four decades. Above all,
it has a larger share to the success of the movement for womens freedom and
emancipation during the first half of the 20th century.
======================
References :
1. Saikia,C.P. (ed.), Asamar Batari Kakat-Alocanir Dersa Bachariya Itihas, Tribune
Press, Guwahati, 1998, p.401.
2. Ibid., p.402.
3. Sharma, Sashi (ed.), Chandrakumar Agarwalar Pratibha, Asam Sahitya Sabha,
Jorhat, 1967, p.7.
4. Ibid., p.34.
5. Ibid., p.40.
6. Saikia, C. P. (ed.), op.cit., p.412.
7. Ibid., p.412.
52 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
* Karabi Goswami
==========================================================
Abstract- In the today's busy world, technology has played a vital role in the
human's life. The technological development in the field of communication makes
easier the interaction process among individuals. Social networking sites are
nothing but it is that phrase of communication technology which enables users
to communicate with their friends, families and can share ideas, activities, watch
and listen music, play games, send and receive messages by creating a public
profile in the website. It has transformed and impacted the area like
communication, learning, research, education, business etc. in general and makes
in the regarding as very important media of communication.
==========================================================
Introduction: According to Encyclopedia, Social Networking is a Web Site
that provides a venue for people to share their activities with family, friends
and colleagues or to share their interest in a particular topic. Facebook, Google,
LikedIn and Twitter are the leading social sites. Members create an online
other with biographical data, photos, and any other information they choose to
post. They communicate with each other by making their latest thoughts public
in a block like format or via e-mail, instant massaging, voice or video
conferencing to selected members. Before, the Second Millennium social
networking sites did not had much deeper impact on users of internet. But
after the year 2000 a kind of internet revolution came, and especially a huge
increase and improvement has been seen in social networking sites. The most
important factor behind the success of this revolution is the freedom of
expression of thoughts. Social networking is now regarding as an essential
part of our lives. Offering almost every sector of people. Today, social
networking is uses in the educational purpose in greater extent. Use in Education
of Social Networking is enhanced social media as a platform of gathering
knowledge and information and skill development. Now, it creates a professional
learning community among students and teachers. It is an online collaboration
tools which improve students motivation and engagement, help students
===========================
* M.A., M.Phil, B.Ed, SLET
54 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
are male. Out of 100 respondents 65% are male and only 35% are female.
Diagram 1: Frequencies to visit social networking sites.
From the above diagram it has observed that 47.05% students go to the social
networking sites everyday. 23.52% go to 5 6 times each week, again 23.52%
students go to 2 4 times each week and 5.88% go to only once every week
on social networking sites. So, from the data of the respondents we have come
to know that most of the students visit social networking sites.
Diagram 2: Social networking sites used by the respondents
From the diagram it has been observed that students have used different social
networking sites for academic purposes. Google + and Facebook are used by
most of the students. Twitter is used by the less students which is only 10%.
25% students used Youtube and any other networking sites used by only 5%
students.
Table: 2 Sources of access social Networking Sites
Sl. No. Particulars Responses Percentage %
1 PC 5 5%
2 Laptop 23 23%
3 Smart phone 60 60%
4 I Pade 12 12%
56 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
The above mentioned data shows that only 5 % students access social
networking sites through PC, 23% of students access through Laptop, 60%
of students access through Smart Phone and 12% of students through I Pad.
Thus maximum number of students access social networking sites via Smart
Phone.
Table: 3 Numbers of friends
Sl. No. Particulars Responses Percentage %
1 Less than 10 14 14%
2 10 50 25 25%
3 51 100 19 19%
4 More than 100 42 42%
From the above table it has been observed that 14% of students have less than
10 friends in social networking sites, 25% students have10 50 friends, 19%
students have 51 100 and 42% of students have more than 100 friends in
their social networking sites.
Diagram 3: Causes of using social networking sites.
From the above diagram, it has been observed that 35% of students have used
social networking sites for anything, 18% of students have to making friend,
19% of students have used to chare videos and pictures and 8% for other
purposes. This indicates that majority of students have used these sites for
development of their study.
Diagram 4: Time Spent of social Networking Sites
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 57
The above diagram shows that 10% students spent half an hour on social
networking sites, 30% of students spent one hour, 35% of students spent two
hours per day and 25% spent more than two hours. Thus majority of students
spent two hours per day on social networking sites.
Table: 4 5
percentage of students using social networking sites for studies and
career related information.
Sl. No. Particular Responses Percentage
1 Yes 80.24 80.24%
2 No 19.76 19.76%
From the table it has observed that more than 80% of students use social
networking for their study purposes. They gather information for their
educational activity and search job and career opportunities regarding their
interested field. Only 20% did not use these networks for career related
information.
Diagram 5: Ignoring of responsibilities
Diagram the researcher has observed that 6% of students have ignored their
homework or studies due to social networking sites, 47% of students have
ignored now and then and 47% of students have never ignored their hoe work
because of social networking sites. The data indicates that there is no
significance difference between the students who never ignored their
responsibilities because of social networking sites with the students who have
ignored now and then.
Table 5: More effective than classroom teaching
Sl. No. Particulars Responses Percentage
1 Yes 24 24%
2 No 76 76%
The above mentioned table shows that 24% students agreed with social
networking sites as being more effective than classroom teaching while 76%
said that classroom teaching couldnt be replaced by social networking sites.
These particular data shows that though it is the important mode of gathering
knowledge and information it couldnt be as much effective as classroom
teaching where physical presence of both students and teachers is possible.
58 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
From the above diagram it is mentioned that 72% of students agreed that
social networks are affective e-learning tool, while 28% students disagreed
with it. Majority of students said that it is helpful medium for downloading
supporting and relevant information regarding their assignment and they also
exchange information with their classmates and share their experiences with
teachers as well.
Suggestion: In the present day all individual are very busy in day to day activity.
Such a situation social networking site is playing its role as a powerful engine.
Now every age group people use these sites for their necessities. Among the
students community it becomes very popular. But success of these sites depends
on in which purpose these sites are going to apply. It should be regarded as an
advantageous tool for all round development. The researcher has suggested
some points to improve the uses of social networking sites among the under
graduate students which might be helpful for their educational development.
In the age of Globalization the social networking sites are regarded as
very important tool for communication as well as gathering information.
Therefore, these sites should be utilized by every college and teacher should
play an effective role in this direction.
Most of the under graduate level students are aware of social networking
sites but they utilize it for chatting with friends, sharing videos and pictures. A
number of students utilize it for educational purposes also. But, in the college
campus if the teacher would provide guidance to them it can be more fruitful
for their better performance in the educational activities.
It has been seen that many students of undergraduate level have ignored
heir studies because of social networking sites. So, in this regard the parents
should be aware of the utilization of social networking sites by their children
and direct them to utilize it without hampering their study hour.
Social networking sites also provide a platform where the students
effectively use their leisure time. They can develop their hobbies by accessing
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 59
the scriptures suggested that such marriages were not uncommon in India.
The writer commented that since, the tradition of writing history of the common
people was rare in our country, references to such cases are found only among
the royalty and the nobility. We can assume that the custom also prevailed
among the common people. He questioned why there is so much of hue and
cry about the widow-remarriage movement in Calcutta, in modern times, if
widow-remarriages were permitted in ancient times, which was considered
to be the most sacred period in history.7
In response to the above mentioned articles of Gunaviram Barua in
Orunodoi, Rudraram Bardoloi raised some controversial points. In a letter to
the editor of Orunodoi, which was published in the paper in August 1857, he
commented, that a girls relation with her husbands family does not end after
the death of her husband. The girl, is still a member of that family, and as such
her own parents do not have the right of Sampradan (the ritual of giving away
the daughter in marriage), in consequence of their having done so on the
occasion of her first marriage. In that case, in a widow-marriage, who will
observe the ritual of Sampradan. While citing the examples of the marriages
of Arjuna with the Naga princess, and Sugreeva with Tara, he asserted that
these were inter-caste marriages. The same rules may not be applicable in
case of marriages within the same caste. It is undeniable, he accepted, that
some ancient scriptures sanction widow remarriage, but in the absence of any
written text in hand in support of widow-marriage, he appealed to Gunaviram
Barua for an explanation of his queries. This, he added, would remove the
apprehensions of many people regarding the marriage of the widows.8
Gunaviram Barua clarified all the points raised by Rudraram Bordoloi, giving
in details, in support of his arguments, the justifications offered by Vidyasagar.
The editor of Orunodoi published all these arguments in the paper for better
understanding and appreciation for all.9 Interestingly, the same question had
been raised in the Bangla Newspaper Sangbad Prabhakar of 26 April 1842.
In response to an article on widow remarriage, published in the Bengal
Spectator of April 1842, the writer in Sangbad Prabhakar had also raised
the question of Sampradan during a widow-marriage?10
The unwearied efforts of Vidyasagar ultimately realized in the Hindu
Widows Remarriage Act (Act XV of 1856) passed on July 26, 1856. It legalized
the marriages of the widows notwithstanding any custom or interpretation of
the Hindu Law to the contrary, and declared the children of such marriages
legitimate.11
Orunodoi published the news of the legalization of the marriage of Hindu
widows. Gunaviram Barua wrote, Oh! This is indeed an auspicious day. It
was beyond our dreams that God would show such a great day. Great is
Vidyasagar, glory to him! The women of India will ever remain indebted to
him. Widows were not only going through mental sufferings but physical
sufferings as well. The society was polluted with foeticide. The writer expected
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 63
secret affair with Ram. Being helpless, mother of Navami arranges for a secret
abortion. But unfortunately, the news reaches the village-head, Mahajan, who
imposes a heavy fine on Navamis father in lieu of social ostracism. And soon
the entire family falls into the trap of this exploitative machinery. Ultimately,
Navami commits suicide. Ram, too, ends his life to get rid of his guilty
conscience as circumstances had made him so weak that he failed to declare
his love for Navami and could not support her during distress. Vidyasagar and
sage Parashar also made appearances in the Drama.
The Drama expressed the rationalistic viewpoints about marriage put
forward by Vidyasagar that marriages are conscious physical and spiritual
union of a man and a woman which is never fulfilled in child marriages.
Gunaviram argued that society must change with time. The problems of widow-
remarriage were discussed at length. Its adoption would, definitely prevent
social evils like abortion and prostitution.
The movement against child marriage had gathered momentum throughout
the sixties and the seventies of the nineteenth century.
In September 1846, Orunodoi, published an interesting news that a
literary society in Gujarat had invited from their people literary essays with
prize money of Rs. 150/-, on the ill effects of child marriage. In response, two
persons had submitted their writings. One of them was of the opinion that
child marriage was against the tenets of the Hindu scriptures. Both the essays
elaborated on the ill effects of early marriage. The editor of Orunodoi added
that early marriage not only led to physical and mental deterioration but was
also responsible for week progeny. The article was widely appreciated among
the intelligentsia in Assam.18
Polygamy among the upper classes was common in Assam. Shihabuddin Talish
wrote, ... few of the men have two wives only; most have four or five, and
they mutually exchange their wives, or buy and sell them.19
To carry on the household life with a number of co-wives was bad enough.
One Sonar Chand wrote in Orunodoi an article, Anek-Bia Kara Ajugut (It is
wrong to marry many), highlighting the evils of polygamy. He wrote that from
time immemorial polygamy was prevalent in our land. Polygamy has continued
due to illiteracy, ignorance and irrationality of the society. The writer, with a
heavy heart, asked why women could not marry several times if men could.
He also cited the example of the English-men, considered as the most civilized
nation in the world, who were forbidden by law to marry more than once. The
writer expressed his unhappiness over the prevailing social evils of this country.
He also stressed the importance of education for a happy and prosperous
conjugal life.20 The writer of the article Sri Sonarchand was none other than
Hem Chandra Baruah, prominent Assamese social reformer of the nineteenth
century. In a letter in the Orunodoi, addressed to the Muslim population of
Assam, a missionary pointed out that although Islam permitted polygamy, the
modern man should not marry more than one. The author further appealed that
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 65
since God has created men and women alike, women should be treated with
respect.21 Though the evil practices of Sati and infanticide were fortunately
rare in Assam, yet references to them were made in several places in the
Orunodoi. Already many Hindu women have burnt themselves in the funeral
pyre of their husbands for the sake of becoming Sati. Some did voluntarily
while some were forced to become Sati by their relatives. The reason for
becoming Sati was perhaps the horrors of the miserable life which a widow
had to lead. Widow-remarriage was not allowed among the Hindu Brahmins
and noble families. Thus death was considered better than widowhood. The
Hindu scriptures also carry divergent views on the question of the remarriage
of the widows. However, in 1829, Sati was declared illegal by Governor
General, Lord William Bentinck. Now it is heard that some pundits have
assembled in Calcutta to decide on the question of Hindu widow-remarriage.
The widows among the Christians are allowed to remarry.22
In a news item published in the same issue, it was reported that in the
kalu village of Sibsagar, on the death of the brother of Sri Lambordar Mauzadar,
his wife prepared to become Sati. The Mauzadar, however, informed the
magistrate in time and with the help of a Daroga, rescued her from becoming
a Sati.23 In another news item under Anek Desor Sambad, the news of an
instance of Sati in Hyderabad was reported.24
Thus issues of marriage reforms came to constitute a significant domain
in Orunodoi. The early reformers looked at these reforms from the perspective
of women. However, there were marked contradictions and limits in the reform
process, more so, as it lacked the voice of the women herself. Women writings
rarely reflected the same concern as those which so seriously engaged their
male counterparts in that period of the century. Assam did not lack women
writers; mention may be made of Bishnupriya Devi, Swarnalata Barua,
Padmavati Devi Phukanani and Tejaswari Barua. Gunaviram Baruas wife
Bishnupriya Devi knew both Assamese and Bangla and a little bit of English
too.25
How many groups were actually touched by these reform issues such as
widow remarriage, child marriage, eradication of polygamy, Sati etc., remains
to be discussed. At the same time, the extra energy with which the early
reformers debated these questions of marriage reform concerning women
cannot be overlooked. The newspapers and Journals that followed Orunodoi,
played a significant role in promoting marriage reformation amongst the
Assamese people. These papers succeeded in creating an intellectual
atmosphere in Assam. These writings, therefore, provide fresh insights on the
emerging subjectivities of women, enabling a far sharper evaluation of the
nineteenth century impulse to reform. It offered women new responsibilities
towards race and nation and new opportunities for education, producing the
middle class women. In the early part of the next century, different versions of
female emancipation came to be slowly tied to the idea of national liberation
66 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
and regeneration.
======================
References :
1. M. Neog., compiled and re-edited., Orunodoi, Guwahahti, 1983, pp. 65-66
2. An Assamese from Calcutta On Marriages, Orunodoi, Dec. 1853.
3. Gunaviram Barua, Asam Buranji, Guwahati, 1972, pp. 199-200.
4. Census Report of India, Assam, 1891
5. 'Remarriage of widows, Orunodoi, March, 1854
6. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, Jan 1856
7. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, May, 1857
8. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, August, 1857
9. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, November, 1857
10. Sangbad Prabhakar, 26 April, 1842
11. M. Basu, Hindu women and Marriage Law, New Delhi, 2001 pp. 69-70
12. Bidhava Bibah Marriage of Hindu Widows Legalised, Orunodoi, Sept,
1856
13. Dujoni Bidhava Sowalir Bibahar Kotha, Orunodoi, Jan, 1857
14. ibid
15. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, April, 1858
16. Bidhava Bibah, Orunodoi, March, 1858.
17. Ram Navami Natak, Orunodoi, July 1858
18. Alop Bayasat Biya Karowa Anucit, Orunodoi, Sept. 1856
19. Sir Edward Gait, A History of Assam, Guwahati (reprint) 1994, p.138
20. Anek Bia Kara Ajugut, Orunodoi, April, 1856
21. Letter to Mussalmans, Orunodoi, March, 1854.
22. Immolation of Widows, Orunodoi, May 1846.
23. ibid
24. Sattee, Orunodoi, June, 1846
25. J. N. Bhuyan ed. Jnanadabhiram Barua Rachanawali, Jorhat, 1981, p.124.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
Introduction: Every five seconds one child under the age of 5 dies from
hunger or malnutrition-related disease. Every four minutes, one person loses
his or her eyesight for lack of vitamin A. More than 852 million people do not
get enough food each day to sustain a normal life. This is a shame on
humanity. It is time to enforce the right to food. -United Nations Special
Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Jean Ziegler, March 16, 20061
Hunger is a shame on humanity. When people in a country do not have
enough food to eat which results in discomfort, illness, weakness or pain, then
people are said to suffer from hunger.
On the global scale the simplest definition of hunger is a scarcity of food
in a country. On an individual scale, hunger occurs when a person consumes
an insufficient amount of calories to sustain them called malnourishment.2
Chronic hunger leads to malnourishment. Malnourishment is such a
condition where the person suffering does not have sufficient amount of right
kinds of food. It is a disorder of nutrition. Hunger and malnutrition are so
closely related that malnutrition is also called hidden hunger. Though there
===========================
* NEF Law College
68 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
may be varied reasons for hunger and malnutrition but the major cause may be
attributed to the accessibility of food. Mostly the people from developing
countries are the victims of hunger and malnutrition even though such countries
produce enough food not only for the internal markets but for export also.
Hunger and malnutrition today are not due to less availability of food
but for lack of accessibility. It now becomes the matter of right and entitlement
imposing obligation to the State.
Role of Right to Food:
Giving importance to accessibility to food in a world of plenty where
massive hunger persists, the right to food plays a pioneering role since last
decade. The right to food was the first of the Economic Social and Cultural
Rights to be studied by the UN human rights system.
In 1987 a report titled The Right to Food as a Human Right became the
starting point for a series of investigations into the rights contained in the
International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. The crucial
role of the right to food was reconfirmed almost ten years later when the 1996
World Food Summit requested the High Commissioner for Human Rights to
define its legal content.3
The right to food is an individual centric human right. This right tries to
reduce hunger by taking following steps-
1) Making policies focusing on poor and vulnerable
2) Ensuring no set back by engraving the right to food in the National
Constitution
3) Empowering the poor and hungry to claim their rights and make their
voice heard
4) Helping citizens to be involved in policy and program design
5) Promoting transparent budget
6) Raising awareness about rights and obligations.4
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, there are certain elements of right to food viz. availability, accessibility
and adequacy and measures should be taken to improve those elements to
fight hunger.
The right to adequate food means that every man, woman and child
alone and in community with others must have physical and economic access
at all times to adequate food and which can be procured with human dignity.
The right to adequate food is a distinct part of the right to an adequate standard
of living. The right to food is a legal right. It gives rise to legal obligation of
states to respect, protect and fulfill the human right to food.
Role of International Community:
The right to food is enshrined in several international human rights and
other treaties. It is deep rooted to the international human right law. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which is considered as the basic
document of human rights lays down that everyone has a right to standard of
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 69
living adequate for health, housing and medical care and necessary social
services including food..
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in
Article 11(1) states clearly that the right to an adequate standard of living
includes food, housing, clothing. Moreover, article 11(2) recognizes the
fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child ,under Article 24(2)(c)
obligates states parties to combat disease and malnutrition, including within
the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of
readily available technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious
food and clean drinking water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks
of environmental pollution.
The Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions, and relating to the
Protection of Victims of International and Non-International Armed Conflicts,
also declares in article 54(1) that starvation of civilians as a method of warfare
is prohibited.
After the failure of World Food Conference in 1974 due to the failure in
policy making and funding, the Food and agricultural Organization convened
a high level meeting in Rome in the year 1996. In this World Food Summit
different Governmental and Non Governmental Organizations were involved
among the others to influence public opinion and provided a framework to
achieve Food for All. The objective of the Summit was to renew global
commitment to eliminate hunger and malnutrition. It targeted to reduce by
half number of undernourished people within the year 2015.
In the year 2000, the United Nations adopted Eight Millennium
Development Goals and the first goal was to eradicate hunger and reduce the
number of hungry people to half the amount by 2015.
The target of reducing extreme poverty rates by half was met five years
ahead of the 2015 deadline. Globally the number of people living in extreme
poverty has fallen from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015.5 It narrowly
missed the target projected.
The Millennium Development Goals era came to a conclusion in the
year 2016. The United Nations adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. Eradication of poverty, hunger and food security has attained
the priority amongst the other seventeen goals.
In 2012, The Zero Hunger Challenge was launched by United Nations
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. The Zero Hunger vision reflects five elements
from within the Sustainable Development Goals, which taken together, can
end hunger, eliminate all forms of malnutrition, and build inclusive and
sustainable food systems. It has inspired action at country level and contributed
to ensuring that food and nutrition security and sustainable agriculture have
remained high on the global development agenda. It has encouraged all to
work together towards ending hunger.
70 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Footnotes:
1. http://tinyurl.com/38rdgz
2. http://borgenproject.org/what-is-the-definition -of -hunger/
3. Module 12- The Right to Adequate Food
4. http://www.fao.org/3/a-au833e.pdf
5. http://www.wvi.org/united-nations-and-global-engagement/article/were-
mgds-success
6. http://www.un.org/en/zerohunger/pdfs/zhc%2....
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
mention as a type of violence against women. The Committee views that the
prevailing prejudices and practices of regarding women as subordinate to men
may justify gender-based violence as a way of protecting or controlling women.
However, the physical and mental effect of such violence is severe on women.
It deprives them the equal enjoyment, exercise and knowledge of human rights
and fundamental freedoms.
2.5 Special Rapporteur on Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (15th September, 2010): Acid
burning attacks- Victimization, Survivors, Support, a side event sponsored
by Womens UN Report Network, Worldwide Organization for Women and
NGO Committee on the Status of Women, 15th September 2010, Geneva. In
this event the report presented by Manfred Nowak, Special Rapporteur on
Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
highlights some important issues relating to acid attacks. The report states that
many a time women victims of acid throwing incidents are the ones attacked
by husbands, ex husbands or even partners making it a domestic violence in
the form of intimate partner violence. The effects of disfigurement and scarring
is so intense that fearing rejection and societys stigma; the survivors seclude
themselves and lead of life of complete isolation.
Another important and in fact major issue i.e. access to justice, reparations
and rehabilitation of the survivors of acid attack has also been strongly raised
in this report. Access to justice specifically becomes difficult for women victims
due to restricted movement, discriminatory laws, financial and economic
constraints etc. Lastly, this report also acknowledges the significance of
counselling at each stage of physical recovery. After a horrific incident of acid
attack takes place, the life of the victim undergoes a complete change and for
the victims to adapt themselves to the newness, counselling is the best and the
only way out.10
2.6 United Nations Trust Fund in Support of Actions to Eliminate
Violence against Women: The 2014 report prepared by the United Nations
Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women highlighting the
activities of the United Nations Trust Fund in Support of Actions to Eliminate
Violence against Women shows that gender based violence/violence against
women is a growing concern.In the year 1996 the United Nations Trust Fund
in Support of Actions to Eliminate Violence against Women, a multilateral
grant-making mechanism was established by the General Assembly resolution
50/166. On behalf of the United Nations system this Trust Fund is administered
by the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of
Women (UN-Women).This report mentions that with the increasing gender
based violence, womens right to peaceful existence is systematically violated.
Eradication of the existing gender based violence is not possible without
sustained social and political will and engagement, increased financial
resources, effective legal and policy responses and comprehensive interventions.
76 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
In order to bring down the number of ongoing gender based violence, the
Trust Fund focuses on three specific areas:
Firstly, prevention of violence against women and girls,
Secondly, expansion of access to justice and support services for survivors
of violence and
Lastly to expedite the implementation of laws and policies aimed at ending
violence against women and girls.
These three are vital to address gender based atrocities and ensure women
a life of security. Ending violence against women is possible only with the help
of stringent legal provisions. If laws are silent on gender violence; victims will
not have an authority to approach to for justice. In Cambodia, enactment of the
2012 Acid Attack law would not have been possible without the active role of
the Acid Survivors Trust International, a former grantee, and its partner, the
Cambodian Acid Survivors Charity. As a result of enactment of a specific law
regulating acid violence, in early 2013, the Phnom Penh Municipal Court handed
down the first conviction for an acid attack.11
2.7 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women is known as UN Women in short. It was created by the United
Nations General Assembly. UN Women, a global campaign for girls and
women, is dedicated to the cause of gender equality and empowerment of
women. UN Women focuses on human rights issues that have a gender
dimension. It works towards eradication of violence against women, economic
empowerment, leadership and participation, peace, security, national planning
and budgeting etc. New Delhi based multi country office of UN Women
exercises its jurisdiction over Bhutan, India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka. In its
effort towards eradication of gender inequity, UN Women majorly focuses on
advocacy campaigns, establishment of legal frameworks as well as national
actions. In order to work effectively at the grassroots level UN Women works
in partnership with governments, civil societies and UN system.12
2.8 Acid Survivors Trust International (ASTI): At the international level,
Acid Survivors Trust International is the only organization in the world that
works to end acid violence across the world. This organization works to increase
awareness of acid violence and develop effective responses both at the national
and international levels. It has also established six partner organisations in
Bangladesh, Cambodia, Pakistan, Nepal, Uganda and India in order to combat
the violence of acid attack more effectively. It works in co-operation with UN
agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations and strategic partners from across
the world. The partner organisations of ASTI in Bangladesh, Pakistan and
Cambodia have effectively played their advocacy role that lead to legislative
reforms and reduction in the number of such violence. In Bangladesh the
government has introduced acid specific legislation in the year 2002, the
Pakistani Government passed the Criminal Law Amendment Act 2011, the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 77
5. Awasthi and Kataria, Law Relating to Protection of Human Rights, Orient Pub-
lishing Company, New Delhi. 2011. Print.
6. Awasthi and Kataria, Law Relating to Protection of Human Rights, Orient Pub-
lishing Company, New Delhi. 2011. Print.
7. Human Rights in International Law. Council of Europe Publishing, Universal
Law Publishing Co. 2011. Print.
8. Brownlie, Ian and Goodwin-Gill, Guy S. Basic Documents on Human Rights,
2007. Print.
9. General Recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Dis-
crimination against Women. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/rec-
ommendations/recomm.htm. United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women. Web. 21 May, 2016.
10. Violence against women is a long existing problem that includes family violence
and abuse, forced marriage, dowry deaths as well as acid attacks.
11. Statement by Manfred Nowak Special Rapporteur on Torture and other cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Side-event Acid burning at-
tacks victimization, survivors, support , http://www.wunrn.org/news/2013/
07_13/07_29/072913_un3_files/SR%20Torture%20Statement% 20on%
20Acid%20Attacks%20&%20Torture.pdf. Web. 26 May, 2016.
12. Report of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women on the activities of the United Nations Trust Fund in Support of Ac-
tions to Eliminate Violence against Women.
13. UN Women. http://www.unwomen.org/en. Web. 2 June, 2016.
14. Acid Survivors Trust International. http://www.acidviolence.org/. Web. 21
March, 2016.
15. Global Gender Gap Index is an index designed to measure gender equality and
for the first time the Global Gender Gap Report (2006) was published by the
World Economic Forum.
16. A copy of the 2015 Global Gender Gap Index is attached in appendix I.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 79
Appendix I
80 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 81
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
retention of a firm. Engaged employees with the opportunity for personal and
professional growth are more likely to reside with the organization. Employee
Training and development is an investment in the organization that can provide
a noteworthy Returns in terms of talented employee retention. Talent
management is an indispensable ingredient to ensure the wellbeing and vigor
of your organization for years to come.
Public sector banks do reward their employees. The reward to staff is,
however, not comparable to those given by private or foreign banks. Things
are constantly improving in this area with the liberal financial autonomy package
to all public sector banks (PSBs) proclaimed by the government last year and
the realisation by PSBs to effectively face the challenges posed by other players.
The banks need to make use of this opportunity in a greater measure. Attrition
and poaching has made things complicated for PSBs, whose ability to employ
fresh talent is constrained by structured compensation packages with limited
flexibility. For them talent nurturing has become a major issue rather than
hiring fresh talent. They have to find out ways to incentivize the talent accessible.
This requires a look at compensation packages commensurate with the paying
capacity, differentiation between performers and non-performers and institution
of a reward mechanism.
Talent management needs differentiating the organization by building
business capability through excellent programmes to magnetize, engage and
retain the most valued employees, underlining the significance of talent
differentiation, aligning the talent management strategy to the overall business
plan and implementing a nuance approach towards the most cherished
employees with paradigm shift from uniform service regulations and
compensation package structure to a flexible compensation package and service
conditions. Banks should put in place appropriate HR audit could play a
essential role in instilling a sense of confidence in the management and HR
functions in the organization. There is a manifest need to address the key drivers
in attracting and retaining the exact talent. Building an ideal work environment,
cultivating and retaining talents in these difficult times requires effective
management and leadership in maintaining a talent friendly environment and
ensuring alignment of talent expectations with core business tactic. This is a
tall order and necessitates periodical revisiting of the vibrant of compensation
management, performance measurement, organization change, employee
relationship management, employer branding, talent development and
succession planning. In the ultimate scrutiny, employee rewards and recognition
have to move beyond compensation and benefits. In this world of flux and
flow, turbulence and volatility, attrition and organizational dynamics, what is
required is that employers must offer a holistic package to employees. Financial
aspects have to be a vital part of this package but the significance of non-
monetary incentives cannot be ignored in any objective assessment of the growth
and structural transformation of any organization.
84 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Table No. 1,
Employees should be encouraged to participate in Personality
Development Programmes
S No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 0%
2 DISAGREE 14%
3 NEUTRAL 52%
4 AGREE 34%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 0%
Diagram No. 1
Employees should be encouraged to participate in Personality
Development Programmes
Inference:
Majority of the respondents had a neutral opinion about bank employees
participating in Personality Development Programmes.
Table No.-2
Talent Development Participation is an important criterion to evaluate
Employee performance of Public Sector Banks
S No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 69%
2 DISAGREE 10%
3 NEUTRAL 11%
4 AGREE 11%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 0%
86 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Diagram No.-2
Talent Development Participation is an important criteria to evaluate
Employee performance of Public Sector Banks
Diagram No.-3
Talent Development activities Pave Way for Career Development and
Career Growth.
activities in the Public sector Banks hardly pave Way for Career Development
and Career Growth. This clearly depicts whatever Talent development initiatives
are undertaken by the Public Sector Banks are not successful to bring in the
desired results.
Table No.-4, Talent Development activities are well Communicated to
the Bank Employees
Sl No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 0%
2 DISAGREE 82%
3 NEUTRAL 0%
4 AGREE 38%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 0%
Inference: There is a mixed opinion among the Public sector bank employees
about exemplary individual performance being timely rewarded. It gives an
insight on the fact that some Public Sector banks are on the forefront when it
comes to rewarding their employees for exemplary performance while few
others lag behind.
Table No.-5
Active Support from the Management for Talent Development
Activities
Sl No: RESPONSE PERCENTAGE
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE 0%
2 DISAGREE 10%
3 NEUTRAL 24%
4 AGREE 57%
5 STRONGLY AGREE 9%
Diagram No.-5
Active Support from the Management for Talent Development
Activities
Inference: There is a mixed opinion among the Public sector bank employees
about support from the management in the form of the required infrastructure,
facilities, funds and grant for Talent development of employees. It gives an
insight on the fact that some Public Sector banks are on the forefront when it
comes to incorporating and supporting Talent Development activities while
few others lag behind.
Findings:
Most of the bank employees have an apathetic approach towards Talent
Development Initiatives undertaken by Indian Public Sector Bank while
some of the employees strongly advocate Talent Development Initiatives
to be undertaken by Indian Public Sector Banks.
Majority of the bank employees feel Talent Development would hardly
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 89
activities. Demonetisation had many short term impacts which created panic
in public. These short term problems could be make small but the govt &
R.B.I did not do enough preparation before taking the steps of demonetization
and it was the reason for increased panic for individuals & businesses by that
time, the situation was panic due to the shortage of currency supply cash
withdrawl limit was put by govt, this was the one cause of panic as the
individuals did not has sufficient cash as per their needs.
However with these short term impact India is pushed for digital
transaction. Introduction of lottery scheme for digital transaction & BHIM
app for transaction were step taken by govt to promote digitalisation the
movement of house hold saving from physical to financial will help boost
growth according to yes bank BSE 0.90% report.
Benifits on G.D.P. :
1. It will increase digitalisation one intermediate & objective of
demonetisation was to create less cash economy. But digital transcation face
significant problems such as cellphone for customers, point of sale machines
for merchants but needs internet connection providing proper internet
connectivity with broadband speed which is one of aim of digital India so this
move of demonitisation will push India towards digital economy.
2. Insufficent money in banks During the period of demonetisation is under
screening mechanism aimed seperating whole income from black. money. At
the some time govt announced a scheme to disclose black money provided
Declare unaccounted wealth & pay taxes with penalty such moves make dump
money under circulation and under taxation laws. Thus it will help Indian
economy by reducing problems of black money & corrupt practices.
3. Demonitisation could have for reaching effects :
It will channelise saving into financial system. As the cash withdrawl
limits are erased much of the cash which is in bank system will be taken out
again but some of deposits will remain in banks which will make economy
better as available for loans etc.
4. In some extent problems of fake currency will be solved it is neccessary
govt to keep watch on fake currency routes so future problem of counterfeit
money may stopped.
5. By monitoring new currency notes govt can restrict funding for terrorist
activities.
6. Much of black money accumulated was ultimatily used to evade taxes
on property rates. The black money is reduced so by increasing digital means
& keep a limit of maximum cash Transaction by this tax evasion will also
diminish. It is desirable in future that it will lead to reduction in realestate
prices & lead to affordable housing for all.
So it can be said that demonetisation have long term effects with short
term problems. But coming with even bigger high denomination note i.e. Rs.
2000 will increase again black money problem. As per govt Rs. 2000 Note
94 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
through their Rules have given specimen application for the person seeking
information to maintain infirmity of the content of the application and to remove
the ambiguity in the applications. But, such specimen is not binding in nature;
applicant can make it in its own way9.
In normal course, information to an applicant shall be supplied within
30 days from the receipt of application by the public authority. If information
sought concerns the life or liberty of a person, it shall be supplied within 48
hours10. In case the application is sent through the Assistant Public Information
Office or it is sent to a wrong public authority, five days shall be added to the
period of thirty days or 48 hours, as the case may be11. Section 24 of the Act
empowers the Central Government and State Governments to exclude certain
intelligence and security organization from the purview of this Act by placing
them in Second Schedule.
The Act has created a practical regime through which the citizens of the
country may have access to information under the control of public authorities
in order to promote transparency and accountability in the working of every
public authority12.
Right to information-un Initiatives: The right to know had gained
prominence after the Second World War. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration
of the Human Rights, 1948 specifically deals with right to freedom of opinion
and expression. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR), 1966 which India has also ratified, also provides for a corresponding
provision in Article 19. Article 19(2) states that everyone shall have the right
to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek , receive and
impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally,
in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his
choice. Article 4 of the American Declaration and Article 10 of the European
Convention of Human Rights guarantees the right to freedom of expression.
Right to Information-Global Scenario: Several countries have enacted
comprehensive laws to facilitate access to public records and right to
information. In England, The Freedom of Information Act was approved in
November 2002 after nearly 20 years of campaigning. The Act gives any person
a general right to access to information held by a broad array of public
authorities. In 1966, the Freedom of Information Act was enacted in America
replacing the Administrative Procedure Act, 1946. The Federal Freedom of
Information Act, 1982, Freedom of Information Regulation 1982, Freedom of
Information (Miscellaneous provisions) Regulation1982 provides for access
to documents held by Commonwealth agencies. The 1983 Access to
Information Act provides Canadian citizens and other individuals and
corporation in Canada the right to apply for and obtain copies or records held
by government institutions.
Right to information and Indian judiciary: Judiciary is the watchdog and
custodian of our Constitution. It was through a creative interpretation of Article
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 99
19(1)(a) of the Constitution that the Supreme Court carved out a fundamental
right to information as being implicit in the right to free speech and expression.
One of the earliest cases where the Supreme Court laid emphasis on the peoples
right to know was State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain13. Apart from this,
the Supreme Court in several judgements14 tried to emphasize the importance
of right to information. Following the same trend in D.K.Basu v. State of
West Bengal15, held that the detainees have right to know the charges framed
or reasons of arrest, place of arrest, right to get the relatives informed about
the arrest and to have a lawyer of ones own choice.
Conclusion: It is significant to create a favourable climate where Right to
Information gets implemented in true spirit. The Right to Information Act,
2005 may restrict the accessibility of information from unpublished records
and documents of the administrative authorities. Excessive classification is an
impediment to information sharing. Escape clauses are too many and too wide.
Central Vigilance Commission Report suggests that people generally exercise
their right to information for settling personal shores and not for enforcing
governmental transparency and accountability. It is necessary to provide as
such information suo moto to the public at large at regular intervals through
various means of communications so that the people have minimum resort to
the use of the Act to obtain information
======================
References :
1. M.P.Jain & S.N.Jain(2007). Principles of Administrative Law, 6th Edition,
Wadhwa,Nagpur, p.2530
2. UN General Assembly, 14th December 1966
3. Supra note 1 at p. 2531
4. I.P.Massey (2012).Administrative Law, 8th Edition, pp.561-562
5. Section 8 & 9 of the Right to Information Act, 2005
6. Section 8 of the Right to Information Act, 2005
7. P.K.Das(2005). Handbook on Right to Information Act, 2005, 3rd Edition, p. 15
8. S.S.Srivastava (2012). Right to Information, 1st Edition, Central Law Agency,
p.18
9. Id at p.19
10. Id at p.21
11. Id at p.22
12. Supra note 7 at p. 17
13. (1975) 4 SCC 428
14. Secretary, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India v. Cricket
Association of Bengal, AIR 1995 SC 1236; Dinesh Trivedi v. UOI, (1997) 4
SCC 306; PUCL v. UOI, (2003) 4 SCC 399; Association for Democratic Reforms
v. UOI ,AIR 2001 Del 126,127
15. AIR 1997 Sc 610
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
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If LQd1, the state (Assam in our case) has less concentration of that particular
industry group than the nation or the state is less specialized in that particular
industry group.
If LQe1, the state (Assam in our case) has greater concentration of that
particular industry group than the nation or the state is more specialized in that
particular industry group.
Figure: 1.1
Location Quotient of Non Agricultural Informal Employment
Table 2.2
Percentage of Employees not Eligible for Paid Leave in Urban Assam
Gender 61st Round 68th Round
RWS Casual All Workers RWS Casual All Workers
Labour Labour
Male 22.3 96.7 37.8 34.2 85.1 45.1
Female 29.9 96.8 47.0 43.6 98.7 52.1
Person 23.7 96.7 39.6 35.7 86.6 46.1
urban area is engaged in tertiary sector. Of the entire tertiary sector, hotel and
restaurants, real estate, renting and business activities and arts, entertainment
and recreation together constitute of informal workers. Industrial sector mostly
reflected in unorganised manufacturing has marginally accelerated according
to the Economic Survey of Assam in 2014-15. Information, communication,
entertainment and unregistered manufacturing have been generating output
only with informal sector workers in the state.
Most of the promotional measures as a part of social security have been
taken up by the nation and the state too for betterment of conditions of informal
sector. For example, as a part of Unorganised Sector Social Security Bill 2008,
the state of Assam has built Assam Social Welfare Board. The state labour
department has raised 100 crore cess from the builders to implement welfare
schemes for construction workers of the state under Assam Building and Other
Construction Workers Welfare Board (ABOCWWB) in 2007. Further, Atal
Pension Yojona (APY), Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), Smart Card to
unorganised workers, Swabalamban scheme are some of the steps taken by
the state government in association with the union government are encouraging
trend. However, there are some deficits in the process either for identification
(since most of the informal workers are casual and lack of employer-employee
relationship) or lack of technological support in trickling down the schemes to
the beneficiaries. Therefore, state interventions with the help of NGOs, labour
officials and researchers is the urgent need of the hour in sustaining better
livelihood for the growing urban informal labour force.
======================
References :
1. Bare, C. and Brown, T. (2006). Location Quotients: A Tool for Comparing
Regional Industry Compositions, Incontext, March, p.1
2. Bose.A.N (1980) Informal Sector: Problems and Prospects, Nagarlok, Vol.12,
No.2, p. 24
3. Government of Assam (2015) Economic Survey of Assam 2014-15, Directorate
of Economics and Statistics, Planning and Development Department, Govt of
Assam, Guwahati, p.1-3
4. Govt. of Assam (2011) Employment Policy of Assam, Department of Labour,
January, Guwahati, Assam, p.51
5. Harriss, John (1982) Character of an Urban Economy: Small Scale Production
and Labour Markets in Coimbatore, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XVII,
No.23 and 24, pp. 945-54,993-1002
6. Institute for Human Development (2014). India labour and Employment Report
2014 Workers in the Era of Globalisation, Academic Foundation and Institute
of Human Development, New Delhi, P-7
7. Majumdar Ashima & Borbora Saundarjya (2013) Social Security and the
Informal Sector in India A Review, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLVIII,
No.42, pp. 69-72.
8. Majumdar Ashima (2012). Urban Informal Manufacturing Sector in Assam:
An analysis of growth dynamics, productivity, linkage and Social Security, an
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 107
11. NSSO, (2007) Informal Sector and Conditions of Employment in India, 2004-
2005, NSS 61th Round (July 2004-June 2005), NSS Report No. 519, NSSO,
New Delhi, pp. 87-89, 106-115
12. Papola T.S (1981). Urban Informal Sector in a Developing Economy, Vikas,
New Delhi
13. Romatet, Emmanuel, (1983) Calcuttas Informal Sector: Theory and Reality,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XVIII, No.20, Dec.10, pp.2115-28
14. Unni Jeemol (2006). Informal Employment: Estimating Home-based and Street-
based Workers in India, Expert Group on Informal Sector Statistics (Delhi Group),
NCEUS, New Delhi
15. Unni Jeemol and Rani Uma (2003) Employment and Income in the Informal
Economy in Jhabvala R, Sudarshan R.M and Unni Jeemol (ed.), Informal
Economy Centre Stage New Structures of Employment Sage Publications, Pp.
54-55
Footnotes:
1. Activity Codes 11, 12 and 21 is classified as Self Employed in NIC 2-digit
classification which indicates Own account worker, as employer and as helper
respectively.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
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Introduction: Assam, the land of blue hills and red river, blessed with abundant
supply of natural resources, yet she remains one of the industrially backward
states of the nation. Neglecting human capital and entrepreneurship is one of
the prime reason for this state of affairs. Any nation or state that fails to take
proper care of its human capital should equally say goodbye to having
entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship (Obisi and Anyim, 2012). Ogbonifoh et al
(1999) explains that entrepreneurship is an essential variable in any nations
economic growth and development. It is therefore true that the growth of a
nation or state depends on whether it has entrepreneurs or encourage
entrepreneur and the successes of entrepreneurship depends largely on whether
the human capital is being deliberately harnessed and nurtured . Entrepreneurs
are born because of inherent traits within them, which can be called human
capital, but entrepreneurs are also made because of environmental issues (both
harsh as well as kind), which go to fire up the individual to become creative,
innovative and committed towards realizing ones goals.
The Concept of Human Capital: Human capital is defined in the Oxford
English Dictionary as the skills the labour force possesses and is regarded as
a resource or asset. It encompasses the notion that there are investments in
people (e.g., education, training, health) and that these investments increase
===========================
* Icon Commerce College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 109
an individuals productivity.
Human capital is a collection of traits all the knowledge, talents, skills, abilities,
experience, intelligence, training, judgment, and wisdom possessed individually
and collectively by individuals in a population. These resources are the total
capacity of the people that represents a form of wealth which can be directed
to accomplish the goals of the nation or state or a portion thereof.
In this article, it is tried to show that any nation or state, which fails to take care
of its human capital, will not be possible to develop entrepreneurs and growth
of entrepreneurship. It is when a nation takes care of its human capital that the
human capital can develop and metamorphose into entrepreneurs so that
entrepreneurship would manifest, grow and flourish and the nation or state
would in turn develop economically.
The Concept of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneur is an individual who takes
initiative to bring new ideas , innovation starts a new venture and act as a
catalytic agent for a new project which creates wealth. Thus he becomes a
change agent for socio-economic development. Entrepreneurship is a process,
which involves the efforts of an individual in identifying viable opportunities
in a business environment and obtaining and managing the resources needed
to exploit those opportunities. It is cleared from the above that entrepreneurs
should have internal and external behavioural qualities to succeed. All these
qualities are not easy to come by but can be developed through deliberate
human capital formation and development strategies, which will highlight in
this article.
Hill and McGowan (1999) stated that entrepreneurship to grow,
entrepreneurs need a combination of inherent personal traits, a propensity for
creativity and innovation, a good understanding of relevant environmental
issues, and appropriate managerial traits; after all, entrepreneurship is concerned
with change and the entrepreneur is the major agent of change. Our contention
is that all these traits which is required for entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship
to succeed can be acquired and developed through a well contrived human
capital formation and development strategies which are discussed below .
Education: Entrepreneurs need knowledge and knowledge can be acquired
through education. On the other hand Education is one of the system through
which we can develop the human capital by expanding their knowledge. Becker
(1964) stated that persons with higher education and skilled earn more than
others in developed countries which have paid particular attention to the role
of investment in human capital through education.
Obisi (2003) noted that through education, specific human capital abilities
would be acquired which may include. - Acquisition of conceptual knowledge,
development of capabilities and development of skills, attitudes and orientation,
which entrepreneurs would need to grow.
Assam should invest strategically on educations so that its human capital
can be developed which would in turn become entrepreneurs. As per 2011
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census, literacy rate in Assam is 73.18% and 1.5 lakh educated youth is jobless.
This is only due to current education system prevailing in the state. The
Government should implement new course curriculum to generate skilled
labour force and to develop the concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship
among the students. The government can play an important role in developing
the standard of education that serves all classes of society and prepares them
with skills at every level of the value chain. This will require a step-change
both in the quality of education and access to it at all levels- primary, secondary
and higher education. According to Young lee, the more the populaces are
highly educated, the more the entrepreneurs available in the country, which
would reduce unemployment as more job, would be created. Well structural
education curriculum and system would enable people to develops abilities
such as - decision making abilities, forecasting and prediction abilities and
develop openness, and enterprise (risk taking).
Development of Dynamic Culture:
Unless and until Assam develops an entrepreneurship culture it would
continue to suffer the problem of low economic growth. It is seen that Assam
is an agrarian economy but unfortunately, a cultivators son, after receiving
University degree, does not want to follow his fathers profession. He would
prefer to rot in cities and towns, in search of clerical employment. This has
made unemployment problem more acute and far more distressing.
Entrepreneurship culture in recent times has become an important area of
study. It is considered to be a solution for creating wealth, generating
employment and providing new and better goods and services. Developing
the spirit of entrepreneurship among the young has become vital because the
government cannot provide jobs for all kinds of unemployed youth and the
corporate sector will provide limited jobs only to the best and that too without
any job security. Entrepreneurship is simply finding new opportunities to do
things better and then seizing the opportunity. With changes like globalization,
deregulation, open competition and technological change taking place, our
society is becoming an entrepreneurial society. In an entrepreneurial society,
individuals face a tremendous challenge . Entrepreneurship is all about ones
readiness to take risks, create structure and handle a business in a competitive
world that is dynamic. In this entrepreneurship culture there is always a way
and scope of innovation and because of this scope it has the ability to change
the world.
According to Armstrong (1996) culture can work for a people by creating
an environment, which is conducive to performance improvement and
management of change. This is important so that the old and ineffective way
of doing things would give way to better and effective ways of doing things.
He further says that culture can also work against a people by erecting barriers,
which prevent the attainment of missions and visions of the people. Culture
can assist in galvanizing entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, as it would convey
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 111
a sense of identity and unity of purpose to members of the society. Our culture
should be such that would condone and sustain entrepreneurial skills by
consistently influencing behaviour, attitudes and beliefs .Entrepreneurship
culture is still in the bud in the state of Assam. But it has got high potentials to
develop the entrepreneurship culture with its peculiar features like rich natural
resources, wonderful scenic beauty, fertile soil, etc. if the people imbibe
entrepreneurial culture with conducive in the society so as to create more
entrepreneurs that create wealth rather than creating mere business men and
women. Our values and norms, which make up a culture of people, must be
such that encourage enterprise (risk taking), equal opportunity, competitive
ability, innovation, commitment, faith and creativity. The truth is that a culture
that is static and fails to embrace positive attitudes, values and norms would
not harness and nurture entrepreneurship capable of uplifting Assams economy.
Therefore culture should be dynamic rather than static.
Skill development and Training Programmes:
Skill Development aims to create skilled and job ready workforce by
equipping it with employable skills. Here traditional trades and employment
skilling in informal sector is being youths great extent which continues to
develop the entrepreneurs professionally as well as personally. With the
introduction of various programmes 68%of the rural youth are able to realize
the need for diversification and develop a Can Do attitude in them. One of
the most important factors of individual performance is enhancing leadership
skills. Through the training programme provided by the SIRD, it is found that
almost all the participants are able to enhance their leadership qualities.
Leadership is the ability to influence others to achieve a goal. From the
establishment and to nourishing an enterprise, one entrepreneur has to face
many obstacles and a good leader can take right decision in time.
Social Influences:
Social Influences Indeed social contacts can go a long way in uplifting
entrepreneurship through family, work groups etc. Family should encourage
each other to be creative, innovative and provide support when needed. There
are many youths of Assam with a lot of ideas but no support from families and
society. With family support, social contacts and individual perseverance people
would be encouraged to become entrepreneurs and embrace entrepreneurship.
The way forward for sustaining entrepreneurship through human capital
development
Government at all level must have deliberate policies to create a conducive
environment for entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship to flourish.
Entrepreneurship programmes should be developed across disciplines,
not just in business schools or economic departments.
Implementation of awareness campaigns and extracurricular activities
including visits to businesses at the secondary and vocational school
levels is suggested. It will improve the attitudes towards entrepreneurship,
112 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
resources for the economy. Existence of widespread illiteracy across all the
segments of the adivasis of Assam carries the fundamental paradoxical factor
behind all their struggling. The 15th round of Census conducted by Central
Statistical Organization in 2011 clearly shows a very much dismal status of
the tea tribe in terms of educational attainment.
Table 1: Literacy rate of Assam and adivasis of Assam in 2011
Year All Assam literacy rate Adivasis literacy rate
2011 73.18% 54.67%
Source: Economic survey of Assam, 2012
The above table clearly shows that the adivasis of Assam are lagging far
behind than their other counterparts of the state. The overall literacy rate of
Assam during the last census was 73.18%, while that of the tea tribe for the
same was much lower at 54.67%.
Gross Enrolment Ratio of the adivasis also vastly differs from that of overall
rate of the state, as it is clearly visible from the following table.
Table:2
All Assam rate (in %) Rate of the Adivasis (in %)
Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) 84.97 67.04
Children never enrolled 19.26 21.35
Currently not enrolled 33.37 52
Source: Economic Survey of Assam, 2012
Exploitation by their owners and dearth of scope outside compelled the
tea workers not to send their children to even primary schools. They prefer to
keep their children at home to look after their younger siblings when they go to
work in the garden. Even these children are sometimes forced to work as
casual labour in their respective gardens. As corruption is becoming a genetic
disease, the scream of these sufferers remains unheard by the government or
other so-called intellectual section of the society in most of the cases.
Economic status: Fulfilling the basic requirements is the primary objective
of any individual. Every individual is driven by the motive of invisible hand
which is referred to the intention of maximizing his/her own interest. The
portrait of economic status of the adivasis is found to be most pathetic among
all the communities of Assam. The tea garden workers receive much lesser
amount in terms of daily wage than the daily wage in the market. In 2013,
though the state government set the minimum daily wage at Rs. 169 for the tea
plantation workers, it is still not that sufficient as the market wage rate is
roaring up to near Rs. 250 per day. As the prices of basic necessities have
general tendency to spark always high, the tea workers find it cumbersome to
maintain at least a makeshift standard of living. Engagement in formal banking
system or social security measure like life insurance policy still seems to be
pipe dream for most of the workers as it is very evident from the existence of
only 5 lakhs bank account among 25 lakhs of tea workers and only one active
Automated Teller Machine (ATM) in 850 tea gardens in the state (Amar Asom,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 117
December, 2016). Adding salt to the wound, the tea labourers do not enjoy
the status of Below Poverty Line (BPL) families even after having a disgusting
and deplorable living condition. This is due to fact that the tea garden Coolie
lines are regarded as neither urban nor rural and hence always stays outside
the facility of ration card cum identification card reservation for BPL families
(Bhattacharjee and Nirmolia, 2015).
Health Status: The constitution of India gives its citizen the right to health as
a fundamental right. In the words of World Health Organization (WHO), health
can be defined as the status of complete physical, mental and social well-
being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. A good health means
better ability to produce a quality outcome of any productive activity.
Providing a manageable health care facility, which was one of the
mandates of Plantation Labour Act of 1956, in the tea gardens has been an
uphill task for the government. Although there exists Primary Health Center
(PHC) in most of the tea gardens of the state, but these are not that sufficient
and well-equipped to cater the entire medical needs of the workers. According
to the study made by Assam Tea Welfare Board, as much as 90% of the tea
garden population is not acquainted with the scheme and policies launched by
government for their health up gradation. Medhi and Hazarika (2016) reveals
the fact that prevalence of stunting was 47.4% and 51.9% among boys and
girls respectively relative to NCHS reference, which reduced to almost 30%
while Indian reference data was used. Prevalence of thinness was higher among
boys (59.5%) than the girls (41.3%) counterparts. Almost three quarters of
the women who die in the tea gardens during pregnancy and childbirth are of
age between 20 and 30 years, indicating that they are having children earlier
and more frequently than the national average, which in turn suggests that
they lack contraception.
But a recent survey conducted by Assam Branch of Indian Tea Association
(ABITA) across 277 gardens of Assam brings at least a ray of hope to some
extent. According to the report published by ABITA, Maternal Mortality Rate
(MMR) and Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) are 227 and 18 respectively in these
tea gardens as against 301 and 55 for the same in the state as a whole. But
mammoth success has yet to be achieved by the Ministry of Health and Welfare
through integrated co-operation with the involvement of other local communities
and NGOs, with the objective to transform the adivasis into a sustainable
community
Environmental status: Dismal environment around the tea garden habitats
is another disastrous disturbance. Lack of proper drainage system along the
coolie line, habit of workers to keep their domestic animals even within their
overcrowded campus, inability to access healthy water and sanitation facility,
lack of personal interest of the workers towards hygiene and many other factors
make the environment in almost all the tea gardens more fragile and much
deplorable. The facilities provided by the management are not supposed to be
118 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
3. Baishya, D. (2016): History of tea industry and status of tea garden workers of
Assam, International Journal for Applied Research (IJAR), 2(4).
4. Bhattacharjee, A. and Nirmolia, L.P. (2015): Role of tea industry in rural
development of Assam: Issues and challenges in respect of human resource,
Annual conference of proceeding, XVI, January, Jorhat, Assam, India.
5. Das Gupta, A. (2013): The socio-economic and health challenge of labour in
the tea gardens of Assam, Indian Institute of Plantation Management, Bangalore,
India.
6. Hazarika, K. (2012): Tea tribe is lagging behind in the process of urbanization,
International journal for trends in Economic Management and Technology
(IJTEMT), Vol. 1, Issue 6, Silchar, Assam, India.
7. Medhi, G.K., Hazarika, A.N. (2016): Nutritional status of adolescent among
tea garden workers, Regional Medical Research Centre, N.E. Region (ICMR),
Dibrugarh, Assam, India
8. North-East Enquiry, 2014
9. Statistical Handbook of Assam (2012): Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
Government of Assam, Guwahati-28, Assam, India.
10. Tea Board of India, Kolkata, India.
11. Topno, W. (2006): Struggles of adivasis of Assam.
12. http://www.actionaid.org/India/what-we-do/assam/right-tea-garden-workers-
assam.
13. Shodhganga: inflibnet.ac.in>bit stream.
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
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environmental and safety laws, attitude to whistle blowers, selling and marketing
activities and many other occasions whereby it becomes a useful tool to earn
reputation and acceptance in the economy. Business Ethics brings in
conjunctions with virtuous motives with duty, obligation, goodwill and prudence
which help in maintaining balance between goals of an entity and the welfare
of the society. To bring about a better ethical environment, organisations should
chalk out programmes for bringing accountability towards ethics. This can be
introduced by means of commitment of top management which will assure
integration of ethical policies with the management for setting its standards.
Ethical standards need to be clearly understood and proper training in this
regard can be useful.
Objectives: The paper is an effort to study the ethical scenario in the Indian
economy and the various issues in relation to its environment. Thus, two
objectives were sought for a better understanding, which are as follows:
1. To identify the applicability of business ethics in Indian economy.
2. To study the various sources of ethical issues in the Indian business
environment.
Methodology: The paper has been carried out with the help of secondary
sources including paper published in various websites and with reference to a
few books.
Part-II
Section A: This part of the paper attempts for an in-depth study of the
Objectives No. 1.
The Indian business organisations in order to comply with the international
standards have also opted for the forming of ethical policies and guidelines in
its codes which exhibit their contributions towards the social, economic and
political environment in India. These ethical issues were brought into picture
because of increasing demand for such practices throughout the country and
also due to the various scams that took place due its inadequateness. Although,
now-a-days, almost all organisations have made it mandatory to include Ethical
Codes into its management. Thus, few companies were selected for this purpose
to highlight the major contributions towards society and the stakeholders by
companies or organisations in order to maintain a good image.
An analysis has been made on five companies which have included Ethical
Code into their management system. They are:
1. Oil India Limited (OIL):
Date of Inclusion in its reports: 1st Jan 2006
Applicability in matters of:
Complying with Disclosures Requirements
Prohibit insider trading
Representation in Public only by specialised officer to maintain the
confidentiality of stakeholders
Compliance with regulatory laws of the land
122 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Equity
Review of codes
summed up as follows:
Corruption
Customer Relations
Employee Relations
Industrial/ Corporate/ Economic Espionage or Competitive Intelligence
Environment Relations
Corruption- One of the major aspect in todays world that challenges
the ethical mindset of the general public or even for the corporate houses is
corruption. Corruption has been a common phenomena right from paying a
peon for setting an appointment to paying to a high level government official
for getting various plans passed and also offering some amount of money to
political parties, candidates holding influential positions, which they may use
in order to support the organization. It has become a mindset that in order to
get some work done some sort of bribery or kickbacks has to be made. In the
context of Corruption, Bribery and Corporate Frauds it can be mentioned
that in 2012 and 2013, India was ranked 94 among 176 countries on the
Corruption Perception Index (CPI) and the Financial Stability Report of the
RBI revealed that losses of over INR 4,448 crores (approx. USD 8.2 billion)
to Indian banks from financial frauds in 2012 were the highest ever.
Customer Relations- For any company to succeed it must and have to
earn the respect and confidence of their customers. And for the present day
managers one of the ethical problems faced is customer relation. To start with-
the use of overstated prices shown towards spending up huge amounts for
promotion of products, use of inflated value added service tax, using dubious
practices of packaging, promoting and selling of products into the market,
launching products that are below standards but are advertised in such a way
that it to be superior in quality, hiding of facts related to customer safety all
includes the unethical practices done by some business units. There are also
situations in which the organizations violate not only the ethical business
principles, but also the fundamental rights of the consumers even though various
legislations exist for their protection.
Employee Relations- It is another important aspect upon which the
managers make decisions. The corporate houses have to handle the tough job
to create an environment of respect and trust, by respecting the rights of the
personnel that are given to them. The employees will start to step in into their
tasks, for the success of the organization, only if they are give a certain status
at their workplace along with liberty, intimacy, and a fair salary. It is very
common to a organisation while carrying on its activities in a developing country
that it may start to ignore the basic and fundamental rights of the employees by
exploiting them and not providing remuneration as per standards as they also
know that they would work at even less price in order to survive. But it has
long term consequences that may lead to labour unrests, strikes, lockouts etc.
Speaking about consequences here is an event from Maruti Udyog Limited at
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 125
Manesar that was plagued by labour unrest at its Manesar plant for over a year
during the year 2011-12. The labour unrest resulted in halting production.
According to a leading newspaper, the series of workers strikes at the plant
caused a production loss of 83,000 cars which in terms of money was INR
2,500 crore1.
Industrial/ Corporate/ Economic Espionage or Competitive
Intelligence- Corporate espionage also called as the Competitive Intelligence
is an unconventional and also an illegal method which corporations use in
order to go ahead of their competitors. It involves executives spying on their
rivals as to gain economic as well as technological advantage. According to a
report of Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India
(ASSOCHAM) over 35% of companies that are operating in various sectors
across India are involved in corporate espionage to gain advantage over their
company believe that companies that have strong labour unions hire spying
agencies to monitor the union leaders to ensure that they were not being paid
by competitors and even politicians in order to create problems in the future.
Environment Relations- A business has to operate in a particular
environment and therefore its responsibility towards it is very important.
Relation with the environment is a important source of ethical issue for almost
all business houses. The business organizations must respect the national
legislation regarding environment protection. Protecting the natural environment
must be considered a major social task for sustainability of humankind especially
by representatives in the business world. In spite of all this they are tempted to
break the rules, as the costs required to obey the rules often considerably reduce
the companies profits and competitive capacity. Many times it is seen that
famous names in the business were involved in pollution scandals which caused
long-term effects in the reputation and the image perceived by the consumers.
A few years back Coca-Cola India faced serious criticism from activists and
environmental experts who charged it with depleting groundwater resources
in the areas in which its bottling plants were located which thereby affected
the livelihood of the farmers, dumping toxic and hazardous waste materials
near its bottling facilities and discharging waste water into the agricultural
lands of farmers. Notwithstanding the criticism Coca-Cola India continued to
introduce various initiatives such as rain water harvesting, restoring
groundwater resources and adopting sustainable packaging and recycling and
serving the communities where it operated. Coca-Cola planned to become
water neutral in India by 2009 as a part of its global strategy.2
Conclusion: Business ethics thus in a nutshell can be regarded as an important
constituent of companies and business firms. Following ethical principles one
remains in the safe side and earn good reputation and an image. Ethics brings
in:
Adoption of ethics in the organizations will create a positive image in
the mind of the public and will regard it with confidence and tempted to support
126 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
its actions.
Corporate ethics and social responsibility are related to good financial
performance as more profitable firms can better afford to invest in ethics and
social responsibility initiatives, and these initiatives in turn lead to more profits.
The consequences of unethical behaviour of a company may harm the company
in a process which may involve series of events such as - wasting the company
wealth to hide the unethical behaviour, affecting the reputation of the
organization, losing various clients and business partners and finally leading
to the shutting down of the company.
======================
References :
1. Ethics and conduct of business, Boatright, John,R., Patra, Bibhu, P., Pearson
Education incorporation, Delhi, 6th Edition., 2011
2. Business Ethics and corporate Governance, Bhatia, S.K., Deep & Deep
publication Pvt. Ltd., 2004, New Delhi.
3. Global Journal of Management and Business Studies. Volume 3, Number 10
(2013), Research India Publications.
4. Prasad S. N., Case Study: Labour Unrest at Manesar Plant of Maruti Suzuki in
2012, A Perspective
5. http://www.nrl.co.in/1Code-of-conduct1, Accessed on 21 June, 2017
6. http://www.tataglobalbeverages.com/investors/governance/policies, Accessed on
23 June, 2017
7. http://www.assamco.com/codeofconduct.html, Accessed on 23 June, 2017
8. www.hindpaper.in/profile/vigilance.htm, Accessed on 23 June, 2017
9. www.hindpaper.in/images/pdf/CSR_Policy.pdf, Accessed on 23 June, 2017
10. http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/India-ranks-76-in-Corruption-
Perception-Index/article14022729.ece, Accessed on 24 June, 2017.
11. Kaur H and Aggarwal G, A Paradox on Corporate Social Responsibility - Case
Study on Coca Cola, International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences,
Volume 2, Issue 9, Sep 2012
12. http://www.assocham.org/newsdetail.php?id=4837, Accessed on 24 June, 2017
Footnotes:
1. Prasad S. N., Case Study: Labour Unrest at Manesar Plant of Maruti Suzuki in
2012, A Perspective.
2. Kaur H and Aggarwal G, A Paradox on Corporate Social Responsibility - Case
Study on Coca Cola, International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences,
Volume 2, Issue 9, Sep 2012
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
over more than five decades and contributed to the industrial as well as economic
development of the region. Soon after liberalization, the corporation had to
face major challenges in terms of restraining growth of NPAs, fund constraints
and generating profits due to prudential norms followed for assets classification.
The corporation has been constantly endeavoring to push upward their
performances in order to enhance more financial support to the small and
medium scale sector.
Need of the study:
The Assam Financial Corporation has been played a major role in
developing the industrial infrastructure of the northeastern region since its
inception. But the industrial development of Assam and other northeastern
part is not boosted up as per the expectation, due to which the economic
development of the region is also hampered. In order to examine how the
financial institution like AFC is performing in this regard, their operation and
financial performance is needed to be analyzed.
Review of Literature: The following are the related literature review found
essential for the purpose of the study.
Sana kumar Ashish, Kanrar Susanta (2009) in their paper, Role of State
Financial Corporations in the Development of Micro, Small and Medium
Enterprises: A Study With Special Reference to West Bengal Financial
Corporation(WBFC) mentioned that state financial corporations have been
established to provide various types of financial and non-financial assistance
in MSME sectors. Through this paper an attempt had been made to study the
role of WBFC in the development of MSME sectors.
Reddy Viswanatha (2013) in the study Operational and Financial
Performance of Andhra Pradesh State Financial Corporation (APSFC): An
Overview has made an attempt to examine the numbers of applications
sanctioned with applied amount, flow of assistance in terms of sanctions and
disbursements, flow of assistance to the small-scale sector, Recovery
performance of the Corporation, Cost of borrowings and return on average
assets of APSFC.
Baldaniya, Bhavesh J. (2015) in the paper titled- An analytical study of
financial performance of state financial corporation with special reference
to Gujarat state financial corporation mentioned that since the last few years,
the corporation was passing through financial difficulty. Due to very heavy
NPA, commercial banks had stopped advancing fresh loans since October
2001. The capital structure of the GSFC was neither much sound, nor had
stable position in the long run. The researcher also mentioned that for any
reform to succeed, the infrastructure should be strengthened and so also the
man power deployed in it.
Aneja Ranjan, Makkar Anita (2015) in their study on Performance
Analysis of SFCS in India: A Case Study of Haryana Financial Corporation
evaluated the financial and operational performance of Haryana Financial
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 129
Corporation (HFC) and concluded that HFC is inefficient from almost all sides
of its functioning. HFC also failed to provide sanctions and disbursements
rationally to develop the state of Haryana properly.
Objectives of the study: The main aim of the present study is to know the
performance of the AFC during the 5 years from 2008-09 to 2012-13 in the
field of providing the financial assistance to the small and medium scale
industries of Assam and other northeastern states of India. Following are the
two basic objectives undertaken for the study.
1. To analyse the financial performance of AFC and
2. To evaluate the operational performance of AFC
Limitation of the study: The area of the present study is kept limited for a
period of only 5 years i.e. from 2008-09 to 2012-13due to shortage of time.
Research Methodology: The present study is a descriptive and analytical
form of research. The secondary source of data has been collected for a period
of 5 years (i.e. from 2008-09 to 2012-13) for the purpose of the study. The
collected data has been analysed by using various financial ratios in order to
assess the operational and financial performance of AFC.
Findings of the study: The financial and operational performance of AFC
has been judged with help of the following financial ratios and by comparing
the total loan sanctioned and disbursed.
Financial Performance
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Current Ratio 9.70 9.32 3.21 5.77 6.09
Absolute Liquid Ratio 3.64 8.37 2.86 4.93 5.56
Debt-Equity Ratio 0 0.66 0.66 0.54 2.03
Fixed Assets Ratio 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02
Return on Investment 14% 8% 5.7% 4.2% 0.74%
Earnings Per Share 16.3 9.3 6.6 4.9 2.8
indicates the shareholders are not earning a good amount from their
investment.
Operational performance
Rs. in crores
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Loan sanctioned 3.18 7.28 14.39 30.39 23.19
Loan disbursed 3.51 3.78 7.05 10.12 20.69
Loan recovery 8.11 6.91 6.35 6.26 7.82
Nagaland and RGVN (NE) Microfinance Ltd, a Guwahati based MFI has
operations in the north eastern states of Assam, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Nagaland
and Arunachal Pradesh and has been tentatively shortlisted as Microfinance
institution.
Region wise performance of Banks and MFIs (Amount disbursed)
Table 1:
Current Status of Financial Inclusion
Table 1: Current Status of Financial Inclusion
States No. of low Current credit Average Estimated Fin. Included
income supply in loans size, no. of households
households* northeast,Rs Rs financially as % of total
bn households low income
HH
Assam 2,545,631 4.04 8,000 505,000 20%
Manipur 148,212 0.37 10,000 37,000 25%
Meghalaya 168,879 0.11 10,000 11,000 7%
Tripura 291,082 0.47 10,000 47,000 16%
Nagaland 109,825 0.09 10,000 9,000 8%
Arunachal 127,114 0.23 10,000 23,000 18%
Mizoram 37,755 0.14 10,000 14,000 37%
Sikkim** 18,815 0.39 10,000 39,000 207%
Total 3,447,313 5.84 685,000 19.8%
*Source: Census,2001
**Data suggests that Sikkim has more credit supply than estimated demand
Sikkim is a clear outlier amongst the Northeastern states, with a developed
financial system where credit supply exceeds demand. Elsewhere, the extent
of financial inclusion varies from a minimal 7% in Meghalaya to a respectable
37% in Mizoram average approximately 19%. Clearly some states require far
more support.
Women Enterprises and SSI unit managed by women in NER of India:
Table-2:
Participation of Women in Management/ Ownership in SSI sector
Name of State No of No of women No of female Percentage of
/UTs Enterprises enterprises Employee both female
managed by registered and employment in
women unregistered the total
sector. employment of
the state / UTs
Arunachal pradesh 131 150 446 12.10
Assam 11189 11757 26065 6.08
Manipur 9168 10745 23338 17.06
Meghalaya 3658 3580 8803 13.42
Mizoram 3076 3700 6824 27.46
Nagaland 207 179 3211 5.65
Sikkim 30 98 221 16.72
Tripura 631 863 7619 13.38
All India 995141 1063721 3317496 13.31
Source: Compiled from Ministry of MSME , Govt of India, 2010
It is observed from Table 2 that Assam represents more women owned
enterprises and also engaged a large number of women employees in both
registered and unregistered sector in comparison to other NER States. However,
in Assam the percentage of female employment in total employment is
comparatively lower (6.08) than other NER states. Among, NER Mizoram
recorded highest percentage of female employee in the total employment.
136 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Table-3
Participation of women in SSI sector (as on march, 2008)
States Unregistered Women Registered Women
enterprises enterprises enterprises enterprises
managed by managed by
women women
Sikkim 0 53 30 45
Arunachal 80 87 51 63
Pradesh
Nagaland 130 122 77 57
Manipur 8434 9980 734 765
Mizoram 2346 3007 730 693
Tripura 578 784 53 79
Meghalaya 3018 2929 640 651
Assam 9241 9716 1948 2041
NER 23827 22678 4263 4394
All India 880780 926187 114361 137534
Source: Compiled from NEC databank, 2008.
It is observed that the percentage of women in SSI units (unregistered
sector) in the NER is only 2.7%. Further, among the NER states, Manipur
represents the highest percentage of women participation in SSI in both
registered and unregistered sector.
Problems of women and microentrepreneurship in NER of India: The
SHG Bank linkage is still not properly understood by Northern states in
comparison to other parts of India due to lack of financial literacy. Therefore,
challenge in Northeast currently not of achieving rapid growth but of creating
conducive atmosphere and awareness about financial services. In Assam and
to some extent Manipur one has to focus on growth and increasing outreach,
however in other NER states the focus presently has to be on establishing
institutions and creating credit culture. Existing microfinance institutions are
facing several constraints due to limited funding, inappropriate legal firms,
high operational costs and moderate human resource quality. The region due
to its socio-political and geographic peculiarities faces several constraints. The
region lacks infrastructure, lacks connectivity with rest of the country, is very
diverse culturallyhas been facing problem of insurgency over past several
decades. Besides, due to illiteracy of women, They are not aware of micro
entrepreneurship which can improve their minimum standard of living. In rural
areas, women are socially less exposed, economically hard pressed and basically
they are engaged more with household chores.
Findings: From the study it is found that microfinance institutions like
BANDHAN, NABARD, RGVN and SHG-Bank linkage programme has
played a major role in covering the entire Northeastern region in financial
inclusion. Among the Northeastern states, in Assam and Manipur SHGs and
microfinance institutions hs played a major role in financial inclusion resulting
in greater extent of micro and women entrepreneurship in comparison to other
Northeastern states. In addition, among the entire Northeastern states, Assam
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 137
lies in the interactions between distribution and growth, and not in relationship
between poverty and inequality on one hand and poverty and growth on the
other, which are essentially arithmetic(Francois Bourguignon, 2004) .
II. Growth , Inequality and Poverty
Growth: Economic growth is the increase in the inflation adjusted market
value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. The world
economy or global economy is the economy of the world, considered as the
international exchange of goods and services that is expressed in monetary
units of account (money). Global growth in 2016 is estimated at a post-crisis
low of 2.3% and is projected to rise to 2.7% in 2017(IMF World outlook). The
economy of India is the seventh largest economy in the world measured by
nominal GDP and the third largest by purchasing power parity. India has
emerged as the fastest growing major economy in the world as per the Central
Statistics Organization (CSO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Numerous foreign companies are setting up their facilities in India on account
of various government initiatives like Make in India and Digital India. Mr.
Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India, has launched the Make in India
initiative with an aim to boost the manufacturing sector of India economy.
Digital India initiative, which focuses on three core components: creation of
digital infrastructure, delivering services digitally and to increase the digital
literacy. In the paper some major states are selected to show the growth rate
across the India since 1980 to 2009.
Growth rate across the major states in India:
State-wise , Period-wise Compound Growth Rate of NSDP
States 1980-81 to 1989-90 1990-91 to 1999-00 2000-01 to2008-09
Growth Rate Rank Growth Rate Rank Growth Rate Rank
Gujarat 4.8 12 8.0 2 10.6 1
Goa 5.2 9 8.4 1 8.9 3
Uttaranchal - 2.6 24 8.9 4
Kerala 2.6 22 5.9 12 8.5 5
Orissa 4.8 14 4.0 22 8.4 6
Nagaland 7.5 2 5.6 13 8.4 7
Jharkhand - - 6.5 8 8.4 8
Maharashtra 5.6 5 6.9 5 8.4 9
Bihar 4.7 16 2.0 27 7.2 15
Rajasthan 5.9 4 6.5 7 6.5 18
Meghalaya 4.4 19 5.5 15 5.8 21
Assam 3.3 21 2.2 26 5.3 25
Punjab 5.4 6 4.4 21 5.1 26
Madhya Pradesh 3.6 20 5.6 14 4.5 27
Source; Annual Report of RBI
140 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
In the diagram it is seen that the growth rate of Gujarat has increased at
a tremendous rate and success to secure the first position according to 2009
report and the growth of Gujarat is 10.6%. Accordingly the growth of other
states also increases at an increasing and decreasing rate except Madhya
Pradesh which growth rate decreases from 5.6% in 1999 to 4.5% in 2009.
Inequality: Inequality may be one of the great challenges to global development
and communitys social fabric. The story of inequality in many developed
countries, including the U.S. and U.K. is more sobering. A report by the Paris-
based Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
showed that while globally, household income increased overall by 1.7%yearly,
not all income levels have benefited equally. The worlds bottom earners
income grew annually by only 1.4% in the last 30 years, while the top earners
grew by 2%. According to Thomas Piketty (2016), there is a huge gap in
data about income tax in India. As of November 2016, India is second most
unequal country in the world. The richest 1% of Indias own 58.4% of wealth.
The richest 10% of the Indian own 80.75 of the wealth. This trend is going in
the upward direction every year, which means the rich are getting richer and
the poor are getting poorer.
Indias Gini Coefficient Report: In India, National Sample Survey does not
collect data on income, because people deliberately dont tell their income
when asked during data collection. The Gini coefficients cited are from NSSO
is based on consumption expenditure rather. This simply implies that the
inequality in distribution of income will be more than inequality in distribution
of expenditure. The only organization that provides income distribution data is
National Council Of Applied Economics Research. (NCAER), through the
National Survey of Household Income and expenditure (NSHIE). Last time,
the NSHIE was done in 2004-05. NSHIE showed a Gini coefficient of 0.466
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 141
Figure-2
142 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
In the diagram it is seen that Punjab ranks highest in case of lower rate of
poverty and Orissa has the highest rate of people below poverty line.
III. Interconnections amongst Growth, Inequality and Poverty:
Inequality and Poverty are global problems. In contains of poverty it can be
said that poverty rates are related to the overall health of the economy. As the
economy grows, so do opportunities for employment and income growth.
Stronger labor markets and higher income levels tend to help those families
living in poverty move above the poverty threshold. According to national
data, poverty rates have moved somewhat together with changes in the
unemployment rate since 1959, and in opposite directions in relation to changes
in inflation adjusted median income. That is, lower poverty rate is coincide
with decreases in unemployment or increases in income. Some studies have
suggested that the relationship between changes in the poverty rate and
macroeconomic variables have weakened over time. An October 2005 National
Bureau of Economic Research working paper by, Hilary Hoynes, Marianne
Page and Ann Stevens(2005) suggested that while the link has weakened,
changes in the unemployment rate and median wages nevertheless predict
changes in the poverty rate rather well.
In regards of inequality and poverty all countries are affected. But one
that is particularly receiving attention is India. India is one of the largest growing
economies in the world. During the last two decades India has only been able
to maintain a sustained growth, but also reducing poverty steadily. However,
neither growth nor poverty reduction is uniform across regions of India. The
non-uniformity might be either due to economic growth, or due to different
aspects of poverty reducing impact of that growth. So the relationship amongst
growth, inequality and poverty can be said as that promoting economic growth,
increases total income in society, creating more jobs and income which could
be distributed.
Economic growth will reduce income inequality and poverty if
1. Wages of the lowest paid rise faster than the average wage.
2. Government benefits such as unemployment benefits, sickness benefits
and pensions are increased in line with average wages.
3. Minimum wages increases in the line with average earnings.
IV. Poverty Growth Inequality Triangle Model: In developmental
economics, the Poverty-Growth-Inequality Triangle also called the Growth
inequality poverty Triangle or GIP Triangle refers to the idea that a countrys
change in poverty can be fully determined by its change in income growth and
income inequality. According to the model, a development strategy must then
also be based on income growth and income inequality. The Poverty Growth
Inequality Triangle model was created by Francois Bourguignon, the former
Chief Economist (2003-2007) of the World Bank.
Bourguignon defines the model by following diagram-
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 143
Table-D-3
Categorization of Capital Expenditure (Rs. In Crore)
Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Non-plan capital expenditure 156.00 223.00 233.00 325.00 242.00
21% 20% 21% 33% 18%
Plan capital expenditure 601.00 887.00 891.00 1091.00 1135.00
79% 80% 79% 77% 82%
Total capital expenditure 757.00 1110.00 1124.00 1416.00 1377.00
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)
Table-D-5
Categorisation of Capital Expenditure (Rs in crore)
Particulars 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
General services 36.00 (6%) 27.00 (2%) 61.00 (5%) 16.00(1%) 82.00(6%)
314.00 460.00 363.00
Social services 133.00 (18%) 224.00 (20%)
(28%) (32%) (26%)
514.00 643.00 600.00 673.00
Economic services 405.00 (51%)
(46%) (57%) (42%) (49%)
202.00 169.00 299.00 203.00
Public debts 141.00 (19%)
(18%) (15%) (21%) (15%)
42.00 27.00 42.00 56.00
Loans and advances 52.00(5%)
(6%) (2%) (3%) (4%)
757.00 1109.00 1124.00 1417.00 1377.00
Total capital disbursement
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)
It is also noticed in Table D-7 that there was no capital disbursement for
urban development under social services in 2014-15. Therefore, the government
of Meghalaya should give more emphasis to continue the allotment of fund in
the budget for urban development.
9. Capital Expenditure for General Services:
Capital Outlay for General Services can be Categorized as Capital
Expenditure for Police, Stationery &Printing and Public Works Department.
The major portion of Capital Expenditure under General Services is usually
incurred for Public Work. The Department of Public Work spent 68.28% to
79.56% amount of total Capital Disbursement of General Service Category as
Capital Expenditure for asset creation.But important fact is that the government
wasnot disbursedany fund for assets creation on public works department under
general services in 2011-12 and 2013-14.it explicit that in these two periods,
the state government given less importance for public works.
But it is noticeable that the Government of Meghalaya disbursed only 1.37%
to 12.13% amount for stationary and printing Department as Capital
Expenditure. The police department also involved very less amount in 2011-
11, 2012-13 and 2014-15 as Capital Expenditure. But surprisingly in 2011-12
and in 2013-14, the capital outlay on police department was increased by
90.81% and 87.88%.From these observations it is clear that, though the
capital outlay on police department was increased very highly but the
state government was not allotted any amount on public works
department in these two years.
The state government spent less amounts as capital outlay under General
Services in Comparison to other two services (i.e. Economic and Social
Services) and major portion of the capital expenditure under General Services
are usually incurred for road and building construction for smooth functioning
of administration.
Table D.-8
Capital outlay on general services (Rs. in Crore)
Table-3
Sl. Name of the Total No. of Women No. of Enterprises No. of
No. State Enterprises Enterprises Managed by Women female
Employees
in the
MSME
Sector
REGD UN- TOTAL REGD UN- TOTAL
REGD REGD
1 Sikkim 368 45 53 98 30 0 30 221
2 Arunachal 1252 63 87 150 51 80 131 446
3 Nagaland 13861 57 122 179 77 130 207 3211
4 Manipur 47999 765 9980 10745 734 8434 9168 23338
5 Mizoram 11116 693 3007 3700 730 2346 3076 6824
6 Tripura 24352 79 784 863 53 578 631 7619
7 Meghalaya 22520 651 2929 3580 640 3018 3658 8803
8 Assam 194379 2041 9716 11757 1948 9241 11189 26065
Ner 315847 4394 26678 31072 4263 23827 28090 76527
All India 10521190 137534 926187 1063721 114361 880780 995141 3317496
(In Lakhs)
Assam.
To know about the factors influencing the women entrepreneurs in Assam.
To know about the schemes promoting women entrepreneurs in Assam.
Analysis: From the reviews made by the researcher, it was basically found as
follows:
1) Women Entrepreneurs are engaged in business due to pull factors, which
encourage them to become entrepreneurs such as their desire to do new
in life, need for independence, availability of finance, concessions and
subsidies.
2) Women performs important role in building the real backbone of nations
economy, as they have the ability to balance different tasks and priorities,
and also capable in building good relationship with both customers and
employees, and also they have the potential and the will to establish and
manage enterprise of their own, and these strengths and potentials of
them are tapped for productive channels.
3) Thirdly, the promotion of women entrepreneurship is a reliable means
of achieving economic stability of women and their families. It involves
considerable spending on education which will help in enhancing
womens decision making power and reducing gender discrimination to
a great extent.
4) The country has undergone tremendous changes and has experienced
higher rates of growth- economically, industrially, and technologically.
Increasing educational facilities, industrialization, new economic policy,
positive approach of government, availability of financial resources,
entrepreneurship development, training facility and changing socio-
economic-political empowerment encouraged women to enter into
entrepreneurial activities.
Conclusion:
Though Assam is a male dominated society, but today women come
forward to make their own destiny. Entrepreneurship development or income
generating business activities are a feasible solution for empowering woman
and helping them to stand on their own feet. Increasing female literacy
empowers women to make financial decisions, facilitating easy availability of
credits, formulating woman friendly policies helps in encouraging, promoting
and developing women entrepreneurs to a great extent. With relevant
education, improved economic conditions and financial opportunities will be
helpful for woman to create and sustain successful business venture.
======================
References :
1. Abhirrao, Dr. Jitendra (2013). Entrepreneurship and Rural Women in India.
New Delhi, India: New Century Publications.
2. Dhameja, S.K. (2008). Women Entrepreneurs: Opportunities, Performance
andProblems. New Delhi - 110027: Deep & Deep Publications Private Limited.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 159
lowest among those countries with the largest number of poor, even though it
was home to the largest number of poor. Poverty measures for India are based
on the household expenditure surveys, which are done as part of the National
Sample Surveys (NSS), it basically uses 30-day recall for consumption of
both food and non-food items to measure expenditures. These so-called
uniform reference period (URP) consumption aggregates collected in every
consumption survey (except 1999-2000) provide the longest consistent series
for measuring poverty in India. These provide a basis to the World Bank to
estimate Indias poverty at the international poverty line.
The NSS Organization introduced a new consumption series based on a
modified mixed reference period (MMRP) in the 2009-10 survey. The
MMRP series modified the former 30-day recall to a 7-day recall for some
food items and to a 1-year recall for low-frequency non-food consumption
items and it was recommended as a more accurate reflection of consumption
expenditures. As a result of the shorter recall period for food items, MMRP-
based consumption expenditures in both rural and urban areas are 1012 per
cent larger than URP-based aggregates. It also estimates a lower poverty rate
of 12.4 per cent for 2011-12.
Poverty is declining, but not so fast. The global poverty headcount ratio
was 35% in 1990 and then declined to 12.4% in 2012, and in 2013 it was
10.7%. In 1990, almost 2 billion people lived in extreme poverty but in 2013
it was 767 million, although the worlds population had increased by almost 2
billion, mostly in the poorest regions.
The overall trends in B40 income growth appears to be generally positive,
but it is heterogeneous among the countries. If we consider the five-year periods
starting circa 2007 and ending around 2012, B40 incomes of the 65 countries
grew out of the 94 countries. Among them, 47 countries registered a shared
prosperity premium, with B40 incomes growing faster than the incomes of
the average population, thus reducing income inequality between these groups.
For these countries, the premium ranged from less than 1 percentage point to
well above 3, which reveals that growth in many countries has been considerably
pro-poor. Indeed, the average shared prosperity premium stood at 1.7 per cent.
Though poverty rate has fallen, but not all the countries made equal progress
on shared prosperity. While 65 countries experienced growing incomes for
the B40, 29 saw declines. And for 20 among them the shared prosperity
premium was negative, in these countries not only the incomes of the B40
decline, inequality also raised. For these countries, the premium ranged from
zero to -3.1 percentage points, with an average around (-1.2). Half of the
high-income countries and over a third of low-income experienced decline in
the incomes of the B40. Interestingly, among the countries that registered
positive income growth of the B40, all low-income countries registered a
positive shared prosperity premium whereas over a third of high-income
countries experienced a negative premium. Among developing regions, B40
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 163
income growth exceeded 5 per cent in 8 countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean, reducing income inequality between the B40 and the rest of the
population in all of them; while the other regions saw a more mixed result.
Again, in 2016 the World Banks Global Database of Shared Prosperity
published annual growth rates among the bottom 40 and the overall mean
growth rate for 83 countries; which is based on the based on data on the most
up- dated spell, circa 200813.
Table 1: Shared Prosperity, circa 2008-13
Name of the regions No. of countries Population Country average
(%) SP (%)
East Asia and Pacic 8 94 5.0
Eastern Europe and Central 24 89 1.5
Asia
Latin American and the 16 86 4.1
Caribbean
Middle East and North Africa 2 32 1.8
South Asia 4 87 3.7
Sub-Saharan Africa 9 23 2.7
Industrialized countries 20 68 -1.0
World 83 75 2.0
Water
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Sonapur College
166 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
the possible alternative to cane and bamboo as its abundance and easy
availability.
The identification of water hyacinth in North East India:
Water hyacinth is a free-floating plant that gets its nutrients from the
water from dangling roots. The plant reproduces by seeds and vegetative
through daughter plants that form on rhizomes and produce dense plant beds.
A single plant can produce as many as 5,000 seeds and waterfowl eat and
transport seeds to new locations. They are floating plants with round to oval,
shiny green leaves up-to-ten inches in diameter, although smaller leaves are
common. Leaves are held upright so they act like sails. A mass of fine roots
hang in the water underneath the plant. The flowers are blue-purple or lilac-
colored with a yellow spot. There are very few varieties of water hyacinth and
none of them commonly available. The Peacock Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
azurea) is very similar to the common variety.
The production process of water hyacinth for making varieties of
crafts and furniture:
1. Selection of water hyacinth: Different types of water hyacinth plant
use for different products. Usually long water hyacinth plant is uses for Mat,
Furniture, Basket, Bag etc. and short water hyacinth plant are uses for other
products.
2. Storage: The water hyacinth plant are stored together in such a way that
it can be picked up easily.
3. Carrying: The water hyacinth are carried in boat or by pull cart to the
production place.
4. Cutting as per required size: The water hyacinth are cut into different
shapes and sizes as per required designs by the workers to make different
items from it.
5. Drying: After the water hyacinth plants are cut, then it is dried in the
168 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
sun. As there is moisture present in it, so it is dried for a period and then the
actual work is carried out.
6. Flatting: Well dried stems will turn brown making crackling sound when
it will crumpled. Flatting Machine is required for thin fibre to make high quality
product. Currently it is being done manually with the help of hammer, stone
and bamboo.
7. Knitting: After flatting of the water hyacinth plant it is ready for knitting.
Some artisans are making mat and other product with the help of mould. There
are some artisans use frame to create lamp stand, furniture, mirror frame etc.
8. Surface decoration: Surface decoration is very important for water
hyacinth products. It is decorated by various beads, golden zori, jute flowers
etc., which gives an attractive look to the product.
9. Packaging: Various graphics and designs can be printed to make the
packaging look more attractive and more professional. Craft paper, Polythene
sheet, Bubble paper etc. are required for cardboard box packing to prevent
moisture effect.
10. Finished Product: The finished water hyacinth products are wrapped
with craft paper and before sale, it is stored in proper containers with lid in dry
place and minimum six inches height from the floor.
Average Net Profit of Last Three Financial Years: (Rs. In Cr.)
NEDFi integrate with NGOs and SHGs as partners in both social and business
missions. This proved to be a strategic decision as opportunities were available
in the society achieving the social mission of creating sustainable livelihood.
Findings and Suggestions:
Findings: The tools which are required for the production of water
hyacinth goods should be ergonomically designed according to the workstation.
Due to some problems like insufficient lighting arrangement, less tools,
insufficient space the workers face lot of problems. The worker holds the water
hyacinth stems in with their feet due to lack of holder. Currently, although the
products are being sold, the income from the sale of products is not much due
to worse quality. Use of proper cushioning in the workstation, cement floor
and furniture are required for good quality product. The persons which are
engaged in this field are not fully skilled and for that reason product up gradation
is too less and new technology are not been introduced. There is also a lack of
skill marketing to develop the artisans skill in national and international market
where they can get a good price for their product.
Suggestions: Product display is the main factor of selling with the current
methods of marketing such as local market, national and international markets
can also be explored. The efforts were made to re-introduce their traditional
170 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
designs, skills and techniques to cater to the modern needs. This would bring
them closer to become self-dependent. The worker must use proper tools while
working , use of improper tools may cause accident. While working, the waste
release by the water hyacinth and the dust may cause internal disease and
health problems. To avoid such problems, they must use a safety masks and
kits. Products can be displayed at various art centres, emporium and museums
across the cities to sell their products directly to the market which will also
help them to understand the choice of the customers and also about the latest
trend.
Conclusion: A common training centre which could provide training on skill
enhancement, quality control and product development can be established in
order to train more people in practicing this craft. The product range needs
wide publicity through print or electronic media to attract prospective buyers.
It can be observed that most of the beneficiaries covered under the project are
women. This innovative craft has transformed the lives of women in the rural
areas. The earnings depend on their productivity and the additional income
generated helps them in meeting their family needs. The water hyacinth craft
initiative is an innovative product in its own way, have been successfully utilized
as a substitute of cane and bamboo in making traditional handicraft items. The
result has been spectacular as this products have been successfully marketed
and there is a huge demand for these ecofriendly products in the market.
======================
References :
1. Borah, N. (2014): Water Hyacinth Craft - A livelihood initiative by NEDFi.
Social Science Research Network, available at SSRN 2539958, (accessed 8
August 2014).
2. Borpujari, U. (2016): Hyacinth turns producer in the NorthEast. http://
www.deccanherald.com/hyacinth-turns-productive northeast.html
3. Gopal, Brij (2015): Water Hyacinth (Aquatic Plant Studies), Elsevier Science
Ltd.
4. North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Limited (2016): NEDFi Annual
Budget Allocation.
5. Talukdar, B. R. (2016): Water Hyacinth CraftPearl of water transforming
lives. http://www.indiatogether.org/craft-economy.
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
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always accepted. When one begins critically questioning the moral principles
and precepts that he has already accepted, then he is engaged in doing moral
philosophy.
Business Ethics: Business ethics are reflected in the very philosophy of
business organizations. Ethics in the field of business are business ethics. These
are desired norms, moral set of values and behaviour exclusively dealing with
business transactions. It provides the guidelines that help individuals to screen
the rightness and wrongness of decisions and behaviours before an impulsive
or random act causes unforeseen negative consequences. It also refers to running
the business abiding with certain policies, rules and regulations desirable in
the area of business. For example in the area of marketing management
American Marketing Association defines its codes of ethics for its members
embracing the different topics. Business ethics are rules of business conduct,
by which the propriety of business activities may be judged. It can be defined
as an attempt to ascertain the responsibilities and ethical obligations of business
professionals. Here the focus is in people, how individuals should conduct
themselves in fulfilling the ethical requirements of business.
Business ethics is a study of moral standards and how these apply to the
systems and organizations through which modern societies produce and
distribute goods and services to the people who work within these organizations.
In other words it is a form of applied ethics. It includes not only the analysis of
moral norms and moral values, but also attempts to apply the conclusion of
this analysis to that assortment of institutions, technologies, transactions,
activities, and pursuits that we call business. As this description of business
ethics suggests, the issues that business ethics covers and encompass a wide
variety of topics. There are three different kinds of issues that business ethics
investigates: systemic, corporate and individual.
Systemic issues in business ethics are ethical questions raised about
economic, political, legal, and other social systems within which businesses
operate. These include questions about the morality of capitalism or the laws,
regulations, industrial structures, and social practices within which business
operate. Corporate issues in business ethics are ethical questions raised about
a particular company. These include questions about the morality of activities,
policies, practices, or organizational structure of an individual company taken
as a whole.
Business Ethics and Corporate Organisations: The most significant kinds
of modern business enterprises are corporations: organizations that the law
endows with special legal rights and powers. Today large corporate
organizations dominate our economies. Modern corporations are organizations
which have right to sue and to be sued, own and sell property, and enter into
contracts, all in their own name, as an organization. The modern corporations
consist of (a) stock holders who contribute capital and who own the corporation
but whose liabilities for the acts of the corporation is limited to the money they
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 173
contributed, (b) directors and officers who administer the corporations assets
and who run the corporation through various levels of middle managers and
see employees who provide labour and who do the basic work related directly
to the production of goods and services. To cope with their complex coordination
and control problems the officers and managers of large corporations adopt
formal bureaucratic systems of rules that link together the activities of the
individual members of the organization so as to achieve certain outcome and
objectives, such rules constitute the foundation of corporate ethics.
As far as rules, legislation, administration, policies and procedures of an
organization are concerned they tie organization together and this allows us to
say that organizations are responsible for their activities in the same way as
individuals are. Though the organization has moral duties to their members
and society, yet the rules which abide the individual together, have nothing to
do with morality. Corporate organizations and their acts depend on human
individuals and human beings run these organizations. That is why individuals
remain the ultimate point of accountability. When an organization member
collectively but freely and knowingly pursue immoral objectives, it ordinarily
makes perfectly good sense to say that the actions they perform for the
organization are immoral and organization is morally responsible for this
immoral action. As individuals who are the primary carriers of moral duties
and moral responsibilities in the organizations, are free to choose whether to
follow the organizations rules or even to change these rules, that is why
managerial or individual ethics are more important than corporate ethics as
they determine the quality of work life in the organization. The organization
system is only a machine through which ethics are applied. The corporate
policies, corporate culture, corporate norms and corporate design can and do
have an enormous influence on the choices and behaviours on corporate
employees.
For any business, justice should be the rule. This means that there should
be a company code of conduct that facilitates improved performance. It is the
duty of the management to ensure that responsibilities of business to
shareholders as well as to stakeholders are fulfilled. The concept of social
responsibility also includes the idea of trusteeship. Gandhi reminded us of
moral values saying that life itself is a trust and all powers carry obligations
with them. Managers are indeed trustees of shareholders and all its stakeholders
in any business organization. Each of parties involved in the business has no
more than a partial interest in the enterprise: only the management entrusted
with its governance carries the overall responsibilities for its success and growth.
Management must be freed from one sided dependence on any single interest,
if it has to take a broad enough view of all its obligations.
Business Ethics in Workplace: Business ethics should be followed in the
workplace in the following ways:
Employees: The modern concept of business is partnership between
174 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
services.
ii. Government:
a. Employer has to be law abiding, follow laws relating to trade, factories
and labours.
b. To pay his dues and taxes fully and honestly.
c. Not to purchase political support by unfair means.
d. Not to corrupt public servants.
e. Avoid adulteration.
To maintain fair trade practices and avoid hording and cornering.
Conclusion: Like all other fields of human activities, Ethics in business is
very important for the welfare of the society. We should remember the fact
that business is a means to promote human welfare and not an end in itself
whose main concern is the maximisation of profit. Hence every business activity
must have ethics at the background. Business activities and business
organisations are run by individuals and these individuals in their turn must be
guided by strong moral values like honesty, transparency, modesty, simplicity,
kindness or compassion and concern for humanity. Business is concerned with
production, distribution, marketing and advertisements. There should be ethics
in the system of production, fair and equal distribution and the consumption
pattern should be safe and harmless. Government should see to the fact that
goods produced in a particular area are equally distributed as far as practicable.
In order to achieve these goals, proper education to create awareness amongst
the people, improvement of communication system, abolition of middleman
who deceive the poor people and improvement of communication facilities
are important. No wonder, Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation said that
material advancement is not an end in itself but a means to a higher end that is
moral and spiritual upliftment of mankind.
References:
1. Grcic, Joseph (1989) Moral Choice: Ethical Theories and Problems, New York:
West Publishing Company.
2. Norman, Richard. 1983. The Moral Philosophers: An Introduction to Ethics.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3. Tripathi, A. N. 2003. Human Values. New Delhi New: Age International
Publishers.
4. Mal Leicester (2001) A Moral Education in an Ethical System. Journal of
Moral Education, Vol. 30, No 3, Page 251 to 260.
5. Robert Kunzman (2003) Religion, Ethics and the Implications For Moral
Education: A Critique of Nuccis morality and religious rules. Journal of Moral
Education, Volume 32, Issue 3, Page 251 to 261.
6. William C. Frick, (2009). Principles value-informed decision making,
intrapersonal moral discord, and pathways to resolution: The complexities of
moral leadership praxis, Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 47, Issue
1. Page 50 to 74.
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
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and management.
2. It aims at shifting the emphasis from expenditure- orientation to that of
proper utilization of resources.
3. It aims at involving every teacher in the formulation and implementation
of plans.
4. Institutional planning and management improve the quality of education
system.
Methodology: Methodology is based on secondary data and empirical study
only. All the data are collected from Internet, Journals, and related books.
Meaning and definition of institutional planning and management:
Institutional planning is the description of programmes constructed by an
institution. Institutional planning is the plan for the institution as a unit so that
its targets are defined in the plan, its time-bound progress is determined, the
rate of progress per unit of time is also determined, and the commitments are
made in the plan which regulate and accelerate its working. It is a scheme for
the efficient running, steady growth, balanced expansion, and priority-wise
progress of an institution. Management is universal in the modern industrial
world. Every individual organization requires the making of decisions, the
coordination of activities, the handling of people, and the evaluation of
performances directed towards group activities.
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or
directing, and controlling an organization or initiative to accomplish a goal.
Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources,
financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Definitions of institutional planning and management:
1. These terms institution planning and institution development as conceived
by Maquiso (1983) are elucidated as- Institution planning is the process
of thinking, deciding and willing so that an institution becomes a model
institution according to its purpose.
2. M.B. Buch has defined institutional planning An institutional plan is
a set of programmes prepared by an institution on the basis of its felt
needs and the knowledge of its resources available and likely to be
available with a view to improve the school standards and practices and
with a view to provide for the future development of the institution.
3. According to James- Management is management of people, not things.
It emphasizes personal management.
4. According to Cuthbert Ross-Management is an activity involving
responsibility for getting things done through other people.
5. According to F W Taylor- Management is the art of knowing exactly
what you want to do and seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest
way.
Scope of Institutional planning and management:
1. Improving the school plan:
178 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
resources. It makes optimum (best) use of these resources. This brings best
results to the institution.
8. Reduces wastage: Management reduces the wastage of human, material
and financial resources. Wastage is reduced by proper production planning
and control. If wastage is reduced then productivity will increase.
9. Increases efficiency: Efficiency is the relationship between returns and
cost. Management uses many techniques to increase returns and to reduce
costs. Higher efficiency brings many benefits to the organization.
10. Improves relations: Management improves relations between
individuals, groups, departments and between levels of management. Better
relations lead to better team work. Better team work brings success to the
organization.
11. Reduces absenteeism and labor turnover:
Absenteeism means the employee is absent without permission.
Labor Turnover means the employee leaves the organization.
Labor absenteeism and turnover increases the cost and causes many
problems in the smooth functioning of the organization. Management
uses different techniques to reduce absenteeism and labor turnover in
the organization.
12. Encourages Team Work: Management encourages employees to work
as a team. It develops a team spirit in the organization. This unity brings success
to the organization.
Improvement: Every institution must prepare a List of Improvement
programmes, along with details of each programme. The programmes can be
Long term or short term in nature. Each improvement programme must be
specific in terms of: 1. Utility for the institution. 2. Financial implications. 3.
Objectives must be stated in clear terms. 4. The programmes must be clearly
outlined in terms of tasks. 5. Each task must be specified in terms of: Resources
required, Time schedule for each task, Expected output.
Findings: A good institutional planning makes easy to any kind of institutional
management. All kinds of good institution will need a planning for proper
management. A planning gives an instruction for good management. If any
institution there has good planning and management then development will
come first. So, higher educational institution cannot make quality education
without any proper planning and management. A higher educational institution
will need a good planning and management for proper growth and development
of the institution. Good planning and management is a backbone for any kind
of Higher Education institution for effective and quality education. Institutional
planning and management always reduce the institutional complexity, saving
time, fulfill the any kind of shortage, fulfill the institutional demand, reduce
the material crisis, reduce the economic crisis, and help for progressing etc.
Conclusion: Institutional planning and management is very important for study
in higher education system. It is a process against traditional institution system
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 181
Research Methodology:
Sources of Data:
a. Primary Data: Questionnaire was used as the main source of collecting
primary data.
b. Secondary Data: Various online journals and internet was used as the
source of collecting secondary data.
Sample Size: The sample size for this study is 100 respondents.
Research Instrument:Questionnaire with close-ended questions was used
as a research instrument in this study.
Study Area:The study was conducted in Guwahati cityof Kamrup District.
Sampling Method:Random Sampling Method was used in this study.
Research Design: The research is both Analytical and Descriptive in nature.
Analysis and Findings:
ATM is very frequently used mode of money withdrawal amongst the
residents of the Guwahati city which helps us to interpret that the economy
is still cash-centric.
Cash is considered as the most popular mode of transaction in the city
followed closely by smart cards.The banking cards such as debit cards
and credit cards are in existence for a long while now in city and are
acceptable at most of the purchase counters as well as for online
transactions.Thus,at present the adoption rate of banking cards is much
higher than the mobile wallets.Other modes of payments such as
USSD,AEPS,UPI,etc.are very recently introduced in the eco-system and
are still in the innovator stage in the product-adoption life-cycle.
The mobile wallet users are basically the youngsters who are tech savvy
and they prefer Paytm compared to rest of the e-wallets.
The findings reveal that while a section of the people are getting
comfortable with cashless payments, some mindset issues are holding
back many from embracing the newer platforms.
Factors facilitating to switch over to cashless mode
Concerns around the security of transactions and identity theft still prevent
majority of the people of the city from moving over to the digital payment
platforms.Since the people are culturally not attuned to digital transactions,even
well-educated person run the risk of falling into phishing traps. Given the tedious
process and poor grievance redressal mechanism system, people will have no
easy recourse if they lose money online. Merchant Acceptance is another
significant factor as they prefer not to keep records in order to avoid paying
taxes. Lack of technology knowledge also cannot be overlooked as it acts as a
hindrance for mainly the older section of the society who may find themselves
locked out of their accounts if they cannot download an app or do not have
cash.
Conclusions: In the current scenario,however,the city is in a very critical stage
in its digital journey. There has been a mixed response towards this cashless
drive in the Guwahati city and it is doubtful of its full acceptance throughout
the state.Cashless society is a welcome idea but higher level participations
are required.The government on its part is working at various levels to reduce
the dependence on cash.A cashless society for now,seems like a distant dream
but a less cash society can be appreciated.This is against corruption and will
stand India with developed nations.
Achieving a 100% cashless society will never be possible,but one can
always start from a less cash society and then move towards becoming mostly
cashless. However, move towards less cash economy depends on how
effectively we deal with issues like cyber security, online frauds, financial
186 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
inclusion into the formal banking sector, awareness campaign and proper
redressal system.
Suggestions:
1. Banks and related service providers will have to constantly invest in
technology in order to improve security and ease of transactions.
2. Like Pulse Polio Campaign ,the Digital India Campaign must be
conducted at mass scale twice or thrice in a year.
3. Till the time the penetration for online payments doesnt reach local stores,
the transition will never be truly effective. The government can intervene
at the local mom-and-pop grocery stores level to see that they accept
digital payments.
4. Special drives through schools, colleges, to educate the people about
the financial inclusion and digital transactions can help create awareness
about cashless/banking transactions.Also the government should tap the
enthusiasm of the youngsters who are generally tech-savvy to embrace
the new services and in turn, use them to educate the others to overcome
their discomfort and insecurity concerns.
5. Government needs to take steps to reduce the interest charged on debit/
credit cards.
6. A cultural and mindset change is required to bring people on board and
make them feel comfortable with digital payments.
======================
References :
1. Dr.ParasJain,RoshniBillaiya,SomanMalaiya,Khusboo Singh Parihar-Role of
cashless economy in India International Journal of Commerce and Management
Research ISSN:2455-1625,Volume 3;Issue 2;February-2017;Page No.59-60
2. Dr.M.Chelladurai,Dr.V.Sornaganesh-Demonetisationn,Unified Payment
Interface & Cashless Economy International Journal of Informative & Futuristic
Research ISSN:2347-1697,Volume 4;Issue 3;Nove,ber-2016,Page No.5654-5662
3. N.Ramya,D.Sivasakthi and M.Nandhini Cashless transaction;Modes,advantages
and disadvantages International Journal of Applied Research ISSN:2394-
7500;IJAR 2017;B(1):122-125;December 2016
4. http://www.businesstoday.in/opinion/columns/moneytoday/cashless-indian-
economy
5. M.economictimes.com Gains and drawbacks of digitisation
6. Byjus.com>cashless-economy
7. www.livemint.com
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
Justice, Liberty, Equality and for eternity : Rule of law is the only instrument
available. Otherwise people will not be able to control and curb monopolistic
power and madness of Political parties which drains vitality from the rule of
law As expressed by the law commission of India in its fourteenth Report,
where there is no effective opposition in legislature, the legislature and the
executive in availably tend to be intolerant and some times even contemptuous
of the decisions of the Courts interpreting laws in a manner which they consider
to be opposed to their policies. This tendency to trample ruthlessly upon the
rights of the individuals with the aid of a stream roller majority is to be
deprecated. And this nation has experienced this truth.
United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) believes that education is an human right and achieving this for
all children is one of the biggest moral challenges of our times. The right to
education is an integral part of the organizations constitutional mandate which
expresses the belief of its founders in full and equal opportunities for
education for all and to advance the ideal of equality of educational
opportunity. In addition, the right to education is enshrined in the universal
declaration of Human Rights, the International convenant of economic, social
and cultural rights and the convention on the rights of the child.
History of Right of Education in India:
Fundamental Rights constitute the Ark of the constitution and Article
21 i.e. Right to Education is a flag mast of constitution since it is a right who
will really shine India, because our children are only the future generation. On
whose shoulder the future responsibility will be lying, hence this Eighty Sixth
Amendment. It was stated in the 86th Amendment that the constitution of India
in a directive principle of state policy contained in Article 45. has made a
provision for free and compulsory education for all children upto the age of 14
years within 10 years of promulgation of the constitution. We could not achieve
this goal even after 50 years of adoption of these provisions. The task of
providing education to all children in this age group gained momentum after
the national policy of education (NEP) was announced in 1986. the Government
of India in partnership with the state governments, has made strenuous efforts
to fulfill this mandate and though significant improvements were seen in various
educational indicators, the ultimate goal of providing universal and quality
education still remains unfulfilled. In order fulfill this goal. It is felt that an
explicit provision should be made in the part relating to fundamental right of
constitution.
The Indian constitution provides right to live as a fundamental right, is
given wide interpretation by the supreme court in its various judgments. It has
included right to education under right to life. So the democracy and full
freedom can be enjoyed by the subject of the state. The court has held that
right to education means right to life with human dignity full from in this case
the person or the citizen has the right to live his life in meaningful and dignified
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 189
manner. Life without education is just like an animal, who doesnt have tail
and horn or in other from slave. The individuals right to life will be
meaningless. If the state fails to provide it adequately education to its people
because such education is given to those children who are the future of the
Nation.
Education is the basic means for human development. It therefore merits
great importance in any human society. Primary Education is the foundation
stone of education. The medium of communication, language is taught to the
children in primary education. They are trained in general human behavior
and reading skills and their of visualization and comprehensions is developed.
These are the means of acquire advance education acts as the foundation stone
for future education. If this foundation stone as laid properly, the future education
runs smoothly. Thus primary education commands a very important place is
society, it is in dispensable.We know that right to education was a constitutional
right but after 86th constitutional amendment it has become a fundamental
right and fundamental duty for the parents In other words we can say that state
can be sued in the court and parents cannot demand their fundamental rights
until unless they fulfill their duty.
In the beginning, there was the provision of only fundamental rights in
our constitution but, through the 42nd constitutional Amendment in 1976, under
Article 51 (A), 10 fundamental duties of citizens were also added in the
constitution. Later on through 86th Constitutional Amendment in 2001, the
11th fundamental duty was added as K to the existing list of 10 fundamental
duties, which are as mother-father or guardian. They should provide opportunity
of education to children or dependents in the age group 06-14 years.
Various Provisions Regarding The Right to Education:
In the Indian constitution, the educational provisions are guaranteed and
regarded as the fundamental right of the citizens. Many provisions have been
made in the Indian Constitution to enable the Indian citizens to exercise their
right to education. The different provisions related to education in the Indian
constitution are as follows :
In the beginning education was in the state list. It was the responsibility
of the State Government to organize education. Whereas the Central
Governments responsibility was confined to the organization of education in
union territories, some educational institutions of national importance and to
maintain the standard of technical and higher education. Through the 42nd
Constitution amendment in 1976, education was included in the Concurrent
List. Since then the organization of education has become the joint responsibility
of the Central and the State Governments. At present, the Central Government
is responsible to formulate National Education Policy, to organize education
in the union territories, to establish coordination between the facilities of general
education throughout the country: to maintain the standard of higher education;
to develop the language of national importance and to organize higher education
190 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
all those rights which are basic to the dignified enjoyment of life. Thus, ruled
the Court, the right to education flows directly from the right to life, and that
the right to education being concomitant to the fundamental rights, the
State is under a constitutional mandate to provide educational institutions at
all levels for the benefit of the citizens.5A
The main question before the Bench was whether it would be permissible
for private but government recognized educational institutions to charge
capitation fee for the admission of the students. The Bench characterized
capitation fee as nothing but a price for selling education and amounts to
commercialization of education adversely affecting educational standards. The
court characterized institutions charging capitation fee as teaching shops.
The concepts of teaching shops is contrary to the constitutional scheme
and is wholly abhorrent to the Indian culture and heritage.5AA
The Bench declared that charging capitation fee amounts to discrimination
on a class basis and is thus denial of Article 14 because a poor meritorious
students is denied admission to these institutions because he has no money
whereas the rich can purchase education. Such a treatment is patently
unreasonable, unfair and unjust. The court further observed in this connection.
The Bench thus declared charging of capitation fee by the State
recognized educational institutions as wholly arbitrary and as such violation
of Article 14 of the Constitutions. Referring to the fixing of Rs. 60,000/- as
tuition fee for outside state students in the impugned notification, the Court
observed:
Whatever name one may give to this type of extraction of money in the
name of medical education it is nothing but the capitation fee and as such
cannot be sustained and is liable to be struck down.6 Taking an absolutist
view of the State obligation to provide education at all levels, the Bench
observed:
We hold that every citizen has a right to education under the
Constitution. The state is under an obligation to establish educational
institutions to enable the citizens to enjoy the said right. The state may
discharge its obligation through State-owned or State recognized educational
institutions. Charging capitation fee in consideration of admission to
educational institutions, is a patent denial of a citizens right to education
under the constitution.6A
Another facet of right to education was interpreted in case of Haryana
progressive Schools conference (Regd.) Vs Union of India and others.7 It
was held that private unaided school, None of the provisions specifically
empower the appropriate Government or local authority to treat or direct or
notify or declare any private unaided school to be a neighborhood school. As
per the mandate of the 2009 Act a neighborhood school would to be established
by the appropriate Government or local authority where one does not exist.
Thus, even if in a particular area one or more private schools already exist, the
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 193
the right to education is implicit in, and flows from, the right to life guaranteed
by Article 21. But, Said the Court, the parameter of this right, which is not
absolute, have to be determined in the light of the Directive Principles contained
in Arts, 41, 45 and 46.
The Court has now limited the State obligation to provide educational
facilities as follows :
Every citizen has right to free education until he complete the age of 14
years.
Beyond that stage, the State obligation to provide education is subject to
the limits of the economic capacity and development of the State.
The obligation created by Arts 41, 45 and 46 can be discharged by the
state either by establishing institutions of its own, or by aiding, recognizing
and/or granting affiliation to private educational institutions. Taking note of
the inadequate outlay on education and limited economic capacity of the State
to finance education, the Court has ruled that private educational institutions,
both aided and unaided, are a necessity in India, but commercialization of
education cannot and should not be permitted.
Statutory Provision:
Responsibility of the Central Govt. and the State Govt. of Right of
Children to free and compulsory Education Act, 2009 (u/s 7)
(1) The Central Govt. and the State Govts. shall have concurrent
responsibility for providing funds for carrying out the provisions of this
Act.
(2) The Central Govt. shall prepare the estimates of capital and recurring
expenditure for the implementation of the provisions of the Act.
(3) The Central Govt. shall provide to the State Govts., as grants-in-aid of
revenues, such percentage of expenditure referred to in sub-section (2)
as it may determine, from time to time, in consultation with the State
Govts.
(4) The Central Govt. may make a request to the President to make a
reference to the Finance Commission under sub-clause (d) of clause (3)
of Article 280 to examine the need for additional resources to be provided
to any State Govt. so that the said State Govt may provide its share of
funds for carrying out the provisions of the Act.
(5) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (4), the State Govt.
shall, taking into consideration the sums provided by the Central Govt.
to a State Govt. under sub-section (3), and its other resources, be
responsible to provide funds for implementation of the provisions of the
Act.
(6) The Central Govt. shall-
(a) develop a framework of national curriculum with the help of academic
authority specified under section 29,
(b) develop and enforce standards for training of teachers,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 195
(c) provide technical support and resources to the State Govts. for
promoting innovations, researches, planning and capacity building.
Responsibility of the Appropriate Government (U/S 8)
The appropriate Govt shall-
(a) provide free and compulsory elementary education to every child :
Provided that where a child is admitted by his or her parents or guardian,
as the case may be, in a school other than a school established owned, controlled
of substantially financed by funds provided directly or indirectly by the
appropriate Govt. or a local authority, such child or his or her parents or
guardian, as the case may be, shall not be entitled to make a claim for
reimbursement of expenditure incurred on elementary education of the child
in such other school.
Explaination The term compulsory education means obligation of
the appropriate Govt. to
(i) provide free elementary education to every child of the age of six to
fourteen years, and
(ii) ensure compulsory education, attendance and completion of the
elementary education by every child of the age of six to fourteen years;
(b) ensure availability of a neighborhood school as specified in Section
6;
(c) ensure that the child belonging to weaker section and the child
belonging to disadvantaged group are not discriminated against
and prevented from pursuing and completing elementary education
on any grounds;
(d) provide infrastructure including school building, teaching staff and
learning equipment;
(e) provide special training facility specified in Section 4;
(f) ensure and monitor admission, attendance and completion of
elementary education by every child;
(g) ensure good quality elementary education confirming to the
standards and norms specified in the Schedule;
(h) ensure timely prescribing of curriculum and courses of study for
elementary education, and
(i) provide training facility for teachers.
Responsibility of Local Authorities (U/S 9)
Every local authority shall-
(a) Provide free and compulsory elementary education to every child :
Provided that where a child is admitted by his or her parents or guardian,
as the case may be, in a school other than a school established, owned, controlled
or substantially financed by funds provided directly or indirectly by the
appropriate Govt. or a local authority, such child or his or her parents or
guardian, as the case may be, shall not be entitled to make a claim for
reimbursement of expenditure incurred or elementary education of the child in
196 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
persecuted by the Bhutanese authorities for the different ethnic identity. They
continuously demanded to end the rule of monarch as an authoritative one and
started their agitation for establishing democracy in the country. In southern
Bhutan dozens of government properties have been blown up or burst, bridges
destroyed and busses and trucks hijacked. From government side, to stop such
tension they deployed police and military force to normalise the situation. But
incidents of rape, torture and false imprisonment against ethnic Nepalese make
the situation more worsen. Such tension among ethnic Nepalese and the kings
action to assert the Bhutanese culture led to the outflow of thousands of people
into neighbouring countries like Nepal and India.
Effects /Consequences of ethnic problem of Bhutan:
If we analyse the consequences of ethnic problem of Bhutan then we
can say that the internal problem of Bhutan became an international one by
involving countries like Nepal, India as well of various international
organisations such as UN, UNHCR, and Amnesty International. A longstanding
and heretofore low- intensity ethnic problem prevailing between Bhutan and
Nepal has caused considerable concern in the region of South Asia. Different
stand of involving countries further make the issue critical one. From Nepals
point of view the fleeing of more than 1 lacs ethnic Nepali people from Bhutan
is a matter of human rights violation. The denial of basic rights to ethnic
Nepalese by Bhutanese government is a matter of ethnic cleansing. Nepal
considered that the refugees were Bhutanese citizens who carries various official
documents which probing their citizenship. So, Nepal urges the government
of Bhutan to take back these people to Bhutan. On the other hand, Bhutan
refused to bring back those people who came to Bhutan in post 1958. Due to
this confrontation, Nepalese government requested India as powerful country
of the region, to play a mediate role to solve the ethnic problem. However,
Indias response to the problem facing Bhutan and Nepal has been very cautious.
Since both countries have excellent relations with India, so India asked Nepals
authority that they should be resolved the problem with Bhutan through direct
contact.
The consequences of ethnic problem of Bhutan can be discussed as
follow
1. Firstly, the ethnic issue resulted in emergence of refugee problem. The
people who left Bhutan due to the fear persecution from their own authority
crossed the borders of India and Nepal. However, Indias unwillingness took
the burden of Nepali refugees of Bhutan unlike its approach towards Tibetan
refugees compels them to took shelter in Nepal. These people were later settled
in the different refugee camps of Jhapa district of Nepal.
2. Secondly, due the problem of its ethnic Nepali people Bhutans identity
as a peaceful nation with ethnic harmony had been disrupts. The eviction of
more than 70,000 ethnic Nepalese people from Bhutan though is an issue
related to countrys internal politics reflective of its ethnic divide; their
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 203
concentration in refugee camps in east Nepal turned it into a crisis with extra
territorial dimensions. The involvement of UN relief agencies and human rights
organisations in the conflict and Indias refusal to play a mediatory role in this
connection has placed Bhutan in a very undesirable situation.
3. Another consequence of ethnic problem is that on the issue categorisation
of ethnic Nepalese to Bhutan, Nepal and Bhutan showed their different
standpoints. This has still created a strain relationship between Nepal and
Bhutan. The division of refugees in categories such as bonafide refugees evicted
forcefully, Bhutanese who have emigrated, non- Bhutanese and Bhutanese
who have committed criminal acts, has not made negotiation process simpler
as the two countries continue to disagree over the number of refugees who fall
in these groups.
4. Though Bhutan and Nepal started the negotiation process but it was
failed as two sides stated their different opinion on identification of these
refugees. Further Bhutans act of denial to receive the refugees of its country
has interpreted by Nepal as an act of ethnic cleansing, though the charge has
been strongly opposed by Bhutan. The relief agencies and the human rights
organisations like Amnesty International however portray a different picture.
According to them since many of people in the camps in Nepal have been
forcibly exiled from Bhutan so, they have a right to return to Bhutan.
5. As a big power of South Asian region India also has to face strong of
criticism from international community for failing to solve the ethnic problem
existed between Bhutan and Nepal. Rajiv Sikri in his book, Challenge and
Strategy: Rethinking Indias Foreign Policy highlights that, the western power
such as America, Britain, and Netherlands involvement to solve the problem
of Nepali refugees of Bhutan somehow shows the weakness of India being
unable to solve its regional problem despite being a big power of the region
6. As of July 2011, the governments of Bhutan and Nepal had held at least
15 rounds of bilateral talks with no practical solution reached; although
Bhutanese state media echoed Bhutans insistence on continued talks with
Nepal, it has signalled its preference for third country resettlement.
7. The problem of ethnic Nepalese of Bhutan has been solved to a great
extent with the help of third party intervention since 2011. Of the total Bhutanese
resettled so far, the United states of America has taken 81,192, Canada has
taken 963, Denmark has taken 874, Norway has taken 6,271, Australia has
taken 5,357, New Zeland has taken 874, Norway has taken 561, the Netherlands
has taken 362, and the UK has taken 358.( Human Rights Watch). Most of the
people resettle in third country were much or less educated and a large portion
is comprised of young population. It is needless to mention here that settlement
of these refugees in western countries is related to solving the problem of
scarcity of manual labourers as well as for its IT and Packaging industry.
8. Introduction of democracy in Bhutan in 2008 and providing representation
to Nepalese in the parliament of Bhutan is also can be termed as one
204 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
are working under the assumption that Nepal government will be forthcoming
in finding a local solution. They are also assuming that the government will
take responsibilities in next three years for health and education of refugees,
while giving them work permits. From Nepals side assurance has been given
to take a decision as early as possible on this issue by involving different
stakeholders.
======================
References :
1. Grover, Verinder (ed.,), Bhutan: Government and Politics, New Delhi: Deep
and Deep Publishers, 2000.
2. Pal, Prosenjit, Democracy in Bhutan, South Asia Politics, Vol-15, No.3, July
2016, pages.52.
3. Rajput, Madhu, Indo-Bhutan Relations through Prism of History, New Delhi:
Manak Publication, 2011.
4. Mitra, Debamitra, Indo Bhutan relations Political Process, Conflict and Crisis,
New Delhi: Academic Excellence publishers, 2010.
5. The Kathmandu Post, UNHCR to exist Bhutanese refugee camps by 2019,
published on- 18.08.2016.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
===========================
* M.N.C Balika Mahavidyalaya
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 207
under the Assam Land Revenue Regulation, 1886. The state government of
Assam has notified that these blocks and many of the areas in the BTAD are
tribal blocks where transfer or sell of land from tribals to non-tribals is
prohibited. However, for ages, the lands of the tribals have been alienated in
these tribal blocks and belts. We cannot ignore that protection of Tribal Belt
and Block in backward area for the Tribal people are very essential. But it is
due to the failure of government to protect that Tribal Belts and Blocks the
problem has been occurred in this area. Moreover, while protecting the rights
of one community by violating the rights of communities cant be termed as
just. In BTAD by creating Tribal Belts and Blocks the rights of Bodo community
has been trying to preserved which is very appreciated but the rights of other
communities have been violated because most of the area have been inhabited
by other Non-Bodo communities before India got independent or for a long
year.
Immigration Issue and Encroachment of Bodo lands by other
Communities:
The issue of Illegal migration and also the issue of land encroachment
has become one of the most burning issues in present context. Nani Gopal
Mahanta in his article Politics of Space and Violence in Bodoland said that
the issue of illegal migration remains the single most variable for xenophobic
identity crystallization in North-east India in general and Assam in particular.
However, the debate on immigration is marked by two mutually incompatible
schools of thought-one group believes that Assam is flooded with Bangladeshi
Muslim immigrants; the other school denies the existence of such immigration.
Illegal migration to Assam is neither a myth nor a complete reality.3 There are
many scholar and security experts who deny the existence of Bangladeshi
immigrants in Assam. Scholars like (Verghese and Desai 1980) hold that the
illegal immigration issue has been exaggerated. Moreover (Das 1980: 859,
Hussain 1995:223-26) hold that post 1971 migration from Bagladesh is more
a myth and that there is no need to generate hysteria about a culture-in-crisis
in order to expel a few thousand illegal migrants.4 Moreover according to
Zamser Ali there is no basis of the changing of the population pattern in BTAD
areas because of infiltration of the immigrants. He said that amongst the four
districts of BTAD, abnormal increase of population was shown in Chirang
districts by 103% during the period 1971 to 1991. During the said two decades
a major part of Chirang-Ripu Reserve Forest area was declared de-forest and
a number of 24,000 people were given settlement within that area called
Koilamoila-Amteka in the year 1974. Amongst them about 12,000 were
Muslims who lost their entire land for erosion of river in their native places in
present Barpeta and erstwhile Goalpara Districts. At the same time, about
12,000 Bodo people coming from West Bengal and other places of Assam
were also allowed to settle in tha said de-resurved areas. Moreover he also
said that during 1991 to 2001 the all India average decadal growth rate of
216 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
population was 21.54% and decadal growth rate in Assam was 18.92%. During
the stated period, the Kokrajhar District of BTAD showed a decadal growth
rate of 14.49%, in Chirang District the rate was-0.8%, in Baksa District the
growth rate was 10.02. Although the BTAD District are being inhabited by
Tribals, Adivashis-Santhals, Muslims and schedule caste population having a
tendency of high growth rate due to socio-economic under development, during
the decade of 2001 to 2011 the growth rate in Kokrjhar district was just
5.19%, Chirang 11.26%, Baksa 11.17%, and Udalguri 9.76%. During this
period the all India decadal growth rate of population was 17.64% and growth
rate of Assam was 16.93%.
It has to be mentioning that with regards to this land alienation problem,
to protect tribal land in Assam; the then colonial British Government enacted
the Assam Land Revenue Regulation, 1886. Chapter X of the Assam Land
Revenue Regulation, 1886 provides for creation of tribal blocks under Section
161 and prohibition of the transfer, exchange, lease, agreement or settlement
any land in any area or areas constituted into belts or blocks to the non-
tribals. But the question is that how far the other communities are aware of
this protected belts and blocks? And due to unawareness of this regulation so
many non tribal people buy this protected land from tribal community. They
have purchase the land from tribal people in a very cheap rate because at that
time some tribal people had more than hundred bighas of land and due to
some personal problem they sold their land to other non tribal people. But this
matter was not given so much important. And before the creation of BTAD the
land issue was not so much common to all. As a result the Bodo leader now
wants to say that they are being alienated by non tribal from their protected
land and so many non tribal people has encroached in their protected land
while the common people do not knew whether they were living in the protected
tribal belts or in the state of Assam. Thus due to land issue the conflict has
occurred between Bodos and Non Bodos in different places in Baksa district
of BTAD. As a result non tribal people have suffered more and consequently
so many Non tribal people have been forced to leave the area.
Ethnic Conflict in BTAD:
If one looks back at the history of Bodoland both major and minor clashes
between the Bodos and non Bodos took place, which severely harmed both
the communities. Though it greatly affected both communities (Bodo-Non
Bodo) but basically it was the non-Bodo community who has had to suffer
more. In this conflict so many people are forcefully displaced from the area.
Since the last decade of 20th century nine major clashes rocked Bodoland. The
chart below represents the casualties and number of persons displaced. 5
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 217
Table 1.1
Death and Displacement in the Conflict
Year Causes Displaced Communities Affected Deaths
1991- 93 Bodoland Movement 60,000 Hindu Bengalis 61
July 1994 Massacre at Kokrajhar 1000 Muslim Peasants 113
Barpeta, Bongaigaon
October 1994 Massacre at Bansbari 70,000 Muslim Peasants 90
Relief Camp, Barpeta Bengalis
May 1996 Bodo- Santhal Conflict 2,50,000 Santhals, Bodos, Rabhas 198
1998 Bodo- Santhal Conflict 82,000 - Do- 186
October 2008 Bodo- Muslim Conflict 2,00,000 Bodos, Muslims, Garos 64
Nepalis, Biharis, Rabhas
July, 2012 Bodo- Muslim Conflict 4,85,921 - Do - 109
May 2014 Bodo- Muslim Conflict 496 Bodos, Muslims 46
December Bodo- Adivasi 2,36,349 Bodos, Adivasis 76
2015
existence and since then it has matured by leaps and bounds. Media plays the
most important role in a Democracy and it keeps the Government active. With
the advent of social media including Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, YouTube
etc. dramatically changed the way campaigns are run in Politics. The social
media is seen as a place in which public opinion is formed, and where
interventions in public opinion are possible by an increasing array of institutions
and individuals.2The Digital News Report 2016 by the Reuters Institute for
the Study of Journalism found that 51% of their sample use social media as a
source of news. According to the Global Web Indexs first-quarter report for
2017, 94% of digital consumers aged 16-64 say they have an account on at
least one social media platform and 98% have visited/used one within the last
month; one in every three minutes spent online is devoted to social networking
and messaging, with digital consumers engaging for a daily average of over
two hours. At least 78% of the Internet population aged 16-64 is now networking
via a mobile.3
K. Sasikumar, senior media person, has said that the emergence of social
media has brought more democracy to news coverage. He said that the new-
generation web-based news services had the potential to cater to the vulnerable
and marginalised groups in society, which were mostly ignored by the
mainstream media. The people have already lost faith in the objectivity and
credibility of the mainstream media as most of them are owned by corporate
giants or political powers. The Fourth Estate is not constitutionally or
institutionally accountable to anybody. Media have become power centers now.
The social networking sites have a key role in the current context.4Social media
increased political participation of youth and women day by day. It has
reshaped the process of contemporary political communication by influencing
the way politicians interact with citizens and each other. Social media making
societies more democratic. In a democratic country it acts as a major pressure
group also.
Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics:
Indians are rated as one of the most active social media users in the
world. The Internets socio-economic impact is becoming more and more visible
in India. The Internet is helping people of India in almost all aspects of life
such as education, socialisation, healthcare, communication, entertainment and
development. Now, after transforming many facets of Indian life, the Internet
has found new use and is emerging as a tool for political strategists and leaders
of political parties.5The political impact and use of new media technologies
the internet, social media and mobile communicationhave been subject to
specific attention. Over this time, the use of new media has moved from being
a novelty for parties, candidates, civil society organisations and established
media to becoming an important-if still secondaryaspect of political
communication in the electoral process. This new significance is seen in the
professionalization of channel management by political actors, heightened risk
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 221
4. http://www.hindustantimes.com/assembly-elections/social-media-the-other-
battleground-for-political-parties/story-kPLNL4NYpl5tALeYpGrLtJ.html.
5. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/practising-journalism-in-the-age-of-
social-media/article18378995.ece
6. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/lsquoSocial-media-
brought-more-democracy-to-news-coverage/article15721879.ece
7. Kalsnes, Bente, (2016), The Social Media Paradox Explained: Comparing Po-
litical Parties Facebook Strategy Versus Practice Social Media + Society.
8. Katkar, Amol Sheshrao, (2014), Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics A
Business Research Management Proposal, Indian Institute of Management
Kozhikkode.
9. Wani,Gayatri andAlone,Nilesh, (2014), A Survey on Impact of Social Media
on Election System International Journal of Computer Science and Informa-
tion Technologies, Vol. 5 (6), 7363-7366
Footnotes:
1. Peter John Chen, (2013), Social media ANU Press.(http://www.jstor.org/stable/
j.ctt2jbkkn.11)
2. Peter John Chen, (2013), Social media ANU Press. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/
j.ctt2jbkkn.11)
3. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/practising-journalism-in-the-age-of-
social-media/article18378995.ece
4. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/lsquoSocial-media-
brought-more-democracy-to-news-coverage/article15721879.ece
5. Amol Sheshrao Katkar, (2014), Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics A
Business Research Management Proposal Indian Institute of Management
Kozhikkode
6. Peter John Chen, (2015), "New Media in the Electoral Context: The new nor-
mal" ANU Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt13wwvm6.10
7. Gayatri Wani, Nilesh Alone, (2014), A Survey on Impact of Social Media on
ElectionSystem International Journal of Computer Science and Information
Technologies, Vol. 5 (6) , 7363-7366
8. Amol Sheshrao Katkar, (2014), Impact of Social Media on Indian Politics A
Business Research Management Proposal, Indian Institute of Management
Kozhikkode.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
from each C.D. block have been selected on the ground that the sample villages
must fall under the selected gaon panchayats for the present study. A total of
30 women members i.e 6 from each Gaon Panchayat, have been considered
as sample units which constitute 11%, 37%, 9%, 15% and 16% of total women
members of the selected gaon panchayats of Boko, Chandrapur, Hajo,
Kamalpur and Sonapur C.D. block respectively. All the primary and secondary
forms of qualitative data are transferred into quantitative forms and analyzed
with the help of suitable quantitative techniques. Weighted scores and others
statistical techniques have been adopted in the study. Results have been
displayed with the help of graphs and tables based on which inferences are
drawn.
Reservation of Womens seat in Panchayat:
Womens wider participation in politics is essential for the strengthening
of democratic processes and the polities, political movements of different
sections of the people have an important responsibility to ensure that women
are able to participate in the arena of active politics. Reservation can only link
women to the politics process but effectiveness can only be realisd when women
are incorporated into the mainstream of democratic politics in an organized
manner. (Kurukshetra, 2007). 73RD Amendment of the constitution in the year
1992 reserved 33% seats for women in panchayats. Involvement of women in
the panchayati raj Institutions is expected to bring qualitative change in the
matters relating to health, nutrition, children welfare, family care, drinking
water etc. (SIRD, 2004). As many as 8720 women were elected out of which
117 belong to Zila parishad 746 belong to Anchalik panchayats and 7857
belongs to gaon panchayats which comprises of 30%, 34.72% and 33.47% of
the total elected members of Zila parishad, Anchalik panchayats and Gaon
Panchayats respectively. Fortunately the Participation of women in the
panchayats seems to maintain the required percentage share of 33%.
Womens Participation in Panchayat:
At this backdrop of Panchayati Raj Institutions of Assam and participation
of women there in, the present study attempts to analyze involvement of women
in the gaon panchayats with respect to their religion and caste, age and marital
status, education and occupation. Moreover, level of awareness in various
dimensions leading to political empowerment has also been discussed. In the
study area i.e. in Kamrup district same picture is also revealed. Participation
of women at the block level shows a wide variation with 75% in Kamalpur
block followed by 45% in Chandrapur block, 37.5 % in Hajo block and 13.33%
in Boko block representing general, Schedule caste, Char community and
Schedule Tribe community respectively. In Anchalik panchayat female
participation is found to be highest in Hajo (50%) followed by Chandrapur,
Boko and Kamalpur C.D. block with 30%, 26.66 %, and 25% respectively. It
gives us a clear understanding that the women membership strength is highest
among Char communities, followed by Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 227
and General. But the leadership in terms of presidential seat is highest among
general caste in Kamalpur block among general caste. (Table: 2).
Participation with respect to Education and Leadership
Empowerment of women through education will lead to their greater
participation in government and community institutions and better
entrepreneurial opportunities. More women in parliament and cabinets, chief
executive officers in major corporations, top administrators, managers and
civil servants will quicken the pace of progress towards equality and
empowerment. Having women in top decision making positions will also lead
to a better integration of womens concerns into the formulation of national
policies and development plans which in turn would result in developing the
full potential of women. At the backdrop of dismal educational status of women
in the sample villages, it is natural that educational level of women members
in the gaon panchayats also remains at a similar state. As such a major share of
women (i.e 83%) members in the gaon panchayats of Hajo C.D. block have
education at below matriculation. 33% of women members are merely literate
only. Similar situation is also observed in the gaon panchayats of Sonapur
C.D. block. The picture is almost clear that women with a very poor educational
background will not be able to contribute to the gaon panchayats at a desired
level. (Fig: 1). It is already revealed in the present study that educational level
determines the decision making capacity of a women. Again decision making
capacity is the prerequisite for developing leadership. As shown in table 1
women are contributing in the gaon panchayats as simple members only. They
constitute 87% of total gaon panchayats women members. Women members
are not being able to achieve the status of president as 1 of 10 gaon panchayats
is having women president. However, 3 women members hold the post of
vice president. In percentage terms leadership at vice president level constitute
10% of the total gaon panchayats members (Fig: 2).
Table 1:
Participation of women members in panchayats election of
Assam; 2001
No of
Name Of the Panchayat Total of General
SC ST Women
panchayati Raj where elected Member
member member Member
Iinstitution election was members Of men
Held
Zila 236 19 18 117
20 390
parishad (60.51%) (4.87%) (4.61%) (30%)
Anchalik 1236 80 86 746
187 2148
panchayat (57.54%) (3.72%) (4.00%) (34.72%)
Gaon 14060 783 783 7857
2053 23471
panchayat (59.90%) (3.33) (3.31%) (33.47%)
Table 2:
Participation of Women member in panchayats among
some social groups, 2008
Name of Number No of Number of President Gaon Panchyat Anchalik
the C.D. Of Gaon president Member
blocks Panchayat
Male Female No Of Male Female
Member
seat
Boko 11 15 13 2 (13.33%) 15 11 4 (26.66%)
(general (86.7%) (73.4%)
caste)
Chandrapur 4 4 2 (50%) 2 (50%) 4 3 (75%) 1 (25%)
(sc)
Hajo (char) 20 20 10 (55%) 9 (45%) 20 14 (70%) 6 (30%)
Kamalpur 12 8 5 (2.5%) 3 (37.5%) 8 4 (50%) 4 (50%)
(gnl)
Sonapur 12 12 8 (66.7%) 4 (33.33%) 12 7 (58.4%) 5 (41.66%)
(tea grdn)
dialect, much less a language, nor even a common culture, psychological make-
up, and dressing pattern. Most of the people of Haryana have had a varied and
chequered past. This cardinal fact of history seems to have been ignored while
the present state of Haryana was carved out of the former state of East Punjab
in 1966.
Using a variety of sources such as such as the medieval Indo-Persian
chronicles, the late medieval Rajasthani archival records2 and the 19th-century
colonial ethnographic accounts and land settlement reports, this essay attempts
a brief survey of economic development of Haryana in medieval period, showing
that changes in its economic life were not as swift as in its political life, but
also that the slow pace of economic changes does not imply changelessness,
but induced profound transformations in the rural society. Throughout the essay,
historical sub-region of Haryana will constantly be kept in focus in order to
demarcate Haryana from the rest of north India.
1. Rains and Agrarian Regimes:
Rains had on the lives of medieval people a pervasive impact, second
only to the feudal administration.3 Agriculture, too, in Haryana was largely
dependent on rain,4 though irrigation by canals and streams also played a
significant role in certain regions. For this, the great shifts in river courses
greatly affected the economy of the region, particularly the arid areas in the
west. Thus, desiccation in Haryana seems to have come in cycles depending
upon the ability of the Yamuna to feed the Chitang. It apparently fed that river
in the 7th and 8th centuries ce, when a stream of Hansi is mentioned.5 But by
the mid-14th century ce, the entire tract was arid and waterless; it was only
revived when Sultan Firoz Tughlaq (1351-86 ce) cut a canal from the Yamuna
and carried it to Hansi and Hissar.6. When Babar invaded India, he saw the
peasants of the Karnal-Kurukshetra regions using the Persian wheel for
irrigation.7 In the areas of Mewat (parts of present-day eastern Rajasthan and
south-eastern Haryana), dhenkli or a wooden scoop 8 was used as a means of
irrigation. In the southern regions, peasants used charas or a leather bucket9
as a means of irrigation. Despite all this, Haryana seems to have had vast
pastures and a favorable land-man ratio, making possible a larger per capital
area under cultivation per capita and inducing shifting cultivation in certain
areas.10
2. Trade, Trade Routes and Towns:
In the 14th century ce, the route from Ghazni and Kabul went to Multan
and from there ran across southern Punjab and southern Haryana to Delhi. Ibn
Battuta, a 13th-century north-African traveler, travelled from Ghazni to Delhi,
via Kabul, and then, after returning from a journey to Sehwan, took the route
to Delhi, passing through Abohar, Ajodhan (Pakpattan), Sarsuti (Sirsa) and
Hansi.11 The famous trade route which connected the maritime port of Surat
with its hinterland in North India passed through eastern Haryana. One variety
of indigo produced in Mewat was exported to the international markets through
234 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
this route.12 This part of Haryana had been involved into the vortex of world
trade during the 17th century ce.13 In the 17th century ce, two routes from
Afghanistan joined at Lahore: one from Kabul via the Khyber Pass, and the
other from Qandahar via Multan. From Lahore the route ran across north-
eastern Punjab and northern Haryana, before turning south at Ambala, to march
parallel to Yamuna, before reaching Delhi.14 Most of the important towns of
Haryana flourished along these three commercial routes of India. Thus, a wider
part of Haryana had been connected with the national and international markets.
Their fortunes were closely linked with politico-economic developments
elsewhere.15 The towns of Haryana were mainly functional transit posts and
not centres of craft production. Hence, their neighboring villages mainly
performed the task of hinterland for the distant markets. This is amply evident
from their monotonous uniformity. They merely played the role of transmitting
agrarian surplus from the countryside to the big capital cities. Hence, it should
not be a matter of surprise that the qasbas or towns of Haryana remained mere
adjuncts of the imperial cities like Delhi and Agra. They did not have any
autonomous role to play. Wealthy grain merchants from the neighboring villages
came and settled in these towns. They branched off into traders, usurers and
brokers according to their capacity. The functional role of the qasbas pre-
determined the supremacy of grain trade in these towns.
3. Economic Developments under Delhi Sultans (c. 13th-15th Century
ce): With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century began a
new process16 of growth of towns, increase in craft production and expansion
in commerce.17 The Haryana region being in close proximity of Delhi could
not have remained unaffected. The use of the Persian wheel began in certain
areas as already stated. Similarly, the spinning-wheel (charkha)18 might have
reached the villages of Haryana too. A regular supply of grain from the
neighboring areas was essential for the rulers of Delhi. It might have led to
some kind of monetization of the economy. The increasing attention given by
Sultan Firoz Tughlaq to Haryana was perhaps due to the disturbed conditions
in the Doab.19 Haryana began to figure in the revenue policy of the Sultans.
Hence, in due course of time, vigorous implementation of the revenue policy
in Haryana cannot be ruled out.
Perhaps during this period three inter-related developments took place
in the Haryana region. Firstly, the erstwhile Rajput aristocracy was suppressed
with a heavy hand and they were pushed down into the ranks of the zamindar
class. On the other hand, the Afghans in particular and other Muslims in general
acquired zamindaris in Haryana. Numerous members of the cultivating castes
also emerged as zamindars by 1600 ce in Delhi sarkar. 20 The Jats acquired
ascendancy in Delhi sarkar, while the Ahirs and Meos became dominant
zamindar castes in Rewari and Tijara sarkars respectively. In Hisar-Firozah
sarkar, Jats emerged as the main rivals of the Rajput zamindars. Secondly, the
one-way drain of surplus from the villages to the capital cities via small towns
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 235
was assured for all times to come.21 Thirdly, those castes that had directly
benefited from the introduction of new technology (e.g., Persian-wheel,
spinning-wheel, etc.) began to feel the need for a corresponding social status
in the Hindu caste system or even outside it. Thus, the economic consequences
of the Turkish conquest of India during the 13th and 14th centuries ce laid the
material foundation for the popular monotheistic movement of 15th and 16th
centuries ce.22 The movement needs to be studied in details for its historical
consequences. This movement had two important dimensions. Firstly, it was
an instrument of upward social mobility for low-caste people. Therefore, it
appealed to them more.23 Secondly, through the songs and preachings of the
leaders of this movement, many local dialects were elevated to the stature of
literary languages.24 This movement, however, evoked a feeble response in
Haryana. That could be one of the reasons for the failure of the Haryanvi
dialect to transform itself into a literary language. Though minor figures of the
movement like Garib Das, Chetram Das, Nischal Das and Haridas were born
in this region, their literary contribution is almost negligible. This explains
why there is nearly a complete absence of literary tradition in Haryana.
4. Economic Developments under Mughal Emperors (15th-17th
Century ce) With the establishment of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century,
the basic trends of social and economic history, set in motion during the
Sultanate period, continued to develop. Economic differentiation and social
stratification among the peasantry became increasingly intensified. For the
first time abundant material becomes available for construct a proper social
structure that existed under the Mughals. The larger part of Haryana formed
the Delhi and Hissar-Firoza sarkars of of Delhi suba (province).25 Subsequently,
Rewari sarkar was also brought under the Delhi suba.26 In all the regions of
present-day Haryana the following social structure got crystallized with minor
variations.
4.1 Class Structure of Peasantry:
Those who participated in agricultural production and paid land revenue
to the state or its nominee were known by the generic term of raivat which
means peasantry. The peasantry was comprised of various sections, demarcated
on the basis of their varying economic strength, social status and official position
within the village community. First, there were the low-caste landless
agricultural workers who sold their labor for wages. This vast body of landless
rural poor fulfilled the labor needs of the entire land-owning peasantry; through
the operation of the caste system, the landless were restrained from acquiring
land for cultivation.27 Secondly, there were small-scale dependent producers
who sold part of their labor and/or rented in draught animals and a significant
amount of other agricultural equipments. These peripatetic cultivators were
known as pahi28 and were mainly born of the depressed peasants of the third
category. The revenue administrators invariably used these wandering peasants
as a temporary substitute for runaway peasantry,29 by offering to them slightly
236 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
favorable terms of revenue rates but insecure terms of land tenure.30 Thirdly,
there were petty producers who were more or less self-sufficient in as much
as they did not hire out or hire in labor and who just about lived at the subsistence
level, though occasionally they contracted loans for purchasing agricultural
equipments.31 They formed the single largest section of the peasantry in the
region. Known as gaveti-palti, most of them belonged to the so-called middle
castes, viz. Jats, Gujars, Ahirs, Mallis, as well as Meos.32 The peasants of this
group paid land revenue at very high rates, as is evident from various pargana-
level revenue records such as dastur-al-amals and arsattas. Fourthly, there
were the owners of large family holdings, known as known as gharuhalas.
This group of peasant proprietors hired labor on a moderate scale, and leased
out livestock and equipments that yielded a relatively large income.33 The village
headman (patel) and record keeper (patwari) fall into this category.34 Lastly,
there were large-scale producers who depended entirely on hired labor. The
zamindars, qanungos and chaudharis termed as khudkashta cultivators belong
to this section of the peasantry.35 They paid land revenue fixed at the lowest
rates to the state. The state imposed limits on the expansion of land-holdings
of such privileged sections as khudkashta and gharuhala due to the fear of
decline in its total revenue.36 Thus, the conversion of high revenue-yielding
landholdings (gaveti-palti) into low revenue-yielding holdings (khudkashta-
gharuhala) was strictly forbidden. On the other hand, such holdings that largely
depended for cultivation on family labor were encouraged.
4.2 Class Structure of Zamindars:
The khudkashta cultivators were zamindars of all kinds. The gharuhalas
were the rich; the gavetis, the middle (a section of them were well-to-do
peasants); and the pahis, the poor peasants. At the bottom of this hierarchy
were the landless poor peasants called kamins. This economic stratification of
the peasantry did not correspond strictly to any caste classification. All the
castes had their own zamindars, as is evident from the zamindar column of the
Ain-i-Akbari.37 In Mewat, the Khanzadas had zamindaris but hardly a Khanzada
peasantry. Similarly, in Haryana, Rajputs had more zamindaris and fewer
peasants of the same caste.38 Thus, it is possible that a particular caste could
have a higher percentage of dominant peasantry than other.
The economy of the region was highly monetized. Therefore, the role of
the village moneylender and merchant was assuming added significance in
these centuries.39 The artisanal requirements of agriculturists were, by and
large, locally met.40 The income of the artisans was also taxed by the state,
though it was too meagre to figure prominently in the fiscal calculations of the
state. Often enough it was their services and sometimes their products rather
than contribution to taxes that the ruling class extorted gratis.41
Howsoever one may choose the mass of peasants, one ought not to forget
the fact that a section from them succeeded in acquiring hereditary rights which
were distant from and superior to those of the ordinary peasants. The holders
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 237
of such superior rights had been so dovetailed into the Mughal administrative
apparatus that they had become partners, albeit unequal, of the Mughal ruling
class in its exploitation of the peasantry.42 The heterogeneity of this intermediary
stratus needs to be emphasized.43 Many centuries of highly centralized and
despotic rule had insulated the erstwhile rulers of India into a cohesive class
combine and given it the generic nomenclature of zamindars.44 They never
gave up the ambition, and had the potential, of enlarging their zamindari into
large kingdoms. During the period under study their main function was to
keep the peasants tied to the land, get it tilled, collect the land revenue at
stipulated rates and pass it on to the nominees of the state.45 Erosion of the
ancestral zamindaris of some, and acquisition of new ones by others, was a
constant feature of Mughal times. Laws of inheritance, role of money and
royal pleasure worked as causal factors behind the occurrence of this
phenomenon.46
4.3 Land Revenue System and Exploitation of Peasantry:
In the Haryana region, there were two types of villages: zamindari and
raiyati (peasant-held).47 The former could not be transformed into the latter,
though new zamindaris were created in the raiyati villages. The relative
percentage of the raiyati and zamindari villages cannot be worked out due to
paucity of evidence. The administrative structure superimposed on all these
divisions consisted of three distinct elements. First, there were the officials
and agents of the assignee. Second, there were the permanent local officials
owing their position partly to birth and partly to imperial authority but unaffected
by the transfers of the assignees. Finally, there were full-fledged officials of
the imperial administrative tradition who could be used both to help and control
the assignees.48
Ideally, all these three elements were required to co-operate with and
work as a check upon each other. But in practice, they were often at loggerheads
with each other.49 The agents of the assignees (amils) and the full-fledged
imperial administrators (faujdars) were the real representatives of the will
and interest of the state. The imperial administration, conscious of its long-
term interest, always tried to fix the revenue demand in such a manner and at
such a point that it did not become self-defeating by making agricultural
production uneconomic for the peasants.50 On the other hand, this demand
was to be stabilized at a level where the bulk of the peasants surplus produce,
over and above his subsistence needs, could be appropriated in the form of
revenue.51 The intimate connection between the military power of the Mughal
state and the assignment system dictated a policy of absolute appropriation of
the surplus. Keeping in view this contingency, the Mughal state expected all
the jagirdars to pursue a developmental policy in their respective jagirs.52 But
the mansabdari-jagirdari system did not provide any incentive to individual
jagirdars to follow a developmental agricultural policy.53 Firstly, a jagirdar
could not reap the benefits of enhanced production unless and until his personal
238 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
rank was upgraded in tandem. Secondly, the frequent transfer of jagirs was a
constant disincentive to pursuing a long-term developmental policy.54
Conversely, the jagirdars position tempted him to extract from the cultivators
as much as possible.55 Thus, the imperial administration and the individual
jagirdars were ineluctably pursuing two divergent policies towards the
producers of surplus wealth.
As the state conceded these officials and zamindars a paltry sum as a
reward for their crucial function in the revenue administration, they tended to
press upon this bare subsistence also, hence their conflict with the state on the
one hand and the peasantry on the other.56
The economic burden on the peasantry of this region was immense, as is
evident from an arzdasht 1665.57 About 24 peasants belonging to eight villages
of pargana Rinsi (now in Gurgaon district) went to Delhi and complained to
the emperor that their life had become miserable because of the burden of
taxes. To highlight their plight the example of the peasants of village Akahera
(Rinsi) was given. They bemoaned the fact that of the 16,000 maunds of grain
produced by them in the kharif season, 8,000 maunds had been taken away by
the jagirdar as land revenue. From the remaining 8,000 maunds, they had to
pay dastur qanungoi, sehngi, takina and sehngi dihangi which totaled up to
4,500 maunds. Thus, the peasants were left with a bare 3,500 maunds. Face
to face with this situation they could hardly be said to have lodged an unjust
complaint. This was indeed a joint complaint of peasants belonging to eight
parganas and, therefore, suggests a general condition prevailing in those
parganas. These parganas were Rinsi, Behrohar, Mandawar, Dadri (jagirs of
Raja Bishan Singh); Faridabad and Sohna (jagirs of Zafar Khan) Pilgawa
(jagir of Murtaza Khan) and two parganas in the jagirs of Raja Jaswant Singh.
It may be emphasized here that most of these parganas were either those, or
contiguous to those that fall in the territory of Haryana. The increasing economic
burden on the peasantry created agrarian crisis which ultimately led to the
downfall of the Mughal empire.
5. Haryana under Post-Mughal States:
The states which emerged after the collapse of the Mughal empire were
mainly of two kinds. First were those that were founded by prominent Mughal
nobles breaking away from the central authority.58 Such states emerged in the
remoter provinces of the empire. In the neighborhood of the capital cities,
Agra and Delhi, successor states were formed through successful revolts. The
Sikh and Jat states fall in the second category. The widespread agrarian revolts
that gave birth to the Jat state of Bharatpur and the Sikh states of Punjab took
place in the background of a resurgence of zamindari power on the one hand
and rapid impoverishment of the peasantry on the other.59 Caste affinity often
formed a bridge between these two restive sectors of rural society.60 These
revolts were led by the zamindars.61 Barring the peripheral regions of Mewat
and Narnaul, the larger part of Haryana remained unaffected by these revolts.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 239
The Meos of Mewat and the Satnamis of Narnaul rose in revolt,62 but their
revolts were crushed and did not lead to significant historical consequences.
The non-occurrence of such agrarian revolts when the conditions for their
occurrence were ripe63 in Haryana intrigues a student of history. Does it point
to a state of helplessness, inertia and acceptance of servility on the part of the
zamindars of this region? As the local people failed to assert themselves,
Haryana was parceled out among ambitions freebooters. Numerous nawabis
sprang up in Farukhnagar, Loharu, Ferozpur, Dujana, Dadri, Bahadurgarh,
etc.64 The Sikhs carved out their fortunes in Jind and Kaithal.65 The Jats of
Bharatpur annexed Palwal and Hodal.66 George Thomas, a foreigner, also had
his day when he established himself at Hansi from where he commanded a
circle of 800 villages.67 In these conditions of political chaos, the Maratha
invaders could easily come and twist anyones arm and extort tribute.68 The
life and size of these nawabis were always in flux, as no fixed norms and
boundaries were observed by them. The combined impact of these happenings
was a wanton destruction of life in Haryana. It will not be an exaggeration to
say that the Haryana region suffered more during the 18th century than even
during the 12th century. Lack of accountability towards the people and absence
of fear from anyone made these nawabs more rapacious and oppressive.69A
systematic study of the economic conditions under these nawabs is a basic
desideratum. On top of it, most of these nawabs were given to leading a life of
debauchery.
Here it would be relevant to mention that all of these nawabs were not a
plantation from outside. Most of them had held zamindari or jagirdari rights
in the Haryana region during the preceding centuries. The Ain-i-Akbaris
zamindar column clearly shows a mushrooming of Muslim, especially Afghan,
zamindaris in this region before 1600 ce. Those among them who had enrolled
themselves in the Mughal army and received jagirs in Haryana, established
their nawabis after the decline of the empire.70 Thus, the birth of these nawabis
was not a sudden development. The material basis for their creation had already
been laid down during the preceding centuries.
The Rajput and Jat zamindars, who were very numerous and claimed
extensive zamindaris in Haryana, failed to establish even a small principality,
when the process of fragmentation had been under way. In the neighboring
regions, the Rajput state of Jaipur expanded enormously, while the Jats of
Punjab and Braj country established their states.71 The Jat and Rajput zamindars
of Haryana eventually surrendered to the Afghans without firing a single shot.
======================
References :
1. Abul-Fazl, The Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 2, trans. Blochmann; corr. and ann. Sir
Jadunath Sarkar, Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society, 1978, 3rd edn.
2. Ali, M. Athar, The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case, Modern Asian
Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 1975, pp. 385-96.
240 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
18th Century, IESHR, vol. 18, nos 3-4, 1981, pp. 287-325.
24. Raychaudhuri, Tapan and Irfan Habib (eds), The Cambridge Economic History
of India, vol. 1: c. 1200 c. 1750, London: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
25. Raychaudhuri, Tapan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, Review Essay,
Enquiry, New Series, vol. 2, no. 1, 1965, pp. 92-121.
26. Singh, Dilbagh, Caste and the Structure of Village Society in Eastern Rajasthan
during the Eighteenth Century, IHR, vol. 2, no. 2, 1976, pp. 299-311.
27. The Role of Mahajans in the Rural Economy of Eastern Rajasthan during the
18th Century, Social Scientist, vol. 2, no. 10, 1974, pp. 20-31.
28. Singh, K. Natwar, Maharaja Suraj Mal, 1707-1763: His Life and Times, London:
Allen & Unwin, 1981.
(Footnotes)
1. Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556-1707, Bombay: Asia
Publishing House, 1963, p. 16 and I. R. Khan, Historical Geography of the
Punjab and Sind with Special Reference to River Changes, The Aligarh Muslim
University Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 1934, pp. 31, 55.
2. The 16th-century chronicle extensively used in this essay is Ain-i-Akbari by
Abul-Fazl, a famous courtier of emperor Akbar. The Rajasthani archival records
available from the second half of the 17th century and referred to in this essay
are arzdashts and arsattas. Arzdashts are petitions or memorials addressed to
the Naruka Rajput chiefs of Amber written by amils (revenue officers), faujdars
(chief police officers) and other officials of Amber, posted in various parganas
which were held by the Amber rulers as jagirs (revenue-yielding land
assignments) or whose ijara (revenue collection right) was obtained by them
from Mughal mansabdars (Mughal officers holding military ranks). They contain
details of political, social and economic conditions prevailing in various
parganas. Arsattas are monthly treasury account of receipts and disbursements
under different heads, maintained in Rajasthani by the Amber state. Both are
dated in Vikram Samvat (vs) which is ahead of the Common Era (ce) by 57
years.
3. W. H. Moreland, Agrarian System of Muslim India, Cambridge: W. Heffer &
Sons, 1929.
4. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 16.
5. Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib (eds), The Cambridge Economic History
of India, vol. 1: c. 1200 c. 1750 (hereafter CEHI), London: Cambridge
University Press, 1982, p. 4.
6. CEHI, p. 4.
7. Irfan Habib, 'Technological Changes and Society: 13th and 14th Centuries',
Presidential address, Section II, Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 31st
Session, Varanasi, 1969, pp. 12-15.
8. Arsatta, pargana Firozpur Jhirka, Vikrami Samvat (hereafter vs) 1750/1693
ce; pargana Jalalpur, vs 1748/1691 ce.
9. Arzdasht,Vaisakh Vadi 12, vs 1722/1665 ce.
10. CEHI, p. 6.
11. CEHI, p. 12, n.1.
12. Habib, Agrarian System.
13. Ashin Dasgupta, Trade and Politics in 18th Century India, in D. S. Richards
(ed.), Islam and the Trade of Asia: A Colloqium, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania, 1970, pp. 181-214.
242 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Eastern Rajasthan, IESHR, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 231-45; Nural Hasan,
Zamindars under the Mughals, in R. E. Frykenberg (ed.), Land Control and
Social Structure in Indian History, Delhi: Manohar, 1979, pp. 17-29.
41. See Mukhia, Illegal Extortions, pp. 231-45.
42. Hasan, Zamindars under the Mughals, pp. 17-29.
43. Habib, Distribution of Landed Property in Pre-British India, Enquiry, New
Series, vol. 2, no. 3, 1965, pp. 54-55.
45. Habib, Agrarian System, Chapter V.
46. Habib, Agrarian System, Chapter V.
47. This is amply born out by the classification of villages entered in the arsattas.
See also Habib, Agrarian System, p.141; B. R. Grover, Nature of Dehat-i-Taaluqa
(Zamindari villages) and the Evolution of the Taaluqri System during the Mughal
Age, IESHR, vol. 2, no. 2, April 1965, pp. 166-172 and vol. 2, no.3, July 1966,
pp. 259-75.
48. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 274. 49 Habib, Agrarian System, p.190.
50. Habib, Agrarian System, p.190.
51. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 319.
52. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 320.
53. Habib, Agrarian System, p. 320.
54. Arzdashts, Asadh Sudi 14, vs 1760/1703 ce; Jeth Sudi 3, vs 1761/1704 ce; Asadh
Vadi 9, vs 1762/1705 ce; Fagun Sudi 2, vs 1766/1709 ce.
55. Bhom (a remuneration of zamindari) was realized from the peasants at the rate
of three per cent of the land revenue in most of the parganas. Thus, the peasants
of Jalalpur, Khilohru, Umarni, Udai, Ismailpur, Akbarpur, Kohahri, etc., paid
bhom at the abovementioned rates. This amount was realized by the Raja of
Jaur from the peasants of those parganas which he brought under his zamindari.
Those smaller bhomias whose bhoms were annexed by the Raja into his
expanding zamindari were usually compensated by him by way of a kind of
muzra. The pargana officials and semi-officials were paid from its treasury
under miscellaneous heads. The dispossessed zamindars, active chaudharis,
qanungos and patels were either paid a fixed sum of a set percentage of the
jama (assessed revenue). It was a kind of commission and in both cases termed
as muzra. See arsattas, parganas Bhusavad, Sonkhar Kuthumbari, Bayana and
Toda Bhim, vs 1787/1730 ce.
56. This is quite evident from the zamindars frequent habit of cattle lifting and
causing other forms of harrassment to the peasants. See arzdashts, Bhadva Vadi
9, vs 1749/1692 ce; Chet Vadi 11, vs 1752/1695 ce; Fagun Sudi 5, vs 1755/1698
ce.
57 Arzdasht, Vaisakh Vadi 13, vs 1722/1665 ce.
58. M. Athar Ali, 'The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case', Modern Asian Studies,
vol. 9, no. 3, 1975, pp. 385-96.
59. R. P. Rana, Agrarian Revolts in Northern India during the late 17th and early
18th Century, IESHR, vol. 18, nos 3-4, 1981, pp. 287-325.
60. Rana, Agrarian Revolts.
61. Irfan Habib, Forms of Class Struggle in Mughal India, paper presented at the
Indian History Congress, 41st session, Bombay, 1980; reprinted in idem., Essays
in Indian History: Towards a Marxist Perception, Delhi: Tulika, 1995, pp. 109-
60.
62. Habib, Forms of Class Struggle.
244 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
made from these metals. Revenue raised by taxes builds the lions share in
state income. Kautilya, with reference to the duties of Samaharta (the topmost
revenue officer), pointed out to some sources of income. Seven main sources
of income are Durga (fortified city), Rastra (Country part), Khani (Mines),
Setu (Irrigation work), Vana (forest), Vraja (animal herds)2 and Vanikapatha3
(trade routes). Kautilya refers to twenty four kinds of vyayasarira (heads of
expenditure) which includes expenses for construction of store house, armoury,
maintenance of Army etc.
Kautilya insisted much on maintaining a rich treasury upon which the
success of all the welfare schemes depends. According to him, the public
revenue should be utilized to give boost to the welfare activities. He pointed to
various heads where state should incur expenditure such as on national security,
public administration, salaries of the ministers and others, maintenance of army
and acquision of valuable gems, stones and ornaments. Though the state has
enough power to impose tax on public but it should not be excessive. The king
should pluck the ripe fruits from his kingdom just as one plucks them from a
garden, but should not take unripe fruits which cause provocation, lest this
should bring about his own destruction.4 Manu in his Manusamhita favours
the same idea by saying that just as the leech, the calf and the bee take their
own food step by step, the king should take the taxes from his subjects step by
step.5
During the time of Kautilya there was a well-organised revenue
administration to control the finance under the supervision of two officials,
viz. the Samaharta and Sannidhata. The status of the Samaharta was as equal
as Commander-in-Chief of the Army. All the superintendents of the king
responsible for the collection of tax from various sources viz. agriculture, liquor,
weaving, mines, forest products, tolls, ships had to submit report to the
Samaharta. The Samaharta had to monitor the following functions- Karaniyam
(What is to be done), Siddham (What has been done), Aya (income), Vyaya
(Expenditure) and Nivi (balance)6. He was supposed to raise the income and
minimize the expenditure. On the other hand, the Sannidhata seems to treasure
valuable things in the royal storehouse.7 There was the provision of officers
called Gopa and Sthanikas for local revenue administration. Under the guidance
and direction of the Samaharta, Gopa is to prepare various registers and
census lists of the villages.
There is the classification of land revenue in the AS as follows- (i) Sita -
the produce of the crown land (ii) Bhaga the kings share of produce (iii)
Bali the kings receipts from beggings (iv) Kara- periodical taxes. The AS
refers to Sita as comprising all kinds of crops that are brought in by
Superintendent of agriculture. Bhaga was nothing but traditional grain share.
The AS further classifies revenue into three anayajata (accidental revenue),
vartamana (running revenue) and paryusita (outstanding revenue). What
is received from external sources is called anayajata, which is received day
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 247
after day is termed Vartamana, whatever has been brought forward from the
year before last, whatever is in the hands of others is termed as paryusita. All
these things bear testimony to the fact that there were different rates of revenues
for various kinds of land. Kautilya refers to some cases where fine can be
imposed. It is stated that when minerals and other commodities are purchased
from mines, a fine of 600 panas shall be imposed and when flower or fruits
are purchased from flower or fruit gardens, a fine of 54 panas shall be imposed.
Further, when any kind of grass or grain is purchased from filed, a fine of 53
panas shall be imposed. In accordance with the customs of countries or of
communities, the rate of toll shall be fixed on commodities and fines shall be
fixed in proportion to the gravity of offences. Having divided the kingdom into
four districts and having also subdivided the villages as of first, middle and
lowest rank, the king should exempt them from taxation in the following manner
those villages that supply soldiers, those that pay their taxes in the form of
grains, cattle, gold or raw material, those that supply free labour and dairy
products in lieu of taxes should be exempted from taxation.
Kautilya advocated the theory of division of power among various
machineries of monarchical governance. So he insisted on the appointment of
Akshapatakadhyaksha (Superintendent of records and accounts) for recovering
fines for loss due to neglect or fraud and also for Kosadhyaksha (Superintendent
of treasury) for taking charge of gems, pearls and forest product etc. There
was the mention about the wage system in the AS. The term Vetanam (wage)
found place in the commentary Parasaramadhava on Naradasmriti.8 Kautilya
laid down ground rules for the payment of salaries and wages to the employees.
One quarter of the state-revenue was earnmarked to be spent on payment and
wages. Salaries were given on a liberal basis. The purpose behind the high
salaries was to prevent discontent among the employees and ensure efficiency.
Kautilya conceived some sort of punishment for the cheating or ignorance
on the part of collection of revenue from different sources. If the officer who is
in charge of the treasury causes loss in money, he shall be whipped, while his
abettors shall receive half the punishment. He shall be censured if the loss in
due to ignorance. The collector shall attend to the business of revenue collection
assisted by trustworthy persons.
Kautilya wrote this treatise for Chandragupta Maurya and disclosed at
the very outset that it has been written as a guide for those who govern. Kautilya
was interested in establishing such a machinery through which the king
preserves the integrity and solidarity of the state and generates much power.
As in the present set-up, the importance of vision, mission and motivation was
explained in the AS. Undoubtedly, Kautilyas thoughts on revenue and its
management policy are being adopted by various government machineries in
modern period also. All the powerful kings of ancient India including the great
Ashoka had learnt AS and practiced it to bring peace and prosperity to their
kingdoms. In fact, the AS written in Sanskrit, makes the oldest language of the
248 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
world more relevant and vibrant for ages to come. A deeper study of the AS on
the part of our administrators will provide a perspective to the art of governance
and policy making. It is now high time for the Indian scholars to place it amongst
globally well known treatises of this nature.
======================
References :
1. alpakoso hi raja paurajanapadaneva grasate. AS., II. I.
2. gomahisamajavikam kharostramasvatarasca vrajah. ibid., II. I.
3. sthalapatho varipathasca vanipathah. ibid., II. I.
4. AS., V. 2
5. Manusamhita, VII. 129
6. samaharta durgam rastram khanim setum vanam vrajam vanikapatham cavekset.
ibid., II.6.I
7. sannidhata kosagriham panyagriham kosthagaram kupyagrihamayudhagaram
bandhanagaram ca karayet. ibid, II.5.I
8. vetanam karmamulyam as found in Ancient India, R.C. Mazumdar, P.80
Bibliography :
1. Ancient India, R.C. Mazumdar, Motilal Benarasidas Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1977.
2. Kautilya Arthasastram, ed. by Vasasyati Gaurola, pub. by. Chowkhamba
Vidyabhawan, Varanasi, 2009.
3. Prachim evam madhyayoger bharatvarser rajanaitik cinta, A.Basu, pub. by
Sribhumi Publishing House, Kolkata, 2010.
4. Samskrita-Bharati, published by University of Calcutta, 2010.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
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The nature loving tribal communities and their economy are the worst sufferers
of such environmental problems. With this the paper intends to have a visit on
a plain tribal community of Assam, the Mishing in this regard. As the Mishing
tribal habitation spread over a wide area extending over upper and central
Brahmaputra valley, it is not possible to carry out a study covering the entire
region. A micro regional study is carried out in the above context covering the
downstream part of the Jia-Bharali river containing two Mishing habitational
clusters namely Baligaon(A) and Dharikati(B) cluster consisting of total eight
Mishing villages.(Fig 1)
over last century. The present two habitational clusters are located around the
point of intersection of latitude of 260 38 North and 920 47 East. The eight
villages covered by both the clusters are Baligaon, Bokagaon, Kekokuli,
Towbhanga, Dharikati, Palengaon, Gorgaon and SonaiMiri.
Objectives: The objectives of the study are:
1. To assess environment and disaster related migration and habitational
shift of Mishing people since 1980s.
2. Micro-level changes in the economic behaviour and activities of the
Mishing people and their relationship with weather and environmental
changes.
Methodology: To attain at the objectives of the work a detailed investigation
has been made through field study and collection of primary data and
information on the central theme.
In this work secondary data are used only to prepare the locational map
of the study area and to collect population data from Census of India. A standard
questionnaire accommodating the objectives is prepared to collect first hand
data and information from Mishing families by random sampling method in 8
(eight) selected exclusively Mishing villages. These villages appear in two
clusters and provide group character in the activity which is also being studied.
The nature of the work is strictly socio-cultural and the economic activities
studied provide mostly non-parametric information rather than quantitative
data. Thus, methodological limitation of the work is to contain the study within
the domain of information analysis. Such a limitation maintains little scope for
presentation of data tables or statistical analysis but maintain scope for logistic
model. Among almost all the tribal communities of the N-E India a socio-
economic change from self-sustained agrarian economy towards market oriental
non-agricultural activities is of very recent origin. The major contributors for
such a change are physiographic and environment like weather variations,
deforestation, flood and bank erosion, shortage of agricultural land, changing
life style with increased literacy rate and social interaction. It thus, appears to
be too early to search for a clear dimension of socio-economic change.
Therefore, the paper intends to identify basic inputs of change imparted by
weather variation and natural hazards on the economy and habitat of the Mishing
Community.
Analysis:
The habitation and economy of the Mishing people are closely associated
with the natural environment. They prefer to live close to river and forest
wherefrom they traditionally derive their economic necessities for their day to
day living. The alluvial soil replenished by flood water, fish and floating wood
from the river, various herbs and edible leafy and root supplements which they
used as foods are their traditional resource base. The table below exhibits their
intimacy with river and forest and aloofness from urbanisation. (Table 1)
252 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Table 1
The distance of villages from river, forest and urban centres
Cluster Villages Distance from Distance Areal distance from Areal distance
the river Jia- from forest National Highway from Urban
Bharali (in Km) (NH 52) Centre
(in Km) (in Km) (in Km)
Baligaon 1.5 12 3 30
A Bokagaon
Towbhanga 0.5 7 2.5 50
Kekokuli
Dharikati
B Gorgaon 1 6.5 2 32
Palengaon
Sonaimiri
Plate 1: Bank erosion threatening existence Plate 2: Pad dy field close to river bank
of Mishing settlement.(Downstream Jia-Bharali) vulnerable to flood damage and uncertain
harvest prospect.
Traditionally, the Mishing families used to live in houses with raised
T
platforms or Chang ghar. This house type was adopted by them to protect
themselves from normal flood water and wild animals but, scarcity of building
materials for erecting Chang ghar. Presently they have adopted in large number
a house type a keen to any other community living in Assam. The only difference
in their present housing style is the retention of traditional elevated room meant
for the kitchen called Meram adjacent to their newly adopted structure.
Fig 2
Thus, environmental changes have brought in a wide range of
transformation in the sphere of ethnic tradition of the Mishing community
mainly in their habitational behaviour and economic activities which the
communities never experienced till 1980s since their migration into the
Brahmaputra valley towards the dawn of the 16th century A.D from the Abor
hills of Arunachal Pradesh.
Summary and Conclusion:
The fundamental micro-level changes in the habitation and economic
behaviour of the Mishing community can be viewed by some scholars through
the spectrum of social change, literacy and exposure to audio-visual media
over the same period of time. There is no doubt, these fundamental changes in
life style of remote areas in India might have been influenced to some extent
and contributed to such changes significantly. But, it is also a matter of concern
that a community that have certain socio-economic practices within 3-4 decades.
Unless natural forces make them realize to accept such changes. It is also a
matter of investigation to what extent the micro-level changes, the elements of
weather at their individual status exert a compulsive force on the life and living
of the tribal community like the Mishing.
======================
References :
1. Baruah, P.C. (2010): Cultural Traditions and Customary Laws of the Mishings
of Assam Spectrum Publication, Guwahati.
2. Baruah, P.K. (2002): Missing Jonajivan: Chinta Bichitra Directorate of Assam
Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes, Guwahati.
3. Kagyung, B. (ed) (1989): Mishing Dharma Biswas, Mishing Sanskritir Alekhya,
Saraighat Printers, Guwahati.
4. Kuli, J.J. (2003): Mising Sanskriti (in Assamese) Kaustubh Prakashan,
Dibrugarh.
5. Mili, G. (ed) (1994): Jia Bharalir Rengani, Souvenir, Second Bi-Annual
Conference, Mishing Driribi Kebang, Baligaon.
6. Mipun, J. (1987): The Mishings of Assam: Development of a New Lifestyle
Lowyers Bookstall, Guwahati.
256 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
punishment. Initially there was a belief that rigorous isolation and custodial
measures would reform the offenders. In due course it is being substituted by
the modern concept of social defence.Various problems prevailing in prisons
are acknowledged by government and authorities from time to time. John Locke,
the great English political theorist of seventeenth century expressed that men
were basically good but laws were still needed to keep down The few desperate
men in society. The aim of the society as expressed in its criminal law is to
safeguard its own existence to maintain order and to make it possible for all
citizens to lead a good life, free from molestation of others. The law enforcement
agencies have been given the powers by the society to curtail the freedom of
its citizens by taking them into custody in connection with their deviant conduct.
Before the 1700s, governments seldom imprisoned criminals for
punishment. Instead, people were imprisoned while awaiting trial or
punishment. Common punishments at that time included branding, imposing
fines, whipping, and capital punishment (execution). The authorities punished
most offenders in public in order to discourage other people from breaking the
law. Some criminals were punished by being made to row the oars on ships
called galleys. However, English and French rulers kept their political enemies
in as such addition; people who owed money and defaulted on payments were
held in debtors prisons. In many such cases, offenders families could stay
with them and come and go as they pleased . During the 1700s, many people
including British Judge Sir William Blackstone criticized use of executions
and other harsh punishments. As a result, governments turned more and more
to imprisonment as a form of punishment. Early prisons were dark, dirty and
overcrowded. They locked all types of prisoners together, including men,
women, children, dangerous criminals, debtors and the insane. During the late
1700s, the British reformer John Howard toured Europe to observe prison
conditions. His book The State of the Prisons in England and Wales (1777)
influenced the passage of a law that led to the construction of the first British
prisons designed partly for reform. These prisons attempted to make their
inmates feel penitent (sorry for doing wrong) and became known as
penitentiaries .
Prisoners Reforms: Prior independence and Post-independence:
The modern prison system in India was originated by TB Macaulay in
1835. A committee namely Prison Discipline Committee,1836 was appointed,
which submitted its report on1838. The committee recommended increased
rigorousness of treatment while rejecting all humanitarian needs and reforms
for the prisoners. Following the recommendations of the Macaulay Committee
between1836-1838, Central Prisons were constructed from 1846.The
contemporary Prison administration in India is thus a legacy of British rule. It
is based on the notion that the best criminal code can be of little use to a
community unless there is good machinery for the infliction of punishments.
In 1864, the Second Commission of Inquiry into Jail Management and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 259
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Gauhati University
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 267
proactive role in the criminal justice process. When a crime victim is allowed
to speak at the sentencing hearing, or to submit a victim impact statement
regarding the impact of the offence on the victim and the victims family, there
is an acknowledgment by the criminal justice system of the personal nature of
the crime and of the harm suffered8.
The Right to be Informed: The criminal justice system is often required to
provide general information of interest to victims. If victims or their families
are given the right to be notified of important, scheduled criminal proceedings
and the outcomes of those proceedings, when hearings have been cancelled
and rescheduled it will be helpful for them to follow9.
The Right to Protection: It is important to give crime victims the right to
protection during the criminal justice process. This right may take the form of
a generally stated right to protection, or may include specific protective
measures.
Measures to protect crime victims take various forms. Some examples include:
i) Police escorts to and from court;
ii) Secure waiting areas separate from those of the accused and his/her
family, witnesses and
iii) Friends during court proceedings;
iv) Witness protection programs;
v) Residence relocation; and
vi) Denial of bail or imposition of specific conditions of bail releasesuch
as no contact ordersfor defendants found to present a danger to the
community or to protect the safety of victims and/or witnesses10.
6) The Right to Restitutions: The term restitution generally refers to
restoration of the harm caused by the defendant, most commonly in the form
of payment for damages.
Restitution should cover any out-of-pocket losses directly relating to
the crime, including:
Medical expenses;
Therapy costs;
Prescription charges;
Counseling costs;
Lost wages;
Expenses related to participating in the criminal justice process (such as
travel costs and child care expenses);
Lost or damaged property;
Insurance deductibles; and
Other expenses that resulted directly from the crime.
As per Criminal procedure code Amendment Act, 2008, Section 357 A
was inserted whichspecificallyrecognized victims right to compensation.The
code of criminal procedure (Amendment) Act, 2008, has made tremendous
contributionin filling the gaps in the law as far as victims rights are concerned.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 269
government, local bodies, or any other person; and for it to be reported to the
police, breach of such duty being a new penal offence punishment for non-
treatment of victim15.
Conclusion: The brief review of the existing legal framework in relation to
rights of victims of crime reveals that expect in the area of providing
compensation very little has been done either statutorily or through schemes to
address the entire range of problem faced by victims of crime. There is a need
to take a fresh look at the position in which the victim of a crime is placed in
our criminal justice system.
The Malimath Committee16 has recommended that , the victim has a
right to be represent by an advocate of his/her choice; provided that an advocate
shall be provided at the cost of the state if the victim is not in a position to
afford a lawyer. This fails to acknowledge that the present state of
implementation of the statutory provision concerning free legal aid in the
criminal justice system leaves much to be desired. The reform of the criminal
justice system as a whole will have to be simultaneous with the reform of the
legal aid system before a victim of crime can be guaranteed an effective right
of representation in a criminal trial.
The limitation of the resources of the state in making adequate provision
in the form of a victim assistance fund ought not to be tolerated any longer.
The attempt at devising a statutory scheme of witness protection will have to
be preceded by a wide range of consultations by the law making body with not
only victims of crime but other statutory body like national human rights
commission, legal professionals, sociologist, professional from the field of
medicines etc., it would be appropriate to develop alternative forms of dispute
resolution without diluting the need for providing fair and equal justice to
victims of crime.
======================
References :
1. G.S Bajpai and ShriyaGauba, victim justice- A paradigm shift in Criminal
Justice System in India, published by Thomson Reuters, First Edition (2016).
2. http://www.eurasiareview.com/22022016-rights-of-victims-in-indias-criminal-
justice-system-analysis/.
3. https://www.jdicere.com/rights-of-victims-in-the-indian-criminal-justice-
system-by-shreya-singh/.
4. http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/victim
5. http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/article/victims-rights-in-india-1315-
1.html
Endnotes:
1. G.S Bajpai and ShriyaGauba,victim justice- A paradigm shift in Criminal Justice
System in India, published by Thomson Reuters, First Edition (2016).
2. Ibid
3. Ibid
4. http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/victim
5. Supra note 1 at p74.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 271
6. AIR 1980 SC 84
7. http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/article/victims-rights-in-india-1315-
1.html
8. Ibid
9. Ibid
10. Ibid
11. 2014 (2) SCC 1
12. 1992 Supp. (1) SCC335
13. AIR 2004 SC 3566
14. (2010)70 ACC 512
15. Supra note 1 at 79
16. Supra note 1 at 7
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if you dont, they dont let you go home He said. Some students decided not
to go to school in the first place. Another student said that, there is also the
prevalence of Kkotjebi and euphemism for child beggars. In spring the students
spread plastic bags on the ground and slept there also used the bags as blankets,
woken up early in the morning. There were also lots of kids who sleep outside
even in the winter where many were frozen to death. A scientist defacted from
the North Korea and fled to Finland has revealed that the North Korea has
experiment chemical weapon test with disable children to see how they die.
The children who are born in prison camps are seen as prisoners because their
blood is guilty which are buried alive or are given as savage to dogs.
The torture which is carried out by the North Korean government is
another example of Human rights violation. North Korean interrogators
are said to have beaten prisoners arrested for unauthorized travel to China or
other politically sensitive conduct. One torture victim told the UNcommission
he was beaten with a wooden club until he could no longer scream and he
suffered enduring injuries to his kidneys as a result.Another torture victim,
Mr, Kim Kwang-il, said police subjected to him to what was called the pigeon
torture position and beat his chest until he threw up blood. He said he wound
up confessing to crimes he did not commit. Not all of the victims were adults.
The commission spoke with 16-year-old Kim Hyuk, a former prisoner who
was forcibly repatriated from neighbouring China as a boy. He said he was
also put through pigeon torture and was kept at the interrogation centre until
he was 17 and could be tried as an adult. Torturing people by knee and wood
torture method practice against the enemies of the state whose family members
have escaped from the country, due to this practiced they couldnt walk after a
week and result in the death of the detainee.
Persons accused of serious political offenses are usually sent to political
prison camps, operated by North Koreas National Security Agency. These
camps are characterized by systematic abuses and often deadly conditions,
including meagre rations that lead to near-starvation, virtually no medical care,
lack of proper housing and clothes, regular mistreatment including sexual
assault and torture by guards, and executions. People held in political prisoner
camps face backbreaking forced labour at logging, mining, agricultural, and
other worksites. These are characterized by exposure to harsh weather,
rudimentary tools, and lack of safety equipment, all of which create a significant
risk of accident. Death rates in these camps are reportedly extremely high.There
is alsonoprevalence of human rights in political prisonercamps. There are six
prison camps in North Korea with 80,000 to 120,000 people are imprisoned
in the camps an estimate made byUnited States and South Korean officials.
They keep them as slaves, not carrying about the age or condition of the
prisoners, they are faced with deplorable conditions, forced labour, torture,
inhuman treatments and even execution which is considered merciful comparing
it to the work they must do all while being led near starvation.Hye Sook Kim
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 275
detained in political prison camp said when you go inside a political prison
camp they tell you to never ask what you are guilty of. If you do, you become
a traitor and will be executed in public. She also said that political prisoners
are literally treated worse than dogs.
The prison camps are divided into two totally controlled zones for
prisoners with life sentence, and are also deprived of citizenship and zone for
ideological reformation for prisoners to be released and retaining citizenship.
The prisoners are turn into slaves and machines where they have to work all
the time.The political prisoners almost die within three years. They didnt even
know their human rights are violated, they didnt even know the word human
rights. They beat up the criminal half dead drag them by the gag in his mouth
and tie him to the post with his eyes covered then, they yell, in the name of the
people shoot the anti- revolutionary convict. And three soldiers shoot 3 shoots,
and they also yell, if they try to escape they will end up like this.Only 25
minutes from summary trial to public execution, no process of appeal, and no
defense from an attorney reveal by a detainee.In January of 2016,U.S. student
Otto Warmbier was arrested in Pyongyang for allegedly attempting to steal a
propaganda poster at a hotel. He was sentenced to 15 years hard labour, then
fell into a coma 15 months ago from which he never awoke., has again put an
international focus on the widespread human rights violations allegedly being
committed by the Kim Jong Un government.
There is also prevalence of guilt by association a system in which family
members of a criminal are also held accountable and punished. The family of
Gil-Nam Oh detained in Yodok Political Prison Camp had escape from the
camp but his wife and daughter are suffering in the prison camps. They are
given the punishment because of their association with Gil- Nam Oh. There
are many political prisoners in North Korea whose guilt was established by
nothing more than association.
Through witness testimony, the commission found evidence that
starvation was also used as a form of torture and extermination in its prison
camps. For political criminals, they gave us a fistful of corn kernels once a
month after 15 days; we would run out of food, so we had to cut grass to
cook porridge, to stay alive. Even fit men, healthy people, after three months,
would suffer from malnutrition, witness Kang Chol-hwan, a political prisoner
in the 1980s, testified.
There is no freedom of movement. It is illegal to leave a country without
the regimes permission. If someone wants to travel a specific country they
should give a specific reason and purpose without which the regimes will not
give access and if they want to leave the country without permission they will
be relocated to less favourable parts of the country as a punishment and if
someone is caught while escaping is shot to dead.In 2011 two people were
executed in front of 500 spectators because they tried to escape from the country.
The North Korean rulers also prohibit the people from seeking ways to fend
276 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
for themselves, and continue to subject the starving masses to forced labour.
The North Korean rulers use armed forces to stop the people from seeking out
their relatives living in China to ask for help. Even if some of the people manage
to cross the river and reach the Northeast region of China, the North Korean
rulers dispatch security agents to arrest and drag them back home like escaped
slaves and subject them to barbaric punishment.
The role of international actors is an important one in North Korean
situation. In a 372-page United Nations report on human rights in
the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea are harrowing. The investigation
looked at years of violations from the countrys founding leader Kim Il Sung,
his son Kim Jong Il and grandson and current ruler Kim Jong Un.The UN
report on Human Rights abuses in North Korea and describes the violations as
CRIME AGAINST HUMANITY which is seen in 9 areas. Violations of
freedom of expression, ideology and religion, discrimination based on origin,
violations of the right to movement, violation of the right to food/ right to life,
arbitrary detention, torture, violations associated to prison camps and abduction
of foreigners. It also recommended to international community and to UN that
to refer human rights violations in North Korea to UN Security council and to
build up stronger and continued UN efforts to enhance human rights situation
in North Korea and humanitarian aid to Pyongyang the nations capital to
continue.
Pyongyangs record of cooperation with UN human rights mechanisms
remains among the worst in the world. Since 2013, its human rights record
has been the subject of more focused UN attention than ever before, including
at the Human Rights Council and Security Council, as detailed above. On
September 21, the HRC held a plenary panel on the situation of human rights
in North Korea, addressing international abductions, enforced disappearances,
and other alleged crimes. In January 2015, United States President Barack
Obama issued an executive order imposing sanctions following the hacking of
Sonys computers in late 2014, allegedly by groups connected to North Korea.
The US sanctions on North Korea included a human rights clause for the first
time.
The North Korean governments view of human rights is conditional
rather than universal. They give importance on collective rights than individual
rights. The government said their constitution guarantees human rights, the
law respect human rights but this all are misconception. Rights in North
Korea rather they dont have any rights.There is no freedom of movement, no
freedom of speech, civil rights are rejected, and deathpenalty is given without
a justified judicial process.The focussed should be on people, on human rights.
More attention should be given on liberty by words not by bullets. People in
North Korea should little by little be aware of the outside culture and what
actually happening to them. It is not a good situation to live in and more and
more people should try to come out of the country where the NGOs and other
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 277
formation of India into a great unit retaining its civilisation and traditions. He
trusted that the people of India would also maintain the independence, honour
and dignity of the Supreme Court.3 In A.K Gopalan Case4, the Supreme Court
placed Article- 21 of the Constitution of India in a very narrow sense and
observed that the procedure established by a law made by the State. The Court
refused to accept the principles of natural justice. The Court had viewed that
Article-19 which provide freedoms to its citizen does not included under the
purview of Article-21 as because, Article- 19 postulated legal capacity to
exercise the rights guaranteed by it. It appears that the honourable court followed
with the sentence drafted Committee that No person shall be deprived of his
life and personal liberty without due process of law.
Life of law is not logic but experience with this quote, the Supreme
Court has changed its view in Maneka Gandhis case5. The procedure
established by law under article 21 must be just, fair and not arbitrary. It must
pass the test of reasonableness and the procedure should be in conformity with
the principles of natural justice and it would be no procedure unless it and all
requirement of Article-21 would not be satisfied.6
The progress of the society is dependent upon proper application of law
to its need the path from Gopalan to Maneka Gandhi was covered by an attempt
of the judiciary to mould and shape the law to respond to the societys desire
that liberty must be effectively protected.
Right to Education- A Fundamental Right: The Indian judiciary is in number
of cases declaring educational right as an essential requisite to enjoy right to
life as it was imperative to lead a life of dignity.7
The Supreme Court in Mohini Jain vs. State of karnataka8, decided the
matters relating to capitation of fee in educational institution and heads that
right to life and dignity as those which cannot be assured unless they are
accompanied with the right to education. Every citizen has a right to education
under the Constitution. After ten years from the decision of Mohini Jain9, the
Constitution of India amended Article-21 and added a new Article- 21-A, which
provides the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children
between the ages of 6-14 years in such a manner as the state may by law
determined. This Act has also amended Aricle-45 of the Constitution of and
directing the state to provide early childhood care and education for all children
untill they complete the age of 6 years and added Aricle-51-A (k) that it is the
fundamental duty to every guardians shall provide opportunities for education
to his wards. The Apex Court, in Unnikrishnans10 case viewed that the right
though it flows from Article-21 is not an absolute right but must be read in the
light of the provisions of Articles-45 and 41. Thus, essentially the supreme
education has provided that every citizen of this country has a right to free
education until he completes the age of 14 years.
In the year 2010, the Supreme Court, In Ng. Koman Vs. State of
Manipur11 held that shifting of school from one village (where there is no
280 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
that any community, religion or linguistic, which is numerically less than 50%
of the population of the State is entitled to the right under Article- 30.
Protection of interest of Minorities: Article29 (1) of the Constitution of India
provides for any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any
part thereof having a distinct language, scriptural or cultural of its own shall
have the right to conserve the same17.
Secondly, no citizen shall be denied admission in to any educational
institutions maintained by the State of receiving aid out of the state funds only
of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
Article- 30 (1) held that all minorities whether based on religion or language,
shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice. In making any law providing for compulsory acquisition of any property
of an educational institution established and administered by a minority referred
in clause (1), the state shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined
under such law for the acquisition of such property would not restrict or abrogate
the right guaranteed under that clause.18
Clause (2) provides that the State shall not in granting aid to the educational
institutions, discriminate against any educational institutions on the ground
that it is under the management of a minority whether based on religion or
language.19
After the Constitution came into force Articles- 29 and 30 came for the
consideration of the High Courts and Supreme Court. The use of expression
right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice in
Article- 30 (1) gives the right very wide amplitude.20
In one aspect, it was decided that the minority educational institutions have the
right to conduct and manage the affairs of the institution, any attempt by the
State governments university or Board interfere with the administration of the
institutions amounting to abridgement of the guaranteed by Article- 30 (1).21
Secondly, the minority educational institutions, which receive grants from the
state, are bound by the rules and regulations framed by it same as of
governmental educational institutions and also admit students from other
communities belonging to the majority.22
Thirdly, minority educational institutions are entitled to certain percentage
of reservation of seats to admit students of their own choice and state cannot
implement its policy on reservation.23
The right to establish and administer can be regulated by the State or the
Universities or the affiliation authority by imposing conditions to ensure
excellence in education like preserving the minimum qualification, courses of
study, and curriculum etc. But, in case of private unaided institutions, the
institutions should enjoy the maximum autonomy in the matter administration.24
In case of government aided institutions, the government will have a strong
voice in the administration including admission and fee structure. The private
unaided institutions can generate reasonable revenue surplus for the
282 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
the requirement of the family and secondly, the children were taught as a
traditional craft at a very early age to make them proficient in a job which
would then be a source of income to them on gaining adulthood. It is a
recognised fact that in childhood the body is more flexible and pliable and can
band, twist, stretch more easily to acquire postures required for particular
job.31
The Constitution of India imposes an obligation on every organ of the
state including the judiciary to transform the status quo in to a new human
order in which there will be equality of status and opportunity for all. Therefore,
judiciary has socio- economic destination and to perform creative function for
the community at large. It has played a significant role in promoting child
welfare.32
In Vikram Deo Singh 33 the Supreme Court has rightly held that it is the
least the minimum conditions ensuring childs dignity. The court has a parental
role while directing the government to persuade the workmen to send their
children to nearby school and arrange not only for the fee to be paid but also to
provide free of charge, books and other facilities such as transportation.
In various cases, the Supreme Court has given warning to the employers and
the law enforcing authorities not to employ children in hazardous occupation
and to implement the scheme for the welfare of children as enshrined in the
labour laws.34
Suggestions: Few suggestions are given below-
1. Under the Constitution, if any persons fundamental right is violated
then he may proceed to the Supreme Court under Article- 32 and also to the
High Court under Article- 226. But it is not possible for an indigent person to
go to the High Court or Supreme Court to establish his right. In such cases
their rights are being violated continuously. Keeping these things in mind, the
Supreme Court or the High Courts should established under their jurisdiction
some mobile courts within the whole territory, which only can entertain such
kind of cases.
2. Some monitoring agencies should be set up place to place so that they
can monitor the whole thing of an individual and also have the power to take
up their cases in the High Courts and Supreme Court.
Conclusion: At the end with the words of Justice UNTWALIA who has
compared Judiciary to a watching tower above all the big structures of the
other limbs of the State from which it keeps a watch like a sentinel on the
functions of the other limbs of the state as to whether they are working in
accordance with the law and the Constitution, the Constitution being supreme.
In India, Judiciary occupies a unique place. Its function is to maintain the rule
of law in the country and to assure that the Government runs according to law.
======================
References :
1. Anand, A.S Justice for Women; Universal Law Publishing Co. 3rd Edition. P-
284 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
60.
2. Mohini Jain vs. State of Karnataka, AIR 1992 SC 1858.
3. Supra-1 Pp-61& 62
4. A.K Gopalan vs. State of Madrass, AIR 1950 SC 27.
5. Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597.
6. Supra-1 P-63.
7. Nagarathana A. Right to Education of Children with special Need....... Indian
Legal Framework compiled by Singh Subhas Chandra, Gender Violence, Serials
Publications, New Delhi (India), 1st Publication 2011, P-155.
8. Supra-2.
9. Ibid.
10. Unnikrishnan vs. State of Andhra- Pradesh, AIR 1993 SC 2178.
11. AIR 2010, Gau- 102.
12. Hussain Dr. Naushad, Right to Education Retrospect and Prospects, Shipra
Publication, New Delhi. 1st Publication 2014, p IX.
13. Ashok Kumar Thakur vs.Union of India, (2008) 6SCC1.
14. Dharmadhikari Justice D. M, Right to Education, published in Supreme Court
Journal Section, vol. 3, 2010.
15. T.M.A Pai Foundation vs. State of Karnataka (2002) 8SCC 481.
16. A.M Patrani vs. Ke Shavan, AIR 1965 Ker 75.
17. N.S Dr. Sreenivasulu, Human Rights many sides to a coin, Legal publications,
New Delh, Edition-2008 p-82.
18. Ibid p-86.
19. Id.
20. Ibid p-90.
21. Id.
22. Id.
23. Id.
24. Ibid pp-93-94.
25. Id.
26. Supra-15.
27. Islamic Academy of Education vs. State of Karnataka (2003) 6SCC 697.
28. P.A Inamdar vs.State of Maharastra (2005) 6SCJ 746.
29. Supra- 17 p-96.
30. Ibid pp-97-98.
31. Singh Dr. Devinder, Child Labour and Right to Education, Central Law
Publication. Allahabad, 1st Edition 2013 p-3.
32. Ibid p-141.
33. Vikram Deo Singh vs. State of Bihar, AIR 1988 SC1782.
34. Asid Workers Case, AIR 1982 Sc 1473.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
writ of habeas corpus can be issued not only for relating a person from illegal
detention but also for protecting prisoners from inhuman and barbarous
treatment in jail.
In Charles Sobhraji v. Supdtt. Central Jail, Tihar10 case it was held that
there was no arbitrary power to put an under-trial under bar fetters.
In Hussainara Khatun (iv) v. Home Secy, State of Bihar11, the PIL was filed by
an advocate, exposed the failure of the release of over 40,000 under-trial
prisoners. Right to speedy justice emerged as a basic fundamental right which
has been denied to these prisoners.
In Citizen for Democracy v. State of Assam12, the Supreme Court declared
that handcuffs and other fetters shall not be forced upon a prisoner while lodge
in jail or while in transport or transit from one jail to another jail or to the court
or back.
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India13, case was landmark in Indian
Jurisprudence. The Maneka principle was extended to prison conditions and
particularly to the plight of under-trials.
The High Court of M.P. in S.P. Anand v. State of Madhya Pradesh has
extensively dealt with the basic right which are available to prisoners despite
curtailment of their right to liberty.
The decision of State of Andhra Pradesh v. Chalaram Krishna Reddy15
was relied upon to urge that a prisoner whether convict, under-trial or a detenu
continues to enjoy the fundamental rights including to life which is one of the
basic human rights.
In Dilip K. Basu v. State of West Bengal & Others16, the Supreme Court
held that CCTV cameras will help to go a long way in preventing violation of
human rights of those incarcerating in jails. It will also help the authorities in
maintaining proper discipline among the inmates & taking corrected measures
wherever abuses are noticed.
Recently, the Punjab & Haryana High Court, in the case of Jasvir Singh
and Another v. State of Punjab & others17, has ruled that the right to procreate
of a convict falls within the right to life & personal liberty guaranteed U/A 21
of the Constitution of India.
Through the mechanism of PIL, courts seeks to protect human right in the
following ways:
1. By creating a new regime of human right by expending the meaning of
fundamental right to equality, life and personal liberty. In this process right to
speedy trial, free legal aid, dignity, means of livelihood, education, housing,
medical care, clean environment, right against torture, sexual harassment,
solitary confinement, bondage and servitude exploitation and so on emerged
as human rights. These new reconceptualised rights provide legal resources to
activate the courts for their enforcement through PIL.
2. By democratization of access to justice. This is done by relaxing the
traditional rule of locus-standi. Any public spirited citizen or social action group
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 289
can approach the constitutional courts on behalf of the oppressed classes. Courts
attention can be drawn even by writing a letter or sending a telegram. This has
been called epistolary jurisprudence.
3. By fashioning new kinds of relief under the courts writ jurisdiction. For
eg.- the court can award interim compensation to the victims of governmental
lawlessness.
4. By judicial monitoring of State institution such as jails, womens
protective homes, juvenile homes, mental asylums and the like. Through judicial
invigilation, the court seeks gradual improvement in their management and
administration. This has been characterized as creeping jurisdiction in which
the court takes over the administration of these institutions for protecting human
rights.
5. By devising new techniques of fact-finding. In most of the cases, the
court has appointed its own socio-legal commissions of inquiry or has deputed
its own officials for investigation. It has taken the help of the NHRC or CBI or
Experts to enquire into human rights violations. This may be called investigative
litigation.
Conclusion: Though the prisoners rights are more or less recognized by prison
administration but the real challenge is regarding their poor implementation.
In India, various reformative measures by the government has been taken to
improve the general condition of prisoners but still the condition of prisoners
is far from satisfactory. The fact that these rights are not sometimes made
available to prisoners is well documented. There are innumerable judgements
of S.C and H.Cs showing how prisoners rights are violated. The judgements
highlighted the highly unsatisfactory conditions prevailing inside the prisons
and the failure of the prison authorities to provide an environment which is
conductive to the maintenance of prisoners rights, partly rooted in the belief
that the prisoners do not deserve all the rights & the protections that the
Constitution provides to all citizens. Besides being morally wrong and legally
invalid, this belief does not show adequate recognition of some basic facts
about the prison population.
======================
References :
1. Prof. N.V. Paranjape : Criminology and Penology (14th Edn.), 2009, P406, Central
Law Publications.
2. Dr. H.O. Agarwal : Human Rights, Universal Book Traders, New Delhi, 2002,
P2
3. Dr. S. S. Srivastava: Criminology & Criminal Administration (3rd Edn.), 2007,
Pp273-274, Central Law Agency.
4. Article 5, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
5. Article 10, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966.
6. https://en.m.wikipedia, org/wiki/prison-in-india (accessed on 23.06.2017 at
11:30 am)
7. www.collinsdictionary.com (accesses on 23.06.2017 at 11:45 am.)
290 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Persistent Vegetative State until her death. In case of other countries who has
worked upon and passed down statues regarding euthanasia and has legalised
euthanasia, there is not much of a difference in legal acceptability but still
India stands few steps behind. Oregons euthanasia law states that a person
maybe allowed assisted suicide if they fulfil certain criteria under the law. In
India whereas in no condition such assisted suicide is accepted legally. This
article concentrates on the comparative analysis of international legal scenario
and India and to lean its norms of legal acceptance.
Objectives of the paper:
* To study the Indian legal perspective and scenario on the subject matter
of euthanasia.
* To make a study on the acceptability and refusal of the legal stand of
euthanasia internationally.
* To establish a comparative study on legal acceptability between
International dimensions and Indian perspective.
* To learn the possibilities of acceptance of euthanasia in India and
internationally by legal norms.
Methodology: In order to understand and review the current status the
following methodology are used:
* Data collected both from primary sources as well as secondary sources.
* Studying law various decisions passed down by Supreme Court and
High Courts in India and narrowing down to specific famous cases related
to the issue.
* Studying relevant documents/Law journal/Law books/medical journals/
articles published in newspapers, magazines and periodicals.
* Extracting the relevant portions from internet, legal websites/news
websites/blog pages/ E-books.
Discussion:
On March 7th, 2011 the Supreme Court of India legalised it which means
removal of life support systems or instruments from the patient if the patient is
brain dead and is solely kept alive on instruments and in ventilation. The decision
was made as a part of the verdict in the case involving Aruna Shanbaug, who
had been in Persistent Vegetative State until her death in 2015. The High court
rejected active euthanasia by means of lethal injection.1 In international scenario
the legal status of euthanasia in various countries are: Canada its illegal and
considered as aid and abet suicide under Section 241(b) of the Criminal
Code of Canada, Oregon it is legal only with certain terms and conditions to
be fulfilled, Washington legalised, Vermont legalised, California (effective from
mid 2016), Montana it is de facto legal, Denmark is yet to legalise, Finland
there is a grey area regarding this concept, France there is support for
decriminalization of voluntary euthanasia, Ireland it is illegal, Switzerland it is
criminal. European countries Netherland and Belgium it is legalised.
Luxemburg became the third European country to decriminalise euthanasia,
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 293
will be made regarding the library facilities available for the student in
Secondary schools in and around Nagaon city.. It is necessary to find out the
library facilities for the students available at present, so that suggestions may
be made to improve the situation and there by the students may be helped in
becoming library minded. If they can develop their reading habits in the library
in school they can perform their studies quite independently in other subsequent
educational career.
Area of the Study: The two schools where the survey was conducted were:
1. Kujidah Higher Secondary School:
Kujidah H. S. School is government school and it is located in Nagaon
district and this school was established in the year of 1954.
2. Sankar dev Vidya Nitketon Hatichung:
It is a private school located in Brahmingaon of Nagaon district and it
was established in the year of 1993.
Objectives of the Study:
1. To find out the services offered by the library in Government and Private
Secondary Schools in Nagaon district.
2. To make a comparative study of library facilities (infrastructure, books,
staff, and time table) available in private schools and government schools.
Hypotheses of the Study:
1. The library facilities available in the schools are satisfactory.
2. There is difference between the two schools with regard to library
facilities.
Review of Related Literature:
The Review:
It has been found from research survey report that much research work
has been done on public library system and college library service but very
few research works has been done on school library service.
1. Hazarika Deba, Library facilities and promotion of reading habits in
the Secondary schools with special reference to Sibsagar district, a dissertation,
Gauhati University, 2000. In his dissertation Hazarika mentioned that the
schools in the past entirely were dependent upon the text books. The school of
the past concentrated upon drilling the child in a service of mental exercise.
The child, who is surrounding with good books of all kinds, learns beyond the
class room routines and through extensive reading he is able to develop
judgement about books. This brings into play the use of school library as a
common literacy laboratory and an indispensable agency for importing real
education through dynamic method of teaching. He noticed that the lack of
reading habit among the school children is an academic problem which leads
to a social problem.
It has been found from research survey report that much research work
has been done on public library system and college library service but very
few research works has been done on school library service.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 297
Table: 2
Analysis of the questionnaire by the Librarian or Library In-Charge
298 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
From the table no. 1 and 2 it can be said that necessary facilities for
library in the school are available in both schools. In these Tables only closed
items are analysed. The open items also show that library facilities are available
in both schools which are analysed in second objective. From this analysis we
can say our first hypothesis The library facilities available in the schools are
satisfactory can be accepted.
Analysis of the second Objective:
Objective 2: To make a comparative study of library facilities (infrastructure,
books, staff, time-table) available in private School and Govt. School.
On the analysis of the responses from the librarian, head of the institution and
students of the various questions, it is observed that every teacher and student
has responded to the questions according to the library facilities available in
their schools. so, there were significant variations in their replies.
Infrastructure: It is shown from the questionnaire that in Govt. School there
is good building facility for the library. In a separate building library is located.
About 20 students can sit at a time in the reading room.
In the private school, the library room is located in the main building. About
15 students can set at a time in the library
Books: From the analysis of the questionnaire it is shown that in the Kujidah
H. S. School there are above 3000 books in the library. And in the Sankardev
Vidya Niketon there were above 2500 books available.
Staff: In Kujidah H. S. School there is no librarian, but a female science teacher
is the in-charge of the school library.
In Sankardev Vidya Niketon there is a B. Lib qualified librarian in the school
library. In both the schools they have library committee.
Time Table: The library is open in all school days in both the schools. In
Kujidah H. S. School the books are issued twice in a week, and there is a
library period in the time table. The students are issued books on Monday and
Friday, and they can take the books for 15 days only.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 299
In Sankardev Vidya Niketon the books are issued only once in a week.
There are not any library classes in the time-table. Students can go to the
library daily, library cards are issued to every student. Without the library
cards books are not issued. The books are issued for 15 days.
From this analysis we have seen various differences in both the schools.
According to this analysis there are better facilities available in the govt.
secondary school than the private.
But there is not a qualified librarian in the govt. school library.
Our second hypothesis there is difference between the two schools with regard
to library facilities can be accepted.
Major Findings: The school in Nagaon district has to face lots of problems.
The major findings of the study are summarised below
The library room is not well decorated to attract the children in both of
the schools. And in the reading room, the seat capacity is very small.
There is not a well qualified librarian in the govt. secondary school. And
in both the schools librarian and the library in-charge is directly responsible
for the library functions.
There are limited numbers of books available in both the library.
Books are not systematically arranged in the libraries. There are not
open shelves in the private school library, so students get troubled for reading
the books when they need.
Suggestions: There are various drawbacks in the government and private school
library. For the development of library the investigator has given the following
suggestions-
School library should be planned and organised scientifically according
to the needs and situation of teaching and learning process.
The school library should possess a separate attractive building with
attractive and beautiful furniture. There should be well illustrated books and
sufficient audio visual materials to attract the children and to motive them.
Financial problem is one of the main barriers in the development of
libraries. It is therefore the responsibility of the school authority to manage the
library found.
Trained libraries with requisite qualified with good salaries should be
appointed in school.
Conclusion: From this study we have seen that there are various problems in
both schools regarding library facilities. They have a library but they are not
well managed. In government school library there is no qualified librarian and
in private school library there is no proper time-table for library users. The
two libraries can not fulfil the demands of the students.
We are now entering in to the information age. At this moment the need
of the well organised service libraries in the govt. secondary schools is deeply
needed. The govt. should give financial assistance to each and every school
for the proper development. Every school should have a trained librarian so
300 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Introduction :Sport has always been look upon as a form of physical activity
and ability of an individual. It is said that if all human organism work accordingly
to their viability then chances of an individuals success is more. In sports
everyone wants to give their best and they put in a lot of efforts to maintain
their training of fitness status but the recent scenario has changed and to attain
an optimum level of performance efficiently and effectively one need to train
the psychological characteristics of the person as well.It has been observed
through the participation, competition and tournaments that physical fitness
component alone is not the key to achieve the desired goal performance and
satisfaction.Human are composite in nature and therefore there mind is a set
of mental process which consists of recognition, realization, awareness,
understanding, interpretation, observation and judgement. All these aspects
are inter-related which the sportsperson need to strengthen along with his/her
===========================
* M.P.Ed Scholar, Amity School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences,
Amity University, Sector-125, Noida (U.P) , Pin- 201303.
** Assistant Professor , Amity School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences,
Amity University, Sector-125, Noida (U.P) , Pin- 201303
302 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
The above table depicts that the difference of 1.1 in the means of Physical
aggression between football and basketball college level player is statistically
not significant at .05 level of confidence in the obtained t value is .672 is less
than the tabulated value 2.
Table 5 Significance of difference in the mean of verbal between
football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Std. Deviation t Value
Difference
Verbal Football 30 17.1000 4.05437
0.2333 .249
Basketball 30 16.8667 3.13746
*significant at .05level
The above table consisting the variable of Verbal depicts thatthe difference
of 0.2333 in the means of aggression between football and basketball college
level player is statistically not significant at .05 level of confidence in the obtained
T value is .249 is less than the tabulated value 2.
Table 6: Significance of difference in the mean of hostile between
football and basketball players
Group N Mean Mean Difference Std. t
Deviation
Hostile Football 30 23.9667 3.22152
0.4334 .549
Basketball 30 23.5333 2.88556
*significant at .05level
The above table consisting the variable of Hostile depicts thatthe
difference of 0.4334 in the means of aggression between football and basketball
college level player is statistically not significant at .05 level of confidence in
the obtained T value is .549 is less than the tabulated value 2.
Findings: The finding of the study reveals some facts related to the adjustment
and aggression. After data analysing there were no significant difference found
between football and basketball group in term of health adjustment , physical
aggression, verbal aggression and hostile aggression whereas social and
emotional adjustment found significant difference .
Conclusion:On the basis of the finding obtained from the present study it is
observed that selected semi contact game players not statistically significant
different in health adjustment and aggression. It is also concluded that basketball
players have more emotional adjust and social adjustment ability than football
players.
======================
References :
1. Burdette, A., & Weeks, J. (2012). Maternal Religious Attendance and low birth
weight. Social science & medicine, 74(12), 1961-1967
2. Dhingra, R., Manhas, S. and N. Thakur(2005), Establishing connectivity of
emotional quotient (EQ), spiritual quotient (SQ) with social adjustment: A study
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 305
Introduction:
To develop the talents of individuals in a society Education is a basic
right. Higher education is of paramount importance for economic and social
development. Education can create a new outlook. It is powerful device to
change human nature in a desirable way. Higher Education is considered as
the apex of formal education. It includes greater specialization necessitated by
rapid socio-economic and industrial development. Higher Education is a part
of the larger socio-economic system and hence the university has a dynamic
role to play in changing the society by changing the thinking process of youth
people. This will be possible only with the help of high standard education.
Higher education has come to the centre stage and in today the most important
agent for change and development. Higher education is a powerful tool to
build knowledge based society. Education is not static. It is a dynamic process
and life- long exercise. It plays a vital role in the overall development and
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Patidarrang College
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 307
growth of a country. The progress of any society and the people in it heavily
depends on Education. Education is only way of growth and development of
human life. Education is a dynamic process and lifelong exercise. The quality
of a nation depends upon the quality of its citizens, which in turn depends
upon the quality of their education.
Higher Education is the aggregate of systematized knowledge and
practical skills that allow theoretical and practical problems to be solved by a
given type of training, utilising and creatively developing the modern
achievements of science, technology and culture. The term Higher education
is also applied to the training of highly skilled specialists in the field of
economics, science, technology and culture at various types of higher schools
which accept higher persons who have successfully completed general
education schools or secondary education institutions.
The foremost aim of Higher education is to meet the needs of the society.
The development of higher education has occupied the modern age and their
wonders are perceptible all round. Higher educational institutes are considered
as the foundation of a nation. The quality of education provided by these
institutes creates the quality of people who administer the country. With the
advancement of scientific knowledge and gradual development of mans
outlook, it is believed that education should enable the individual to earn their
living. After completing education, specially after secondary education, students
are confused regarding their earnings. Occupation is one of the primary concern
of every student passing 10+2, specially in rural areas. Understandingly,
educational aspiration at this stage is a crucial factor as it gives direction to
ones future. According to needs and changing social circumstances educational
programmes have been changing. As a result students are often confused
whether to take higher education or not. Specially many students of remote
area engaged in small service but do not prefer higher education.
Indian Higher Education system is the third largest system in the world.
In India Higher Education has a tremendous growth since the country had
independence in 1947. The country had 24 universities and about 636 colleges
only in 1950 to cater the need of higher education. As per the latest 2011
census, about 8.15% (68 millions) Indians are graduates. Indians higher
education system has expanded at a fast pace by adding nearly 20,000 colleges
and more than 8millions students in a decade from 2001 to 2010 2011. As of
2016, India has 799 universities, with a break up of 44 central universities,
540 state universities, 122 deemed universities , 90 private universities, 5
institutions established and functioning under the State Act, 75 Institutes of
National Importance which include AIIMS, IITs and NITs among others.
Other institutions include 39,071 colleges as Government Degree Colleges
and Private Degree colleges including 1800 exclusive womens colleges
functioning under these universities and institutions as reported by the UGC
in 2016.
308 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
specialized tasks by society, which has also prepared them for such tasks by
providing them with the necessary high level of education. The profession
then demands that the representatives selected to perform these tasks should
demonstrate high ethical standards in all situations, even though the tasks may
frequently be difficult to define precisely or call for rapid decisions. lt is essential
for society to be able to rely on persons of this kind to exercise a high level of
professional skill. The sense of responsibility attached to the practising of a
profession is based on knowledge and vocational skills on one hand and the
values and norms that form the foundation of the work on the other. Both are
essential, and neither can replace the other. Good ethical principles cannot
compensate for poor professional skills, and good professional skills cannot
make up for a lack of ethical principles. Thus teachers should feel obliged by
their sense of responsibility to pay constant attention for maintaining their
professional skills, and also to show particular sensitivity in the perception of
ethical problems and readiness to observe the highest standards of professional
ethics when resolving such situations.
The Code of Professional Ethics of a teacher: As I have already said that
every profession have code or its rules or principles which he has to abide
by it. There are some examples which highlights the professional codes .
1. Medical practitioners take the Hippocratic oath. is an oath historically
taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to
practice medicine ethically
2. Magicians take oath to guard against exposing the secrets of magic .
3. Teachers move towards self regulation , to adhere to the ethical principles
as well. etc .Such examples displays certain codes which abide by certain
aspects .
Parameters of a Teacher: We all very profoundly understand what should
be the quality of a teacher. So some are specified below:
1. Teacher as a Role Model: We all know that No people can rise
above the level of its teachers-NPE. The dressing- style and content of
communication really matters a lot for a student and for the overall upliftment
of the students personality development. They get inspiration and motivation
from such teacher. And always tend try to make them their ideal person in
their life.
2. Teachers Personality: Personality is one of the dynamic characteristics
of an individual with its multiple dimensions.A Teachers personality should be
radiant, pleasing ,impressive personality appearance, refinement, pleasant
manners, industry, enthusiasm at all times,if he /she is mentally and physically
healthy.
3. Teachers Mental Health: Mental and physical health is an utmost
ingredient to become a perfect teacher. It is very important to know the perfect
status of a teacher with respect to its health .It can be said that a neurotic
teacher may spread fear, nervousness and worry in the classroom.
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 313
communication, power and so on. The primary requirement for the development
of any region requires the establishment of proper educational facilities and
also enrolment of maximum number of students. Education is a key indicator
of economic growth and development because it is only the educated section
of people that can bring about social, economic and political changes, reduce
poverty, unemployment to a considerable level. The role of higher education
in this respect is immense because people acquiring higher education can
engage themselves in various research and development programmes,
innovative ideas that can positively impact the development of backward regions
of any region.
Objectives:
1) To bring out a comparison of the number of universities and colleges in
N-E region compared to the other states of India.
2) To analyze the obstacles in providing higher education in the rural areas
of N-E region.
Methodology: The study is based on secondary data collected from UGC
Annual Report and other journals and research articles. The paper is descriptive
in nature.
Objectives:
1) To analyze the number of universities and colleges in N-E states compared
to rest of India- Here we provide a table depicting the number of higher
educational institutions in India.
NORTH-EASTERN NO. OF UNIVERSITIES NO. OF COLLEGES
STATES
ASSAM 18 554
ARUNACHAL PRADESH 9 29
MANIPUR 3 89
MEGHALAYA 9 69
MIZORAM 2 29
NAGALAND 3 67
TRIPURA 3 55
SIKKIM 6 25
OTHER STATES NO. OF UNIVERSITIES NO. OF COLLEGES
ANDHRA PRADESH 25 2549
BIHAR 20 772
CHATTISGARH 22 740
GOA 1 68
GUJARAT 52 2204
HARYANA 40 1132
HIMACHAL PRADESH 22 364
JAMMU AND KASHMIR 11 345
JHARKHAND 13 340
KARNATAKA 51 3804
KERALA 16 1388
MADHYA PRADESH 42 3015
MAHARASHTRA 48 4871
ORISSA 18 1094
PUNJAB 25 1080
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 317
RAJASTHAN 71 3175
TAMIL NADU 52 2432
TELANGANA 21 2540
UTTAR PRADESH 64 6665
UTTARAKHAND 25 463
WEST BENGAL 35 1108
CHANDIGARH 2 26
DELHI 22 219
PUDUCHERRY 2 95
employment opportunities.
ii) Awareness- People from the North-East especially from rural areas are
still ignorant about higher education and also about the emerging areas of
professional courses. The lack of knowledge about various courses, institutes,
scholarships and training programmes, has been a major factor for which rural
students could not frame clear goals and planning.
iii) Accessibility- North-East region is among the remotest and toughest
parts in terms of accessibility. The entire region is surrounded by hilly areas,
forest cover, rivers and the international borders. Except Assam and Tripura,
the connectivity to other North-Eastern states through railways is almost absent.
Even though air services are available, it is also affected by adverse climatic
conditions. The road connectivity is also poor and there urgent need for
development. Under such adverse conditions, poor people from the remote
areas could not afford to come to the elite urban cities for higher education.
iv) Affordability- Higher education is becoming expensive for most of the
rural North-Eastern population as these people mostly depends on agriculture
for their living which provides subsistence income. Therefore higher education
becomes a luxury for them. Even though a certain section of the higher class
and upper middle income class are going to developed cities and even abroad
for pursuing higher education , but for the poor people it remains a dream out
of their reach.
Conclusion: The people of North-East are facing grave problem regarding
affordability and availability of higher education particularly among the rural
masses. Ignorance, superstitions, lack of scope for employment opportunities,
frequent problems of terrorism are some of the common features that can be
witnessed in this region. Absence of proper educational institutions demotivate
the youth from fulfilling their dreams and aspirations and they start involving
themselves in other trifle activities that promise no better life. However, a
section of people from this region have been able to migrate to faraway cities
like Delhi, Pune, Hyderabad, Bangalore etc. to pursue higher studies and lead
a better standard of living. It is therefore a sad situation where the poor have
no option but to remain poor, underdeveloped and underprivileged with little
or no hope for change.
The only way to address this problem is to create opportunities for the
poor. The first and most important step towards this is to promote higher
education in North-East because the more the people are educated ,the more
they can contribute in transforming the society into a knowledge hub and in
eliminating traditional rules and customs, social dogmas and superstitions ,
ignorance that are hampering the society from its overall development. The
government today is providing various incentives like financial assistance,
scholarships, and free books among others to those aspiring for higher education.
It has also allowed the private sector to invest in higher education sector. As a
result, a number of universities, colleges, and institutes have come up in and
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 319
around cities like Guwahati, Shillong etc. But the facilities of higher education
should not be limited to cities like Guwahati. People from the remote parts
should have equal accessibility to university and college degrees. The private
sector along with the government can join hands in this endeavor by constructing
social overhead capital like transport and communication, power, electricity,
health facilities etc in a phased manner. This would help in providing higher
education at the most efficient manner to the rural people of North-East and
help in rejuvenating their dreams and aspirations for socio- economic
development, peace and prosperity.
======================
References :
1. UGC Annual Report, 2015-2016.
2. Akhtar, Shamim .(2013): Role of Higher Education in dealing with the socio-
economic problems of North-East India.
3. Dr. Saikia, Mridul.(2013): Challenges of Higher Education in Assam for
development of Human Resources, Volume 2, Issue 11, PP: 41-44.
4. Nath, Hiranya: A few thoughts on Higher Education in Assam.
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
ideals and associated discipline that comforted the resolve of young South
African revolutionaries did not bring the expected societal changes and came
unstuck in the decades to follow. Thus the quandary facing Rosa after her
militant parents death: Was it her duty and destiny to take up the torch, to
submit to party discipline and to follow in the footsteps of her parents, in spite
of Stalins Great Terror, the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution, the Iron
Curtain and the prospect of being muzzled, placed under house-arrest and
ultimately, arbitrarily imprisoned by the autocratic authorities of her own
country?
For Rosa, answering these questions is far from obvious as she has been
enculturated in a milieu dominated by a sense of family and social duty that
goes beyond ratiocination, a milieu that demands total commitment. As one of
her friends puts it: Perhaps nobody preached Marx and Lenin [at your place...].
It was all taken in with your breakfast cornflakes. The people who came to
your house werent there for tea-parties with your mother, or bridge evenings
with cigars. They werent your fathers golf-playing fellow doctors, or ladies
your mother went shopping with, ay? They came together to make a revolution.
That was ordinary to you. That intention. It was ordinary. It was the normal
atmosphere in that house. (Jean-Marie Volet, April 2011)
The novel is based on commitment and ideology, objectives and failure
about exploitation and suffering and above all about betrayal and trust. It
presents the reality, the private life of a popular leaders daughter facing the
harsh realities of life. Through illusions of mistrust and adoration the surround
her. This novel is a document of personal anguish against the invasion of polities
into the privacies and intricacy of personal life. This novel questions the
authenticity of public commitments against personal commitment were not
Lionel Burger also responsible for his own family, his own children. The novel
state with apparent heroic sacrifice of Lionel Burger gradually unfolds. The
ironic trail of sufferance under lying his public heroism. Its an empathetic
projection of Rosa Burgers inavoidble protest against her society, her people
for whom her father not only laid his life, but also that of Rosa Brugers inavdible
protest against her society, her people for whom her father not only laid his life
but also of Rosa Burger above all against her own father who ignored his
parental responsibility under the pressures of ideology, public image and
political commitments. Rosa Burgers life, affections and identity are all
overshadowed by her fathers personality, his actions and his beliefs. Rosas
entire life is threatened by the ghost of her father. The anti-apartheid struggle
which claimed her parent, has invaded her very existence.
Nadine Gordimer adopt a deliberate reflect Rosa Thoughts and emotions
to a leval of near transparency. Her silence countess the volumes of her fathers
heroic court room speech. Rosas own narration, is very much in the stream of
consciousness technique. Nadine Gordimer explores the deep turbulence hidden
beneath Rosas serene-composed smile. Rosa throughout the narrative refers
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 327
to her father as Lionel in the manner of a detached stranger. The novel runs in
these pasts. The first past is really; form where the protagonist Rosa takes a
flight into the realm of romance and then past there is back to reality again.
Rosa moves away from the association of her leftist parents to associate distantly
related to Rosas mother who a bourgeois while, had respect for Lionel to
Rosas mother had respect for Lionel Burger as a person but none for his
political beliefs. Its brand vermilion who makes it possible for Rosa to obtain
a passport so that she may get away, for a short while from the realities of her
country to a cozy foreign lad. The well known critic Abdulmomin Mosid AlL
Rubaiee, says What Gardimer Seeks in Burgers Daughter is state racial
neutrality, in which neither black nor whites are privileged. She achieves the
through deconstructing dominant hierarchies of her time. These subversions
constitute the different stages of the protagonist development in this
bildungsroman. This novel has a political texture, which is marked by the
racial struggle against the separating apartheid in South Africa. Hence the all-
encompassing hierarchies are white/black, unity/separation and freedom/
slavery. Gordimers revolting character, Rosa, daughter of Lionel Burger, the
renowned communist leader becomes the vehicle of the subversion of the
dominant hierarchies of the time. In other words, as the protagonist of a
bildungsroman, Rosas development, her movement from innocence to
experience is set on the bedrock of deconstructing these binaries. The process
of this subversion in symbolized in Rosas experiences of early puberty which
is the tension between creation and deconstruction. Thus Gordimer eroticizes
her protagonist evolvement.
The novel is divided into three parts, each part presenting one facet of
Rosas life, whose development is presented by reversing the hierarchies in
each aspect. In this novel, Gordimer shifts repeatedly from the first-person
an anonymous reporter; this continuous shift provides simultaneous views of
both external and internal lives of the protagonist; therefore the narrative course
represents the binary of speech/silence or subjective/objective. Gordimers
continuous shift between the two narrations is one strategy of the writer towards
a natural narrative. The title of novel, bearing the name Daughter makes another
hierarchy that of male/female in which, this time the privileged term is the
female side which has been marginalized by the male dominance. The priority
of female side is embedded in Rosas narrative, which takes form of
apostrophe. (Abdulmomin Mosid Al Rubaiee, the University of
Mysore.)
Past I begin with Lionel Burgers trail his death and Rosas dispossession
of her home and her heritage with dispossesses her. This past reflects over
Lionel Burgers life in flash back; Rosa falls back upon recollection. She never
had a stable protected childhood always managing with either of the parents
Rosa fall in love with a person only to keep her feelings to herself had not
political activism been the main source of Rosas exploitation; Rosa finally
328 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
obtains her passport to distance herself from this path, neglect and struggle for
survival which was her past and was also her present.
The last part of the novel depicts the return of Rosa after a brief spell of
romance in France amongst finally dresses dating ladies and affair with a
married professor. Rosa returns to her country, keeping up the faith of Brandt
vermeulert and living up to being Burgers Daughters. She returns to political
activism and the novel ends with Rosa serving a life term.
The novel explores many aspects of apartheid. The scarifies of political
involvement, the ultimate pathetic of a white liberal political activist, the legacy
of suffering of political activities, the cultural and social segregation of whites
and blacks and the life of exploited black-how dwell in township areas. Rosa
as she moves from whites to the blacks exposes many segments of South
African society. Lionel Burger was a successful doctor and novel was his
household lacking the resources to keep up the social entertainment. Flora
Donaldson on the other hand is the pragmatic social worker, who ensures
there economic society through her husbands income.
Burgers Daughter was written at a time when ideologies specially
communism was undergoing a phase of being questioned and speculated. The
novel is like an introspective speculation on the value and worth of political
commitment. These commitment should be evaluated in terms of achievement
and effectiveness, it should be pragmatic and not foolishly idealistic.
Rosa is a white political activists daughter. In the novel, she gets
disillusioned. The novel describes her escape from the harsh realities of her
country and her parents. She finally returns both to her country and her parents.
The characters of this novel resemble real life. The novel questions our faith in
humanity. It shows how even white people were victims of apartheid. The
novel and a positive note of hope for the achievement of multi racial ideal,
even thought, the rays emanate from the prison cells.
======================
References :
1 Book Review by Jean-Marie Volet, April, 2011(aflit.arts.uwa.edu.au/
reviewinGordimers
2 Review by ABDULMOMIN MOSID AL-RUBAIEE (University of Mysore)
3 Newman, Judie, edu. (2003) Nadine Gordimers Burgers Daughter(New York:
Oxford University)
Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962,
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Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences,
Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
===========================
* Assistant Professor, Sankardev College, Shillong
330 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Tagore family. Throughout the 1870s, they staged melas, which included the
display of folk arts and crafts, folk theatre and popular songs. Rabindranath
Tagore , who lived in England for two years at the end of the decade, began to
collect what he considered to be disappearing folk genres- ballads, nursery
rhymes, legends and myths. In 1894, he gave a famous lecture entitled Bengali
national Literature and he formed the Bengali Literary Society (Bangiya Sahitya
Parisad), which was dedicated to the preservation of Bengali literature,
including folklore. A few years later, in 1897 and 1898, Tagore published two
volumes of stories, mostly rewritten from oral sources. In Calcutta, as in Europe,
folklore was revived and rewritten by intellectuals as an act of restoration, to
preserve a national identity in an era of foreign cultural domination.
In Madras, unlike in Calcutta or Bombay, two separate constructions of
folklore and the nation emerged in the late nineteenth century, where ideas
linking folklore to nationalist thinking were not so well known, although both
were rested on purity, antiquity and loss
The first formulation drew heavily on a feeling of cultural subjugation
and emphasized the notion of a buried Dravidian culture, attributed not just
to British colonialism but to Brahminical Sanskritic domination as well. The
Formulation of a folk Dravidian nation, largely built up by British writers over
the course of the nineteenth century, resembled the European ideas who resorted
to the image of the buried Dravidian. They believed the Dravidian race as
pre-Aryan.. Tamils had imagined an ancient and pure Tamil-especially in the
verses of the low born Vallular and made responsible the northern influence
for corruption, before at least 5oo years before European contact. The image
of a Dravidian culture observed by northern culture resembles the perception
of German Folk culture under French domination, and Finnish folk culture
under Swedish. Like Herder in Germany, and Elias Lonnrot in Finland, one
scholar gave a second formulation of Folklore and the nation in Madras.
The second formulation of folklore and the nation, which arose from a
less ideological and more personal sense of loss, invoked the image of the
vanishing village. This formulation was single handedly mastered by Pandit
Natesa Sastri(1859-1906),who advanced folklore as a national literature in
Madras..
Nationalism in Assamese literature: Where as the first formulation of folklore
and nationalism was upper handed by the European scholars in Madras to
give Tamil its rightful status against the North Indian Brahmanic Sanskritic
domination, the same role had been played by the Missionaries in Assam when
they had discovered that the Bengali was imposed only when Assamese is
unique with distinct literary feature.
Assam was engaged in an unfortunate struggle for identity and existence
for nearly half a century of the initial period of British (Neog, 1993, p.7)
A few service holders and officers from Bengal persuaded their boss
that Assamese was only a dialect or corrupted form of Bengali and prayed to
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 331
dislodge the same from schools and offices Moreover, large quantities of native
Assamese people hardly understood the Bengali, the then official language of
Assam. When the Missionaries started collecting folklore materials in Assam,
they found it quite amazing that the so called old language had hardly any
direct bearing with the Bengali. Many ancient Assamese literary texts on
folklore, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Saivism and on Ayurveda were collected
and most of them received prompt recognition through the print media. As
soon as the first printing press was established at Sibsagar in 1846 and published
a journal Orunodoi, literary materials advocating the authenticity of the
dislodged language found expression. Yet, the missionaries had to appear in a
long marathon accompanying a brand of native writers till the enthronement
on its deserved position in 1873. Like the writers of the first formulation in the
Madras episode, a brand of writers, basically young Assamese students settled
in Calcutta for education including Lakshminath Bezbaroa, Manik Chandra
baroa, Hemchandra Goswami and Chandra Kumar Agarwala dedicated whole
heartedly to write and to do something for the betterment of the language.
Assam Literary Society was formed in 1872 and Asomiya bhasa unnati sadhini
sabha was established in 1888 by them. The societys journal Jonaki heralded
a new era in the history of Assamese literature. Hemchandra Barbuda,
Gunabhiram Barua and Anandaram Dhekial Phukan were the harbingers of
this romantic nationalism. Newspapers like the Assam Bilashini (1871), ),
Assam Mihir(1872), Assam Darpan(1874), the Mau (1886) and the Assam
Bandhu(1885) played a pioneering role in the field of Assamese nationalism
as well as journalism.
The three men most responsible for the rethronement of the banished
language were Dr. Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and one native Assamese
Nidhi Levi Farwell.Dr. Browns contribution includes the Assamese translation
of the New Testament, composition of the Assamese grammar Grammatical
Notes on the Assamese language next (second to write Assamese grammar
next to Robinson), publication of lots of prayers, old Assamese texts and history
in collaboration with his consort Eliza Brown etc. Dr. Bronson wrote Assamese
dictionary in 1867 and lost his wife and daughter in such a literay expedition.
Nidhi Levi Farwell (A converted name of Nidhiram Keot, a native Assamese)
was a regular writer in the journal Orunodoi and a writer of a few books on
Assamese literature. Other native Assamese non Christian writers were
Anandaram Dhekial Phukon. Dutiram Hazarika, Harakanta Sadaramin,
Dinanath Bezbaroa, Lalit Chandra Goswami etc.
Local scholars and enthusiasts started collecting and publishing books
(specially on folklore) of Assam in the later period of the nineteenth century
Significantly, some of Assumes works include Bhadrasen Boras
Ramcharit(1899), a collection of riddles, and Phulkonwar(1903 and
Manikonwar (1903) both ballad texts; Gopal Chandra Dass Asomiya
Patantarmala(1900), a collection of proverbs; Lakshminath Bezbaroas Burhi
332 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
called the mother and the folktales as the lore of the pious by the Assamese
people. Yet it is ironical that the Assamese and the Bengali language are
considered as symmetrical (Bezbaroa, 1911quoted in Datta, 1999, P.13-14)
In this context, eminent folklorist Prof. Birendranath Datta opines-
.the preface contains an oblique reference to Assamese being
an independent language with its own genius and not being in any why
subordinate to Bengali. Later collections of folklore material were similarly
prompted by the urge to find out and give proper value to such objects of
national wealth as well as to inspire the young generations with the
consciousness about their rich folk heritage. We have thus the national spirit
working at the regional or sub-national level quite early in Assam(ibid)
Bezbaroas Sadhukathar Kuki(A basket of folktales) bears a literary
style, midway between the folktales and infancy of Assamese short stories.
There are thirty seven stories entitled- Bhadari, Swargarohan, Nakaon,Amaloi
nepahoribo, RatanMunda, Kanya, Putraban pita, Shivaprasad,Chor,Dhowa
khowa, Bhemppuria Mouzadar, Seuti, Amar sanchar,Jayanti, Malati,
Dactorbabu,Mulakhowa burha, Gharpota Koka etc. where maladies and ill
temper of the newly educated Assamese society are jeered at, the superstitions
and prejudices of the Brahmonical orthodox society are placed in the laughing
stock, cultural exploitation and economic subjugation by the outsiders are
threatened. His few dramas based on folktales were Litikai, Sikorpoti Nikorpoti,
Pachoni and Gadadhar roja filled with humorous sense like the Guru
Simpleton of Natesa Sastri.
His remaining folktale collections namely Surabhi (1909), Jonbiri (1913)
and Junuka (1913) are sound testimonials of his folkloric excavation to the
nationalility formation. Surabhi was published in the sweet memory of his
deceased daughter Surabhi. His own business institution, Timber and store
agency published Junuka to entertain the children where tales from
Hitopadesh, Panchatantra and oral sources were expressed with a moral
diction at the end of each tale. A few tales along with the moral dictions are
written in verse so that children can swallow easily.
His poetic excellence venerating the past glory of Assam as well as
India also scores no less mark when compared with his championship in folktale
collection. He was definitely a peoples poet who has given national pride
some of its highest expression.
He is the composer of the noted Assamese patriotic song O Mor Aponar
Desh. This is a voluntarily exiles dream of his motherland from a distant
place. The past glory of Assam was a matter of pride for Lakshminath Bezbaroa
and on the basis of that he cultivated the national spirit in the hearts of the
Assamese people.
Asomar jatiya sangeet
O mor aponar desh
..........
334 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Mukhani tomar
Hepah mor palowa nai
Bezbaroa
(O my native land, you are so lovely to me with your uniqueness,
faithfulness and enrichment. O my melodious mother tongue, you are precious
all over the world. O my birthplace let me have a sight of your lovely face to
come down my thirst)
He also composed another patriotic song Asom sangeet(1915) where
he tried to draw the nationalistic (sub-nationalistic) sentiment of Assamese
people by citing the glorious chapter in the history of Assam. Here he highlights
spiritual colossus Sankardeva; the legendary hero Lachit Barphukan; the symbol
of tolerance and dedication, Joymoti; Bhaskarvarman, the pride of North-East
India, the wise king with literary and artistic excellence, who greeted the Chinese
scholar Hiun Tsang; occupies a stanza in this poem. At last, he suggests singing
the glory of Assam with traditional instruments like drum.
Asom sangeet
and Naranarayana)
A die hard lover of Assam, Assamese language, culture and tradition he
was at the same time a proud Indian too, always aware of the past glories of
India. It is reflected in the Bin- Boragi (1912) as.
Sita10 air batori
Jadihe kaisa
..........
Dukhat lagiba byatha!
( Bezbaroa in Neog,1971, p-200-201)
(Donot sing, O troubadour; dont sing the tragic story of Sita, Nal-
Damayanti, Chinta-Sribatsa and the legend of Joymoti. Otherwise, I would be
drowning in the sea of spiritlessness).
Again the poet is overwhelmed with grief by remembering the ill fates
of Assam and warns the troubadour not to play the concert of those events.
Jadihe gaisa
husband as well as the kingdom. This became the ultimate source of inspiration
to get freedom.
His only novel Padum Kunwari(1905) is also a reflection of patriotism
(regionalism) where the heroic activities of two brothers Haradatta and Birdatta
are vividly described.
At the introduction of the drama Joymoti Kunwari Bezbaroa
comments... Only the characters and the dialogues are borrowed from the
period when the event was committed. But the chief object of the drama is to
enlighten the universal truth and the noble instincts which are common asset
in all countries
In the short stories Milaramar atma jiboni, Molok guin guin and Nangalu
Chandra Das, he jeered at the newly educated Assamese youth who had
possessed a passive mentality towards the native language, culture and tradition.
If we peep into the profession and passion, he did not run on the smooth
mosaic which most scholars of his time deserved. Having completed his
academic life in 1895 in Calcutta and being a bridegroom of the same city,
Bezbaroa couldnot motivate himelf to return to his homeland Assam. Although
he was offered the job of Extra Assistant Commissioner for two times, he
refused to do that as he never had dreamt of becoming an armed chaired
gentleman. He started timber business with a reputed Assamese businessman
Bholanath Baroa whose only job became to supply Sal timbers to the Railway
Company. In 1903-04, he launched it separately but left with a desperate mood.
In 1916, he again joined in a new company and went to Sambalpur in connection
with his duty in 1917. After a few years, he started again his previous timber
business. In 1937, He returned to his homeland Assam to relieve his broken
health and breathed his last in 1938.
Bezbaroa comes to this discussion not for his personal and professional
status, but for his service to the mother tongue in its jeopardy. His collection of
folktales, portray of mythical and legendary stories in the literary pieces like
dramas and poetry, drawing of folk imagery in his other contributions added
necessary nutrients to the paralyzed language. Resembling Madras, two
constructions on intimation between folklore and nationalism appeared in Assam
also. In Madras, the first formulation was in favour of the folk Dravidian culture
against the Tamil aggression, while in Assam, it was advocating for the
Assamese language against the Bengali.
Here, the remarkable point is that the Assamese language was offered
rightful status in 1872, when Bezbaroa was four, as he was born in 1868. So
he had nothing to do in the campaigning for the language. But the official
calendre seldom coincided with the practical happenings. The Bengali was
not dislodged as soon as the notification of the government was found. The
Assamese had to wait up to the last decade of the century to come round
which allowed teenaged Lakshminath a scope to do something. But his effort
delimited his age limit. So Lakshminath was definitely among the connoisseurs
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 337
of the first formulations. Again, his nostalgia for the past glory of Assam
echoed in his writings, especially his preface of the book Burhi Air Sadhu
(Grand mothers tale) embolded the second formulation of Vanishing village
leading to national literature.
All his writings were the outcome of his deep love to the motherland and
its assets. Dr. Grierson is of the opinion that Assamese literature is essentially
a national product. It always has been national and it is so still. Bezbaroas
literature is not a deviation from it.
======================
References :
1. Adam Kuper& Jessika Kuper, 1996, The Social Science Encyclopaedia,
Routledge, London.
2. Barua hem,1954, The Red River and the Blue Hill, Lawyers Book Stall, Guwahati
3. Bezbaroa Lakshminath,1911, Burhi Air Sadhu, Lawyers Book Stall,Panbazar,
Guwahati.
4. Bezbaroa Lakshminath, 1905, Padum Kunwari
5. Bhuyan Arun,2000, Nationalist Upsurge in Assam, Government of Assam,
Dispur.
6. Datta Birendranath, 1990, Ethnicity, nationalism and sub-nationalism.
Nationality, Ethnicity and cultural identity in North-East India
7. Datta Birendranath, 1999, Folkloric Foragings in Indias North-
East,ABILAC,NorthGuwahati.
8. Deka Namita,1994,Banhir patot chintar rengani, Banalata, Panbazar.
9. Gohain Hiren, 2001, The Study of folklore, Indian Folklore, B.R.Publishing
Corporation, Delhi.
10. Handoo Jawaharlal,2000, Theoretical essays in Indian Folklore, Zooni
Publications,Mysore.
11. Neog Maheswar, 1993, Orunodoi sambad patra Asom Prakashan parishad,
Guwahati
12. Shastri Dr. Biswanarayan,1998,Lakshminath Bezbaroar Sahitya pratibha,
Sharaighat Prakashan, Guwahati-781021
13. Sing Chandrika,1995, Indian Nationalism and National Movement, OMSONS
Publications, New Delhi.
14. Sigh Yogendra, 2000, The sinificance of culture in the understanding of social
change in contemporary India,Culture change in India Identity&Globalization,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
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symbolic. It refers to the Bharandas bird of The Panchatantra that had two
mouths and one single belly. One day, the one mouth ate up one sweet fruit
without sharing it to other. In retaliation, the other ate up one poisonous fruit
secretly without sharing. As a result, the bird died. The writer hints out the
Bharandas like situation in Assam through this novel. The community violence
and destruction among the ethnic tribes proved to be suicidal like Bharandas.
The novel begins with a prologue that shows the people belonging to Bodo,
Kachari and others were living in peace until the migration took place to their
land. They were worshipping their own gods without any social conflicts. But
suddenly, there came conflict, diversity and division and disgrace to the state.
The epilogue of the novel shows conflicts and clashes and great nuisance to
human life.
The novel begins with day to day life of some particular communities
like Assamese, Bodo, Kachari and Muslim. It focuses socio-political
aspirations of the communities. Gradually,it also shows their crave for the
ethnic identify. The young generation became conscious for preserving their
culture and cultural institutions. The old generation was different from the
young; they did not understand the plan and policies of the young. These two
generations obviously represented two sets of values. The anxiety of the young
increased against all outsiders, especially against the Muslim, Nepalese and
other local communities. They were having their main grudge against the
Assamese because they were more privileged, dominating and developed group.
Thus, the relationship between the Bodos and Assamese that had been since
the ancient time was loosen. The village Seshakhuli was the centre of conflict.
After the independence, there was no such significant development in
Seshakhuli with the Bodo community. So, they became rebellious. The Bodo
youth demanded strong movement for their deprivation and development in
the state. One of the major characters Ranjila says, When the external forces
smash our bastion, we shall become all uprooted. What shall we then do?
(Sarma 2000:46) They also started collecting their oral songs and ballads to
preserve their culture under the leadership of professor Basumatory.
The young people like Alit and Urmila prepared themselves for taking
extreme steps in their political struggle to achieve their goal. They were young
revolutionaries. Whereas Ranen and Ranjila did not support the violent way in
order to save their culture. Alit thought that the Bodo culture could be preserved
through violence activity only. Hence, he took the leadership in forming
extremist groups. He planned to achieve autonomy for his community only by
violent means. He and his fellow revolutionaries were very much concerned of
their land that was occupied by the non-tribal people. They organized a meeting
at Daimabeel and condemned the land encroachers. The young men agitated
about the influx of the homeless people to their place. The people living in the
villages far from Seshakhuli showed the similar concern. The elderly people
were not much worried about it. The matter was debated in the villages. The
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 341
students joined it. They argued and expressed their suspicion of some nefarious
design against the local people. It, gradually created conflict and clashes among
the communities living in and around Seshakhuli. (Sarma, 2000. P. 104)
Some serious doubt had arisen in the minds of the people of Seshakhuli.
They thought that their identity would be in crisis in near future. They sensed
a kind of danger. Now the question was that whether the danger would harm
the Seshakhuli alone, or the Bodos alone or the country as a whole. (105).The
socially concerned persons organized several meeting to discuss their problems.
The Bodo and Non-Bodos were gradually aware of their problems. Some Bodo
youths were threatening some Muslim settlers to vacate the land that they
occupied. They once met Abdul, the matabbar (Village Head) and asked him
to leave the land that he was cultivating. They also abused him and threatened
dire consequences if he would not leave that place. The Mandal also threatened
him to evict his lands on behalf of Assamese. The Bodos suddenly turned
offensive towards the Muslim who migrated from Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
A Bodo youth said, The land youre speaking about belongs to Bodos, to
none else. You can be driven out by us- we Bodos can drive you out. (119)
The Bodo youths were picking up various unpleasant activities in the market
place with the Non-Bodos and disturbing peace in the region. They once slapped
and kicked Banamali for using rough words to the defaulter who failed to pay
the price due on paddy that the defaulter had taken from the shop of Abdul
Miya where Banamali worked. They also fined Banamali with rupees one
hundred fifty. Banamali got perplexed and fell flat on his gaddi. His assistant
somehow managed the amount and gave it to the young men and the situation
came under control. (124). Some other youths also threatened the Marwari
businessmen, Ramlal to pay them a sum of five thousand at once. They also
told him that he was earning lakhs of rupees from this land, so he must pay
them; otherwise he would face the dire consequences. Ramlal, out of fear paid
them four thousand rupees and got saved. Ramlals only fault was that he was
not from the Bodo community. Some naughty boys pelted stones to the Non-
Bodo people who happened to pass through the Bodo villages. (128). The
Bodo revolutionary boys also burnt down two primary schools at Rupaganj.
Alit was openly going for organizing extremist group for the good of
their motherland. (?) He said, Ranen, Im going. Your path is totally different
from mine. . A day will come when we shall emerge triumphant: the Bodo
will emerge triumphant. (131). There were ideological differences between
Alit and Ranen. Ranen was moderate leader. The peace loving Assamese
teacher, Devakanta was attacked by the Bodo miscreants. Thus, the racial
conflict and discrimination was breeding in the Bodo majority areas. They also
stood against Bengali. Alit and his friends joined the group who discriminated
the Bengalis. Alit and his group decided to raise funds for their organization by
collecting money from the wealthy people. Apart from forming a student
organization, they were also engaged with the extremist group. They were
342 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
skills (where the goal is to facilitate peoples ability to take action), and the
changes to food environment (to support and reinforce the actions on information
and skills). Under this definition, the ultimate goal of nutrition education is to
change behavior (thus the use of the term behavior change
communication).Communication is a means of medium of disseminating/
getting information or knowledge. Success of communication lies in its strategic
nature, medium of communication, use of language and prevailing ground
realities, beliefs, practices and other socio-economic factors of the society.
Without this, any message, howsoever, important cannot reach to the people/
community. Therefore, it is the most important, effective and inevitable part of
any system/society.
For generations rural people living in isolated villages without access to
modern means of communication have relied on the spoken word and traditional
forms of communication as a means of sharing knowledge and information
and providing entertainment. For illiterate rural women in particular, occasions
for information exchange have consisted solely in local festivities, family
gatherings, traditional and religious associations, interaction with itinerant
merchants and encounters at market place or water wells. However, women
have made use of the oral tradition to ensure their own as well as their families
survival, and as a result, have developed a rich communication environment.
They have lived creative lives, transmitting culture, knowledge, customs and
history through traditional forms of communication such as poetry, proverbs,
songs, stories, dances and play. Since communication is a product of culture
and culture determines the code, structure, meaning and context of the
communication that takes place. Though India has been experiencing a media
explosion , the most important point is the selection of media for rural
development in terms of its adaptability and accessibility. Traditional media
such as drama, dance, folklore, puppets find their full expression in its diversity,
beauty and gaiety. Even the modern media are attracted by the rich cultural
diversity of the traditional media and have begun to exploit them for commercial
purposes. Use of traditional media ensures respect for traditional values,
symbols and realities and, at the same time ensures that such media productions
appeal to rural audiences.
Over the years, puppetry has developed into a powerful medial of
communication. Adaptability is its ideal nature. In contrast to mass media puppet
shows are live which allows the puppeteer the advantage of being able to
adapt a show to the local ambience. In the recent years, puppets have come to
be increasingly used in the field of communication. Puppets are being used for
varied purposes such as educating children, encouraging scientific methods of
farming, promoting the use of fertilizers etc.
Puppetry in India:
Puppetry is one of the most ancient forms of entertainment in the world.
Traditionally, India has a rich heritage of puppetry. The history dates back to
346 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
around the 5th century B.C. The early puppet shows in India mostly dealt with
histories of great kings, princes and heroes and political satire. Religious
portrayals of puppetry developed in South India with shadow puppets
performing stories from Ramayana and Mahabharata. Besides dealing with
religious themes, Indian puppetry also conveys useful messages from
Panchatantra and other mythological and historical epics. The stories, taken
from the epics, are full of vibrant action to create tension in audiences mind,
leading to enjoyment. Music is used live , thus effecting instantaneous rapport
with the audience. The main show is usually preceded by dancer-puppets for
entertaining the viewers. The comic character called, Vidushak, is an Indian
innovation and helps to create a lot of laughter by his antics and repartees. The
audience participation in traditional puppetry is an interesting feature, seen
almost all over the country. In the Rajasthani string puppet show, for instance,
the rural audience is easily provoked into singing and dancing along with the
puppets. Quite often, both adults and children enter into a dialogue with the
puppeteers and the latter have to be ready with quick-witted answers. String
puppets of Rajasthan and Orrisa do not have legs, but this does not prevent the
audience to accept the dancing marionettes as complete and beautiful. Shadow
puppets are all two-dimensional and are often composite figures, but the
audience accepts them and mentally conjures up the missing elements and
movements.
Many development planners in the Third World now appreciate the use
of folk media as a mode of communication to explain development programmes.
This may be because of the ineffectiveness of mass media in reaching those at
whom the messages are targeted. Therefore, decision makers have started to
take a second look at the use of folk media to generate local participation in
development projects.
Behaviour Communication and Puppetry:
In the 1974 meeting in New Delhi, the seminar workshop of UNESCO
discussions focused specially on the potentiality of the various forms of
traditional media and the technique of their production as well as integration
with the mass media for motivational purposes. This particular seminar-
workshop was notable for it generated a number of guiding principles on how
to use the traditional or folk media for promoting development programmes.
If live performances of puppet theatre can be called live puppetry, it has in
the contemporary age entered into another incarnation: canned puppetry: (found
its forte in the 1980s in India) shown through television and and film media,
after performances were recorded or video taped or filmed. While live puppetry
could seldom go beyond the confines of its local performance and reach a
mass audience, canned puppetry is ideal for repeated viewing through television,
video and cinema. The contemporary puppetry in India has not distracted from
prime objectives, but is even more entertaining because of the competition
from the other mass media. The main aspects for contemporary puppetry are:
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 347
2. Paddle Phase: Taylor and Kollros (1986) described five paddle stages in
the case of Rana pipiens. In the first (stage VI), the distal end of the hind limb
is flattened medio-laterally to form the foot-paddle; there are no inter-digital
indications of the paddle margin, while the remaining four (VII, VIII, IX, X)
stages are differentiated on the basis of indentation between the toes which
appear one by one; the indentation between the fifth and the fourth toes appear
first, followed by those between the fourth and the third; the third and the
second and the second and the first toes. However, in Rana tigrina and Bufo
andersonii, although the first stage of this group (Stage II) compares with that
(Stage VI) in Rana pipiens, the indentations between all the toes appear
simultaneously, so that a single stage (Stage III) of R. tigrina corresponds to
the stages VII, VIII, IX, and X of R. pipiens, (Taylor and Kollros, 1986).
Stage II (Paddle Stage) - Stump of the hind-limb projecting backwards and
nearly as long as or more than twice its diameter; its distal end dorso-medially
flattened to form a distinct paddle; horny jaws and tail-piece present.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina Bufo andersonii
Total length 15-19 11-13
Length of body 6-7 5-6
Length of tail 9-12 6-7
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.83-1.71 1.20-1.16
Stage III (Inter-digitation Stage) - Hind limb extends straight back along the
side of the body, it shows demarcation into ankle and shank andMeasurements
the margin ofin mm. Rana tigrina Bufo anders
the foot-paddle is indented between all the five toes; horny jaws
Total and tail piece
length 19-26 12-16
present. Length of body 7-9 5-7
Length of tail 11-12 7-9
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.57-1.33 l.40-1.28
3. Foot Phase: Taylor and Kollros (1986) recognise seven stages in this group
in Rana pipiens based on the gradual appearance and development of the
webs and the sub-articular pads in the foot. But in Rana tigrina and Bufo
andersonii changes are rapid, hence only three stages are distinct.
Stage IV (Web-formation Stage) - Hind limb extends almost straightly
backwards along the side of the body; it shows distinct demarcation into ankle
and shank; foot has all the five toes well differentiated with rudiments of webs
between them; horny jaws and tail piece present.
352 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Stage V (Folded limb Stage) - Hind limb distinctly folded at the joints and
demarcated into foot, ankle, shank and thigh; foot well formed, toes with webs
present between them; horny jaws and tail piece are present.
Stage VI (Sub-articular Pad Stage) - Hind limb with distinct foot, ankle,
shank and thigh and folded joints; toes with webs between them; sub-articular
pads of all the three rows (proximal, middle and distal) present; the phalangeal
joints distinct. Horny jaws present but tail piece much reduced; fore-limb well
developed covered with a thin skin; skin window (Taylor and Kollros, 1986)
a transparent disc-shaped area in the wall of the gill chamber, distinct.
5. Metamorphic Phase: Taylor and Kollros (1986) include eight stages in this
group first three of which (stage XVIII, XIX and XX) are distinguished by the
disappearance of the tail piece, clearance of the skin window and emergence
of either one or both of the fore-limbs in Rana tigrina and Bufo andersonii,
however, the tail piece appears earlier and the clearance of the skin window
and the emergence of one of the fore-limbs, usually the left one, occur rapidly,
so that stage XVIII, XIX and XX in Rana pipiens correspond to the stage VII
(three-legged stage) of the Indian forms.
The remaining five stages of this group (stage XXI, XXII, XXIII, XXIV
and XXV) belonging to Rana pipiens (Taylor and Kollros, 1986) are mainly
based on the gradual widening of the gape of the mouth and the reduction of
the tail. The metamorphic stages (VIII, IX, X, XI and XII) in Rana tigrina and
Bufo andersonii are also based mainly on these characters and correspond
proximately with their counterparts in Rana pipiens.
Stage VIII (Limb Stage) - Both the fore-limbs emerged out of the opercular
cavity; horny jaws present, tail piece absent arid the tail much longer than the
hind limbs.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina Bufo andersonii
Total length 41-46 24-26
Length of body 17-18 8-9
Length of tail 24-28 16-17
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.41-1.55 2.00-1.88
Stage IX (Mouth Stage) - Horny jaws absent; the gape of the mouth extends
to a middle point between the nostril and the anterior margin of the eye, or up
to the anterior margin of the eye. Dorsal and ventral tail fins shrunken, tail
reduced in length, being equal to or slightly longer than the extended hind
limb and all four limbs well developed.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina anders
Bufo anderso
Total length 28-35
36-40 15-17
18-22
Length of body 18-19
17-18 9
Length of tail 19-22
10-16 9-13
6-8
Ratio of length of tail with body 1.11-1.33
0.55-0.84 1.00-1.44
0.66-0.88
Stage X (Short-tail Stage) - Gape of the mouth wide, the angle of the mouth
extending up to the middle of the eye. Tail fins practically absent and the tail
distinctly shorter than the extended hind limb.
354 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
Stage XI (Tail-stub Stage) - Tail reduced to a stub, gape of the mouth very
large, the angle of the mouth extending up to the hinder margin of the eye.
Stage XII (Adult Stage, Young) - Tail lost; angle of the mouth extends beyond
the hinder border of the eye; limbs stout.
Measurements in m.m. Rana tigrina Bufo andersonii
Length of body 18-19 8-9
Conclusion: The author has extended Shumways (1990) work by describing
twelve larval (tadpole stages) in Rana tigrina Daud. and Bufo andersonii
Bouleng.) basing them mainly on the morphological characters. The stages
recognised on age group basis constitute essentially an arbitrary series.
Therefore, the total development is comprised in a series of periods, each
extending from one stage to the next. In general practice the points and periods
are not sharply demarcated and it is convenient to describe each period in
terms of stages that indicates it.
The larval period in Rana tigrina Daud. and Bufo andersonii Bouleng.
is very short and extends up to only 20 and 15 days respectively.
Twelve stages of the larvae are described in each species which are grouped
into five phases marked by the (a) limb-bud, (b) foot-paddle, (c) foot, (d)
three leggedness and (e) metamorphosis.
The limb-buds appear almost simultaneously with the on set of feeding
and grow very fast.
In the stages of the paddle phase the distal end of the limb-bud
Measurements in m.m.
is flattenedBufo anderson
Rana tigrina
medio-dorsally, on the Total
margin of
length which interdigital indentations
22-27between all 10-14
the toes appear almost simultaneously.
Length of body The paddle phase comprises
18-19 of paddle 8-9
stages and the inter-digitation
Length ofstages.
tail 4-8 2-5
The foot phase isRatio of length
based on theof appearance
tail with body and development
0.22-0.42 of webs 0.25-0.55
and sub-articular pads in which (a) webs formation stage (b) folded limb stage
and (c) sub-articular pad stage can be made out.
The three-legged phase which has not been regarded as a distinct stage
in Rara pipiens by Taylor and Kollros (1986) has been mentioned in Rana
tigrina and Bufo andersonii.
The metamorphic phase is based on the gradual widening of the gape of
the mouth and reduction of the tails and includes five stages: (a) limb-stage,
(b) mouth stage, (c) short-tail stage, (d) tail-stub stage and (e) adult stage
(young).
======================
References :
Research Journal of Social & Life Sciences, Vol.- XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017 355
1. Eakin, R.M. & Harris, M. (1985). Incompatibility between amphibian host and
xenoplatic grafts as related to J. Exp. Zool., 98: 35-64.
2. Emmet, A. D. & Allen, F.P. (1967). Nutttritional studies on the growth of frog
larvae (Rana pipiens) . J. Biol. Chem., 38 : 325-344.
3. Idem. (1942) Stages in the normal development of Rana pipiens. II. Identification
of stages from sectional material. Anal. Rec., 83 : 309-315.
4. Idem. 1905. Essai tie sriation en stades successifs des derniers temps de la vie
larvaire chez les Anoures, d aprsles caractres morphologiques des mmbre
postrieus. Compt. Rend. Soc. d Boil., 59 : 690-692.
5. Pollister, A. W. & Moore, J.A. (1977). Tables for the normal development of
Rana sylvatica. Anat Rec., 68 : 489-493.
6. Schreiber, G. (1987) La deilnizione degli Stadi della metamorfosi del Bufo.
Rend. R. Accad. aaz. Lincei, 25 : 243-348.
7. Shumway, W. (1990). Stages In the normal development of Rana pipiens. I.
External Form. Anat. Rec., 78: 139-144.
8. Taylor, A. Cecil & Kollros, Jurry J. (1986). Stages in the normal development
of Rana pipiens Larvae. Anal. Rec., 94 : 7-22.
9. Tschernoff, N. D. (1967). Zur Embryonalentwickelung der hinteren Extremitten
der Frosches. Anat. Anz., 30 : 593-612.
10. Wintrebert, M. P. (1945). Sue Iorder dapparition des orteils et la premier
development des membres chez les Anoures. Compt. Rend. Soc. d. Biol., 59 :
576-578.
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Vol.-XXII, Year-11, Eng.-I, June, 2017
hundred at most go through meiotic division during ovulation and the rest
gradually disappear through a process of follicular atresia, in which the follicle,
the oocytes itself or both shrink and cease to be viable. When so few follicles
remain to produce sufficient estrogen to induce ovulation, the menstrual cycles
stop and menopause ensues (Wiley et al., 2009).
Age at menopause is a marker for aging and health. Early menopause is
associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease (25%), early decline
in cognitive function, lower bone mineral density and osteoporosis. Delayed
menopause although has been associated with increased risk of breast and
endometrial cancer, it is also associated with greater life expectancy reduced
all cause mortality (cf. Srivastava et al., 2014). Every womans menopausal
experience is unique. Some women may have all of the symptoms of
menopause; other may have just a few (Pathak and Parashar, 2010). Lifestyle,
demographic factors, and attitudes all influence a womans perception of
menopause. The menopause experience is often perceived as merely the
cessation of menses. A woman may view the end of fertility as liberation from
the possibility of pregnancy, or she may grieve for the children she never had.
For women who have had an unexpected early menopause, either natural or
induced, their experience may be more negative. The level of menopause related
symptoms will also have an influence. Some women will have troublesome
symptoms, whereas others may navigate the transition with few or even no
symptoms at all (Avis et al., 2001). Thus, study on the bio-social aspect of
menopause will bring to light the population variation on both the perception
and experience of menopause.
Women may experience many symptoms around the time of menopause,
some of these may be from the result of cessation of ovarian function and
related menopausal events and others may be from the ageing process or from
the socio-environmental stresses of the mid life years (WHO,1994). The most
common menopausal symptoms include hot flashes and night sweats,
depression, tiredness, urogenital problems and sexual problems.
Although menopause has become an important and interesting subject
in recent years, the studies on menopause or menopause related health problems
are very few in the North East India especially in Assam. Again, Menopause
related studies among the Mising women are very less. So the present study is
an attempt to study the prevalence of different menopausal symptoms among
the Misings of Majuli.
Materials and Methods:
Study area: The present study has been undertaken among the Mising women
of Majuli. Majuli is the subdivision of Jorhat district of Assam with its
headquarters at Garamur. Geographically it is between 2645 north latitude
to 2722 north latitude and in between 9339 east longitude to 9435 east
longitudes. As per the census 2001 the total area of Majuli is 421.65sq.km.The
Island is surrounded by the river Brahmaputra on the south, its channel Luit
358 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
54 % women are literate among which 12(6%) are literate up to Primary (I-
IV) level and9(4.5%) literate upto the Middle(V-VII) level. 25.5% literate
women read upto the HSLC level and only 7% women literate up to the higher
secondary level. Again Among the 54% literate women only 4% women were
graduate.
The participants of the study are mostly married. Total number of married
woman is 180(90%) and only 4% are unmarried. There are 12 widows at the
time of investigation while no divorce women are found in the study area. The
maximum number of women of the village married in the age of 20-23
years.With regard to the family types, the number of nuclear family is higher
than the joint family.118 families i.e. 59% belong to the nuclear family while
81 families i.e. 41% belong to the joint family. Agriculture is the main occupation
of all the families in the villages. They have mainly depend on production of
rice, mustard seeds, black pulses and certain varieties of other crops such as
jute, potato, different leafy vegetables etc. Very few women have government
job.Highest number of samples of this study i.e. 178(89) have engaged in
agriculture and only 22(11%) woman have government job like teaching,
anganwadi workers and nurse. Monthly income of most of the families (64%)
is less than equal 7000/- and 28.5% families have monthly income between
8000/- to 20000/-. Only 7.5% families have income more than 25000/-.
Table1:
Distribution of sample according to educational status and marital
status
Mean age at menopause in the present group is 46.15 3.32 years. Mean
360 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
and recurrent infection. These symptoms may coexist with those of vaginal
atrophy, including dyspareunia, itching, burning and dryness (Rees and Purdie,
2006).
Among the urinary problems frequency (22.5), urgency (27.5), vaginal
irritation and itching (37.5) is most common urinary problems among the both
premenopausal and postmenopausal women. The percentage of urinary
problems experienced by premenopausal women is higher than the
postmenopausal women. Frequency (60%), urgency (54.54), Dysuria
(77.27%), vaginal dryness (80%) and vaginal itching and irritation is (61.33)
is most frequent among the premenopausal women.Changes in sexual
behaviour and activity are not uncommon in menopausal women. Interest in
sexual activities declines in both sexes with increasing age and this change
seems to be more pronounced in women. The US National Health and Social
Life Survey, which was undertaken in people aged 18-59 years, reported that
sexual dysfunction is more prevalent for women (43%) than men (31%). Further
population studies show that the percentage of women with scores that indicate
sexual dysfunction rises from 42% to 88% during the early to late menopausal
transition (Rees and Purdie, 2006). Low desire, difficulty with vaginal
lubrication and inability to climax are some important sexual problems of
menopausal women. In the present study group 48.38% premenopausal and
51.61% postmenopausal women shows loss of sexual desire.
Musculoskeletal problems: Musculoskeletal problems like joint pains, muscle
aches, pain in the back of neck and head are often experienced by menopausal
women. According to the study of Dugan et al., 2006 menopausal women
reported increased musculoskeletal and body ache as compared to
premenopausal women.Backache (39.5%) and Muscle or joint pain(54.78) is
common among the both premenopausal and postmenopausal women among
the Mising women of the present study.
Menstrual problems: Most of the women have experienced scanty bleeding
(29.5) at the time of menstruation. Only 3% women of this study have
experienced post menopausal bleeding. 59.09% premenopausal women have
pain during the menstrual periods and this is higher thanpercentage of the post
menopausal women (40.9%). 33.5 % of the total women have no problem
during their menstruation. One of the most common menopausal symptoms
among the Mising women of the study area is Fatigue (25%). Dizziness(9.5%),
dryness of skin(44%), loss of hair(11%) is some other problems of the
menopausal women of the study group.Eye problem including eye itching,
excessive watering, low vision is higher in premenopausal women (57.85%)
than the post menopausal women (42.14%).
Conclusion: Menopause has become an important subject in recent years.
Now a days menopause is welcomed as a favourable event in some part of
rural India unlike in the west. It is attributed to the many perceived benefits of
menopause such as freedom from cultural restrictions imposed on younger
362 Journal Approved by UGC Sl.No. 1962, Journal No. 40942, Impact Factor 3.112
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