How Ore Mineral Deposits Forms

One useful way to classify mineral deposits is to

distinguish deposits that were formed at the time as the
host rocks from those that were formed afterward.
Syngenetic mineral deposits are those which form from
igneous bodies or by way of sedimentary processes.
Epigenetic mineral deposits form in rocks that already
exist. For example, solid rock may fracture and veins may
be deposited in the fractures.
Ores can be formed by the processes that produce rocks –
there are mineral deposits that appear to have been created
by the crystallization of magma of from erosion and re-
deposition of mineral that compromises sedimentary rocks.
But mineral deposits also form by another process, called
hydrothermal activity, which is the action of heated fluids
in the earth. Many mineral deposits are chemical
precipitates from hydrothermal solutions – that is, they
have come out of solution as solids. In a hydrothermal
process, hot water, circulating through rocks by way of
fractures and pore spaces, can leach minerals out of the
rocks through which it passes and transports the minerals
in solution. The minerals remain dissolved in the water
until something makes them precipitate. A number of
things can happed to do this. Sometimes the temperature
falls or the confining pressure of the rock suddenly
decreases. Other times the water encounters another rock
type that reacts chemically with the dissolved metal,
forming new minerals. Sometimes one fluid meets another
with different chemical species in solution, and the
dissolved species from each fluid react.
A mineral deposit is made up of ore minerals, which carry
the metal, and gangue minerals, which are formed along
with the ore minerals but contribute nothing to the value
deposit. For example, gold veins often are made up of
large amounts of quartz and carbonate gangue, with some
pyrite and a little gold. Only the gold is there in a form and
amount that is worth extracting.
Wherever the hot water goes, it reacts chemically with the
rock, causing alteration. Alteration is the chemical
destruction of some or all the existing minerals in a rock
and the creation of new ones. Mafic minerals like
pyroxene can be converted to chlorite; feldspars are
converted to micas and clays; carbonate and sulphide
minerals and quartz are left behind in the rock.
Hydrothermal alteration is a sign that fluids have passed
through a rock, and is one of nature’s clearest messages
that there may be a mineral deposit nearby.
 Drilling and Sampling
Sampling
The process of taking a small representative portion of a
bigger mass is called sampling. The potential value of the
bigger mass has the possibility of being determined by
analyzing the sample to determine the the metal
concentration that it contains.
Grab samples is the name of the first samples taken from a
mineral showing. Geological field crews and prospectors
grab samples from the outcrops, river beds, road cuts or
trenches. These rocks are specifically selected due to the
fact that they appear to contain a significant quantity of
metal, so they are not considered to be a representative of
the road cut or outcrop which the come from.
Grab samples are gathered from the field, the original
location of the samples is recorded, labels are placed on
each rock and the ones which appear to be more promising
are sent to a laboratory for a metal analysis.
Channel sampling may be warranted if significant or
worthwhile quantities of metals are present in such grab
samples. In this technique of sampling, the badrock from
where the sample was taken is exposed as completely as
possible, by using some type of earth-moving equipment, a
typical equipment which is used for this is the backhoe.
What is done afterwards is that the outcrop is hosed down
with water, if by any chance, an area of mineralization is
revealed, representative surface samples are taken at
regular intervals across the zone which is exposed. These
samples are most of the time cut with a portable circular
saw which is equipped with a diamond-studded blade, this
leaves a linear channel across the outcrop.
The most desirable kind of sample is the surface channel.
Most of the time it is cut about 4 inches (10cm) wide and
¾ inch (2 cm) deep across the predicted ore area. The
chips of rock removed from it are carefully collected,
marked and bagged for further analysis.
The samples of chips are at times taken by the engineer
or geologist for a quick approximation of the contained
value. A hammer and a chisel are what quickly knock off
the random pieces out of the outcrop, an effort is made to
take representative amounts of those pieces. The samples
of chips should not be completely relied on, so they most
of the time do not enter final mathematical calculations of
possible reserves.
To space surface channels at regular intervals along the
mineralized area is extremely desirable but often it is not
practical. This makes one mathematical calculation in the
interpretation process obvious.
In some circumstances, particularly when sampling
kimberlite rock for diamonds, to collect a bulk sample is
very useful, this has the possibility of ranging from a
couple hundred kilograms to several tonnes in weight. For
a bulk sample, it is important for it to be a representative of
the area since this material can be used in the future for
definitive metallurgical grades and test work.

TESTS
From what will be said later in regard to the limited
applicability of these methods, it will be evident that
anyone undertaking the study for the first time of either
the application of the processes to a particular ore, or a
study of the theory of the processes themselves, should
begin with an ore that is easily treated by flotation. What is
needed is an ore that presents the fewest special problems.
An ideal mixture for the experimental work of a beginner
would be one composed of 60% quartz and 40% brown
blende, or say, 70% quartz and 30% of pyrite or
chalcopyrite. These mixtures are not common in nature,
but approximations thereto occur frequently. With the
above proportions in mind as ideal ores for the beginner, it
is well to ascertain that the ore chosen does not contain
more than 2.5% of calcium carbonate or other carbonates.
A series of experiments for the beginner who has had no
previous knowledge of the processes can easily be made
without special apparatus, and such experiments will serve
to illustrate some of the phenomena of concentration by
floating part of an ore at the surface of a liquid. At the very
outset a standard test should be selected for trying each
new ore studied or each new oil investigated. The
behaviour of the new material under these standard
conditions can then be compared with previous results,
thus giving the investigator a point of departure in his
explorations. A good standard experiment is 1,000 parts of
ore crushed to 6o-mesh, 3,000 parts of water, 10 parts of
sulphuric acid, and i part of oil, all by weight and at a
temperature of 70 C. Variations can then be made from
these proportions in conformity with the special
characteristics of each ore under examination, or the
special nature of the oil used, or of any other variable that
may be under examination. In beginning the investigation
of any ore, the above is a good combination with which to
start the first experiment, and then the proportions may be
varied by gradual steps until the combination giving the
maximum result is reached.
In the following experiments the ore can be weighed in an
ordinary balance ; the water can be measured in cubic
centimetres, calling I cc. a gramme ; the acid can be
measured from a burette, but the oil should be measured by
counting drops from a glass tube drawn to a medium fine
point, previously having determined by trial how many
drops of a given oil go to make up one-tenth and one-
hundredth of a gramme, because the preliminary
experiments will be with small amounts of materials.
EXPERIMENT
Take 10 grammes of ore.
30 grammes of water.
o.1 grammes of acid.
o.o1 grammes of oleic acid.
Temperature 75 C.
Place these in a test-tube of 75 to 100 cc. capacity ; warm
contents to about 75 C ; close the tube with the thumb, and
shake energetically for about a quarter of a minute. The
only measure that can be cited for the amount of shaking
necessary is to shake the tube until the arm aches. Upon
allowing the tube to stand a few seconds there should be
decided indications of a separation into layers. At the
bottom should be a layer of quartz or gangue much lighter
in colour than the original ore ; then a layer of gradually
settling gangue-slime ; then a small layer, gradually
increasing, of sulphides dropping through the liquid ; then
a considerable layer of dirty water ; and finally, on top of
all, a layer of froth composed of bubbles of air and
sulphide particles. By varying the amounts of oil or other
ingredient of the mixture a series can be secured for
comparative inspection. Some of the froths made with
certain oils are of wonderful persistence, and if
undisturbed will stand without alteration for months.
The next step is to take a larger vessel, say, a wide-
mouthed bottle holding 200 cc., one that can be grasped
comfortably by both hands and held in front of the
operator with the thumbs over the cork. The shaking must
also proceed to the aching point by the energetic use of the
arms and shoulders. The charge in a series of tests of this
kind will be :
Ore (6o-mesh) 30 grammes.
Water 90 grammes.
Acid 0.3 grammes.
Oil 0.03 grammes.
Temperature 75C
Shake and allow to settle. By carefully preparing a set ol
bottles for comparison, or by familiarity with a long range
of similar tests, the operator can make a rough estimate as
to the result. In both the case of the test-tube and the bottle
it is difficult, if not impossible, to get quantitative results.
The question of securing, on a small scale, quantitative
results that would bear some known relation to actual
milling operations, and at the same time be under ready
control as to the various factors, has occupied considerable
attention. Small machines built exactly like large machines
do not always duplicate the large-scale operations. Perhaps
the best all-round apparatus for a study of ores and the
influence of oils, acids, temperatures, etc., on surface-
tension results is a small machine,* suggested originally by
the author to H. L. Sulman and John Ballot, first made by
H. F. K. Picard. and improved to its present form by James
M. Hyde and others of the Minerals Separation, Ltd., Staff,
as illustrated in the accompanying photograph. The driving
mechanism to the left of the picture does not require any
description, and can with advantage be discarded in favour
of a small motor. The motor also has the advantage that
exact speeds can be duplicated, as well as exact lengths of
time of agitation. The portion of the apparatus on the right
can be better described by reference to Fig. 10, which is a
section drawn through the apparatus parallel to the plane of
the photograph. Fig. n is a transverse section, and Fig. 12 a
plan of the machine.
This machine is made in two parts, an upper one A, and a
lower one C, both sliding easily on a rubber cushion B
between the two parts, or, better still, having the bearing
surfaces highly polished. The rectangular section of the
interior is 4^ inches. The upper part A has a tail D, the
purpose of this being to prevent leakage of the froth when
the upper part is slid to the right for the purpose of
removing the froth. Windows of glass in each of the two
parts enable the operator to watch the progress of the test.
At E there is a simple agitator with four arms at right
angles. The shaft driving this agitator goes through the
bottom G of the lower part C and is packed with a small
stuffing-gland to prevent leakage. At F is a hole
communicating with the interior at the bottom, closed with
a valve. This hole is for the withdrawal of tailing. The
agitator-arms are 2 inches long from the centre of the shaft,
thus describing a circle of 4 ins. when revolving, and so
leaving a clear space of J in. wide between the ends of the
arms and the sides of the interior. The normal speed of this
agitator is about 1,500 r.p.m. The machine should be made
of some metal that gives a clear casting. The lower surface
of A, which rests on the rubber cushion B, and the upper
surface of C, upon which the rubber cushion rests, should
be planed and polished smooth. The cushion is a piece of
rubber insertion about one-sixteenth of an inch thick, and
just wide enough to fill the space between the edges H and
J of the tray-like top of C. The cushion can be discarded if
the surfaces are accurately planed and polished.
The equipment necessary for the tests will also include a
tin boiler, with the proper connections to make steam at a
low pressure, the steam being introduced by a tube
hanging from the top of the machine almost to the agitator
inside. An assortment of agateware dishes, burettes,
pipettes, etc., is an obvious necessity. Having arranged
everything in order, the method of making a test is as
follows . Measure 1,500 cc. water and place in the
machine. This will fill it to about J inch above the bottom
of the upper window. There will be no leak at the plane of
junction between the upper part A and the lower part C,
because the planed surfaces adhere to the rubber
sufficiently to prevent leakage under the slight head. Start
the agitator at half-speed, and then admit the steam. While
the agitator is running, steam in large volume can be
admitted without any ' bumping.'* Weigh 500 grammes of
properly crushed ore, and put it into the agitating water ;
test the temperature, and when it is at 75 C add the oil and
acid in such quantity as the test requires. Turn on the
motor to full speed, and let it run, say, five minutes. Stop
the motor and agitator, and let the whole experiment set for
one half-minute to allow time for the froth to collect on the
surface of the water and for the gangue to settle. If the
experiment is a success, the gangue will be much lighter in
colour than was the original ore, and will mostly settle to
the bottom of the machine, where it can be seen through
the lower window. Immediately above the heaviest sandy
gangue will be seen the finer gangue and slime rapidly
settling. At the bottom of the upper window will be a
gradually increasing layer of nearly clean water, and on the
surface of the water will be from J to 1 1 inches of a dense
sulphide froth, the amount of froth depending on the
proportion of sulphides in the ore and the success with
which the experiment is conducted.
The purpose of the peculiar construction of the apparatus
will then be apparent, for the upper part A can be slid
along the cushion B, carrying with it the froth and that
portion of the clean water above the plane of junction of
the two parts. When the upper part has been slid to a
position where the screws in the righthand side of the
upper window are directly over the lip K, the froth and
clear water will run out into a dish placed under K. The
tailing, slime, and remaining water can be given a further
agitation, but enough water should be added to bring the
water up to a line above the bottom of the upper window.
After the second period of agitation, a further amount of
froth will be formed ; this can be removed in a similar
manner, and a third and fourth also, if desired. After all the
froth has been secured, the tailing, slime, and remaining
water can be removed at F, and the two products,
concentrate and residue, examined for weight, size, or
composition. In this machine an average of 20 tests per day
can be made, and the following series is suggested as
instructive :
Take 100 Ib. of ore crushed to 6o-mesh, such as described
above as being suitable ; mix thoroughly and put in a dry
place for use in the whole series of experiments.
A useful series of observations can be secured by simply
observing the weights of concentrate produced. More
interesting data, however, can be obtained by sizing both
the tailing and the concentrate on a standard series of
screens and then assaying the sizes. When the results are
plotted from the weights of the various concentrates
secured in this series, the curve will be of the nature of Fig.
13. This curve shows that for this ore under these
conditions the maximum effect is secured with 0.8 gramme
of oil. More than that amount is detrimental, which fact
would be proved by still further increasing the amount.
According to the amount of carbonate in the ore, the curve
of the plotted results will be something like Fig. 14. This
ore needs but little acid, the maximum result being secured
with 3 grammes. It will probably be ascertained that if the
acid is increased sufficiently the recovery is less, because a
point is reached where H2S gas begins to be evolved, and
this gas is generally fatal to flotation.
Other series can be built upon the two illustrations already
given by varying at regular intervals the temperature, the
proportions of ore and water, the nature of the oil, the
length of time of agitation, and the speed of agitation.
Then having exhausted-trie
The above series of tests, it will be observed, is by means
of a process that includes the use of oil and acid and the
addition of air by violent agitation. The general principles
are the same as in any other combination, and as they are
easily applied and approach working conditions, and the
results are comparable with those secured in large plants,
they are of considerable value. Over a period of four years,
when thousands of small tests were made on an ore that
was being treated in two plants of 1,000 tons per day, the
results from the small tests averaged 5% less recovery and
3% lower-grade zinc in the various concentrates than were
secured in the large plant.
This machine is a useful addition to the ore-testing
laboratory, whether flotation processes are in view or not,
because, by the use of it and the expenditure of sufficient
acid and agitation, the sulphide contents of almost any ore
can be determined accurately.
Another machine of simpler design and cheaper
construction is shown in section in Fig. 19, and in plan in
Fig. 20. It is made of easily procurable materials, and can
be constructed in the laboratory. It has the disadvantage,
however, that it requires some skill in removing froth after
the agitation. The froth can be removed by careful
skimming with a spoon. Some froth will unavoidably be
sunk during the skimming operation, but the agitator can
be started again, followed by a second skimming. If there
appears to be still further chance of a useful result, a third
and fourth period of agitation and skimming can be tried.
If this machine is made 4^ inches square, inside
measurement, and 10 inches deep, it will be the right size
for tests on 500 grammes of ore. The equipment necessary
for making tests will also include a tin boiler, with the
necessary connections for introducing steam into the
apparatus. The agitator should be so belted to the motor
that it will run about 1,500 r.p.m. The agitator should be
about 4 inches in diameter, thus leaving J inch clear all
round its path of rotation. The method of conducting a test
will be just the same with this machine as with the other,
except in the matter of removing the froth, and in this
instance it will have to be removed by an ingenious hand.
Carefully dip as much as possible of this froth off the
surface of the water with a large spoon. The design and
material of this spoon can be left to the ingenuity of the
experimenter, as each man will fancy one of his own
invention. Some froth, as said before, will be sunk during
the skimming operation, but the agitator can be started and
run for one minute previous to another skimming. A third
and a fourth, if necessary, will give a fair recovery,
provided good mineral-frothing conditions have been
established. This machine will yield much instruction, but
is not as direct in its results as the one in Fig. 6.
An interesting series of experiments can also be conducted
in an ordinary soda-water syphon. The cap of the bottle
should be altered so that the pressure can be raised in the
bottle with a bicycle pump. The necessary alterations are
quite easily done, and can be effected in the laboratory.
The charge will be 100 grammes of ore, 300 gm. water,
with acid and oil to suit. The air-pump should be one with
a pressure-gauge attached, so that pressures can be noted.
After pumping to 30 Ib. pressure, the bottle with the
charge should be shaken a few times, so that the air will
dissolve. Then the lever being depressed, most of the
charge can be drawn into a beaker, and the froth and
tailing examined at will. It is worth noting in this
connection that excellent mineral froths can be made at
normal atmospheric temperature.
 Before Mining Begins
Environmental protection starts at the earliest stages of mine exploration, long before the first
ore is extracted. During this stage, companies make every effort to minimize the impact of
prospecting, drilling, trenching, road building and other related activities. Exploration
activities usually affect the environment only temporarily and, work can be carried out with
minimal disturbance to land, vegetation and wildlife habitats with proper planning. Even
then, companies have learned that it is important to keep local communities informed about
their activities. This consultation process sets the stage for good community relations once
mine planning has begun.
To keep public support, mining companies must demonstrate respect for the ecosystem in
which they are working and adopt a extense range of protective measures. The drilling fluids
and lubricants used in diamond drilling can seep into the water used to bring cuttings to
surface. This water must be appropriately contained and disposed of so that it does not
contaminate the groundwater. Drill holes often have to be sealed with impermeable concrete
or bentonite which is a clay material to ensure that the drill hole cannot act as a channelway
for contaminants to reach the groundwater from the surface.
Another consideration in the exploration of minerals is the safe handling of camp wastes.
This means much more than just being careful not to litter, as isolated exploration camps
must make sure that they handle fuels and dispose of human wastes in ways that do not
contaminate the natural environment.
It is common for governments to demand that exploration crews have permits to work, setting
down limits on what the crew can do in very sensitive areas, such as tundra regions. Respect
for wildlife must be shown at all times. With proper planning, forethought and good
housekeeping, all of the impacts of an exploration campaign can be minimized.
Once a deposit of economic interest has been outlined, studies and sampling programs are
carried out to provide data that are used to shape the design of a project.
Specialists research all aspects of the environment to establish basic data, against which
future test results will be evaluated and compared. A few of the various areas investigated
are: soil composition; the concentrations of metals in water-courses which are nearby; the
populations of animal and plant species that live nearby; climate and air quality; cultural and
historical sites; and a variety of other pieces of data that permit regulators to determine if the
mine, once in operation, is causing adverse changes to the environment.
 A Mining Project Feasibility Study
Winners and Losers: Mining is a large, vital and lucrative business. Its rewards are spread
across a wide cross-section of our population. But not all mining ventures are successful.
Risks are high and they take many forms.
The process of discovering and developing any mineral deposit involves dozens of varied
people with a variety of skills, and the expenditure of many millions of dollars. But the
question to ask when evaluating a deposit is always the same one: Does it hold enough
recoverable and marketable metal or gems to be dug out of the ground, transported to the
market and sold at a profit? Obviously, there are risks which are involved in each of the steps,
and one calculation wrongly made can be disastrous.
The most serious risks in any mining project are those associated with geology (the actual
size and grade of the mineable portion of the orebody), metallurgy (the amount of the metal
which can be recovered) and economics (metal markets, interest rates, transportation costs).
But there are many others, such as problems arising from unforeseen political developments,
new restrictive regulations or the availability of workers, to mention a few.
Feasibility Studies
One of the features which distinguishes a mining enterprise from many other businesses is
that during production, the company's asset (for example, the ore) is progressively consumed.
Some day, the assets of the mine will be gone; hence, a mine is referred to as a wasting asset.
This has important implications for the justification of allocating capital to any new mining
project.
The time value of money plays an important role here. To put it simply, the annual profits
generated by a mine must be sufficient to pay back (within a reasonable time) the money
invested in the mine. It is the job of mining engineers to estimate the "payback period" in
what is called a study of feasibility.
One of the important elements in a feasibility study is the estimate of costs of mine operating.
It is impossible to suggest what the costs might be for a particular mine without looking at all
the details of the planned operation, and reasonable estimates can only be made when precise
information is available. The final estimate will only be as dependable as the information
used to arrive at the individual cost estimates from which it is derived.
all factors that influence the capital cost of a mining project are the prices the mining
company will have to pay for labor, electrical power, supplies and shipping out of its
concentrate.
Each country has its cost-related advantages and disadvantages. For example, mining in the
vast, undeveloped regions of Canada makes the construction of roads, railways and airstrips
much more expensive than in developing countries. Also, miners in both Canada and the
United States demand higher wages than their counterparts which are in countries that are in
development.
On the other hand, mining companies working in many developing countries can encounter
problems such as high taxand tariff costs, and the corruption of civil servants such as customs
officials, without whose help they would have difficulty getting their project off the ground.
The overall political instability of some countries can be a great deterrent to the development
of mines.
However, somewhat perversely, the existence of any combination of negative factors leads to
less exploration in that region or country, which, in turn, can increase one's chances of
discovering an economic orebody. In mineral exploration, something is always better than
nothing.
 The Mining Team
Mine Finders
As a result of advances in technology, mineral exploration has changed dramatically from the
days when the lone prospector packed a pick and a rabbit's foot into a canoe and headed into
the bush for a season's work. Mineral exploration and mining is presently a business that calls
for highly skilled professionals to work as a team, using powerful, often computerized,
mining and exploratory equipment. The exploration team can have prospectors, geologists,
geophysicists and geochemists (and their assistants) included, whose skills complement each
other as they look for new mines.
Prospectors even now play an important part in generating showings (evidence of local
mineralization), which are later optioned and explored by mining companies. To find these
showings, prospectors depend on geological maps,government reports, evaluation files and
aerial photographs.
Government geologists lay the foundation for future discoveries by conducting regional-
scale programs and by preparing reports and maps from the data gathered. The release of new
information by government geological surveys is, therefore, eagerly anticipated by dedicated
prospectors. Exploration is a competitive business, so having the jump on the competition can
make the difference between making a discovery and missing out on one.
Prospectors test potential areas by early-stage field work, which might include following a
train of mineralized boulders to their source or collecting samples from soils and rocks to
identify and test anomalies. Old-fashioned "boot-and-hammer" prospecting is still an
important tool in mineral exploration and has led to many spectacular discoveries, including
the Voisey's Bay nickel-copper-cobalt deposit in Labrador. Because prospectors play such an
important role in discovering new showings, some governments offer small grants to
encourage their continued efforts.
Prospectors often sell their properties to mining companies, which will after send out a team
of geologists to carry out more detailed sampling programs. A geophysicist searches for
alterations in the physical characteristics of the earth that may be caused by the presence of
minerals. A geochemist analyzes the metal content in rocks, soils, surface waters or plants,
looking for anomalous values that are different from background metal levels in the region.
Most of the time, more than one technique is used to check any anomalies which are
identified. Trenching or pits may give some early samples of mineralized rock for testing.
Advanced properties see the arrival of diamond drillers. These men and women spend a lot of
their time in field camps and are used to moving from job to job since diamond drill contracts
rarely last that long.
In all but the smallest field camps, one of the most important members is the camp cook,
whose offerings play an important part in sustaining the morale of the crew.
 Mining and the Environment
Safeguarding the Environment
Mining companies give us the metals and minerals that humanity uses for shelter, survival,
work and pleasure, as well as the expansion into space and interplanetary endeavors. At the
same time, they want to conduct this business in an environmentally responsible inanner. Yet
mining by its very nature requires that land, air and water systems be disturbed. While l he
economic benefits of the industry are as important today as they ever were, the public has
liecome increasingly concerned about the impact that mining is having on the natural
environment.
The metals and industrial minerals that mining produces can find their way into the
environment and become pollutants. The byproducts that occur with the metals, such as
sulphur and arsenic, can be dangerous to the environment if they are released. The fuels
and chemicals the industry uses to do its job are potential pollutants too. Mining creates and
employs hazardous substances that must be handled with a lot of care.
Other pollutants produced by the mining industry are of more concern to the workers in the
industry than to the public which are at large. Dusts, for example, which are most of the time
hazardous hygienically, are produced by a lot of mining activities. Noise, too, is a form
of pollution of concern for those in the environment of work. In uranium mines, the products
of radioactive decay are a principal concern.
The challenge for industries is to find, extract and process mineral resources with the least
possible environmental disruption. To be able to meet this challenge, they adopt an expanded
range of protective measures, including: sensitive treatment of the land during exploration;
environmental and aesthetic management of land under development; environmentally
sustainable production procedures during the mining and metallurgical processes; and
decommissioning and reclamation practices aimed at restoring the land.
Accountability and environmental performance are important issues for the mining
companies, their share-holders and the public. Most companies now include a discussion of
environmental topics in their yearly reports so as to keep shareholders and the public
informed about the measures they are taking to protect the land, water and air quality at their
operations.
 Environmental effects
Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and
contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes. In
some cases, additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to increase the available
room for the storage of the created debris and soil.[26] Contamination resulting from leakage
of chemicals can also affect the health of the local population if not properly controlled.[27]
Mining companies in most countries are required to follow stringent environmental and
rehabilitation codes in order to minimize environmental impact and avoid impacts on human
health. These codes and regulations all require the common steps of Environmental impact
assessment, development of Environmental management plans, Mine closure planning
(which must be done before the start of mining operations), and Environmental monitoring
during operation and after closure. However, in some areas, particularly in the developing
world, regulation may not be well enforced by governments. For major mining companies,
and any company seeking international financing, there are however a number of other
mechanisms to enforce good environmental standards. These generally relate to financing
standards such as Equator Principles, IFC environmental standards, and criteria for Socially
responsible investing. Mining companies have used this financial industry oversight to argue
for some level of self-policing.[28] In 1992 a Draft Code of Conduct for Transnational
Corporations was proposed at the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre for Transnational
Corporations (UNCTC), but the Business Council for Sustainable Development (BCSD)
together with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) argued successfully for self-
regulation instead.[29] This was followed up by the Global Mining Initiative which was
initiated by nine of the largest metals and mining companies, and led to the formation of the
International Council on Mining and Metals to "act as a catalyst" for social and
environmental performance improvement in the mining and metals industry internationally.
[28] The mining industry has provided funding to various conservation groups, some of
which have been working with conservation agendas that are at odds with emerging
acceptance of the rights of indigenous people - particularly rights to make land-use decisions.
[30]
Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings. For example, 99 tons of waste are
generated per ton of copper, with even higher ratios in gold mining[citation needed]. These
tailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually produced as a slurry, are most commonly
dumped into ponds made from naturally existing valleys.[31] These ponds are secured by
impoundments (dams or embankment dams).[31] In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings
impoundments existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 major failures and 35 minor failures
occurred (citation needed); for example, in the Marcopper mining disaster at least 2 million
tons of tailings were released into a local river.[32] Subaqueous tailings disposal is another
option.[31] The mining industry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD), which
disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it avoids the risks of tailings ponds; although
the practice is illegal in the United States and Canada, it is used in the developing world.[33]
Certification of mines with good practices occurs through the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) such as ISO 9000 and ISO 14001, which certifies an 'auditable
environmental management system'; this certification involves short inspections, although it
has been accused of lacking rigor.[28]:183-4 Certification is also available through Ceres'
Global Reporting Initiative, but these reports are voluntary and unverified. Miscellaneous
other certification programs exist for various projects, typically through nonprofit groups.
[28]:185-6
[edit]Regulations and World Bank relationship
The World Bank has been involved in mining since 1955, mainly through grants from its
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, with the Bank's Multilateral
Investment Guarantee Agency offering political risk insurance.[34] Between 1955 and 1990
it provided about $2 billion to fifty mining projects, broadly categorized as reform and
rehabilitation, greenfield mine construction, mineral processing, technical assistance, and
engineering. These projects have been criticized, particularly the Ferro Carajas project of
Brazil, begun in 1981.[35] The bank established mining codes intended to increase foreign
investment, in 1988 solicited feedback from 45 mining companies on how to increase their
involvement.[28]:20
In 1992 the bank began to push for privatization of government-owned mining companies
with a new set of codes, beginning with its report The Strategy for African Mining. In 1997,
Latin America's largest miner Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) was privatized. These
and other movements such as the Philippines 1995 Mining Act led the World Bank to publish
a third report (Assistance for Minerals Sector Development and Reform in Member
Countries) which endorsed mandatory environment impact assessments and attention to the
locals. The codes based on this report are influential in the legislation of developing nations.
The new codes are intended to encourage development through tax holidays, zero custom
duties, reduced income taxes, and related measures.[28]:22 The results of these codes were
analyzed by a group from the University of Quebec, which concluded that the codes promote
foreign investment but "fall very short of permitting sustainable development".[36] The
observed negative correlation between natural resources and economic development is known
as the resource curse.

Safety

Danger sign at an old Arizona mine.

Abandoned mine entrance in Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom

Safety has long been a controversial issue in the mining business especially with sub-surface
mining. While mining today is substantially safer than it was in the previous decades, mining
accidents are often very high profile, such as the Quecreek Mine Rescue saving 9 trapped
Pennsylvania coal miners in 2002. Mining ventilation is a significant safety concern for many
miners. Poor ventilation of the mines causes exposure to harmful gases, heat and dust inside
sub-surface mines. These can cause harmful physiological effects, including death. The
concentration of methane and other airborne contaminants underground can generally be
controlled by dilution (ventilation), capture before entering the host air stream (methane
drainage), or isolation (seals and stoppings).[41] Ignited methane gas is a common source of
explosions in coal mines, or, the more violent coal dust explosions. Gases in mines can also
poison the workers or displace the oxygen in the mine, causing asphixiation.[41] For this
reason, the MHSA requires that workers have gas detection equipment in groups of miners. It
must be able to detect common gases, such as CO, O2, H2S, and % Lower Explosive Limit.
Additionally, further regulation is being requested for more gas detection as newer
technology such as nanotechnology is introduced. High temperatures and humidity may result
in heat-related illnesses, including heat stroke which can be fatal. Dusts can cause lung
problems, including silicosis, asbestosis and pneumoconiosis (also known as miners lung or
black lung disease). A ventilation system is set up to force a stream of air through the
working areas of the mine. The air circulation necessary for the effective ventilation of a
mine is generated by one or more large mine fans, usually located above ground. Air flows in
one direction only, making circuits through the mine such that each main work area
constantly receives a supply of fresh air.
Since mining entails removing dirt and rock from its natural location creating large empty
pits, rooms and tunnels, cave-ins are a major concern within mines. Modern techniques for
timbering and bracing walls and ceilings within sub-surface mines have reduced the number
of fatalities due to cave-ins, but accidents still occur.[citation needed] The presence of heavy
equipment in confined spaces also poses a risk to miners, and despite modern improvements
to safety practices, mining remains dangerous throughout the world.
[edit]Abandoned mines

Abandoned mine in Nevada.

Warning sign near Jerome, Arizona

There are upwards of 560,000 abandoned mines on public and privately owned lands in the
United States alone.[42][43] Abandoned mines pose a threat to anyone who may attempt to
explore them without proper knowledge and safety training. Old mines are often dangerous
and can contain deadly gases. Standing water in mines from seepage or infiltration poses a
significant hazard as the water can hide deep pits and trap gases below the water.
Additionally, since weather may have eroded the earth and rock surrounding it, the entrance
to an old mine in particular can be very dangerous. Old mine workings, caves, etc. are
commonly hazardous simply due to the lack of oxygen in the air, a condition in mines known
as blackdamp.
[edit]Hearing loss
Miners utilize equipment strong enough to break through extremely hard layers of the Earth's
crust. This equipment, combined with the closed workspace that underground miners work
in, can cause hearing loss.[44] For example, a roof bolter (commonly used by mine roof
bolter operators) can reach sound power levels of up to 115 dB.[44] Combined with the
reverberant effects of underground mines, a miner without proper hearing protection is not
only at a high risk for hearing loss,[44] but is also going against OSHA standards[45].
Hardrock Mining: Environmental Impacts

Overview

Hardrock mining is a large-scale industrial activity that takes place in the natural
environment, potentially disturbing large amounts of material and land area. Hardrock mining
generates large volumes of mining waste because of the high waste-to-product ratios
associated with producing most ores. This page describes some of the potential
environmental effects of hardrock mining.

EPA recognizes that some of the discussion on this page may not accurately reflect the
environmental conditions at modern hardrock mining operations that are well-designed, well-
operated, and well-regulated. The intent of this discussion is to highlight environmental
problems at (predominantly historic) mining sites and to indicate the potential problems that
could occur at existing and future sites.

Acid Mine Drainage

Definition
Acid mine drainage is the drainage that results from sulfide oxidation in rocks exposed to air
and water. Metal sulfide minerals are common constituents in the rocks associated with metal
mining activity. Before mining, oxidation of these minerals and the formation of sulfuric acid
is a slow function of natual weathering processes. Natural discharges from such deposits pose
little threat to aquatic ecosystems except in rare instances. Mining and benefication
operations greatly increase the rate of these same chemical reactions by removing sulfide
rock material and exposing the material to air and water.

Characteristics
Acid generation primarily results from the oxidation of metallic sulfides. The major metallic
sulfide of concern is iron sulfide (FeS2) or pyrite. Other metal sulfides that contribute to acid
generation include lead sulfide (galena), zinc sulfide (sphalerite), and iron copper sulfide
(chalcopyrite).

Both water and oxygen are necessary to generate acid drainage. Water serves as both a
reactant and a medium for the bacteria to catalyze the oxidation process and transports the
oxidation products. Oxygen is particularly important to maintain bacterially-catalyzed
oxidation at pH values below 3.5

During acid generation, the pH values of the associated waters typically decrease to values
near 2.5. These conditions result in the dissolution of the minerals associated with the
metallic sulfides and release of toxic metal cations (e.g., lead, copper, silver, manganese,
cadmium, iron, and zinc). In addition, the concentration of dissolved anions (e.g., sulfate)
also increases.
Potential Impacts
Acid generation and drainage affect both surface water and groundwater. The sources of
surface water contamination are leachate from mine openings, seepage and discharges from
waste rock, tailings, ground water seepage, and surface water runoff from waste rock and
tailings piles. Mined materials such as waste rock or tailings used for construction or other
purposes (e.g., road beds, rock drains, and fill material) can also develop acid mine drainage.

The receptors of contaminated surface water include birds, fish, and other aquatic organisims.
Humans can also be affected by direct ingestion of contaminated surface water or direct
contact through outdoor activities such as swimming.

Control
There are no easy or inexpensive solutions to the problem of acid mine drainage. Two
primary approaches to addressing acid generation are:

1. Avoiding mining deposits with high acid generating potential

2. Isolating or otherwise special-handling wastes with acid generating potential

In practice, avoiding mining in areas with acid generating potential may be difficult because
of widespread distribution of sulfide minerals. Isolation of materials with the potential to
generate acids is now being tried as a means of reducing the perpetual effects of mining waste
on surface water and groundwater. Control of the material can be implemented by preventing
or minimizing its contact with oxygen, preventng its contact with water, and/or ensuring that
an adequate amount of natural or introduced material is available to neutralize any acid
produced. Techniques used to isolate acid generating materials include subaqueous disposal,
covers, waste blending, hydrologic controls, bacterial controls, and treatment.

Erosion and Sedimentation

Definition
Erosion is the process by which soil particles are detached, suspended, and transported from
their source of origin. Erosion can be caused by water, primarily through direct impact with
raindrops and precipitation run-off, or by wind in arid environments. Sedimentation occurs
when eroded particles are deposited at a different location than the source of origin.

Source
The extent of erosion and sedimentation depends on various factors, including the degree at
which the surface has been disturbed, the prevalence of a vegetative cover, the type of soil,
the slope length, and the degree of slope. Disturbed areas with little or no vegetative cover,
soil high in silt, or a steep slope are the areas most likely to erode.

Potential Impacts
Erosion and sedimentation affect surface water and wetlands more than any other media.
Erosion can also adversely affect soil organisms, vegetation, and revegetation efforts because
it results in the movement of soil, including topsoil and nutrients, from one location to
another.
Cyanide and Other Chemical Releases

Definition
The mining industry has a long history of cyanide use. For decades, cyanide has been used as
a pyrite depressant in base metal flotation. It has also been used for over a century for gold
extraction. After cyanide leaching of gold heaps proved feasible in the 1970s, the relatively
high price of gold has made cyanide leaching of relatively low-grade ores economically
feasible. Figure 2 illustrates cyanide.

Characteristics
Cyanide exists in many forms, depending on the starting compound and environmental
conditions. The most common cyanide compound used in mining is sodium cyanide
(NaCN).

Potential Impacts
Cyanide released into the environment can adversely impact water, soil, aquatic organisms,
wildlife, waterfowl, and humans. Cyanide-contaminated solution in tailing ponds and
solution retention basins has proven to be attractive to unsuspecting waterfowl and wildlife.
These organisms have suffered both acute and chronic poisoning as a result of direct contact
with and ingestion of cyanide-contaminated solution. Leakage from linear failure at heaps
can allow the release of cyanide and other toxic constituents directly into the environment.

Other Chemicals
Other chemicals used during the beneficiation process, stored on-site for use, or used in
vehicles and equipment can impact human health and the environment if released. These
chemicals include oil, petroleum products, solvents, acids, and reagents.

Control and Remediation

 Proper storage of chemicals, including secondary containment, protecting
chemicals from the elements, and regular inspections to identify deterioration
and/or leaks, can reduce the potential for releases.
 Methods such as covering ponds with nets can discourage wildlife from being
attracted to cyanide-contaminated solution retention basins.
 Using liners and/or constructing well-built dams can prevent the release of
chemicals into the environment.
 Health and Safety Are the Key
The men and women who are employed in mining must be in good health. Even though
mechanization has reduced the amount of physical work required, the individual must still
have reasonable strength and good hearing and eyesight. A physical examination is required
by law upon starting employment in the mining industry and medical check-ups are carried
out on a regular basis.
For mining companies the development of safe job procedures, combined with common
sense, has always been a high priority. Accident prevention is the responsibility of everyone
who is involved - management, workers, unions and governments.
Each mine also has a rescue team. These usually consist of six to eight miners specially
trained to find and assist miners who are trapped in the event of cave-in, fire or some other
accident.
Powerful modern ventilation systems have considerably reduced the risks which were once
associated with mining, but mining companies, unions and governments continue to work
with research organizations in order to certify that working conditions are always getting
better.
Skill Level Increasing
While many workers who are not skilled and who have little formal education still work in
the mines of North America, the increasing complexity of mines today demands that those
who wish to advance to the highly skilled and better-paying jobs should have a minimum of
secondary school education. Technical training from a technical high school or
community college is an advantage and, of course, higher education like an
engineering degree or any other university degree, gives a young miner many more
probabilities for better positions in the future.
Mining companies provide the inexperienced worker with a time period of initial training
which is common to all employees. This common core training (or stope school, as it is
sometimes called) includes an introduction to the basics of mining and mining safety
procedures, classroom study on surface and underground, followed by on-the-job training as
helper to a miner with experience. Specialized training is afterward a necessity to become
qualified to operate individual machines.
Office Staff
There are the professional and technical staff whose duties encompass such things as
sampling, surveying, drafting and planning besides the miners and various supervisory
personnel. Directing their activities are the mining engineers and geologists who map the
progress of the mining operations, design the mining methods, and direct the search for new
ore.
Upper management most of the time includes a mine manager and a mine superintendent.
Naturally, there are also secretarial and personnel accounting at each mine.
Mill and Smelter Worker
The treatment of ore requires another set of skills, and thus, another group of specialized
operators are on the jobto watch over the ball mills, flotation tanks and other machinery.
Assayers and chemists are also on hand to perform the analysis of samples for the control of
the mining and milling operations.
When the metal concentrates are shipped out for refining, still another team of workers comes
on the scene - furnace men, smelting equipment operators and refinery operators, only
naming a few.
Computerized "programmable logic controllers" are common in most mills and smelters, so
operators are demanded to monitor an entire sequence of operations from a control console
that keeps tabs on what is happening in many parts of the plant.