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ABSTRACT: Masonry walls are very sensitive to flexural effects due to low tensile strength which, in turn,
greatly influences the load bearing capacity under compression. The main source of flexural effects may result
from the eccentric loading at the ends of the wall or from any lateral loading like the wind action, the earth
pressure, or the second order effect of the applied actions. Several analytical solutions were proposed in the
literature to solve the differential equation of the problem, but those solutions were limited to special conditions.
In the current contribution, a general formulation for the non-linear stability problem has been formulated nu-
merically based on the transfer-matrix method. Despite the method is out of professional use today and dont
possess the potential and flexibility of the finite elements but for the currently addressed problem, it is still the
most efficient. A relative form description has been introduced to formulate the stability theory of masonry
walls. This form of description has been used to minimize the dimensions of matrixes in transfer-matrix method
and to produce the equations in a compact form. The algorithms of the method have been derived for general
boundary and loading conditions with a user-defined non-linear material model. Algorithms and solution pro-
cedures have been explained and implemented into a computer code. The convergence of the iterative solution
has been studied with a clear definition for the cases at which the stability or material failures occur. The results
of the developed solution procedure have been validated by comparing them with the existing solutions and the
experimental results. The developed solution procedure provides a powerful tool to solve a wide range of prob-
lems related to the stability of masonry walls and to check the existing empirical methods.
+1
where the relative rotation with respect to the
rotation of the cross section is given as: = .
The relative moment and the relative shear force
1
2 can be calculated as follows:
+1
= cos + sin
1 (5)
2
( ) = ;
1
= sin + cos
(6)
= .
sin 1 cos
Considering the element between the nodes and
=
cos
+ 1, the integration constants and in the solu-
sin
1 sin cos
1
tion of the differential equation (2) can be determined
0 0 1
=
by applying the boundary conditions at node :
=0 = ; = . (7)
Figure 1. A discrete model for masonry wall under com- This yields:
pression and lateral load and the transfer-matrix method
derived for one element. = + ; = . (8)
Due to the nonlinear behaviour of the material, a By substituting the integration constants and
closed form solution is not possible for the differen- in eqs. (3) and (4), the relative eccentricity and the
tial equation of buckling without introducing simpli- relative rotation can be calculated at point within
fications into the solution. However, the solution can the element as follows:
be approximated by discretisation of the wall system sin
= cos +
into a number of elements with a constant stiffness
(9)
and constant lateral and vertical loads. This results in
1 cos ;
a linear differential equation for each element (Figure
1). For the element between nodes and + 1, the
following relative form differential equation can be = sin + cos
(10)
written: sin .
At the end node, + 1 of the element , the relative
eccentricity and the relative rotation can be calculated
by putting = 1 in eqs. (9) and (10), respectively:
sin = =
= cos + = = =
(11) = = = (21)
1 cos ;
= = =
The nodal vector at node can be written in rela-
= sin + cos
(12) tion to the initial nodal vector as follows:
sin .
At the mid node of the element , the relative ec- = , = . (22)
centricity and the rotation can be calculated by put-
The nodal vector at the end node can be calcu-
ting = in eqs. (9) and (10), respectively: lated as follows:
sin = ;
= cos + 2
2 (23)
(13) = = .
1 cos ; 0 0 1
2 The matrix equation in (23) yields to the following
set of two equations:
= sin + cos
2 2 (14) = + + ;
sin . = + + .
(24)
2
Eqs. (11) and (12) can be written in matrix form as
follows: When no lateral load exists, the terms , be-
= .
come equal to zero.
(15)
where is the transformation matrix: 3 SOLUTION PROCEDURE
sin 1 cos
cos In the following, a solution procedure is going to
= sin (16) be proposed to determine the stress/strain state for the
sin cos wall in Figure 1, considering the material and geomet-
0 0 1 rical non-linearity. The wall is assumed to be under
In special case, when 0, the transformation relative compression load with eccentricities
matrix becomes: and at the top and bottom of the wall, respectively.
1
1 1 3.1 Initialization
2
lim = , (17)
0 1 Step 1: Discretization of the wall/column system
0 0 1 The wall has been subdivided into number of
where , the vectors of the nodal values at segments/elements. The discretization can be carried
nodes , + 1, respectively: out in a uniform manner if there is no specific varia-
tion in the material, cross section, or the lateral load
= ; = . (18) along the wall height. In this case the relative height
1 1
When no lateral load exists, i.e. = 0, the trans- of all elements are equal and can be calculated as fol-
formation matrix becomes: lows:
sin = .
cos (25)
= ;
sin cos (19) The relative location coordinate of the centre
= ; = node of the element can be calculate as follows:
where , the vectors of the nodal values at = + . (26)
node , + 1. In the later formulations, is going to 2
be written simply as where + 1 refers to the Step 2: Initial flexural stiffness
element number, i.e.: The initial state of the flexural stiffness of the wall
= . (20) assumed to be elastic with a constant cross-section.
Consequently, the relative initial stiffness can be cal-
By using the recursive eq. (20), all the nodal vec-
tors can be calculated on the basis of the initial nodal culated for the element as follows:
vector as follows: = , (27)
12
where is the ratio of the initial elastic modulus Step 5: Calculation the strain state at the mid of
to the compressive strength of the material . elements
Step 3: Lateral load (a) Calculation the relative eccentricity
For the purpose of numerical implementation, a The relative eccentricity at the mid of element
general lateral load case has been considered can be calculated using the following equation:
in Figure 2. sin
= cos + 2
2
(29)
1 cos .
2
(b) Calculation the relative strain difference
+1 The relative strain difference can be deter-
mined at the mid of element by:
1
= . (30)
3.2 Iterative solution procedure where the maximum relative tensile strain of the
material. The value of always takes positive val-
Step 4: Determination of the nodal values ues because the solution procedure is the same for
Based on defined state of the flexural stiffness for negative or positive values of , but the relative
each element, the nodal values of the relative eccen- strains and require to be swept for negative
tricities can be determined. Here, the advantages and values of . The above equation may have a single,
efficiency of using the transfer-matrix method can be
double or no solution. The procedure of the solution
recognized.
is given in detail in section 4. The solution procedure
(a) Calculation of the transfer matrix
of eq. (31) determines whether the material of the el-
The transformation matrix should be calculated ement is failed or not. Once material failure in one of
for each element. This requires calculating the con- the elements has occurred i.e. > , the calculation
stant at each element using eq. (2). The transfor- procedure must be ended.
mation matrix of size (3 3) defined in eq. (16) Step 6: Updating the state of flexural stiffness
should be used for problems with lateral load while (a) Updating the relative eccentricity
the transformation matrix of size (2 2) defined in The relative eccentricity at the mid of the element
eq. (19) should be used for problems with no lateral can be updated as follows after getting the value of
load. from step 5-c:
(b) Applying the boundary conditions
1
The matrix can be calculated using eq. (23), =
and the nodal vectors for every element can be calcu- (33)
lated using eq. (22) considering the boundary condi- 1 +
,
tions. 2
where level equal to . When an inflection point on the
( ), curve ( ) exists, two secants of slope equal to
( )= ;
( ), < can be determined at two positions; one secant is lo-
(34) cated to the right and the second one is located to the
( )=
left of the inflection point. The function can be
The relative strains and can be calculated as described in a stepwise form as follows:
( ) ( )
, [ + , ]
follows: ( , , )= . (40)
( ) ( )
, 0 , [ , + ]
= ;
, <0 The derivative of the function with respect to
(35)
, 0 can be also written in a stepwise form as follows:
= .
, <0 ( ) ( )
, [ + , ]
When the updated value gets bigger than half, i.e. = .
( ) (41)
> 1/2, the calculation must be ended as this indi- , [ , + ]
cates a stability failure in the system. Both functions in (40) and (41) are plotted
(b) Updating the relative stiffness in Figure 3.
By using the updated relative stiffness at the mid
of the element , the relative flexural stiffness can be
also updated as follows:
=
= .
(36) =
max ,
= ; Solution
domain
(38)
max ,
= .
+
Step 8: Checking the convergence
The convergence of the solution can be checked at
each iteration using the following convergence index: Figure 3. Graphical representation of as a stepwise func-
tion with transition point at + .
= . (39)
The function is non-smooth at + and its
derivative is discontinuous at this point. The function
Since the assumption made in step 2 might be in- reaches its peak at the relative strain , which is
correct, the solution state must be checked at this step. the root of the derivative. It is useful to determine
If the convergence index is bigger than the permissi- at the peak point to check whether a solution exists or
ble error, the steps from 3 to 8 must be repeated, oth- not. > means there is a material failure and
erwise, the iteration must be ended. thus no solution exists. means there is a
solution and it may be a single solution or double
4 SOLVING THE EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION
solutions. This is mainly dependent from the
In step 5-c from the iterative procedure described characteristics of the post-peak branch of the stress-
above, it is required to find the relative maximum strain relationship. If , only one solution
compressive strain at the mid of the element by exists and can be found in the range [0, ]. if >
solving eq. (31). The solution of eq. (31) is dependent , two solutions are possible and the second solution
from the material integral and the relative strain should be found in the range [ , ]. The maximum
difference . The solution of eq. (31) can be found values of and its corresponding have been
from the stress-strain relationship at normalized stress determined numerically using the golden section
search method, by successively narrowing the
searching domain. The initial searching domain is 6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
taken between [0, ]. The probe point within the
searching domain is chosen with a proportional A numerical solution has been proposed to solve
the differential equation of masonry buckling under
spacing ratio equal to the golden ratio = . The
combined vertical and lateral actions using the trans-
secant method has been applied to find the solution fer-matrix method. The proposed method is found to
numerically within the range [ , ]. The following be very suitable and effective tool for the computer
recurrence relation were used to find better implementation of the solution. The computation ef-
approximation of the solution: fort involves just multiplication of small size ma-
trixes. The numerical solution has been formulated in
= + ( ) . (42)
relative form and implemented into the matrix labor-
atory program MATLAB. Since the formulation car-
5 VALIDATION OF THE METHOD ried out in relative form, several unnecessary param-
eters are excluded from the solution procedure like
At first, the proposed solution procedure of the the moment or the shear force.
buckling problem has been verified using reference A computer algorithm for solving the equilibrium
analytical solutions. The analytical solution for linear equation has been proposed, which determines if a so-
material models with no-tension was one of the early lution exists or if a material failure occurs. The out-
solutions proposed for masonry and plain concrete come of this routine provides an important indication
materials. Several works reported the analytical solu- to terminate the iterative solution when a material
tion of the differential equation of buckling without failure exists. All algorithms have been developed to
lateral load (Angervo, 1954, Angervo, 1961, Angervo use a wide variation of nonlinear material models. For
et al., 1957), (Chapman and Slatford, 1957), and the practical use of the developed TMM solution, the
(Yokel, 1971) and with lateral load (Hellers, 1967). capacity reduction factor has been determined based
1
on bisection method. The solution procedure has been
0,9
Exp CS-TM
Exp CS-NM II
checked for several examples and different failure
0,8
Exp Clay-NM IIa modes. This provides an important tool to study the
0,7
Exp AAC-TM
Num CS-TM
influence of different parameters on the capacity re-
0,6 Num CS-NM II duction factor and to help to verify the existing em-
Num Clay-NM IIa
0,5
Num AAC-TM
pirical methods.
0,4
0,3
0,2 REFERENCES
0,1
0 = ANGERVO, K. (1954) ber die Knickung und Tragfhigkeit
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2
eines exzentrisch gedrckten Pfeilers ohne
Zugfestigkeit unter- und oberhalb der
Figure 4. Comparison between experimental and numerical re- Proportionalittsgrenze mit besonderer
sults of the capacity reduction factor. Bercksichtigung des rechteckigen Querschnitts,
Helsinki.
ANGERVO, K. (1961) Erweiterung der Theorie der Biegung
The values of the capacity reduction factor ob- eines Pfeilers ohne Zugfestigkeit, Helsinki.
tained by the transfer-matrix method were identical or
ANGERVO, K., PUTKONEN, A. I. & ATTILA, U. (1957)
very close to the values obtained by the analytical so- Erweiterung der Theorie der Biegung eines Pfeilers
lution. When masonry wall divided into 20 elements ohne Zugfestigkeit und ihre Anwendung zur
in the transfer-matrix method, the difference in the Berechnung von Rahmentragwerken mit unbewehrten
values of the capacity reduction between both solu- Stielen, Helsinki.
tions becomes less than 10 . Since masonry has a CHAPMAN, J. C. & SLATFORD, J. (1957) The elastic
wide variation in the non-linearity of the material buckling of brittle columns. Institution of Civil
model, the proposed solution procedure is further ver- Engineers Proceedings, 6, 107-125.
ified with experimental data of masonry walls of dif- FALK, S. (1955) Biegen, Knicken und Schwingen des
ferent material combinations (Pflcke, 2006). The ca- mehrfeldrigen geraden Balkens. Abhandlungen der
pacity reduction factor of the experimental and Braunschweigischen Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft,
7, 74-92.
numerical results have been represented in Figure 4.
A comparison between the experimental and numeri- FALK, S. (1956) Die Berechnung des beliebig gesttzten
cal values of the capacity reduction factors demon- Durchlauftrgers nach dem Reduktionsverfahren.
Ingenieur-Archiv, 24, 216-232.
strates very good conformity of both results.
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Mauerwerkswnde am Ersatzstabmodell unter