General Procedure of FEA 7

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SPECIFICATION THAT SHOWS THE
INVAL Plant GENERAL PROCEDURE TO REALIZE
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Product Engineering A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS.
Introduction
FEA is widely accepted in almost all engineering disciplines. The method is often used as an
alternative to the experimental test method set out in many standards. The technique is based on
the premise that an approximate solution to any complex engineering problem can be reached by
subdividing the structure/component into smaller more manageable (finite) elements. The Finite
Element Model (FEM) is analyzed with an inherently greater precision than would otherwise be
possible using conventional hand analyses, since the actual shape, load and constraints, as well as
material property combinations can be specified with much greater accuracy than that used in
classical hand calculations.
Then the FEA process has been described in 12 steps:
1. Study the problem, components, functioning details etc.
Spend sufficient time in studying the problem. If the option is available please observe
manufacturing and assembly process. Clear understanding of the functionality is essential for
applying appropriate boundary conditions.
2. Consult and gather further information from service, test, warranty yard,
design and customers of the product.
This is very important point, you might be asking people having years of experience related to the
product, component. Many a times best design solution advice for carrying out further iterations
comes from the workers and people who is most involved with the product.
3. Define the objective and type of FEA analysis.
In any analysis scenario, needs to decide the significant physical phenomena to which the design
will be exposed in order to decide what type of analysis should be performed.
Below some of the most common types of FEA analysis are described:
3.1 Linear static analysis.

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Figure 1 Linear Static path.
Linear:
Linear means straight line, = is equation of straight line (y=mx) passing through origin. E
Elastic Modulus is slope of the curve & is a constant. In real life after crossing yield point material
follows non liner curve but software follows same straight line. Component brake into two separate
pieces after crossing ultimate stress but software based analysis never show failure in this fashion.
It shows single unbroken part with red color zone.
Static:
There are two conditions for static analysis:
1. Force is static i.e. no variation with respect to time (dead weight).
2. Equilibrium condition - forces (Fr, Fy, Fz) and Moments (Mx, My, Mz) = 0. FE model fulfills this
condition at each and every node. For complete model summation of external forces and moment is
equal to reaction forces and moments.
3.2 Nonlinear analysis.

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Non-linearity
Geometrical Material Contact
Large Gap elements

Deformation &
Contact
Simulation
Beyond Within Creep

Elastic Limit Elastic (Progressive)
E limit E deformation of
Metals No metals material at
constant
stress.
-Long time
process
-Force (stress) Vs. Displacement (strain) curve nonlinear (polynomial).

-Stiffness [K] is function of displacement [d] {for linear analysis [K] is constant, independent of [d]}
-Deals with true stress & strain (unlike engineering stress & strain in linear static analysis)
1. Material based non linearity:

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Figure 2 Stress-strain diagrams along with hardening rule for the material is required as input data.
2. Geometric non linearity
Though component is within the elastic limit but due to very large length even small force causes
large deformation. Regular formulas of strength of material like deflection = PL 3/3 El, not
applicable as these are based on small displacement assumption.
3. Contact - To simulate physical gap between two parts e.g. bearing and shaft or press fit
between two cylinders etc.
3.3 Modal analysis
Modal analysis or the mode-superposition method is a linear dynamic-response procedure which

evaluates and superimposes free-vibration mode shapes to characterize displacement patterns.
Mode shapes describe the configurations into which a structure will naturally displace. Typically,
lateral displacement patterns are of primary concern. Mode shapes of low-order mathematical
expression tend to provide the greatest contribution to structural response. As orders increase,
mode shapes contribute less, and are predicted less reliably. It is reasonable to truncate analysis
when the number of mode shapes is sufficient.
A structure with N degrees of freedom will have N corresponding mode shapes. Each mode shape
is an independent and normalized displacement pattern which may be amplified and superimposed
to create a resultant displacement pattern, as shown in Figure 1:
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Figure 3 Resultant displacement and modal components
Numerical evaluation proceeds by reducing the equations of motion (N simultaneous differential

equations coupled by full mass and stiffness matrices) to a much smaller set of uncoupled second
order differential equations (N independent normal-coordinate equations). The orthogonality of
mode-shape relations enables this reduction.
After identify the analysis type involved, it shall be setting in the software configuration to solve the
physic.
4. Export CAD data.
Generally data is provided in a CAD format. Geometry cleanup is an integral part of the meshing
activity. CAE engineers should at least have the basic knowledge of CAD. Before starting the job,
the geometry should be carefully checked for:
Free edges
Scar lines
Duplicate surfaces
Small fillets
Small holes
Beads
Intersection of parts (assembly of components)
5. Discretization of the Geometry.
5.1 Types of finite Elements
This section describes many outstanding features of the most commonly used elements; called,
truss, beam, plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric, membrane, plate, shell, solid or brick,
tetrahedral, hexahedral, boundary, and gap. Finite element commercial programs have a large
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number of elements in their libraries. However, most structures and mechanical applications can be
solved with the basic elements already mentioned.
Depending on the dimension, the basic elements can be divided into three categories: line, area
and volume elements. Truss, beam, and restriction elements, are line elements. Plane stress, Plane
strain, axisymmetric, membrane, plate and shell are area elements. Solid or brick, tetrahedral and
hexahedral are volume elements. The criteria for selecting the appropriate item for each application
will be discussed later.
Truss Elements
The Truss element is characterized basically because it can only behave as a member subjected to
two forces (it is known therefore that these charges must be directed along the longitudinal axis of
the element).
In a structure the elements can be modeled as Truss if they fulfill these three requirements:
a. Its length is much greater than its height or width (between 8 and 10 times);
b. This is connected to the rest of the structure with pins that do not transfer moments.
c. The external loads are only applied at the end of the elements, and are parallel to it (Axial Load).
The Truss elements can only be subjected to tensile or compressive stress. In this way, the only
property of the section to be specified is the element axial area of the element. Figure 4 shows the
geometry and nodal forces in a three-dimensional truss element. As shown in the figure 4, a three-
dimensional Truss element has three degrees of freedom per node, i.e. three displacements on the
global axes X, Y and Z.
Figure 4 Three-dimensional Truss element.

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Beam Elements
The Beam element is probably the most used. Further their obvious applications in structures, many
other systems, such as mechanical joints, conduit systems, pipelines and bridge beams, can be
modeled with Beam element. For structural members to be modeled with Beam elements, one of
their dimensions must be much larger, at least 10 times larger than the other two.
Contrary to the Truss element, the beam element can be subjected to transverse loads and/or
bending moments in addition to the tensile and compressive stress. The geometry and
displacements / rotation are shown in Figure 5. Note that the three-dimensional beam element has
six degrees of freedom per node, i.e. three displacements and three rotations on the global axes X,
Y and Z.
Figure 5 Three-dimensional Beam element
The common profiles of beam elements are I-section, T-section, box, circular and channels. Within
the properties of the section, the axial area, the torsion resistance and the moment of inertia must
be specified.
Two-dimensional Elastic Elements
There are three types of two-dimensional elements:
1. Plane Stress Elements

2. Plane Strain Elements
3. Axisymmetric Elements
Elements subjected to Plane Stress and Plane Strain
For the case of plane analysis there are mainly two types of elements: Triangular and Quadrilateral.
Depending on the type of stress to which the element is subjected, it must be modeled as plane
stress or plane stress.
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Figure 6 Two-dimensional element in Plane Stress: (a) Triangular; (b) Quadrilateral.
As a rule, quadrilaterals to triangular elements are preferred for geometric isotropy reasons.
However, the use of triangular elements is suggested when irregularities occurs in the element
geometry to be modeled, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 Quadrilateral and triangular element.
Axisymmetric Elements
Steel and concrete tanks, rotors, shells, nozzles and containers are some representative examples
of axisymmetric structures. Similar to the three-dimensional structures that are under plane stress
or plane strain conditions, the axisymmetric structures subjected to axisymmetric loads can be
analyzed in a two-dimensional model. To analyze an axisymmetric structure, such as a thin-walled
cylinder t, subject to constant pressure P, the model is the cylinder intersection with the YZ plane as
shown in Figure 8.
The charge P is applied to the finite element model as shown in Figure 8 (b). Quadrilaterals and
axisymmetric triangles have two degrees of freedom in each node, figures 8 (c) and (d).
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Figure 8 (a) Cylinder under internal pressure; (b) Axisymmetric Model; (c) Quad Element; (d)
Triangular Element.
Three-dimensional elastic solids or 'Brick' elements
The solid elements are three-dimensional elements with three degrees of translational freedom per
node, see figure 9. The nodes are usually introduced at the intersection of the three planes, or at
the middle of the intersection of two planes. An 8-node brick element with its respective degrees of
freedom can be seen in figure 9.
Figure 9 Brick element and its degrees of freedom per node (8 nodes).
The brick element can provide information about the three-dimensional variation of the stresses and
deformation of the element.
Tetrahedral and Hexahedral Elements
As well as the brick elements, the 'tetrahedral' and 'hexahedral' elements can be used to model
three-dimensional structures. The tetrahedron can be seen as a triangle in three-dimensions, as
seen in figure 10, while the hexahedron can be seen as a quadrilateral extended in three-
dimensions. It can be appreciated that the hexahedron has the same geometry of the brick element
of 8 nodes. The difference between these two is the computational formulation and precision.
Generally the tetrahedron and hexahedron elements have only three degrees of freedom per node,
and the accuracy of these elements can be increased by placing nodes at half its sides.
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Figure 10 (a) Tetrahedron of 4 nodes (b) Tetrahedron de 10 nodes.
5.2 Selecting the element type.
Before select the element type for the structure model shall be drawn a sketch of the physical
system indicating its geometry, boundary conditions, loads and geometric or material
discontinuities. The sketch shall also include a global coordinate system and the dimensions of the
structure.
Next, shall be examined whether the model can be reduced, or simplified. Plane stress, plane strain
and axisymmetric models allow reduce three-dimensional to two-dimensional problems. Further the
presence of planes of symmetry allows modeling only a part of the structure.
The outline of a physical system can help in the selection of the appropriate element. For example,
to model transversal or axial loads on mechanical or electrical devices and civil structures, beam or
truss elements can be used. Elements of plane Stress are suitable for modeling in the plane of
action, plates and short beams. Plane strain elements are usually used to model containment walls
and long dikes. The axisymmetric elements are used to model structures that are rotationally
symmetrical on one of the axes and loaded symmetrically or anti-symmetrically on the same axis,
as the cylinders subjected to internal pressure.
The element type selection depends on the type of expected results too, for example, the cylinder
shown in figure 11. With the fixed ends and subject to a punctual load, can be modeled in different
ways:
a. A beam model can be used if you are interested in an approach of element deflection.
b. A model using shell / plate elements can be used if the goal is to obtain a calculation of the
stresses.
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Figure11 (a) Cylinder with fixed ends and punctual load in the middle; (b) Beam model; (c) Model
with Plate / shell elements.
Certain problems can be solved with more than one type of analysis. For example, the cylinder
under internal pressure shown in figure 12 can be analyzed in three different ways:
a. A problem of Plane strain. In this case the geometry of the model consists of a circular section
obtained by the intersection of the cylinder with the plane YZ. By using plane strain elements,
results can be obtained which are valid for a section of the cylinder that is far from the fixed ends.
b. An axisymmetric problem. The model using axisymmetric elements is shown in figure 8. In this
model all nodes on sides AB and CD are restricted, and pressure P is applied on the AC side. The
stresses and strains obtained from the analysis of the axisymmetric model are valid for the whole
structure. Note that the cylinder can be analyzed with this model, because the load is also
axisymmetric.
c. A three-dimensional structure. The cylinder is modeled using plate elements as shown in figure
11 (c). This model is the most elaborated but less efficient, it can be an option, if the loads were not
axisymmetric.
Figure 12 Cylinder under internal pressure.

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5.3 Modeling Patterns
Create an appropriate model is the most crucial step in finite element analysis. The goal is to
develop the most appropriate node pattern, which generates a sufficient number of elements and
obtain results without wasting data interpretation and calculation time. The model must always be
based on a conceptual knowledge of the physical system and an anticipated judgment of the
behavior of the structure. Together with the understanding of the system behavior, the analyst must
make an effort to understand the relevant concepts of finite element theory. Failure in the process
would imply nonsense results.
The following list of accumulated parameters from experience and selected from different sources,
can be used to develop suitable models for static or dynamic systems. You should note that these
recommendations do not apply in all cases.
No bill of parameters can replace the use of knowledge and engineering judgments.
General recommendations:
1. Define the nodes at or near the application points of loads, geometric discontinuities, supports
and all those regions that require information about the stresses and displacements.
2. A finite element mesh must be uniform where practical. However, non-uniformity is required to
obtain appropriate results in sudden changes in geometry and load. Only these parts, where
geometry, loads or stresses, change dramatically, the mesh must be refined, see figure 13.
Figure 13 Plate with high stress location.
3. Prefer quadrilaterals, 6-sided solid elements and hexagons, except where triangular elements
and tetrahedrons are necessary to accommodate geometric irregularities and charges.
4. A more refined mesh is required to accurately obtain stresses and displacements. If a

convergence study is needed, for example, start with a relatively small number of elements and
progressively generate more refined models. Figure 14 shows the procedure with two models of
plane stress in a short cantilever beam modeled in the YZ plane.
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Figure 14 Model of 4 and 6 elements of a short cantilever beam.
Proportion
The proportion of the elements is defined by the relation between the largest and smallest
dimension of the element. Figure 15 shows the configuration of three two-dimensional elements
classified as 'good', 'poor' and 'illegal'. The good elements are characterized by their proportion is
close to unity and the angles are close to 90 degrees. The poor elements should be avoided, as
these can generate inaccurate results. Illegal elements are unacceptable, and should not be used
for finite element models. When illegal elements are drawn inadvertently, they generate invalid finite
element models. Many post-processors of commercial finite element programs allow the
identification of these errors.
Figure 15 Elements (a) Good, (b) Poor. (c) llegal.
5. If the stress field has a similar gradient in all directions, try to keep the ratio at 1. Elements with
high proportion may be invalid, see figure 16 (a). However, elements categorized as poor can be
used in the analysis of regions of the structure where the stress gradient gradually varies over a
large dimension of the elements. Illegal elements must always be despised.
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Figure 16 (a) High proportion; (b) Proportion in an acceptable range.
6. For regions with small stress variations, the ratio factor can be high, from 40 to 1, and still yield
good results. However, as a general rule, it is recommended to keep the ratio factor below 10 for
displacements analysis, and under 3 for stress analysis, see figure 16(b). It can be noticed that in
the deformation analysis, the emphasis is on the precision to calculate the displacements of each of
the nodes, whereas in the analysis of efforts, one is interested in the precision of the calculation of
both, efforts and displacements.
7. Sudden changes in object size should be avoided. When the use of elements of different sizes is
necessary, the dimension ratio of the adjacent objects must be less than two.
Asymmetric Elements
Asymmetry is defined as the variation of the vertex angle of the element, from 60 for triangles, and
from 90 for quadrilaterals. Note that two of the "poor" elements in Figure 15 (b) can be
characterized as asymmetrical.
8. For triangular elements, avoid acute angles smaller than 30 and for quadrilateral elements,
avoid obtuse angles greater than 120 , see Figure 15 (b). As a general rule, the use of asymmetry
is acceptable when you are primarily interested in displacements. However, if the stresses need to
be calculated accurately, then the model should have less asymmetry.
Geometric Discontinuities
9. Localized holes, cracks and changes in geometry can be characterized as geometric

discontinuities. The modeling of geometric discontinuities depends on the interest in the calculation
precision of the deformations and stresses in the proximity of the discontinuity. If you are not
interested in the strains and stresses in the discontinuity, you can use a global model of the
structure that has a "thick" mesh around the discontinuity. If the target gets near the discontinuity
response, a local model can be used. Contrary to the global model, the local model uses a refined
mesh in the vicinity of the discontinuity.
There are two basic approaches to modeling holes, cracks and notches:
a. The first involves the use of a local model with a refined mesh around the discontinuity. This
method usually requires a detailed mesh that can accurately model the region around the
discontinuity.
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b. If the stress concentrator factor K is known from the literature or experimental data, a preliminary
model that calculates the stress around the discontinuity can be used.
When there is a drastic change in geometry, a more refined mesh can be used in the region where
the changes are located, see Figure 13. Also, different types of elements can be combined in the
same modeling, one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional elements.
Materials Discontinuities
10. Abrupt changes in the properties of the material can be modeled as proposed for "geometric
discontinuities", that is, with the help of global and local models.
11. For isotropic materials, the Poisson ratio should not be close to 0.5. In addition, for a near zero
Poisson ratio, the structure may lose all its stiffness, and the results may be erroneous.
12. For anisotropic materials, the theoretical limit of the Poisson ratio and Young's modulus, along
the specified direction, must be checked in order to avoid inadequate solutions.
Abrupt Changes in Stiffness
13. Avoid models with elements having stiffness differences greater than 104. The maximum /
minimum stiffness ratio is usually provided in the numerical output of commercial software. Large
variations of stiffness in the model can lead to self-conditioned singularities and matrices, which can
not be numerically resolved by the processor. These large stiffness variations can occur in models
that contain very small and very large elements.
Abrupt Changes in Loads
14. A refined mesh can be used in the proximities of an abrupt change of load, in order to capture
the variations of effort close to the load. This refinement of the mesh can be seen in Figure 17.
Figure 17 Mesh in the vicinity of point loads: (a) Coarse; (b) Refined.
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6. Define the Physics Regions
Physics regions are used to select high level physical modeling options for specified three
dimensional volumes or bodies. The properties of a physics region apply only to the internal
behavior of its constituent bodies.
The properties define what is happening inside each element or control volume. From a physics
perspective, this is the physical behavior that is to be modeled and/or transported, whereas
boundary conditions and constraints provide the specific conditions to model. From a numerical
perspective, the physics regions properties define numerical modeling options.
7. Material Assignment
The software provides a collection of material properties that can be used in structural or another
simulation. Material properties appropriate for your project are dependent on the type of simulation
performed. The material properties will be displayed on a material or can be added to the material.
To define the material properties:
Alternating Stress
Alternating Stress is defined as the amount of stress that deviates from the mean. It is also called
stress amplitude.
Density
The density of a material is the mass per unit volume.
Isotropic Elasticity
Isotropic elasticity is used to model a material behavior where the stress versus strain relationship is
linear and the loading is kept within the elastic range. The molecular structure of the material is
homogeneous so that a load in any direction will exhibit the same stress versus strain relationship.
The model follows Hooke's law and so assumes that the stretch or compression remains in the
elastic range of the material and the model will return to its original shape. Hooke's law requires two
terms to be input for computation, these inputs can be chosen with the Derive from field.
Young's Modulus
Poissons Ratio
Bulk Modulus
Shear Modulus
Isotropic Resistivity
Isotropic resistivity is used to model how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current in
all directions. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electrical
charge.
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Isotropic Seebeck Coefficient
The isotropic Seebeck coefficient of a material is a measure of the magnitude of an induced voltage
in response to a change in temperature across that material. This value is independent of the
direction of the applied temperature gradient.
Molar Mass
Molar mass is the average mass of a substance per mole of molecules.
Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity of a material is the heat required to raise the unit mass of a substance by
one degree of temperature.
Tensile Ultimate Strength
Tensile ultimate strength is defined as the highest point on the Stress-Strain curve obtained from a
tensile test.
Tensile Yield Strength
Tensile yield strength is defined as the point on the Stress-Strain curve where the material starts to
deform plastically.
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is the ability of the material to conduct heat. Thermal
conductivity is assumed to be isotropic in behavior which conducts heat equally in all directions.
Thermal Expansion
The thermal expansion of a material is the volumetric response of the material to a change in
temperature.
Thermal expansion is assumed to be isotropic in behavior and so expands or contracts equally in all
directions.
Viscosity
The viscosity is the dynamic viscosity of a material and is the resistance to flow. The dynamic
viscosity must be defined when m1odeling fluid flow.
8. Define Boundary Conditions
Depending on the type of physics involved (fluid flow, structural, steady-state thermal, or electric
conduction), the software provides several means to control the solution of the physics simulation.
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The software allows you to specify physical conditions at the boundaries of your model and apply
them to your simulation.
Boundary conditions for structural physics include:
Externally applied forces, pressures, and moments

Supports
Steady-state inertial forces
Zero and nonzero displacements
Temperature Conditions (for thermal strain)
Displacement
A displacement boundary condition specifies that a portion of the model displaces relative to its
original location.
You have several options for defining displacement. You can define displacement as normal to a
boundary, or you can apply displacement directly to the geometric in a given model through a
vector. When you apply a displacement to a selection of geometric entities, that selection
determines the portion of the model that is displaced. You can specify the displacement in any of
the component directions of the reference frame, or you can specify displacement on a vector using
magnitude and direction.
Inertia Load
An Inertia load is experienced by a body or a collection of bodies when it is in an accelerated

reference frame. A reference frame is "accelerated" if you specify a linear acceleration or an
angular velocity or angular acceleration to the frame.
Inertia itself is not a load, but it causes loads (forces) to be developed in the bodies opposite in
direction to the specified accelerations. The bodies must also have mass specified for the
developed inertial loads to be non-zero.
Inertia loads are used to model gravity effects (weight) or rotational effects in spinning equipment.
Force
You can apply the force boundary condition either by defining a magnitude and direction or by
defining the components of that vector in a given coordinate system. This boundary condition is
defined in units such as pounds or Newton.
Moment
This vector-based boundary condition distributes a moment "about" (the vector of) an axis across
one or more flat or curved faces, or about one or more edges or vertices. Use the right-hand rule to
determine the sense of the moment. This boundary condition has a moment or torque (Newton
meter) unit.
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You can apply the moment boundary condition either by defining a magnitude and direction or by
defining the components of that vector in a given coordinate system.
Pressure
A pressure load applies a constant pressure on one or more flat or curved faces. A positive value
for pressure acts into the face, tending to compress the solid body.
Pressure is a scalar boundary condition and can only be applied normal to a face.
Support
A support is a constraint that you create by fixing or freeing the available degrees of freedom at the
location in the model where you apply it.
Temperature Condition
You can use a Temperature Condition boundary condition to apply a temperature over the selected
geometry. Temperature Conditions are used to calculate temperature-dependent material
properties and thermal strains
9. Define the interface conditions.
Set up the available interfaces: contacts, joints, region interface conditions, or physics coupling
interfaces.
Contacts
A contact is a type of connection between two solid, surface, or line bodies.
Choosing the appropriate contact type depends on the type of problem you are trying to solve. If
modeling the ability of bodies to separate or open slightly is important and/or obtaining the stresses
very near a contact interface is important, consider using one of the nonlinear contact types
(Frictionless, Rough, Frictional), which can model gaps and more accurately model the true area of
contact. However, using these contact types usually results in longer solution times and can have
possible convergence problems due to the contact nonlinearity. If convergence problems arise or if
determining the exact area of contact is critical, consider using a finer mesh on the contact faces or
edges.
The available contact types are listed below. Most of the types apply to Contact Regions made up
of faces only.
Bonded: It applies to all contact regions (surfaces, solids, lines, faces, edges). If contact regions
are bonded, then no sliding or separation between faces or edges is allowed.
Think of the region as glued. This type of contact allows for a linear solution since the contact
length/area will not change during the application of the load. If contact is determined on the
mathematical model, any gaps will be closed and any initial penetration will be ignored.
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No separation: This contact setting is similar to the bonded case. It only applies to regions of faces
(for 3D solids) or edges (for 2D plates). Separation of the geometries in contact is not allowed, but
small amounts of frictionless sliding can occur along contact geometries.
Frictionless: This setting models standard unilateral contact; that is, normal pressure equals zero if
separation occurs. Thus gaps can form in the model between bodies depending on the loading.
This solution is nonlinear because the area of contact may change as the load is applied. A zero
coefficient of friction is assumed, thus allowing free sliding. The model should be well constrained
when using this contact setting.
Joints
A joint typically serves as a junction where bodies are joined together. Joint types are characterized
by their rotational and translational degrees of freedom as being fixed or free. Joints can be defined
as body-to-body or body-to-ground.
Some types of joints that you can create are the following:
Fixed Joint
Fixed Joints support all degrees of freedom.
Hinge Joint
Constrained degrees of freedom: UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY
Figure 18 Hinge Joint
Cylindrical Joint
Constrained degrees of freedom: UX, UY, ROTX, ROTY

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Figure 19 Cylindrical Joint
Translational Joint
Constrained degrees of freedom: UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ
Figure 20 Translational Joint
Slot Joint
Constrained degrees of freedom: UY, UZ
Figure 21 Slot Joint
Universal Joint
Constrained degrees of freedom: UX, UY, UZ, ROTY

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Figure 22 Universal Joint
Spherical Joint
Constrained degrees of freedom: UX, UY, UZ
Figure 23 Spherical Joint
Planar Joint
Constrained degrees of freedom: UZ, ROTX, ROTY
Figure 24 Planar Joint
General
With the General joint, you can set the constrained degrees of freedom and the rotation.
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All the degrees of freedom are fixed by default. You can set the Translation options to fixed or free,
and the Rotation option to fixed, all free, or free about the X, Y, or Z axis.
Region Interface Conditions
Region interface conditions can be defined within a single physics region where there is a mesh
discontinuity, or when the topology is not connected; or between two physics regions (for example,
between a fluid and a solid in a conjugate heat transfer problem). These interface conditions are
defined by the specific physics regions and their locations on either side of the interface, and any
particular behavior you want to assign to them.
10. Run the analysis.

The FE model is now ready to be run. The analysis run command may have options to specify
solver version, memory size, and number of CPUs to better control execution.
11. Obtain Results.

It is highly recommended that the analysis results should be carefully reviewed and checked for
accuracy before making any conclusions based on simulations. There are many ways the FEA
results can be checked, some of them are:
- Observe for unexpected movements in the animation.

- Compare the reaction forces against applied forces.
- Check if stresses and strains are as per material properties supplied to the FE model. - Check
interacting surfaces in the contact set for any malfunction.
- Make quick hand calculations by simplifying the problem and compare it with the FE results.
While reporting the FE results, analysts should always disclose all the assumptions made while
building the FE model. In the industrial environment, there is always pressure to complete the FEA
sooner to meet tight launch schedules, still the FEA analysts must check the model thoroughly and
review the results carefully before releasing the results to the clients. The FEA results should
always be verified using engineering judgment and past results with similar FE model.
Unrealistically high or low results should trigger further reviewing of the model. It is highly
recommended to maintain consistency in the model to increase accuracy of the results, especially
when analysis is being performed to evaluate effect of changing certain parameter in the model.
Generating results to understand the behavior of an analyzed model is fundamental to any

analysis. The software supports a variety of result display types and tools to facilitate this process.
Contours
You can use a Contour to visualize and assess gradients for variables displayed on a surface or
volume. Contour lines are lines of constant magnitude for a selected variable. The regions between
the contour lines are filled with a color that denotes the value of the variable in that region.
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On a given surface or volume, adjacent contour lines are:
-Widely spaced in regions where the variable is slowly changing.
-Closely spaced together in regions where the variable is rapidly changing.
The contour plot below indicates the variation of total pressure across a dual exhaust system.
Figure 25 Contour diagram
Vectors
You can use vector results to display vector variables, showing the direction and magnitude, on a
collection of seed points defined on a surface or volume.
The figure below shows velocity vectors plotted in the physics region of a dual exhaust system. The
vectors help you visualize the velocity of particles in the different parts of the exhaust. The vectors
in the figure below also help visualize recirculation zones near the walls of the pipes.
Figure 26 Vector diagram

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Isosurface
You can use an Isosurface to display a surface of constant value for a specified variable.
Figure 24 Isosurface diagram
Calculated Results
You can perform a variety of exact quantitative calculations at a particular location in the physics
domain. Calculated results are performed to obtain different types of information:
-Calculated values enable you to evaluate a single-value quantity within a physics region.
-A summary of the calculated minimum, maximum, and average values allow you to capture
quantitative information for the global range and averages on Results objects.
12. Checking Mesh density and solution convergence.

Mesh density and solution convergence are closely related and the factors which determine that
relationship can be controversial. In an effort to meet specific time and accuracy requirements,
tradeoffs involving modeling time, accuracy, computation time, and cost must be made.
The correct mesh, from a numerical accuracy standpoint, is one that yields no significant
differences in the results when a mesh refinement is introduced. Although this concept may sound
simplistic, many factors must be considered. Mesh refinements must accurately represent the
problem in question if they are to be used in the analysis. Mesh refinements by simple splitting of
elements can be misleading unless the newly created nodes conform closely to the original
geometry. As refinement progresses, the original element selection must retain its significance.
Determining a mesh density is facilitated by following a few basic guidelines.
Geometric Detail Required

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ORIGINAL IPN 3.24
Determine the smallest geometric detail(s) that must be captured in the model to obtain the results.
A very sharp radius may cause a stress concentration, but at the same time, it may not be in a load
bearing component of the assembly. The modeling required to capture this detail may require a
separate local analysis after an analysis of the overall structure or component has been conducted.
Design Detail Available
Observe the degree of detail in the available design data. If the design data is preliminary or
incomplete, or if you are using finite element analysis to help define the design, it is best to keep
models simple. Take care not to oversimplify models to the point that factors under investigation are
missed.
If the design is considered complete and a final verification is being conducted, include as much
detail and mesh refinement (including re-mesh iterations for accuracy checks) as time permits.
Comparisons to Previous Work
If you will be comparing your work to other analysis results for the same or similar components,
consider using a previously or used mesh density which is similar. Consider correlations established
with the testing of past models but be prepared to identify improper boundary conditions or load
applications, poor modeling techniques, or inadequate mesh density. If such testing flaws are
discovered, establish a new standard. Do not accept the work of others until it is fully understood.
Expected Deformed Shape
Determine possible deflection shapes and the mesh densities required to capture them. Estimate
the maximum deflection areas and areas of curvature inflection. Observe whether nodal density
follows the deflection pattern closely. Note the pattern shown below.
Figure 25 Deformed shape with element density
Checks of Convergence
If you plan to do a convergence check, consider performing at least one refinement of the model
after the first run. If neighboring elements display large differences in stress, the gradient was
probably not captured in these areas, therefore some refinement is recommended.
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New techniques for automatically computing convergence by several criteria are available on
certain codes or can be customized by the user. Some computer codes will also automatically re-
mesh non converged portions of a model. These techniques are mesh dependent on the load cases
and will provide different meshes for different load cases.
Deflection or Stress
In most cases, far fewer elements are necessary if only deflection or stiffness information is
required. Even fewer elements can be used if only the deflection under the load is to be studied. For
instance, one beam or one shell can estimate the deflection of a cantilever beam of rectangular
section. It may, however, take dozens of shell or solid element to capture the stress at the boundary
in a simple cantilever beam. If there is a high gradient of stress over a large area, for example, a
web in the corner of a frame, many elements may be required to get the proper deflection.
Figure 26 Web stiffener
Areas of Concern
Determine the areas of concern. If you have a known issue in the lab or the field you will certainly
want some detail in these areas. If time is limited, you may want to focus only in these areas and
use rough approximations elsewhere. If you have no prior knowledge of the component of system
and a history search has not turned up any clues, you may have to make a very uniform mesh and
refine areas that respond to the applied loads. Use your engineering sense to predict the areas that
are prone to trouble.
Some typical areas of concern are listed below:
Tight radii
Points of load application
Boundary points
Attachment points
Narrow sections
Abrupt change in section
Element Types
Mesh density is very dependent on the selection of element types therefore select the element type
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that is appropriate to solve your problem. Determine whether the structure should be considered as
a shell type or if a full 3D model is needed to capture either the state of stress, geometry, or local
deflections.
For example, engine blocks can be modeled with shells and beams when stiffness or dynamics is
the only consideration. However, the stresses cannot be studied since this component is a 3-D solid
when stress becomes a consideration. The time difference to model an engine in solids versus
shells and beams can be enormous. Below it is a list of Rules of Thumb regarding element
selection:
Do NOT mix trias and quads whenever possible and if required place trias in areas of non-concern
Use all trias for back-to-back comparisons when you have determined trias are adequate to your
solution - dont compare a quad model with a refined tria model.
Use elements of consistent size whenever possible
Do NOT combine shells and solids or beams and shells/solids without first understanding all the
assumptions and implications to your solution
Model solid parts with solid elements
Model thin plate structures with shell elements (thickness < 10-20 x Edge length)
Understand all assumptions for the element type you have selected
Do NOT use degenerated elements unless required
Do NOT mix tetrahedral elements with other element types and, if required, place outside areas of
concern
Use tetrahedral elements when the effort required to model hexahedral elements is excessive (this
can run into weeks of effort versus days for tetras)
Use beam elements when shells or solids require excessive modeling time and effort
Beam elements can be used effectively in beam-like structures or for fasteners and connections.
However, due to the complexity of employing beam elements, they are probably the most misused
elements in the family of elements. The following considerations make using beam elements a
difficult process to perform successful successfully.
Shear center
Warping constraint
Length to depth ratio
Shear deflection
Complex state of stress near end conditions
Visualizing both the input and the output of beam analysis
Stress results for complex beam sections are only good for global type values computed by
classical beam methods. Beams of circular cross section are an exception because they are easily
modeled and the classical beam results usually match actual performance except at localized end
conditions.
Decades of study and research have enabled experts to construct intricate geometry with beam
elements (usually to save computer time) but few individuals understand the complexity of these
techniques. Therefore be prepared to encounter a very involved situation if you choose to employ
this element type.
Timing
Available time is a major determinant in a decision concerning mesh density. A compromise is

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usually reached between the amounts of time dedicated to human time and that devoted to
computer time. It is often less time consuming to build a large model by using an automatic mesher,
and increased computer capacity has lessened the need to use special techniques to minimize the
number of elements. Therefore human time has become more focused on productivity and
competitiveness in the market. Pick modeling techniques and elements that provide the most
efficient blend of factors while simultaneously considering fixed external factors. Once you are
convinced that your decisions are solidly supported, discuss your approach with others before
implementing your plan.
Another important factor in the decision on model complexity is the tendency for models to live or
an extended period of time. If you feel that the model may have a long life then work at ways to
simply the modification and/or redefinition to reduce future effort. This is an often overlooked
problem and can cause significant time loss.
Mesh density and solution convergence summary
Identify the smallest details that must be captured.

Evaluate the level of design detail available.
Check for current standards and previous work that will be used for comparison.
Estimate the deformed shape and its requirements on your model.
Plan for a convergence iteration(s).
Select a more detailed modeling approach when stress is important. Consider a two-phase
approach to stress solutions in which you make a second model for detailed work to reduce the
scope and complexity of you solution.
Identify known and predicted areas of concern.
Select appropriate element type(s). Mix element types only with caution.
Consider timing in your approach.
Revision:
ORIGINAL IPN 3.24
REFERENCES DOCUMENTS
-ANSYS AIM Documentation. Release 16.2 - SAS IP, Inc. All rights reserved. Contains
proprietary and confidential information of ANSYS, Inc. and its subsidiaries and affiliates. Published:
2015-07-17T08:14:20.17-04:00
-Nitin S. Gokhale; Sanjay S. Deshpande; Sanjeev V. Bedekar; Anand N. Thite. Practical Finite
Element Analysis, Finite to Infinite; First edition, 2008.
-Cubillos Alfonso; Introduccin al mtodo de los elementos finitos; Universidad de Ibagu;

https://almec.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/resumen.pdf

General Procedure of FEA 7

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General Procedure of FEA 7

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Then the FEA process has been described in 12 steps:

1. Study the problem, components, functioning details etc.

3. Define the objective and type of FEA analysis.

3.1 Linear static analysis.

Figure 1 Linear Static path.

There are two conditions for static analysis:

1. Force is static i.e. no variation with respect to time (dead weight).

3.2 Nonlinear analysis.

Geometrical Material Contact

Large Gap elements

Beyond Within Creep

-Force (stress) Vs. Displacement (strain) curve nonlinear (polynomial).

1. Material based non linearity:

2. Geometric non linearity

3.3 Modal analysis

Modal analysis or the mode-superposition method is a linear dynamic-response procedure which

Figure 3 Resultant displacement and modal components

Numerical evaluation proceeds by reducing the equations of motion (N simultaneous differential

4. Export CAD data.

5. Discretization of the Geometry.

5.1 Types of finite Elements

Figure 4 Three-dimensional Truss element.

Figure 5 Three-dimensional Beam element

Two-dimensional Elastic Elements

There are three types of two-dimensional elements:

1. Plane Stress Elements

Elements subjected to Plane Stress and Plane Strain

Figure 6 Two-dimensional element in Plane Stress: (a) Triangular; (b) Quadrilateral.

Figure 7 Quadrilateral and triangular element.

Three-dimensional elastic solids or 'Brick' elements

Tetrahedral and Hexahedral Elements

Figure 10 (a) Tetrahedron of 4 nodes (b) Tetrahedron de 10 nodes.

5.2 Selecting the element type.

Figure 12 Cylinder under internal pressure.

5.3 Modeling Patterns

Figure 13 Plate with high stress location.

4. A more refined mesh is required to accurately obtain stresses and displacements. If a

Figure 14 Model of 4 and 6 elements of a short cantilever beam.

Figure 15 Elements (a) Good, (b) Poor. (c) llegal.

Figure 16 (a) High proportion; (b) Proportion in an acceptable range.

9. Localized holes, cracks and changes in geometry can be characterized as geometric

Abrupt Changes in Stiffness

Abrupt Changes in Loads

6. Define the Physics Regions

To define the material properties:

The density of a material is the mass per unit volume.

Isotropic Seebeck Coefficient

Molar mass is the average mass of a substance per mole of molecules.

Specific Heat Capacity

Tensile Ultimate Strength

Tensile Yield Strength

8. Define Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions for structural physics include:

Externally applied forces, pressures, and moments

An Inertia load is experienced by a body or a collection of bodies when it is in an accelerated

9. Define the interface conditions.

A contact is a type of connection between two solid, surface, or line bodies.

Fixed Joints support all degrees of freedom.

Constrained degrees of freedom: UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY

Figure 18 Hinge Joint

Constrained degrees of freedom: UX, UY, ROTX, ROTY

Figure 19 Cylindrical Joint

Constrained degrees of freedom: UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ