THE BABYLONIAN GILGAMESH EPIC INTRODUCTION, CRITICAL EDITION AND CUNEIFORM TEXTS Volume I A.R. George OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSOXFORD Great Carendon Street, Oxford ox 60" ‘oxford Univecsy Press deparenent ofthe Universi of Oxford, Infurthersthe Universi abjeeive of excellence in search scholarship, nd education by publishing Woeldwide i= ‘Oxford NewYork ‘Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires CapeTown Chennai Dares Salam Dalhi Hong Kong Isanbel Karachi Kolats Koala Limpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi ‘St Paulo Shanghai Tuipel Taiyo Toronto Oxford isa registered rade mark of Onfor Univesity Press Inthe UK and corale othe countries, Published the Unite States by Oxford Universe Presi, NewYork DAR George 2003 ‘The moral right of the author hve been asserted Databce right Oxford University Pres (maker) Frsepubtised 2003, Allright reserved. Nopart ofthis pblication maybe reproduced, ‘stored reeval sytem, or tansmted any form orb any means, ‘hut the rior prmion a wraing if Oxford Unies Pres, ora exprenly permite bylaw or under terms agreed with he appropriat ‘reps igs ono Engr ome epeoocion outside the scape ofthe above shouldbe ent ote Rights Department, ‘Orford University Press ate addres shove ‘Yu most nor cieulate his book any otherbindng oe cover ‘od you most impose the same condos cn any eqice Brisa Librry Catsloguingin Pubcon Data Datasraatie Library of Congsess Cataloging ia Pebcation Data ata avaible ISBNO-19-827541-5 ‘SerISBN0-19-814922-0, 35790864 “Typeestby SNP Bestset Typeset Lid, Hong Kong Prinwedin Gree Briain, ‘oneifes paper by "ancony Rowe Li, ‘Chippentam, Witsire PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘This book is fundamentally a work of textual reconstruction. Ir seeks to establish an accu rate text of the Babylonian Gilgames for use as 2 tool inthe study of ancient Mesopotamian. literature and thought. Thave not brought toit the fashionable methodologies of modern i= cary criticisms that is for others to do. The research that underpins the editions of texts given in the following pages has already generated a translation published three years agoin ‘Penguin Classics. That rendering was aimed at a non-specialist audience and concessions ‘were made in the interests of readability. ‘The translation that accompanies the editions offered below is for Assyriologiss and scholars in related fields. Consequently its in many places less fluent but hope itis also more exact “The volumes the culmination of more than sixteen years’ personal labour, bu it builds onthe engagement of others with the text of the epic over a much longer period. Professor W.G. Lambert has been a ceaseless searcher after GlgameS for almost fifty years. In the 1960s, especially, his publication of tablets from Babylon and Nineveh greatly added to our knowledge ofthe text and fuelled his intentions of writing a new edition to replace the obso- letebook by R. Campbell Thompson, Drl.L. Finkel’ appointment tothe staf of the British ‘Museum in 1979 produced another spate of discoveries, which led toa tacitagreement with Lambert to edt te whole poem in partnership, When [arrived in London in 1985,looking {for a new research topic, Lambert very generously invited me to join their effors, first by copying the Kuyunjik tablets and subsequently by beginning to write the editions. Both Lambert and Finkel placed at my disposal material they had already produced, ‘Lambert furnished me with his unpublished copies of the Old Babylonian tablet now split between Berlin and London (OB VA + BM). the two tablets from Tell Harms (OB Harmal,), the Middle Babylonian tablet fom Ur, since published (MB Us), Assyrian [MS x, and six sources of the Standard Babylonian epic (SB MSS ay,2,€2) 4; d:,W)-2and 2). During the course of my work he drew my attention to still more manuscripts that he had identified (Assyrian MS z and SB MSS E,,V.,Z,, BE,is,tand vas wells parts of F,, ‘We P and dj). He also provided me with his personal wansiterations of OB Harmal, and MBUr, Finkel made available to me several more sources of the Standard Babylonian epic thathe discovered inthe British Museum (SB MSS e,km,,p,the larger parts of cand hand, atthe lst moment,a new piece of n),and also passed tome his copies of two stay fragments from Emar (MB Emar; b and ¢). Though other commitments prevented Lambert and Finkel from contributing moze than these materials, nevertheless the debt thatthe work owes t0 both is very considerable. To them both I express especial gratitude Others, too, have been kind enough to conuibute primary materials. Professor Aage Westenholz allowed me use of his copies ofthe Pennsylvania tablet (OB II), a second piece8 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in Philadelphia (OB UM), the tablet from Neebuum (OB [shchali), and Middle Babylonian fragments from Ur, Nippur and Megiddo (MB Ur, MB Nippur, MB ‘Megiddo), most of which have since been published in Studie Lambert. Professor Aaron ‘Shaffer granted me use of his unpublished copy of theVale tablet (OBI). Professor Egbert von Weiher allowed me access tohis copies of three fragments from Uruk, well before their appearance in Uru TV (SB MSS aa, ce and ee), and sent me unpublished photographs of ‘0 of them, Likewise Father Werner R, Mayer passed to me photocopies of J. van Dilk’s copies of two pieces from Babylon in advance oftheir publication in VAS XXIV (SB MSS. xand y), and Professor Stefan M. Maul made available 19 me photographs and copies of several ublets from Aur before their publication in MDOG (Astyrian MS y, , SB MSS ‘and ¢,). Professor Nick Veldhuis sent me his copis of Middle Babylonian exercises later published in BYOr 56 and JCS 52 (MB Nippur,.). Professor JN. Postgae led me to the fragment here booked as SB MSW. Dr'T: Kwasman shared with me his discovery of Rem '956,n0w part of SB MS di. Takayoshi Oshima sent me his copy of MB Megiddo. Several scholars have generously allowed me 1 use drafts of unpublished articles. Pro- fessor Jacob Klein sent me his forthcoming study of Gilgame®'s oppression of Uruk. Pro- fessor Michael Schwartz forwarded to me on request apaper on Gilgamet in Arabic magic, Professor W. G, Lambert furnished me with a draft of his treatment of an incantation in ‘which Gilgames appears as an underworld god, and with his edition of a fragment of ‘Atra-hasis now inthe Meropolian Museum of Artin New York. Professor Gonzalo Rubio ‘made available to me two papers on Sumerian literary feagments of the Ur Il period, Dr Douglas R. rayne sent me a draft manuscrip on the Sumerian Gilgame’ ‘Many scholars have contributed in other ways. The late Professor O.R. Gurney sent me ‘an unpublished photograph ofthe Sultantepe tablet, SB MS £ Professor W.G. Lambert col- lated several signs on the same tablet during a visit to Ankara and passed to me prints of old photographs of George Smith's flood tablets (SB MSS C,J, and W,). He also provided me ‘with Edward Chiera’s unpublished collatons ofthe Pennsyivania tablet entered in the ‘margins of Chier’s copy of PBS X/3 and photocopied by David I. Owen, Professor Erle Leichty supplied me with prin of photographs of the Pennsyivania tablet (OB 1, Dr Laith M. Hussein passed on prins of phorographs of the more poorly preserved tablet, {rom Tell Harmal (OB Harmal,). Dr Fleanor Robson took and transmitted to me digital photographs of a Nimrud tablet in Baghdad (Assyrian MS 2). Mr Daniel A. Nevez per~ formed the same ttk in regard toa cast held by the Oriental Institue of the University of (Chicago (MB Nippur,). Dr Rene Kovacs provided me with digital photographs of one of ‘the tables in the Schoyen Collection (OB Schayen,). She and Professor Jens Brsatvi, in ‘charge of the collection’s publication, expedited my visit othe collection. Professor Miguel Civil sent me a photograph of the Schoyen collection’s Sumerian fragments utilized in (Chapter 12. DrTallay Ornan ofthe Israel Museum provided me with a photograph ofthe terracotta published in fig. 14 and drew my attention to the existence ofa similar object in ‘the Iraq Museum. Professor Aaron Shaffer gave me a copy of Haupt’s Nimrodepes, Profes- sor Stephen J Tinney and Kevin Dandi answered several requests for collation and other information relating tothe Babyionian Section, University Museum, Philadelphia, Other colleagues who responded to queries were Dr Jeanette Fincke, Professor Robert Englund, Professor Manfred Krebernik, Professor Klaas R. Veenbof, Professor Alfonso Archi, M. Dominique Charpin, Dr Graham Cunningham, Dr Heather Baker, Dr John Merkel, Pro- fessor Miguel Civil, Professor Piewo Mander, Professor Karl Hecker, Professor Richard LL. Zetler, Dr Yoval Goren, Dr Wayne Horowitz, M.J-Cl. Margueron, M.Yves Calvet, Mr “Terence Mitchel Dr Stephanie Dalley and Mme Florence Malbran-Labat. In the course of writing this book Fhave benefited hugely from the advice of those with more experience of GilgammeS than IL Most ofthe text ofthe epic was readin seminar with Profesor] D. Hawhins and Professor M.J. Geller between 1985 and 1991.The frst draft of the text editions chat make up Chapters 5, 6 and 11 was read by Professor Aage \Westenbolz between 1988 and 1994. The edition of SB Tablet Iwas read by the late Pro- {essor Thorkld Jacobsen in 1991. A large part of the whole book was read by Professor ‘W.G.Lambertin 1998-9. The composite edition of the Standard Babylonian epicin Chap- ter 11 is derived from synoptic (score?) transiterations ofall rwelve tablets prepared atthe ‘outset ofthe project In 1998 these translteratons were checked against the cuneiform ‘copies by Mss Janet Poi. eis hoped that eventually they willbe posed in elecsonic form ‘on an internet sit. All these exercises led to very welcome improvements in my under- standing ofthe text ofthe epic. FForthe first time since Haupt's Nimradepos the individual cuneiform text of every avail- able piece ofthe Babylonian Gilgamess given inthe plates: The copies are largely from my ‘hand, and ll bt one prepared from first-hand study ofthe orginal tablet, but didnot find ‘tneessary to make new eopies of everything. Those Late Babylonian sources published by [Lambert in C7 46 and not recopied since are reproduced here. So too are Finkels copy of ‘SBMS q, originally published in 4/0 29-30, von Weiber’s copy of SBMS ee from Uruk 1V, ‘Mauls copies ofthe tablets from Aiturin recent issues of MDOG and Oshim's copy of MB. ‘Megidao. In addition Ihave been glad to include Lamberts previously unpublished copies ‘of OBVA + BM, OB Harmal, SB ¢; and ws and Finke's unpublished copies ofall the fragments identified by him. Tis a pleasure to record my gratitude tothe authorities ofthe many museums visited daring the course of the writing of this book, ro their trustees, dzectors and curators for ‘permission o study and publish objects held in their keeping and toindividval members of staff for assistance kindly given during my visits: the'Trustees of the British Museum, Mr “Terence Mitchell and Dr John Curtis, successive Keepers ofthe Department ofthe Ancient ‘Near East (formerly Western Asiatic Antiquities), Mr C. BP Walker and Dr IL. Finkel; Dr L. Jakob-Rost, Dr E. Klengel-Brandt and Dr Beate Salie, successive Directors of the Vorderasiatsches Museum in Berlin, and Dr]. Marzahn, curator of cuneiform tblets; Professors). A. Brinkman andW. Farber, successive curators ofthe able collecons ofthe Oriental Instrute Museum, the University of Chicago, Messrs John Nolan snd Jonatan ‘Tenney, assistant curators, and Mr John A. Larsen, museam archivist; Professors Ake W. Sjaberg, Erle Leichty and Stephen J. Tinney, curators of the Babylonian Section of the ‘University Museum, Philadelphia; Professors WW. Hallo and Benjamin R. Foster, curstors ofthe Babylonian Collection, she Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, and Dr Ulla‘Kasten; the authorities of the Ashmolean Museum and Dr Helen Whitehouse, Assistant ‘Keeper, Department of Antiquities;DrVeysel Donbaz and Dr FutmaVildx, curator ofthe ‘Museum of the Ancient Orient, the Archaeological Museum, Istanbul; the Director and staff of the Museam of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara; the curator ofthe Site Museum, Bogazkale, and Mr Peter Neve ofthe German archaeological expedition; the authorities of| the Israel Museum Jerusalem, and Dr Osnat Miseh-Brandl, Curator of the Chaleolthicand Bronze Ages; Professor Sultan Mohesen and Dr bbdal Razzaq Moa, successive Dieectors- General of Antiquities, the Ministry of Culture, Damascus, Dr Waheed Khayata, Director of the National Museum, Aleppo, and Dr Nasr Sharaf, curator of cuneiform tablets; DeMuayyad Sstd Dame, formerly Director-General of Antiquities, Ministry of Culture, Baghdad, Dr Rabi al-Qaisi, successive Directors of the Iraq Museum, Dr Baja Khalil Ismael and Dr Nawala a Murauall, successive heads of the cunciform section, Dr Donny (George Youkdanna and Dr Ahmed Kemil Mohammed; Mr Martin Scheyen, proprictor of, the Schayen Collection, Norway, and Mrs Flzabeth Serenssen, librarian. For consenting to the reproduction of printed materials over which they have rights, acknowledgements are duc tothe Trustees ofthe British Muscum, the editors and publish- fxs of Arch fr Orienforschung, the Deutsches Archiologisches Institut Abteilung ‘Baghdad and its director, Professor R. M. Bochmer, the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaftand its secretary, Professor H, Preydank, and the Cuneiform in the Land of Israel projec ofthe Hebrew University, Jerusalem, and its director, Dr Wayne Horowitz Finally I record my debt ro those institutions and funding bodies that have contributed ‘monige to enable me to study at fist hand so many different sources in so many different countries: the British Academy, for awards in support of viss to the Vorderasiatsches ‘Museum, Berlin, in March 1987, the Iraq Museum, Baghdad, in April 1987, the Archaco- logical Museum, Istanbul, in September 1991, the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, ‘Ankara in September 1992, the Oriental Insite Museum, Chicago, in September 1997, and the University Museum Philadelphia, in une 2001;the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of Landon, for awards in support of study in the Vorderasiatisches ‘Museum, Beri, in September 1988 and May 1993, che Museum of Anatolian Civiliza- sions, Ankara, in September 1992, the Yale Babylonian Collection, New Haven, Conn. in September 1996, the Oriental Instinate, Chicago, in September 1997, the Iraq Museum, Baghdad, in the Septembers of 1998 and 1999, and the Schayen Collection, Spikkestad, in July 2001; and finally she British Schoo! of Archaeology in Iraq, for grants in id of study in the fraq Muscum, Baghdad, and the National Museum, Aleppo, in September to October 1999 and March 2001 In Baghdad I enjoyed in 1987 and 1989 the hospitality of the British Archaeological Expedition under successive directors, Dr].A. Black and Dr Roger Matchews, and with the help of Dr Graham Philip. In Turkey in 1992 Thad the use of the fclities of the British Institue of Archaeology st Ankara. Travel to Berlin in May 1993, March 1998 and Decem- ber 2000 was expedited by the Freie Universitit Berlin, and a visit to Philadelphia in ‘September 1996 by the Kevorkian Fund of the University of Pennsylvania. Longer periods ‘of leave abroad that grea expedited my research and writing were spent in Iraq and the PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGENENTS x ‘United States of America in January to August 1989, funded by the School of Oriental and “Aftican Studies, and in Germany in October to December 2000, made possibie by aVisit- ing Profescorship at the Seminar fir Sprachen und Kulturen des Vorderen Orients, Ruprecht-Karls-Universitit Heidelberg, by kind invitation of Professor Stefan M. Maul. Research leave spent in the United Kingdom was underwritten by the School of Oriental and Alrcan Studies in January to March 1996 and September to December 1999, and by the Arts and Hurnaniies Research Board in January to March 2001. “To those named in the preceding paragraphs, instivtions and individuals, as well as to ‘those whose names should have appeared but were omited by oversight, go my heartfelt ‘thanks ll of them have helped in one way or another to make this book. None of them is ‘responsible for those errors of fact and opinion that surly lurk within. “The inception of my labour on Gilgames coincided withthe appearance of an extraoe ‘nary spoof article in the Nowe Zircher Zeitung of 4 Octaber 1985 (Michael Kiger, "Das 12 Buch: Entdeckungen der Gilgamesch-Forschung’, brought to my attention by Professor ‘Aaron Shaffer), which reported loan by the Iraq Museum tothe University of Washington ‘of “13 Tontafeln mit bisher unbekannten Texten aus dem Unsfeld der Gilgamesch- Legende’,and described the astonishing ‘discovery’, made on the bass of the supposed new ‘material, that the epic’ original ending had the god of the heavens, Anu, make ilgares {immortal as his son and substinuteThe following years produced surprises but nothing to ‘match that either in boldness or in invention More soli development greted the cosing stages ofthe books preparation, withthe discovery of the important early Neo-Assyrian fragments in Beelin and the exciting Old ‘Babylonian pieces in Norway: Indeed the spae of new sources fr the epio—more recently flood —shows no sign of drying up. On this account this book does not quite succeed ints objective, to bring together in one place all the currently excant sources ofthe Babylonian Gilgames. Already another manuscript ftom ASur is known, a source for SB Tablet I that rofessor Stefan M. Maul discovered 100 lat forincusion here. Amore intriguing tablet of Gilgamed is reported t0 have been unearthed in 1994 in the Late Bronze Age house of Urenu at Ugart. Enquiries about this text met with no reply but I understand that ‘M, Daniel Amaud ofthe Sorbonne will publish it in due course. Other sources will surely follow. A.R George London 26 Apr 2002CONTENTS VOLUME I Liat of Pigures in the Text Bibliographical Abbreviations Other Conventions PART ONE: INTRODUCTION 1. The Literary History of the Epic of Gilgames Insrodcton | Gilgamed in Old Sumerian terarare? "The Sumerian poems of Gilgames “The origin of the Babylonian Epic of Gilgames ‘The Old Babylonian Gilgames ‘The Middle Babylonian Gilgares ‘Sin-léq-unninni and the Standard Babylocian Gilgames epic ‘The Epic of GilgameS inthe literary lie of Babylonia Case sudiesin the evolution ofthe epic ‘Tabler XIE what, when and why? “The Epic of Gilgames ouside the cuneiform tradition 2. ‘The Name of Gilgamef and its History 3. Literary, Historical and Religious Traditions About Gilgame’ (Gilgames and dhe wall of Uruk Gigames te hero Gagames the king Gilgamed the god other atestations of Gilgames 4, Enkidu and Others Enkids Humbaba Ninsun n ot ot 2 101 ng 136 138 138 144 17xl CconTENTS Sambae Siduri ‘Ur-danabiand Sursunabu ‘Cua-napiis son of Ubar-Tura PART TWO: THE OLDER VERSIONS OF THE EPIC 5. Old Babylonian Tablets and Fragments ‘The Pennsylvania and Yale tablets (OB Tablets I and IL) A fragment in Piladeiphia (OB UM) ‘Two tablets now in Norway (OB Schoen) An excerpt tablet from Nippur (OB Nippur) ‘The lets from Saduppim (OB Harmal) An excerpt tablet from Nérebrum (OB Ishehali) ‘Atablecin Baghdad (OB IM) "The tablet reportedly from Sippar (OB VA+BM) 6. Middle Babylonian Tablets and Fragments ‘The exercise tablets fom Nippur (MB Nippur) ‘The Urabler (MB Un) “The fragments from Bogazkiy (ME Bog) “The fragments from Emar (MB Emar) “The Megiddo fragment (MB Megiddo) 7. Assyrian Fragments of One or More Intermediate Versions ‘The fragments from ASur (Assyrian MSS x and y) ‘A able rom Nimrud (Assyrian MS2) “The excerpt tle: from Sulsanepe (Assyrian MS e) A varlantversion atNinevel? (Kuyunjk MSS YY and) PART THREE: THE STANDARD BABYLONIAN EPIC 8, The Manuscripts of the Standard Babylonian Epic (On the Kuyunjik manuscripts Tablet Tablect Tablet IE Tablet V TableV 148 148 149 152 159 159 216 219 2a 246 259 267 2m 287 287 294 306 326 339 348 353 364 368 373 379 381 391 395 399 400 403 CONTENTS: ‘Tablet VI ‘Tablet VIE ‘Tablet VI “Tablet “Tablet, “Tablet XI “Tablet XIE 9, Introduction to the Text ofthe Standard Babylonian Epic “Textual variants and recensional differences Some feature of language and style Speling conventions inthe Kuyunik manuscripts ‘Concluding remarks 10. Synopsis and Exegesis of the Standard Babylonian Epic “Tablet T ‘Tablet Tater “Tablet 1V Tablet ‘Tablet VI Table VIL ‘Tablet VII ‘Tablet EX Tablet, ‘Tablet Xt “Tablet XIT 11. Edition of the Standard Babylonian Epic ‘Summary st of manuscripts ‘Tablet! ‘Tablee ‘Tee Tablet Tv Tablet V ‘Tablet VI ‘Tablet VIL ‘Tablet VIL Table x Table X Tablee XI Tablet XI CCotoptions ofthe manuscripts 408 406 408 409 410 an 415 418 419 431 437 43 44s as 455 458 463 4656 470 478 484 490 498 508 528 sa 33 53s 558 572 586 602 616 632 688 666 676 700 726 736VOLUME II 12. Bilgames and the Netherworld 172-End. 3 Manuscripts 745 ‘Transliteration 748 ‘Translation ofthe Sumerian text ™ 13, Critical and Philological Notes on the Standard Babylonian Epic 778 ‘Tablet 778 ‘Tablet S04 ‘Tablec mt 309 ‘Tablet IV 317 Tablet 2 “Tablet VI 329 ‘Tablet VI a4 “Tablec VIE 852 ‘TbletX 362 ‘Tablerx 368 TablerXI 378 ‘Tablet XiT and Bilgames andthe Netherworld 172-end 898 Bibliography 906 General Index 981 Philological index 963 Seletoe Index of Quotations, Prevaus Publication, and Ovher Citations 965 Index of Cureiform Tales ard Other Objects by Mussum Number 977 CUNEIFORM TEXTS Plates 1-147 LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT VOLUME I Cylinder seal of dark brown agate and modern impression depicting Gilgames and Enkidu despatching the Bll of Heaven, SC 1989; Neo-Assyrian styles height 3.9em, diameter 1.7em., Photograph by the author, courtesy ofthe Schayen Collection 101 ‘Stone mace-head dedicated tothe divine Gilgames by Ur-Numutda, SC 45775 probably Ur II width 5.3 cm, diameter 6.7 cm. Photographs bythe author, courtesy ofthe Schoyen Collection. 123 “The table OB Schoyen, obverse (le) and reverse (right). SC 2652/5; height 3.6 em, breadth 7.1 em, thickness 2.8em, Photographs by the author, courtesy ofthe Schayen Collection. 2m |. The tablet OB Schoyen; obverse (J) and reverse (right). SC 3025; height 20.3 cm, breadth 7.3 em, thickness 3.2m. Photographs by M. Gallery Kovacs, courtesy ofthe Schoyen Collection. 228 “The tablet OB Schoyen,, deals of upper obverse. Photographs by M. Gallery Kovacs, courtesy ofthe Schayen Collection. 229 ‘The tablet OB Schoyen,, detail of lower obverse, Photographs by M. Gallery Kovacs, courtesy ofthe Scheyen Collection 230 ‘The tablet OB Schayen:, details of upper reverse. Photographs by M. Gallery Kovacs, courtesy of the Schayen Collection. 231 “The tablet OB Sehayen, detail of wer reverse, Photographs by M. Gallery| Kovaes, courtesy of the Schayen Collection 233 ‘The two fragments of OB VA + BM, joined wo reveal consecutive text on the reverse, Scale 1. Photograph courtesy ofthe Vorderaiatisches Museum, Berlin. 278 ‘The ablet SBMS bb obverse (i) and reverse (right). Scale S:4. Photographs ‘courtesy ofthe Deutsches Archiologisches Insti. a7 “The tablet SB MS ee, Seale 5:4: The original number 23013 has been altered by hand to 23018. Photograph courtesy ofthe Deutsches Archiologisches Institut. 398 (George Smith's Food tables, SB MSS J, (op right) and parts of W, (1p if) and C (bottom), obverse. Photographed « 1873 when Smith was stil rebuilding (MSC. ©The British Museum. 43 ‘George Smith’s Flood tablets, SB MSS J, (cop right) and parts of W, (sop left) and C (Botom), reverse. Photographed «1873 when Smith was stil rebuilding [MS C.© The Trustees ofthe Brish Museum, a4wi LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT 14, Terracotta plaque apparently depicting aman tearing out the heart of a Saughtered bull. Israel Museum 70.71.5715 Old Babylonians height 7.Sem, ‘width 13 Sem. Photograph courtesy of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, an VOLUME 1 15. The two fragments of BN MS cr, rr,= SC3361 (op) and zr = SC 2887 (oom). SC 3361: eight 5.7 cm, breadth 9.0 cm, thickness 2.5 em; SC 2887: height 11.2 cm, breadth 8.4 em, thickness 25cm. Photographs by the author, ‘courtesy ofthe Schayen Collection. 8 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS aaas ASF AASOR, ADB Abel-Winckler, KGV ABL Ah Kar ACh Samat Acta Acad Scio, Flume, 4aa0r Aeia Sum ADD ADFU aK 470 Alle AIA AISL Ali Lene Alster, Proverbs AMT ‘ANES ANET ‘AnOr AnSt Annals of Archacoegy and Anthropology (Liverpoo!) Annales archéologiques arabes syrznnes “Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae Annual ofthe American Schools of Oriental Research Assyriologische Bibliothek Altbabylonische Briefe in Umschriftund Ubersecrung Kaus, Brigfe aus dem Brith Museum (CT 43 und 44) Te Frankena, Brie aus dem British Museum (LIM und CT 2-33) Vie Frankena, Briefe aus dem Berliner Museum VU: Cage, Brisf aus defrag Museum (TIM I) Seo, Lasers from Collection in Philadelphia, Chicago ard Berkley IL van Sol Ltrs the British Musou (1) [Abel and Winckler, Keilscrftuete sum Gebrauch bei Vrleungen Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters Virolleaud, Lastolpie chalddenne,Fascicles 3 and 7. Ihzar ‘Viglleaud, Lastrolgi chaldlenne,Fascicies2 and 6. Shamash Acta Antigua Acadoniae Scionsiarum Hungaricae Acta Oriental axa Sumeroegica Johns, Assyrian Deeds and Documents “Ausgrabungen der Devtschen Forschungsemeinschattin ‘Uruk-Warka Arch fr Keechrifforachg Archi ir Orienforschung ‘von Soden, Abkadiches Handwireertuch American Journal of Archasoegy “American Journal of Semitic Languages an Literatures Fadhil Abdulwabid Ali, ‘Sumerian Lerees" Alster, Provrts of Ancient Sumer ‘Thompson, Astyrian Medical Texts Journal ofthe Ancions Near Earorn Society of Columbia University Pritchard, Anciont Near Eastern Txt Relating tothe Old Testament Analecta Orientalia Anatolian SudiorARMT. Ar0r As Aula Or AUWE Bagh. Mit. BASOR Bauer, Ab Bauer, AVE. BAW BBR EBS: EBVO BE JOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS Alter Orientund Altes Testament Alkoriensaische Forscungen ‘American Oriental Series Archiv real i Bba, Testi Archives oyales de Mari (Cuneiform texts) Ue Jean, Ltires V-Dosin, Lares X-Dossin, Lacorrespondance feminine [IV Biro, Lettres de VagyimAd, govern de Sagertum XXVI/1:Durand, Archives dpisolaires de Maril/, Archives royales de Mari (ext editions) ‘XXI: Durand, Texts administra des sales 134 00160 Archie Oriented Assytiologial Seaies “Jacobsen, The Sumerian King Lis 16: Giterbock and Jacobsen, Studies Honor of Benno Landsberger “Auda Orientals ‘Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka, Endberichte Beitrige zur Assyriologie und semitischen Sprachwissenschafl ‘V/S: MacMillan, Some Cuneiform Tablas Bearing om the Religion of Babylonia and Aseria iI: Meck, Cuneiform Bilingual Hymns, Prayers and Penitential Pealns Baghdader Forschungen Baghdader Mineitangen Kacher, Die babloisch-aseyrische Medizin in Text und Umersuchunger Ballin ofthe American Schl of Oriental Research auer, Das Iichrifenserk Assurbanipals Bauer, Alusmeriiche Wiruchafurexte aut Lagos Iayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophiseh bistorische Klasse Zimmern, Bites zur Kennons der babylonschon Religion King, Babylonian Boundary Stones Berliner Beivige zum Vorderen Orient Babylonian Expedition ofthe University of PeansyWvani, (Cuneiform’Texts |: Hilprecht, O14 Babylonian Inscriptions Chily fom Nippur “Vilt:Ranke, Babylonian Legal and Business Documents IV: Clas, Documents from the Temple Archives of Nipper [1] XXXl:Langdon, Historical and Religious Texts Behrens, Ninegalla Bezolé, Cat Biggs, Sasa BIN BiOr Biro, Tablets BMS Bick, Morphoshopie Bohl ‘BOI, Leiden Colt, Boissier, Chote Boissier, DA Bollenricher, Nergal BOR Borger, BAL Borger, BIWA Borger, Esark Borger, Zeichenlite Bottéo Brawo-Holzinger, Weikgaben BRM BSA SOAS Bullen COMS cad Cavigneaws, Gilgemet ela Mort CCavigneaus, Textes scolaire: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS xi Behrens, Die Ninaalla Hymne Bezold, Catalogue of the Cuncform Tablets in th Kongai Colton Biggs, Siign, Anciow Mesopotamian Potency Inantatons Babylonian Inscriptions in the Collection of]. B. Nies IENies and Keiser, Historical, Religious and Bconomic Texts and Anaiguiis {M:Keiser and Shin’Theke Kang, Neo-Swomerian Accoun Text from Drohem TV: Cay, Levers and Transaction from Cappadocia ‘VIDE Hackman, Sumerian and Abkadian Adminiswative Ts ‘Bibouteca Orientals Bicot, Tables économiques et adbinisrasivesd'ipoquebabyloninne King, Babylonian Magic and Sorery Bsc, Die babylonich-assyritche Morphoshopie Boh, Het Gilgamesy-epos BB, Modedslingen uit de Ledichecerzamaling vam spikerschrift- inscripties oissier, Chode des taxtes rela a divination assyro-habylonienne Boisier, cients astyriens rela ase présages ‘Ballenicher, Gebete und Hymnen an Nergal Babylonian and Oriental Record Borger, Babylonsche-assyische Lesesticke Borger, Beige s1om InschrifencuereAssurbanipals Borger, Die Inchrifen Acarhaddons, Konigs tom Assyrien Borger, Assyrisch-babylonische Zeichentise Bottero, Lépopée de Gilzomes Braun-Holeinger, Mesopouamtiche Wehgabor de frismasichon bis altbabylonischen Zeit ‘Babylonian Records inthe Library of] Pierpont Morgan TV: Chay, Epes, Hymns, Omens, and Osher Texts Bulls on Sumerian Agriculture Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Stadies Balle, (Canadian) Society for Mesopotamian Studies (Oppenteim etal, The Assyrian Dictionary ofthe Oriental Insite ofthe Uncen of Chicago Cavigneaux and ALRawi, Gilgameterla Mort CCavignea, Teter scolares du tomple de Nabi fa haréCavigneaus, Uruk cpoc Chicago Hite Disionary Cocquerillat, Palmeries Cohen, Eéomma Coben, Lamentations Cooper, Presargonic scriptions rar Craig, ABRT CRRA cr BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS Cavignestx, Uruk. Alibabyloniche Texte aus dom Planguadrat Pe AVES (Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 1:Wilhelm, Die oriznzaiche Stadt: Kontnuidt, Wandel, Bruch 2:Renger, Babylon: Ficus mesopotamiicher Gechichte, Weg friher Gelersambeit, Mythos in der Moderne Gaterbock and Hoftner, The Fitite Dictionary ‘Cooquecla, Palmeraieset cultures de Ean Uruk (559-520) Cohen, Sumerian Hymnology:the Erferma Cohen, The Canonical Lamentations of Mesopotamia Cooper, Sumerian and Akkadian Raval Inscription. Presargonic Inscriptions (Comps rons de "Acadlbomie des inscriptions et blle- tes (Craig, Assyrian andl Rabyloian Religious Tees (Compre rendu, Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale 17: Pint, Acts dela XVIP Rencontre Asyriologigue internationale 19: Gare, Le pale a royauté 26: Alster, Death x Mesopotamia 28:Flrsch and Hunger, rire gehalen auf der 28. RAT 30:Veenhof, Cuneiorm Arcee and Libraries 32: Hecker and Sommerfeld, KeilchrificheLitratren eck, Invellcual Life o he Anciont Near Ease 44; Milano et al, Lancapes (Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum 5,13, 15,24,25,26,29,32, 33,34: King, Cuifrm Texts 6:Pinches, Cunaform Texts 11,12, 16,17, 18,22,23:Thompton, Cuneiform Tes. 28,30, 31: Handcock, Cumeorm Texts 38,39, 40,41: Gadd, Cumeform Text 42: Figulla, Cuneiform Tees 48: Figulla, Old Babylonian Laers 44:Pinches, Misclloneous Texts 46:Lambertand Millar, Babylonian Literary Texts 50; Sallberget, Pro-Sargonic an Sargonic Economic Texts 52: Walker, Od Babylonian Letters 58: Alter and Geller, Sumerian Literary Texts ‘Walker, Cuneiform Teas rom Babylonian Tablas he British Museum Index to Parts PL. Laroche, Cazalgue des exter hieies ‘Cuneiform Texts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art cr Dalley Dalley, Edinburgh Dandamaey, Slovery David Deimel, Fara Deimel, SE Dates, AL van Dik, Gawerknder ‘van Difkand Mayer, ReHeilignom DP Durand, Catalogue EPHE HA Ebeling, Handerebung Euays Emerton Enays Pope Falkenstein, Géeerider 1 Falkenstein, Inscriften Gudeas Falkenstein, Topographic FAOS Farber, Baby Beschudrungen Farber, fear und Dumuzi PesuchrfPriedrch Fesuchrf con Soden 1995 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS ai (Cuneiform Texts fom Nimrud IV: Wiseman and Black, Literary Texts from: she Temple of Nab Dalley, The Epic of Gilgamesh’, pp. 39-153 in ead, Myths from Mesopotamia Dalley, A Catalogu ofthe Cuneiform Tables in the Colactons ofthe Reval Scontsh Muscom, Bainburgh Dandamaes, Slavery in Babylonia Ankum etal, Symbolaeuridcae et histrizae Martino David dedicaae Deemed, Die Inschrifen oom Fara Deimel, Sumerichas Lexibon Detach, Assrische Lsestitcke van Dik, Sumersche Giterlioder2 ‘van Difk and Mayer, Tze au dem RE-Heigsm in Uru Waka Allose dea Fue, Docoments prisargoniques Durand, Documents cundformes dela IV" Section de Ecole Pratique des Hautes des Kaudtzon etal, Die El-Amarna-Tafen [beling, Die akhadiche Gebetsserie Handerhebng? Day etal, Witdom in Anion oral ‘Marks and Good, Lave and Death inthe Ancient Near East Fakenstein, Stomeritche Giterider Falkenstein, Die Inschriftn Gudeas von Lagat 1 Fakenstein, Tpagraphic con Ural Uruk sur Sleukidonzit FFreiburger Ahorientalische Studien 44: McEwan, Priest and Temple in Hells Babylonia SIF-IL Steible, Die alsumeritchon Bau- und Weinschrifion ‘9/1: Seible, Die Bau ned Wothinehrifen der LagaTT- send UnllkZeis, arber, Schaf, Kindchen Schlaf! Mesopotamische Baby-Bescheobrangen wd -Rituale Farber, Beschasrangsrtuale an Fitar und Dumsesh von Kienle eta, Fstechrift Johannes Friedrich Dietrich and Loree, Yom Alten Orient zum Alten TestamentFinkeetein Mem Vl Florilegiam arian Florilgim smarianum 2 Fllckiger-Hawker, Urnammna Foster, Before the Muzer Frahm, Sanhorb Fs Booker Fs Borger Fs Oulener PeRonger F:Romer Fuchs, Sargon cag Gael, Gi Geller, UHF George, Penguin George, Tipag Tes Gesche, Schulunersi Gray, Samas Grayson, BHLT Grayson, Chronicles Greengus, Hhchati Gurney, MB Teas Gaterbock, Kimarbi Haupt, ASKT. Haupt, Nimrodegor Hav Hecker Hecker, Unersucnengen Heidel Horowitz Cosme Geography Fis, Essays om the Ancient Near East x Memory of Jacob Joel Findelain Duran, lorie marian, Recueil étude on Phowcr de Michel Fleury (Charpin and Durand, Florio marian 2. Rec éudes la mimoire de Maurice Brot iickiger-Hawker, Urmamma of Urin Sumerian Literary Tradition Foster, Before the Muses. An Anthology of Abkadian Literasure Frahm, Einkitung ine Sanherb-Inchrifion Finkbeiner etal, Beirage 2ur Kulturgeschicue Vorderasons Maul, euchrft fr Ryle Borger 2u seinem 65. Geburtstag ‘Marzahn and Neumann, Assyriolpia et Semitica Bocketal, Murusada Mesopoiamiza Diewich and Loretz Dubsaranta-mien, Studion sur Alioremtliih Fuchs, Die Inschrifen SargonsI.aus Khorsabad von Soden, Grandris der akhadiscen Gramomatie Gael, Cilgame 1 2 liens Geller, Forerunner 0 Udug-hul George, The Epic of Gilgamesh George, Babylonian Topographical! Tes Gescha, Schultntrrichs in Babylonion im ersten Jahriausrae. Che Gray, The Somat Religious Texts Grayson, Babylonian HistrialLiterary Texts Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicle Greengus, O14 Babylonian Tables from Ishchal and Vicinity Gurney, The Middle Babylonian Legal and Economic Tet from Ur Gixerbock, Kumarbi. Mythan vom churritischen Kronos “Haupt, Abhadische und sumeriche Kelchrifuxte Haupt, Das babylonische Nimrodepos Hilprecht Anniversary Volume Hecker, "Das akkadische Gilgamesch-Epos’,in TUAT IN, P-646-744 Hecker, Untersuchungen ur abhadischen pik Heidel, The Gilpamack Epic and Old Testament Parallels Horowitz, Mesopotamian Coomic Geography Heidelberger Studien zum aken Orient ss HUCA Hunger, Kolophone Hunger, Uruk L wey 1SET Isin Tl Isnt. iT jacobson Mem. Vo Jacobsen, Harps Jacobsen, Treasures 40S set ges Jean, Tell Sip JeOL Jeremiss, Tedubar- Nimrod Jestin, NSS Jestin, TSS eyes, OB Bucy INES FRAS (NS) JSS. Kay KAR Kav KB KBo Bdzand, Heidelberger Studion zum alion Orient, Ada Rather 2am 17. September 1966 Harvard Semitic Series 14:Lacheman, Excavations at NuziS Hebrews Union College Annual Hunger, Babylonisch nd arsyrische Kolophone Hunger, Spatbabylomische Texte aus Uruk Israel Exploration Journal (aBet al, Sumer Edebi Tablet ve Parga Hrouda et al [sna Babriat 2, Die Ergebnis der Ausrabungen 1975-1978 ‘Hrouda et, Jsin-Lin Bahriyae 3. Die Beste der Aurgrabungen 1983-1984 Inventaires des tablets de Tello conserves au Musée Impérial Orroman ‘Vide Genouillae, Epoque présergonizue épogue d’Agad épogue aur _Abusch, Rickas Hidden in Secret Places Jacobsen, The Harps that Once Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness ‘Journal ofthe American Oriental Society ‘Journal of Biblical Literature “ural of Cuiform Studies Jean, Ta Sif texts cuformesconsereds au British Muscuom, vids “Jaarbeich oan het Worasiansch-Beypsich Gonootschap, Ex (Orioms Lux Jeremias, Iedubar-Nimrod, eine alibabylonische Heldensage Jestin, Nouvelle taletesuomrionnes de Suruppak Jestin, Tablets sumdrines de Suruppak Jeyes, Old Babylonian Bxripicy: Omer Tet inthe British Museum ‘Journal of Near Basser Seuies “ournal ofthe Royal Asiarie Soiey (new secies) ‘Journatof Semitic Studies Eneling, Keilichriftete aus Assur jristischen Inlis Ebeling, Keilschriftexte aus Assur religisen Inhalis Schnoeder, Kellscriftexe aus Assur verchisdenen Inhals Kellinschriftiche Bibliothek VIN: Jensen, Assrisch-babylonische Mythen und Een Keilshriftexte aus BoghscksKing, Car Supp. King, STC Klein, Suet Koch-Westenholz, Liver Omens Kovacs Kramer AV Kraus AV KUB Kuucher Mem. Vo Labat Labat, Commonzaires Labat, TDP Laessve, Bit Rik Lafont andYilde, Till sab Lambert, BIE, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS Vi: Hrozas, Keiloriteere aus Boghazkit ‘VIM Onen, Texte der Grabungen 1953 und 1954 TX: Oxen, Vogel Tene der Grabungen 1955 und 1956 X: Guterbock and Omen, Texte aut Gebiude K, 1 {IIL Onen, Texce aus Stadtplanguadea L)18,2 XIX: Otten, Aus dem Besides GrossonTempls (1) ‘XXII: Otten and Riister, us dem Becirk es grosien Tempel [2] XXKIL Oren and Rister, Die huritsch-hehitsche Bilingue ond ‘aetere Tete as der Oberstadt XXXVE Wilhelm, Literavische Tete in sumerichar und abkadischer ‘Sprache ‘King, Catalogue ofthe Cuneiform Tablets i he Kongunjih Collation, Supplement ‘King, The Seven Tale of Creation Kein, Three Sule Hymns Kch-Westenholz, Babylonian Liver Omens Kovacs, The Epic of Gilmesh ‘Eichler, Kramer Anniversary Volume vvan Drie eal, Zikir Sumim:Assrilogical Studies Presented 0 ER Kraus Keilschrifearkunden aus Boghazkii IV2Weidner, Keitohrifereunden ‘VIL Weidner, Keichrurkundon XVI Ehelol, Mychen und Rituale XXX Bheolf, Tze vershiadonen Inhale... set 1931 (2) RRIME Omen, Mythische wud magtiche Tete in ethiticher Sprache XXKIV:Ehelol, Tete eorchiadonan Inhals... 1931 und 1932 XXKVE Otten, Vorriegond Mythen, Epen, Gebete und Texan alihecitvcher Sprache XXXVIE Kticher, Ltorariche Txt fn abkadischer Sprache LX: Klengel, Tete verschiedenen Inhalis Rainey, nao ka dari Labat, L'Epopée de Gilgamesh’ ind. eta Les religion de Proche-Orient aiaique Labat, Commenzaresassyro-tabylonions sr ls prisages Labat, Tutt abkadion de diagnosis et promostics médicaue ‘Laessee, Studies onthe Assyrian Ritual bt rimki Lafont andi, Tablets cunlformes de Tell au Musée staal Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature ‘Lambert, Catalogue, 3rd Susp. Lambert,"Love Latics” Lambertand Millard, robots Lambertand Millard, Casale, 2nd Supol Landsberger, Date Pain ‘Langdon, BL Leichry, Catalogue Vivi Lich, fb Lie,Sar LH Limes, Lanthroponsmie Limet, Métal Limet, Seeawe castes Litke, God-Liss Livingstone, Court Petry Livingstone, Mystical Works LKA KU Ess TBA MAD MAOG MARI Masoud Fesuchrfe Lambert, Catalogue ofthe Cuneiform Tablets inthe Kousunjt Collection. Third Supplement ‘Lambert, The problem ofthe Love Lyrics’, in Goedicke and Roberts, Unity and Diversity [Lambert and Millard, Ara-hasts.The Babylonian Story ofthe Food Lambert and Millard, Catalogu ofthe Cuneiform Tablets inthe Kouyunsie Collection. Second Supplement Landsberger, The Dav Palm and ts By-Products According to Cuneiform Sources Langdon, Babylonian Liturgies Leichty eta, Catalogue of the Babson Tables in the British Museu VI-VIL eich, The Oman Series Summa lbs Lie, The Inscription of Sargon It King, The Lato aad Inscriptions of Hammurabi Limet, Banthroponsiesumrianne dans les documents de a bynasted'Ur Limet, Le ravi dual an pay de Sumer au temps dela I Aynasted'Ur Lime, as lgenes des scat cases Litke,A Reconstruction ofthe Assyo-Ballonian God-Lists Livingstone, Court Poetry and Literary Miscellanea Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological Beplanatory Works of Assyrian and Batylonian Scholars heling, Lterriche Keohrfcnte aus Assur Falkenstein, Lieraritche Keichriftexte ae Uruh Leipziger semitsche Studien ‘Dis exalicenTeelorion der Babylonier und Atsyror i don Berner Mason TE: Matous, Gegendisandlistn von Soden, Die akkadchen Synonymentsten ‘Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary IP: Gelb, Old Abadia Writing and Grammar. 2nd edn Mii Gelb, Glossary of Old Abadion ‘Miteilungen der Altorientaischen Gesellschaft 120: Beeling, Bruchsticke eines plitichen Propagandagedichtes Mari. Annales de recherches intr dicptinaires Hruika and Komordczy, Fistschrijt Labor Matousvei BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS esi ‘Maul Here ‘Maul, ‘Hersberuhigungrklages’ Di umeritl-abhadishn XIV: Civibet a, RaA= ndigu, Aa A= nig ith heir Foreraners Deruhigungsagen — Evahunga-Gebete and Related Tots Mayer, Gbets ‘Mayer, Untersuchungen ur Formonsprache der babylonichen XV Finkel and Civil, The Serts SIG}ALAN = Nabnitu eschadrungen ——_Gebecabeschasdrengen XVII: Cavigneaux etal, The Series Brinks = anantu and Ania MCT Neugebauer and Sachs, Mashematia! Cuneiform Texts sil Sagat MbOG ‘Mineitungen der Doutchen Orient-Gesellichat 5 1: Civil etal, The Sag-Tables,Levical Texts inthe Ashmolean MDP. ‘Mémoires de a Dalégationen Perse ‘Museum, Middle Babylonian Grammatical Texts, Miscellaneous Us: Schell, Texte lamitesomiigus premibve série Texas XI Schell, Actes juridiques susens MVAG -Mituetungen der Vordcrasatisch-Acgypsschen Gesellschaft XXVIb van der Meer, Texter coaier de Suse UL: Messerschmiat, Die nschrifien der Stele Nabuna’ide (MEE, ‘Material epigrfic di bla {DIME Meissner, Aserroloische Studion 4 Meissner, BAW Meissner, Bete sum asryrithen Worterbuch 233: Blsser and Lewy, Die altassyrischen Rechsurkunden oom Malanges Birot Durand and Kupper, Mivzllanea babylonica Kialtepe 1 Milanges Finer Lebeau and'Talon, Ref des deux fleuoes Mv ‘Material peril vocabulario neo-sumerico ‘Mélangee Gare’ Charpinand Joannés, Marchands diplomates et empercirs X: Grigoite, Inscriptions archives administrative canbforme: | ‘Milangee Linst __‘Tancaand Dehesele, Tablets images aus pays de Sumer et [IIE Sigristet al, The Joos Frederick Lewis Colton 2 Akad ABU [Notes asyriologiues bres er uilaies Menzel, Timpel Menzel, Die ArsyrischeTimpel Nasrabadi, Nasrabadi, Uncenuchungen eu den Besastngsion in Mesopotamian Epic Vogeleang and Vanstiphout, Mesopotamian Bie Literature Benamuogssaen — Mesopotamin Literature ‘Bo (Orbis Biblicus et Orientals Mesopotamian Magic Sbusch and van der Toorn, Mesopotamian Magic OECT (Osford Editions of Cuneiform Texts MIO Miseitungen ds Insts Oriesforschung Langton, The H. Wld-Blundell Collection MRS “Mission de Ras Shama TV:van der Meer, Sylaborier A, Band B evth Miscellaneous MSL ‘Materialien zum sumerischen Lexikon; Materials for Lexicopraphical Texts the Sumerian Lexicon ‘VELangdon, Babylonian Ponitoncial Psaims IV: Landsberger etal, Emeral beabulary, ld Babylonian Vil: Langdon, The Herber Wild Collection Grammatical Texts, Neo-Babylonian Grammatical Texts ‘Xk: Gurney, Literary and Miscellaneous Texts nthe Ashmolean \V:Landsbermer, The Series HAR-ra = hubulle Tablets FIV Museum ‘ViELandsberger, The Series HAR-ra= fubull Tables V-VIT or (Oriental Instrute Publications VIL: Landsberges, Tha Series HAR-ra= fdbulla TaletsVIEE-XI 2:Lackenbill, The Annals of Sermacherib \VUD/t:Landsberger, The Fauna of Anciont Mezopotamia 1. (HAR- ‘53:Delougaz and Jacobsen, The Tomple Oval ar Khafaiah = bbl Tablet XI ‘78: McCown and Hiaines, Nippur 1 \VUN/2:Landsberger, The Fauna of Anciont Mesopotamia 2, HAR-ra 99: Biggs Iseripson rom Tell Ab Salabe publ Tables XIV and XVIUL 104: Gelb etal, Barist Land Tenure Systems in the Near East, TX Landsberger and Civil, The Series HAR-1a-= hubulle Tablee XV OLA Orieotalia Lovaniensia Analecta cand Related Tete ou Oricnalia Lreaninsia Perodica X:Landsbergee etal, The Series HAR-ra= hubullu Tablets XVI, oz OrionabivscheLiterazurzeiung XVILXT and Related Texts PBF ‘Occasional Publications ofthe Babylonian Fund; Occasional ‘XU: Reiner and Civil, The Series HAR ra hub Tables Publications of the Sarnuel Noah Kramer Fund XXEXXIV and Related Tints, ‘Oppenheim, Dreams Oppenheim, The Inerpresaton of Dreams ‘IL Givilet al, The Series Li= Sa and Related Texts Orns) Orion (nova series) IDL Civiet al, fat= ir, Kargal = abullu and Nigga mater OrSuze Orionalia SuacanaBIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS xxix Owen, Nippur (Owers, Neo-Sumerian Archival Texts Primarily fom Nippur TV: Rawlinson and Smith, Selection from the Miscollaneous PAOS Proceedings ofthe American Oriental Society Insriptions of syria Papers Porada FFarkus ot al, Monsters and Demon in the cint and Medicval TV" Raulinson and Pinches, A Selection from: dhe Miszllancous Words Insripsions of Assyria APS. Procedings ofthe American Philosophical Society \V- Rawlinson and Pinches, Selection from the Miscellaneous Parpola, LAS Parpola, Letters of Assyria Scholar tothe Kings Ezarhaléon and Insrigsions of Assyria and Babylonia Ashurbanipal RA Rewue dassyriologi et archéolegie orientale Parpola, SA4 Gilg. Parpola, The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh Race ‘Thureau-Dangin, Rituls accadions PAW Preussiche Akademie der Wissenschaften philosophisch- RB Reon bibligus historische Klasse Redlamn®** ‘Das Gilgamesch-Epos, New berseet wd mit Anmertungen verschen pas Publications ofthe Babylonian Section, University Museum, ‘vom Albert Sco University of Pennsylvania Durchgeschen und erg von Wolffam von Soden, 3nd Reclam_ Vt: Myrhman, Babylonian Hymns and Prayers ‘edn, 1958, New herausgegeben von Wolfram von Soden, th 2: Late, Selected Stoerian and Babylonian Tee Reclam eda, 1982. 5th Reclam edn, 1989 T)2: Clay, Documents from the Temple Archives of Nippur Dated in Reiner, Surge Reiner, Surg Collection of Sumerian and Abhadian Incantations ‘he Reign of Cassite Rulers (3) Rep. ging. Répersie géopraphique des exes cueifrmes V:Poebel, Hisiorical and Grammatical Teste ':idzard and Farber, Die Ors-und Gewsiermamen der Zeit der 3. X/3:Langdon, The Epic of Gilgamish Dynastic won Ur XV: Legrain, Royal ncrptions and Fragments from Nippur and Ml: Groneberg, Die Ors- und Geedsseramen der altbabylonschen Babylon Beit Pestinato Pertinato, La saga di Gilgamesh V:Nashef, Die Ors-und Gewasernamen der mitelbabylonitchon Pohl, Rechsurkunden Pohl, Neubabylonische Rechisureunden aus den Berner Staakchen und mielassyrischen Zeit Musson VII Zadok, Geographical Names According to New and Late- Postgate, Palace _—_Postgate, The Governors Palace Archive Babson Texts Archive RHA Rou hie ot asianigue Postgate, Royal Postgute, Nao-Assyrian Royal Grants and Decoct, Richter, Pandhea ‘Richter, Untersuchungen au den lokalen Ponthea Sid-wnd Grants ‘Miaelbabyloniens in alibabylonccher Zeit Prosopography NA Radner and Baker, The Prsopography ofthe Noo-Assyrian Empire Rin Riftin, Staro-Vivilonskiefuridicheski ‘administration dokeonanty Empire vsobraniiakh SSSR PRU Le palais royal d’Ugarie RIMA Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods IV:Nougayrol, Tes accadions des archives sud 1:Grayson, Assyrian Ruder of te Third and Second Millenia BC Ve Schaeffer, Texts on cundiformes alphabitigues 2: Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Early Fist Millerton BC. PSBA Proceeding of th Society of Biblical Archasology (1114-859 BC) Psp Sjoberg etal, The Sumerian Dictionary ofthe Unversity Museum of 3: Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Barly Fist Milomitom BO 2. ‘the University of Philadelphia (58-745 BO) R Rawlinson etal, The Cuneiform Inscripsions of Western Asia RIMB, Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Babylonian Periods [Rawlinson and Norris, A Selection fom the Historical Inscriptions 2: Frame, Rulers of Babylonia (1157-612 BC) of Chaldsa, Assyria, and Babylonia RIME, Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Barly Periods T:Rawlinson and Norris, 4 Seaton from the Mizllaneous Inscription of Assyria IL: Rawlinson and Smith, A Selection from dhe Mitcllancous Inscriptions of syria 2: Frayne, Sargonic and Gutian Periods 2334-2113 BO) 23/l Bdzard, Gudea and his Dynasty 23/1: Frayne, Ur II Period (2112-2004 BO) 4: Frayne, Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC)RIA Bheling eal, Reallson der Avsyrioogie SEM (Ciera, Sumerian Epiceand Myths Romer, SKIZ Romer, Sumersche Konigshymnen’ der Iin-Zeit Shaffer,“Sumerian Shaffer, ‘Sumerian Sources of Tablet XII of the Epic of Gilgame®? RIC ‘Thureau-Dangin, Reel de ablateschaldiennes Sources? SAA, State Archives of Assyria ‘Sitbers, Mondgoi _Sjberg, Der Mondgott Nanna-Suen [Parpoia, The Correspondence of Sargon IL Letters from Assyria Sur CChicra, Sumerian Lexical Tes cand he Wee ‘SLTN, Kramer, Somorian Literary Tess from Nippur nthe Museum of the I: Parpola and Watanabe, Neo-Assyria Treaties and Loyalty Oaths Ancient Orient at Itanbul TI Livingstone, Court Poetry and Literary Miscellanea vyon Soden and ‘von Soden an Relig, Das khadicke Syllabor ‘VEKwasman and Parpola, Leal Transaction ofthe Reval Gourtof Roig, Sllabar [Ninh 1, Tiglath-Pileer I rough Esarhaddon Speiser ‘Speiser, The Epic of Gilgamesh’ in ANET VIL Fales and Postgate, Imperial Administrative Records 1. Place SRT (Chiera, Stern Religious Texts and Temple Adminisation Stamm, Namengebung Stamm, Die akkadliche Namengebung ‘VID: Hunger, Astrological Repors 1 Assyrian Kings SwoT Studien zu den Bogackiy-Texten 1: Parpola, Assyrian Prophaciee Sto}, Epilepsy Stol, Epilepy in Babylonia 1X Parpola, Letters from Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars Sto OB History Stol, Studies in O14 Babylonian History XIL:Kataja and Whiting, Grant, Decrees and Gift of the SiOr Studia Orienai Noo-Assyrian Period Steck, Ask Streck, Assurbanipal und dis lerstn assyrischen KEnige ‘XII Cole and Machinist, Leters from Priests othe Kings Stweck Bildesprache Sureck, Die Bldersprace der akadischen Epi Earhuddon and Assurbanipal str Gurney eta, The Sultatape Tables ‘XIV: Manila, Lgal Transactions ofthe Reyal Cour of Nineveh. ‘Studies Diahonoff _Dandarnaey, Socetsr and Languages ofthe Ancint Near East Assurbanipal trough Sin-Karewitn Studies Granfeld Zevitet al, Solving Riddles and Untying Knots SAAB State Archives of Assyria Bulletin ‘Studies Hallo Coben etal, The Taber and the Serolt SAACT State Archives of Assyria Cuneiform Texts ‘Studies Lambert George and Finkel, Wisdom, Gods and Literature SAALT State Archives of Assyria Literary Texts ‘Srudiee More Abusch etal, Lngoring over Words Sallaberger, Kalender Sallaberger, Der kuch Kalender dr Ur IUi-Zeit ‘Studies Oppenheim Biggs and Brinkman, Seaies Presented oA. Leo Oppenheim Salonen, ‘Salonen, Die Landfaireeuge des alten Mesopotamien ‘Seudies Reiner Rochberg-Halton, Language, Lieraere, and History Landichroewge Studies Sach Leichty etal, A Selene Humanist Salonen, Tren Salonen, Die Tien des alten Mesopotamsien Studies Sere Behrens etal, LMU-£,-DUB-Bat Salonen, Vigel ‘Salonen, Viel und Vellng im alton Mesopovamion ‘Studie Talmon Fishbane and Toy, ‘Sha‘are Talon’ Salonen, Selonen, Die Wassefahreeuge in Babylomien sTve (Chiera, Sumerian Tet of Varied Contents Wassefarzeuge ‘Stonerian Gods Finkel and Geller, Stomerian Gods and their Reprecetaions SANE ‘Sources from the Ancient Near Bast ‘Spbolae BAL Beck etal, Symbola bibiae et mesopoxamicae Francisco Mario SAOC ‘Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization Theodora de Liagre Bok dedicaae SBH Reisner Sterich-babylomiche Hyman nach Thoma ‘Sulecher, 174 Stlechuer, Tables uridigues et adinistraives del IP Dynastic richischer Zeit 2Ur ete la Dynasie de Baton SCCNH Studies on the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the “TAPS ‘Transactions ofthe American Philosophical Society Horrians TUNTE Klein, The Royal Heys of Shug King of Ur 10: Owen and Withelm, Nusi ar Seventy Fite Te. “Tees cuntiformes du Louvre Schwemer, Rituale Daniel Schwemer, Abhadiche Riwaleaus Hareusa L-Thureau-Dangin, Ltrs et contrat de Vépoque del premie ‘efit, Love Songs Sofa, Love Songs in Sumerian Lieranwe Nate fooning clans and coresionsdaegding mira UeMSS coat 2,Ure ge. “rts pat psu las lean sik, UA (agree. ssepen hoe ange ot toege) SL, Url on U alba bi 12a Uns nb ings dst Ure ‘edit 12e,UrGeminan.ene bt fam.. FL !526 eaten > Here and ener anne’ coon fr hpi ta and enprapial eK Abra ouson x CRRA Ap. 6510 INFRODUCTION BBilgames swears wo discover the identity of his assailant. Eokidu describes to him the terri blebeing thats Huwawa but Bilgames is confident thatthe two of them wil succeed where fone would fi ‘As they approach Huviawa’s dwelling Bilgames is stopped in his racks and a voice call, ‘ohim, cling him not tobe afraid but to kneel onthe ground.” Bilgames then pretends to ‘wish to form a marital aliance with Huwawa and offers him his sisters, Enmebaraggesi and ‘Peitur,as wives. He promises Huwawa other pleasures of life that are evidently unknown in his remote mountain lfine four, waterin leathern botdes sandalslargeand all choice ‘gemstones and other presents. For the beirothal af the sisters and the promise of each fur ‘ther gift the gullble Huwawa surrenders one of is protective auras. These are conceprusl- ized as great cedars, which Bilgames’s men duly eat into logs forthe journey home. When ‘Huwaws has no auras lft andis helpless to attack, Bilgames strikes him and akes him pri ‘ner. Huwawa then pleads forhislife,complaining to Uns of Bilgames's treachery. Bilgames shows him princely mercy but Enkidu warns that thisis too dangerous: they let awawa {go they will never see home again. As Huwawa turns on Enid in anger, Enkid cuts the ‘ore’s throat The heroes take hishead co the god Enlil Enlil angry asks them wy they have ‘led Hfuwawa and tells them they should instead have treated him with every politeness. nll distributes Huwawa’s auras. Doxology: kalga *bilgames midug.ga “nissaba zimi, “Honour to the mighty Bilgames, praise to Nissaba’=* Bilgomes and fcaa, Version B Incipit Lalustu,® which appears in four ancient catalogues.” Edition by D. 0. Bdzard, ‘Gilmer wd Pucca. Zee Vesionen der sumeritchn Zedermesadepiode nb einer Edition ‘von Versio 8” (BAW Sitzungsberichte 19931V; Munich, 1993). Thespian te a Hawn ba, TLAT I, p46 fT ad Shales p 29%; Gere Pepin 1s sometie Baby Peis p31. Payneo4 BR tr, Te Ei Cine eo 280.9 13 ir Sate Nop ee ter ei na ent orn Ebi i Sh 24 >i se cnnon peng bt oe re iareing vrs in eer cope 4 does inthe she al nina (eh ae ee) Laan (as 2481p 288 163), ‘alu (Cagemorand Alavi RAB? (183) p17, 120, id. 12018) andadale (ASDA, 109), pert) um main O1P 99278 7 ARE 20 2) 2 Th vai mek ie teen a ‘he common ine shoul be interpreted Merle oisaus de gi’ = nage denboepoi (a sy id Ae Semi te 1h neo mewn Fryoe, ulin CSMS 34 (1999p. . Ch aanesonh on who amr rans 89) ‘ert (Ans r17-18. 185), appear tae ce et wiz meee etapa Eaton te Seasonal asm Heeb eaperhe whole seqrcta beanies a ‘vette eachmane wen a.nnnmematons mse inte conten The pepe © Maria ‘abum, subi su. On inp Sumevan ans Giga Ha Bn Sra) Sd aie Onn ant a mona Lig Cage? Nephe, 200), pp. 673-8, sane a eet 200, separa ue tobecomitedtre) "TEL RV 25,36 ed Kramer BASORS, p18, 35a p15, Mang WET VE 23128 rane S81 LET Var, > Cores 8 beter pi Baga Haw A 6% Bua gd wth THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC un ‘Version B is shorter than Version A and exhibits many minor variations. A major lference is one of plot. At the crucial point in the story, when Bilgames awakes at last from the sleep induced by Huwawa’s auras, instead of encouraging the fearful Enkidu ‘vith ashow of bravado, the hero doubss his wn ability tomatch the monstrin strength and calls on is god, Enki, o“emerge’inhis words Through the medium of Enkidu, who appae- cently blurs out the words Bilgames should use, Enki does exactly that and the plor moves sree on to the meeting with Huwawa and Bilgames's deceitful diplomacy: The very end is missing, together with any doxology: Some speculate that inthis version Huwawa vas spared Bilgomes and te Bull of Heaven Incipit fu. mékam, "Heroin Bare’, ecorded in tree ancient catalogues.” Baition by A. (Cavigneaux and FIN H.Al-Rawi, GilgamesetTanreau de Ciel (Sul mé kam) Testes de 0 Haddad 1V", RA87 (1993), pp. 97-129. Following a hymnic prologue, Bigames begins ro converse with his mother, the goddess ‘insur, Ninsun gives him instructions ro caery out his duties, though what he has to dois forthe moment difficult co understand, The passage is repeated as narrative. Soon after- wards Inanna tres to detain Bilgames in her chamber so that he cannot fulfil his secul functions, here epitomized as siting in judgement."The goddess of sexual love has ether plans for him, proposing that he become lord to her lady In some versions Bilgames reports Inanna’s overares to his mother, adding that anna accosted him atthe city gatein the le ofthe wal, a place where prostitutes traditionally plied their rade, Ninsun forbids him to accept Inanna’s gifs. Bilzemes nest encounters Inanna as he goes Out Fulfil an- other of his lordly duties, to capture livestock 1 replenish the goddess animal pens. He berusquely orders her out of his way: In the lacuna that fellows one may imagine that he poured scorn on her for when the text resumes, Inanna is found weeping, Her father, An, ‘asks her why she's ceying. She answers thatitis because she hasnotbeen ableto gether own ‘way with Bilgemes and asks her father for the Bull of Heaven, 80 that she can il Bilgemes. He objects thac the Bull of Heaven graze a the celestial horizon (for itis the constellation “Taurus and would have no food on earth. Throwing a tantrum Inanna starts to serear, / * Soe Kos Suh and Glues reo beer pers Sls OY: Krome AV, p21; Bld, BAW Sing sere 930, pp. 56-7 A. Gate urn Sung vm Gp wd Hen Veen 3 ABU 1998. Ka isc a ngmeny pase ofS Hon Oat repoing te sare wana (TAPS 71M, 10, 31) *FOLXV 25,35 Kremer, BASOR 8 1,38: famea id 9151: Seta; GET VED Ue Kramer R455ip 171 uns tn Telnet ley Heirs Hee face als MS A (US 86) ro Y sea oa te ga tee clans ad eres wl ete In Goes How wen ep Ratectons ana peep Baws he Bat Hae apa RM ‘Whig en Sov ond Gnd se cin Nar Be (CRRA 4; Heine) An unpubl sures SC 2S2/2n ne Schoen Coleen eeu (ch ae tossonn ce SPINA2 intropucrion ‘making a noise so infernal that An gives in. Inanna leads the Bull of Heaven down ta Uruk, where it devours the date-groves and drinks the river dry* ‘Meanvshile Bilgames’s minstrel, Lugalsabagal, is entertaining his king during a drinking session. Going outside to relieve himself he sees the Ball amid the devastation and returns to el Bilgsmes.The news his minstrel brings in no way diverts the hero from his pleasure, {or Bilgames calls for more ale and orders the music to recommence. Only when his thirst is ‘quenched does he prepare for batle. He arms himseifand instructs his mother and sister to ‘make sactficesin the temple ofthe god Enki, He vowsto dismember the Bull of Heaven and ive its meat to the poor. As Inanna looks on from the city wal, Bilgames and Enkids tackle the Bull Enkida finds its weak spot and Bilgames duly dispatches the monstrous ‘animal. He hurls one ofitshaunches a Inanna.Bigames wishes he could teat her as he has the Bull of Heaven. Andjustashe had sworn, the carcaseis dismembered and is meat given tw the poor. Its horns, however, are dedicated to inanna in her temple, E-anna. oxology: gud.an.na ugs.ga ki $nanna ke, 2é.mi:z dig ga, “the Bull of Heaven being ‘Slain, O holy Inenna sweetis your praise!” (M&-Turan). related texts the Gudam poem, ‘fragment abouta mythical bull on the rampage in Uruk; the story mentions Lugalgabagal (as nara.nlugal gaba gl. ‘his minstrel, L”) and Inanna bat not Bilgames.”| Bilgames and the Netherworld Incipic usria sd .i., "In those Days, in those Far-Off Days’. One ofthe several texts Jknown to the ancient caulogues as ujr.a>* Edited by A. Shaffer, ‘Sumerian Sources ‘of Tablet XI of the Epie of Gilgame®’ (PRD dissertation, University of Pennsyivanias ‘Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1963). Addivonal material is given by Claus Wileke, Kollcionen su den swmarschen kterorachen Teen aus Nippuer in der Hilprehe Sammlung Jena (Berlin, 1976), pp. 9-215 A. Cavigneaux and EN. H.AL-Ravwiy‘Lafin de Gilgames, 1128-9: gud ura (gatey 0 mun ged ns (ar Ang hay LG Aa id» name rendre by Cangas, RA 87, p12 Tarn, Ue devi aeons hands tytn properaountnenamecfthe watery dn tel ir Te ses or pose See “Sncumolg a ood mae caren wre Sine = rsh ram ately hen od pac nde felting (oe W 2g. Hones oneness cfc parhy iy ‘rtery ete pane te deren of Ura a hac eae ee ie a eer ea ‘Sofison eran ppt equate, 7 Fora ono WH. Ph Rie Micelnes Sumer Hen mg, Gude Br 48 (1913, > Thecomposonhunhesancopeingine te nsricon Supskand shar anew fame insur, emo manures of Bass Jar) Nppar and wih eh sot De tert eon ‘steed et pson nq fe crib cao (cain PCLRV 8 v4 Kennet QASORSB p17, “antinibid 15.7) shown eng be Bs oust te cara coe pubes DIL (01x65, adam Satan The twine frugal iwncxeguey ahe BE ines and he Neder ee net f Sapp nda father exe (PCE RV 21-1 o Ree [RASORSS,p 1, 14-5,ané 15,21). Te orserant enti the companions thes oe the canaguss om Ur whee alin Eas Jou thr Rams sae Nero er toe arpa te ert compan ar gen comerndy (UETVI 125 a8 Remon 85 17 28:30) aria mare uss ttn tage ener whch then che sbrevce vena tei onaeain cate tw 56 THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC B Enki et es Enfers apes les manuscrits d'Ur et de Meturan’, ag 62 (2000), pp. 1-19. ‘Fora transliteration of 172-end see below, Chapter 12 ‘This composition begins with a mythological prologue: along ime ago shortly after the gods had divided the universe between them, there was huge storm. As the god Enki was salling down tothe Netherworld, presumably to take up residence in his cosmic domain, the Abzu,hailstones piled high in the bortom of his boat and waves chured around it. The ‘corm blew down a willow tee on the hank of the River Euphrates. Out walking one day, the goddess Inanna picked up the willow and took it back to her house in Unik where she planted it and waited for ito grow. She looked forward to having furniture made from its timber As the tee grew it was infested by creatures of evil and Tnanna wae sad, She told the ‘whole tory tothe Sun God, her brother Ut, buthe did not help her. Then she repeated the ‘tory tothe hero Bilgames, Bilgames took up his weapons and rid the tree ofits vile inhabi- tants. He felled the tree and gave Inanna timber for the furniture she needed. With the ‘remaining wood he made wo playthings, apparentiy a ball and a malle.™ Bilgames and the young men of Uruk play with his new toys all day ong." The men are ‘worn out by their exertions and theic women are kept busy bringing them food and water. ‘The next day as the game is about fo restr, the women complain and the playthings fall through ahole deep into the Netherworld. Bilgames cannot reach them and weeps bitterly this oss His servant Enkida volunters to go and fetch them. Blgames warns him about going to the Netherworld, If Enkidu is to avoid fatal consequences inthe presence of the shades ofthe dead he must show the proper respec for ther, acting with sensitivity and not ‘drawing atenton to himself There inthe Netherworld he will come upon the awful specta- le of the goddess EreSkigsl, queen of the dead. Deathly pale and prostate in perpetual ‘mourning, clothes torn from her breast, she rakes he flesh with her fingernail and tears out her hair. Enkidu goes down to the Netherworld and blithely ignores Bilgames's instructions. res duly taken captive by the Netherworld and fails to return. ‘Realizing with horror what has happened, Bilgames petitions the gods. Only Enis wil= ing to help him. He instructs te Sun God, Uru to bring up Enki’ shade ashe rises from the Netherworld at dawn. Temporarily reuniféd,Bilgames and Enkidu embrace. In along session of question and answer Bilgames asks Enkidu about conditions in the Netherworld ‘The principal message of the beginning of the heroes’ dislogue is thac the more sons @ ‘man has, the more the thirst dat plagues his ghost in dhe afterife will be relieved, for in ‘Babylonia twas the responsibilty of those who survived the deceased o offers shade reg- lular libations of fresh water. Shales who ae childless suffer particularly bady, for nobody ‘exists above on earth to make the vital offerings to them, The dialogue then turns toa dis- ‘cussion of those who have itin common thet they cannot be buried whole, ether because ‘they have been disfigured by leprosy or other diseases or because violentendshave mangled ‘their bodies. The particular horror of such a death was not just thatthe deceased was not ‘hole when buried but that his disablement persisted for eternity inthe afterlife The revul- sion towards dying without full omplement of body parts persists inthe Neat East today "Forts undersanding oft phn see 1, commen oe SBT XH“ INTRODUCTION (One recension adopts « moral tone, dealing also with those who have dishonoured their parents and others who have taken a god's name in vain. Like chet, many shades are infor ‘grim experience in dhe afterlife but besides the fathers of many sons there are others who sufferless. Those who die of old age enjoy a comfortable existence, as blessed in death asin life, Stilborn children are compensated for thee fate by an afterite spent in hxury. How ‘ver, those who are burned to death disappear in smoke and find no place in the Nether world. The message is thatthe ghosts of such people cannot he be summoned from the ‘Netherworld for the rita offerings that other shades enjoy and so are fated alvays ro haunt ‘he living with thirst unsssuaged and hunger unabated, the most feared ofall revenant spi its, Buming t death was consequently the worst fate of alla fitting climax to Enkidu’s report. The horror of death by burning endures to this day in Ista. Inone tradition of copying the text ends at this point, but tablet from Ur provides acon= ‘inuation that gives a more explicit lesson in how to care forthe dead. Enkidu reports that the shades of the ‘sons of Sumer and Akkad”,and particulrly of Girsu, have been overrun ‘by Amorite wibesmen, who keep them away fom the places inthe Netherworld where the lations of fresh water are received from the world above and force them to make do with fou, polluted water. When Bigames discovers thatthe shades of his own forebears suffer the same fate hei shamed ino fal piety Inthe poem's conctusion hee prompted to fash- fn statues of his ancestors, to institute mourning rte for them and to instruct the people inthesamerites, Doxology: ursag ‘bilgames dumu ‘ninsinka zimizu diggaim, ‘O warrior Bilgames, son of Ninsun, sweets your praise!” (U).** The Death ofBlgames Incipic am gale bani, ‘The Great Wild Bull s Lying Down’ (Mé-Turen only). Edition by A. Cavigneaus and FN. H. AFRawi, Gilgamet et la Mor. Texes de Tell Haddad VI (Groningen: 2000), new study by N. Veldhuis, The solution of the dream: a new imer- pretation of Bigames’ death’, JCS'S3 (2001), pp. 133-88." ‘The poem begins witha lament for te sticken Bilgurmes. He has been seized by Namtar, the emissary of Death, and lies sick and delirious on his deathbed, In his guise as = Theabnycotte sce of eared tm te Neen hates boy expe ty Aes lest bine rouge nate of to and dace plo ce eth Bes The raemare curcer af Msopotan heer’ 4 88 (97) SP, Baer ow sine at at “ns Verteanen le le Aalnehong der ezehen beet, “Ein Tones itt". Boers Dot “sin Tei Moyo’, Sus Sg. p. 24), Hower, the see ot eam aia Msp ‘ev y uring cere ihe nthe Babylon Sgro handbaLhghoreatthbared ea steaknowameracetotheling (Saba E76 Lao TDP, emg eb gat eto oF sbeebs RXV 72 Sk pl) 7 gt eng) handles fone ‘oat det). The powtof eon ued inf ishedaneng er da wom ete nsec Sopra tom an ees ria opi wenn panes (LEA 8 7 smi) na Hae) (petacare hc afone who wos din “A Nippurmanscp hel bare ose} unorarately bse. Jaknk ‘Pitta... (Stae Sener lan Source pe 84S He) Baga sawed inte Sohyen Cesena SC 377 textes aa Caveats MSN, and “4 ‘THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC 1s ‘Nudimmud the god Enki shows Bilgames a vision, in which he finds himself at meeting of the gods” assembly. The business in hand is his own destiny. The gode review bis heroic career, his exploits in che Forest of Cedar his journey tothe end ofthe world and the wis- {dom he leaned from Ziusudea, the survivor of the Deluge. Their predicament is tht Bil ames, though a man, isthe son ofa goddess should he be mortal or immortal? The final judgement seems o be voiced by Enki, The only mortal, he says, to achieve immortality is that sesame Ziusudra, but in special circumstances. Despite his divine birth Biigames ‘must descend tothe Netherworld ike other men, But there he willhave a special postion as ‘the chief ofthe shades, singin judgement over the dead like Ningzida and Dumuai. Not ‘only this, bur after his death Bilgames will be commemorated among the living during an annual Festival of Lights, when young men will wrestle with each osher. Then Enlil appears and explains in simpler terms the message ofthe dream thus far: Bilgames was born to bea king but he cannot escape the doom of mortal man. Even so, he isnot 10 despair. In che ‘Netherworld he will be reunited with his family and his beloved Enkidu, and he will be ‘numbered among the lesser deities. Bilgames awakes, stunned by what he has seen. The text i damaged at this point but it seems that the hero seeks counsel, al events, the poem launches into a wholesale repet- 'on ofthe dream, and che simplest explanation of this is that Bilgamess retelling the dream to those whose advice he seks regarding ite import (even if thi verbatim repetition does {ignore the expected change from third person in the narrative to first inthe reportage). The reply of Bilgames' interlocutorss that he should not be sad, Deathie inevitable, even fora ‘king, and he should be pleased with the exalted status that he will enjy after death, ‘A gap in the text intervenes at this point, after which, prompted by Enki, de people of ‘Uruk set to work on building Bilgames’s tomb. The break prevents us feom knowing eX actly how Eaki communicated what was to be done, but the agent was apparently a dog. ‘ther than a man. The message so conveyed evidently answered the question of where 10 site Bilgames's tomb so that it would be inviolable. As a result of Enki wisdom the labour force diverts the River Euphrates andthe tomb is built of stone inthe river bedThe royal barem and entourage take their places in the tomb and prepare to accompany thir King in ‘he afterife, To ensure that Bilgames and his rednue receive a favourable reception in the ‘Netherworld ifs are presented tothe deities of Erediga’s court-Then Bilgames himselis laid down. The doorway is sealed witha great stone fashioned forthe purpose andthe river Is returned to its bed so thatthe site of the tomb cannot be discovered. The people of Uruk mourn theirking. ‘Two different endings survive. One, less well preserved, simply voices the praise of| Bilgames, the greatest of kings. The other, more didactic, explains that men past and ‘present lve on after death in the memories of those alive. Fist the practice of placing votive 14.235 bir apa oem mu i bith vont de ne man ed “Then smn ttn pclae inept ofr pla eee Blgame se oot ar kh ‘Urtpaand Ue Nuna oases anaeees te hanan wt acactar harps erst Uren ‘aa ina Sumerian pe pout Ener nthe Lod Ars 57-6 te, Bae and Eee16 IvTRopucTiON stanues in temples ensures the continued invocation of the name of the dead individual, providing as itdoes a focus forhis Funcrary cult Second, the gods have so arranged matters that men beget families, whose function iso continue thee line Doxologies:*ifh).ga.mes [en] kul aba,*k[a? 2}. miu dig ga.im,“O Bilgames, lord) of Kull, sweet is your praise!’ (Nippur):“eretkigal ama ‘nin a.2u.kes24:mi.za dig. 0 redkigal, mother of Ninazu, sweets your prise!” (ME-Tosan) ‘Ichas often been emphasized chat the Sumerian poems of Gilgamet are individual com= positions, lacking the development of plot and common themes that hold together the episodes of the Babylonian epic." This observation was corroborated by the absence of ancient evidence that grouped any of the texts together, outside some catalogues of, incipits—where other groupings of texts on thematic grounds occur. However, such ‘evidence has now come to light, for the version of Bilgames and the Netherworld current in ‘Mé-Turan on the River Diyala ended with a short passage not present in the versions from \Nippur and Ur, by which means the text was joined to the beginning of Bilgames and ‘Huwawa A. The passage comprises familar lines put together asa bridge: fwba-sig/me-ralalailbe us, gale nants son) ex-ekurllO cit el geiug-2alninl-an-gub Bigames andthe Netherwoed, Mt, 27-9, ed, Cava, rag 62, .13, “Theheart was siricken, his mood despaired (this insides were det). “Theking went searching frie, the lord turn [his] mind t the Living One and (or mountain}. “The first ine is typical of Sumerian city laments also appearing inverted in Bilgames and Hhuwawa B 9, and adapted in the Death of Bilgames 86 ) 176. The second line recalls similar phrases in the bilingual Poem of Ely Rulers and the Babylonian omen tradition.“ ‘Thethid lines the incipit of Blgames and Huseawa A Anyatemptto consider the story of Gilgames's expedition tothe Cedar Forestasa sequel ‘of the story in which Enkidu was taken prisoner in pesperuity in the Netherworld defies logic, foritis very much the lving Enkidu that accompanies Gilgames to Huwave’s ai It seems to me that the to texts have been joined by someone familiar with the Babylonian conraryvew hate D Bing, "On the Semen Ef Gagan, NES (1979, 9.1 who seh ‘ne ta» plical hme—tension teen rand Haga nse Urn a ae oes amber spor oft pi anaes rao rund xii nt Sura ce of ee ‘Sin aking ay Dyas diner Tesn evened regrow ar aon rian Msopocnin Hor, howe ap nop of Uns che Ey Dye pr sane Moree eps ‘Sevens dvr ot sipporea pon os ied Suean sel wir inthe ih Forreeencesee vgn, Cpanel a La Mon p44 Tan, The Nip Lam (Piss, 1999), Aad ty Caren Shp Sf the relat sae guste eowin Ch ye su econ on Crosing ne ocenn non Orne enon Ge, "> Soatend Caines rap 2.p. 8 ‘THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC 7 cpie,in which the grief and horror that Enkidu’s death provokes in Gilgame impel te hero ‘ona search for eceralife.As will be argued later the Living One ofthe facipit of Bilgames and Huvavea A isthe goal of his quest, de immortal Ziusuda, even though this figure plays no rlein the story of Gilgame!’s expedion tothe Cedar Forests it survives. The three line bridge therefore is not evidence fora eycle of Sumerian poems Instead it reveals hat the epie story tld by the Bubylonian poems was already so well embedded inthe literary ‘mind inthe eaely eighteenth century ¢ that people began to adapt the Sumerian poems 10 fit de expecuions aroused by that poem. Inthe eighteemth century, a period when Sumerian lteranure survived almost entirely among teachers and pupils, the Sumerian poems of Gilgames enjoyed currency only in places of leaning. Outside the world of education a new vibrant poetry was in fashion, using che vernacular language, Babylonian Akkadian, with different degrees of literary affectation that speak for its use in # wide variery of contexts. By the late Old Babyionian period courtliterature in Sumerian had dwindled almost to nothing. Hymns n praise ofthe ‘king and prayers to deities on his behalf increasingly used Akkadian * THE ORIGINS OF THE BABYLONIAN EPIC OF GILGAMES Among the many thousands of Old Babylonian school tablets so far recovered at Nippur, Us, sin and other sites are avery few that hold passages from compositions in Atkadian, ‘enough to reveal that, alongside the Sumerian poems of Bilgames, students could also prac- ‘ise their writing sil by sening down passages of Babylonian GilgameS. Of the several Od ‘Babylonian tablets ofthe epic edited tis book, ones certainly froma school environment (OB Nippur from House F on Tablet il), another very probably (OB Ishchal).As many 25 four others might also be school tables (OB IM, OB Harmal;, OB Scheyen). The Babylonian epic was certainly not part ofthe traditional curriculum of sribal education in the eighteenth century bu the existence of contemporancous library tablets inscribed with portions of the poem means that Gilgame’ in Akkadian was already established in the writ- ten tradition. These library tablets, the Pennsylvania andYale bless (OB HI) and n6o°or three smaller pieces (OB UM, OB VA+BM, probably OB Schayen,)—or more probably otherslike them —may have been the sources from which the scribes of OB Nippur ete-took passage of the Babylonian epic, but thisis notthe only possible origin of such excerpts. The people of this time could have been familiar with Gilgames stories in the vernacular Akkadian from an oral tradition. The Gilgame8 motifs found on terracotta plaques ofthe (Old Babylonian period support such a view; for they ace more likely to reflect people's ‘knowledge of orally transmitted stories than to wimess popular famiarity with a writen * tistpisee ther bow Ch Ste wh sedonon Cong he ose, 1 Tae pron iplaneent of Shes Auaan nwa berares cer erin the cvs to ‘Se-Sieranand OU Babes rol tna comply ic Su pp. 226-38.18 INTRODUCTION ‘One can imagine that popular interest in Gilgames was expressed in song, both in court Thee gated Chesson onthe Sumerian King Lis. * Omisce Walon the ansy of Sumerian ete AOS (1963). .17S 1 Soeur YOSNON 109 altense sealer WG Lami Ancovrs shana 9 1) (55D BBS30 intropverioy Gilgames epic may have been an Old Babylonian. But a Tater date can be explained as appropriate by considering what we know of the development of Babylonian literature in the late second millennium. ‘The last centuries ofthe second millennium were. time of literary activity, especially the ‘organization of much of the Babylonian literary tradition into canonical series, as exempli- ‘ied by the activities of Esagil-kin-apli and others. Esagil-Kin-apli came froma learned fam- ily, for he is referred to as the “son” of Asallubi-mansum, the sage of King Hamraurapi’ According tthe Exorcst’s Manual he was held responsible for many works of api but ‘also for important professional handbooks of divination, the great omen sees of astrologi- ‘al and terrestrial portents (cespectively Eniima dime Enlil and Summa Aly) Elsewhere ccolophons of catalogues of the handbook Sakitkd (A616) famously relate that in the reign of Adad-apla-iddina (1067-1046 nc) Esagil-Kin-apli gathered together the many extant ‘tablets of diagnostic omens and produced the edition that became the received text ofthe ‘rst millennium. The colophons describe the texts that he worked into corpus as material ia ubtu ubla sard(sur{gibill) a sab-tug st kima(gim) q6(gu)"™ parkilegraeib)™.ma -ssband(gaba.r) 12 72(caku) that since long ago had not been organized into new adition ‘but was tangled like threads and had no master version’'This description can probably be applied to much of the Babylonian literary tradition of the post-Old Babylonian centuries, ‘Certainty it matches what we know of te state ofthe Gilgame’ epic inthe second half ofthe second millennium, ‘The notice in the catalogue of texts and authors should be read against this background ‘of editorial work. In Babylonian tradition Sin-léqi-unninni was the man sho produced the Series of Gilgameé. This information can be interpreted in two ways: (@) Sin-leqi-unninni ‘wasa legendary poet, like Homer, credited in later memory with composing the frst version ‘ofthe traditional Babylonian poem that nits final form wentby the titles Series of Gilgame’ and Sa nagba Tru, or (b) he was a later scholar held responsible for establishing the text of ‘the Epic of Gilgames inthe form familar from first-millennium copies. If (a) he lived early in the Old Babylonian period; if (b), he lived later in the second millennium. On present ‘knowiedge 1 am inclined to beliewe that (b) is right, and this assumption informs the rest ‘of cis section, Whether or not the poem's editor really went by this name—and there is no ‘reason fo doubt that he did-T have followed Babylonian tradition in referring tothe poem 4a nagha imura as his creation, {cis not yet possible to determine exactly at what stage Sin-Iégi-unninni—if ic was he— intervened in the history of transmission of the epic. The poem entitled ta naga Fur is currently known from at least two periods, The older sources are the tablets from ‘Aarbanipal’s libraries at Kuyunjik and Neo-Assyrian private libraries in other cities, “which ean be no later than mid- to lae seventh century. The younger sources are the tablets ‘from Late Babylonian libraries, chiefly in Uruk and Babylon, which may be from any time in the fifth to first centuries Bc.In both groups of sources the poem was divided into twelve 1 See KA 5-20 and pena M Gale, tps ri Stas Lambe 7.24851 27-2 7 LL Pe Adapaina Bagh Nap andthe sc Shas asp BASED Aron ‘THe LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC 31 tablets. There is no compelling reason to suppose that this division was not imposed by Sin-legi-unninni, The Neo-Assyrian and Late Babylonian tablets furnish a text that i, allowing for minor recensional diferences, consistent and fixed. We call it the Standard, ‘Rabylonian version. “The existence of the variant early Neo-Assyrian manuscripts raises further iseues ‘that should be dealt with here. As already seen, Assyrian MS y is very different from the ‘Standard Babylonian version, and is certainly a relic of Middle Babylonian edition that remained current in Assyria alongside the Standard Babylonian version. The same can probably be said for MS x, though one must bear in mind that itis only a smal fragment. (MS eis essentially the same texts the Standard Babylonian version, displaying minor vari ants, though one cannot be sure its peculiarities donot stem from an alder version. MS 2, however is diferent again, but extremely important forthe history ofthe epic. For the most partitmatches the Standard Babylonian version, but thas other textin place of the Flood story and perhaps a different ending. My explanation fr this hybrid aspect is that MS zis 1 late copy of a Midale Babylonian version of the epic that in most places used the same ‘wording asthe Standaed Babylonian version buralso includes different mare. This puss it inthe same category asthe Middle Babylonian tablets from Urand Emar. ‘The survival of one or more old edicons ofthe epic into the frst millennium, when they ‘yere—at east in Assyria—concurrent with Za nagba Tmuru, s not without parallel, Some- ‘hing comparable can be observed with at last three other wellnown literary com ‘positions with long histories. The climactic battle between Ninurta and Anz6 towards the {end of the poem of Anait occurs in two distnet first-milennium versions, the Standard Babylonian Tablet I! known from tablets from Kuyunjik and Tarbigu and a very different account surviving only ono tablets from Sultantepe* AiSurbanipa’libraries at Nineveh, held evo diferent editions ofthe poem of Atra-hass, « Seandard Babylonian version that also occurs at Babylon and Sippar, and an Assyrianizing recension so far known only at Kuyuajk® Similarly, at ASur there seem to have been two versions of Kea's Descent ccurrentin the Neo-Assvrian period, one that matches the edition extant at Ninevch and on ‘that does not” With all thee texts, as with ilgames itis case of one or two Assyrian ‘copies offering texts that toa preter or lesser extent deviate from the much berter-atested ‘editions known from ASSurbanipal’s braries and other centres. “The question then arises, do the Middle Bebylonian and early Neo-Assyrian tablets that present text very close tothe Standard Babylonian version represent in-l&qj-uninn's text, ‘anagha imuru,atan early stage ofits transmission, thats, soon after his lifetime, or are they 5B Aue CF 4642+ WG Lamer, 902 (90 42K 21 Ru HSA 38 (on, i Scene STFA Fs. i Sine Lan N, MSSP Ro an Lab AO 7 pp HOS TESS sede ane te an, prea hea asationorp 17 ek n tpn! eran Mapes ain roe) {ihnes ts CTHAUL 2; hyn sri: Lanter snd ME rea, SS ST og opment ataro8 (86 9) 6.40 pT nen 1G GEA eS ae 2 sors Dane CF 45405 e 278] OF 1348 ceo KAR (398 Aa A32 iNTRoDUCTION variant versions ofthe sort he would have consulted inthe process of establishing fe nagba ‘mura? I donot think that this question canbe decided without knowing Sin-léqbunninn’s dates—and maybe not even then. Thus we cannot be sure that the text associated with Sin-leqi-unninns was not subjecto intrusive editing after hisliferime. IfMMB Ur, MB Emar and Assyrian MS zare to represent fa nagba imuruasitstood inthe lat second millennium, we would certainly have ro allow that Sin-1j-unninni’s text went through at least some ‘changes over the ensuing centuries. If they are not, chen we must accept that Sin-légi- ‘unninni kept large sections of the existing text unchanged. For the momen itis best to be ware that the expressions fa nagba Tmuru, meaning the text established by SinlEaic uuoninni, and Sandard Babylonian version, meaning the text represented by the vast ‘majority of frst-millennjum manuscripts, may not be exact synonyms. Against this uncersanty iis possible to entertain a subjective view. My own feelings that ‘Sin-éq-unninni was remembered in Babylonian wadition a more than a literary hack who established, after che manner of Esagil-Kin-aplia single text of Gilgarmed where there had Previously been many. [believe his reputation as auchor (fa fin the catalogue rested on a {greater achievement that while producing a text in many places exactly faihful to one ot other of his sources, he wrought atthe same time major changes on the epic and cast the ‘poem anew Boldly pu, I suggest that he was responsible for prefacng the pacan tothe hero's glory that opened the Old Babylonian epic siture arr with the more reflective pro- logue Sa nag fur and for adding atthe epc's end the closing lies that reprise that pro- logue. The new prologue converted the epic into autobiography in the third person,a genre ‘of Mesopotamian belles-etres known today as nard-ierature, Such texts, supposedy write ‘en on stone tablets for the benefit of funure generation, often have a didactic, moralzing ‘tone. ** Some lines of the new prologue are reminiscent of the Cuthean Legend of Nati ‘Sin, peshaps in conscious imitation of that text, The new addition is more than a literary «embellishment however. Irchanged the thrust ofthe entire poem placing emphasis on the hero's acquisition of wisdom and self-knowledge through hard experience and personal suffering. In reprising the prologue the ending offers a profound insight into the realities of ‘muman existence, withthe city held up asa symbol af human activity and permanence. The effec ofthe change cannot easily be judged while we ae unable to identify how older ver- sions ended, but the mood at the close ofthe Standard Babylonian poem is ustas pensive asthe new prologue Iwas also, I maintain, Sin-Iéql-unninni’s idea to remould Sidur’s counsel asthe sage hhomity of Ura-napift, dhus transferring a moment of timeless advice to the climactic encounter sha concludes Gilgame®s quest. Further, he interpolated the abbreviated telling ofthe Flood myth that teaches so emphatically the precarious nature of man’s existence in ‘ universe subject ro the whim of reckless immortals. Finally, scholar that he was, Sin-ii- ‘unninni added a prose appendix to round off the Series of Gilgames with a sermon that leaves no uncertainty about the fate of each and every mortal (Tablet XM). In dis way the poem thatoldof the glorious featsand heroic exploits of the mightiest king of ld was recast nine mstrcdy Langman, isos Abadi uaepy (Wee Laks nd, 99). 128-9 ‘THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC 33 in Sin-16q-unnina’s hands os a sombre meditation on the doom of man In the course of these changes much ofthe vitality of the original poewy may have been dissipated, but the poem became a vehicle for more than entertainment. Like the texts ofthe nard-genre to Which the new prologue made reference, the epic in its new shape bore a clear message for posterity. If the original author ofthe writen epic was @ poet of genius unmatched in Babylonian history, the man who stamped his mark on the final version of the poem was a profound thinker ofthe same unique calibre. ‘The contrast in mood berween the Old Babylonian fragments and the Standard Babylonian epic matches the change in outlook of Babylonian intellectuals during the sec ond millennium. [nso faras we knowit, the Old Babylonian poem was ahymn wo heroise and Kingly might, bursting with the confident exuberance ofa young literaure in a period of cultural ebirth, Ss-lqi-unninn’s sombre meditation i less confident and more into spective, and brings the same despondent resignation to its consideration ofthe human lot thats displayed in other meditaive works ofthe mid-late second millennium, especially the Poem of the Righteous Sufferer and the Babylonian Theodicy. The reworking of the poem was consequently a modernization in tought as well a in language and style. The result wae a text that holds much in common with what we call "wisdom literature’ THE EPIC OF GILGAMES IN THE LITERARY LIFE OF BABYLONIA ‘When the fll majesty ofthe Epic of GilgameS became apparentin the ealy twentieth cen- ‘tury itbecame the fashion to view tas the national epic ofthe Babylonians. ‘The expression “national epic"implies for me long narrative composition that, toa greater or lesser degree, ‘elates tothe origin or identity ofa people. Such poems necessarily describe the strugeles for independence or wars aginst foreign oppressors from which a nation emerges new or ‘reborn, They are often composed deliberately withthe aim of forging a matonal identity ike the Aeneid. There is nothing of war inthe Epic of Gilgamet, only heroic combat benveen individuals and between men and monsters, andthe grim strugele with death. No great criss in the lfe of Babylonia takes centre stage, only great crises inthe life of a man. The ‘poem's interest isnot in what it means to be a Babylonian as opposed to, say, an Assyrian oran Elamite, bt whatit means 0 bea mortal human as oppposed tan immortal god. On there counss the poem of Gilgamed is no national epic. ‘The poem's universal appeal and humanistic themes were understood early in the bhistory ofits recovery and early commentators such as Peter Jensen plainly had a different understanding of what was meant by ‘national epic. Using the phrase a generation later in his introduction to a Turkish translation of the epic published in 1942, Benno Landsberger explained by way of justification tha the poem had relevance to every Babylonian, that its hero represented the ideal of Babylonian manhood and that is chief subject was the34 ixtropuerion problems of human existence True as thats, think that by citing nationality he missed the point What he wrote would be truer sili dae word ‘Babylonian’ were exchanged with ‘human’. Bohl defended the phrase ‘national epic’ from another angle, pointing out that it ‘nad no rival in Babylonian poetry for power, beauty and scope.” This is undeniably so, but ‘whether truly justifies the phrase is open to argument. Its certainly true thatthe epic is 2 Jong poem on a grand theme which is clearly a very great literary masterpiece, and thus stands ina definitive relation to Babylonian language and culture inthe same way as the plays of Shakespeare do to English language and culture. ‘Some would eject the notion of the poem of Gilgames as a ‘national epie? on other ‘grounds: that ft was lite known in antiquity Other works of Babylonian literaruze—the Creation Epic, for example—are known from many more manuscripts and thus seem to hhave been demonstrably more popular in antiquity. Another factor that informs the claim ‘hat the poem did not enjoy great popular acclaim is a perception that the epfe was poorly represented in first-milensium schools, where the text was neither much used to practise “writing nor often quoted by Babylonian scholars in oral teaching. Only a single pessage from Standard Babylonian Gilgames appears on the extant Late Babylonian school exercise ‘ublets, and lines from the text are sofa, cited only twice in the commentaries that derive from the oral instruction of scholar-teachers: “The question of the epic’s pace in Babylonian literate society and scribal educations one ‘dat needs discussion, Ithas been proposed above that, ike the Sumerian poems of Sulg’s period, the Babylonian Gilgame had it origins in court entertainment, though there is no Sirectevidence fr this. Turning tothe irst millennium, one piece of evidence has been cited in favour ofthe orl performance of traditional narrative poems, The ibraty of the family of nargall ‘chief singer’ from seventh-century ASSur is suspected of revealing the kinds of ‘compositions sung by the ndrv in the Neo-Assyrian period This collection of tablets, Which contains the only extant literary tablets writen by scribes who syle themselves as ‘musical performers, isa fairly typical example ofa first-millennium private Hbrary,inclad- jing many school tablets and some archival documents alongside copies of traditional texts from the scribal waditon. Less typical isthe prevalence among the latter of hymns and ‘mythological poems. The mythological poems include a copy of Standard Babylonian Gil- ‘game’ Tabet VI (MS a)."The hymns, some of them associated with royal personages, were surely copies derived from their performance in cultc contests. may be that on oceasion ~ Larned ins German by Kea 6B Lange ‘kn in as Gene Fp Gi Gime 3 ‘EAL TR de Linge Reh lear rach de es Or 380 (980,911 % Thee let appar eat 4S sate or S893, Line quoedin bef ements 8811023 and SBUI OOo deisee C3 poi omen afae On uci preducs oor inractinsee Gore aylerinn xs tt Sane St Par RAS pp 139-0 aod ae hes The cain af Stine Dale Tae Lay Menpotama (Oss 1993) p80 acre eB et Gipanes weeisedin apaticantton canetberdanatedy sty endenshnawnto ine for Cigale eg by Gooenet Wesel Olen writen nhc of Bh, Mopar Shuler dectipon fe hay igen elon ntuson whe mans ef AVE (Ch), THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC 35 family members sang or recited the mythological poems, ro, but this remains uncertain. (Other texts in their brary for example the lexical sts, were certainly not performed. And ‘ven if the mythological poems were performed, we do not know in what context and we ‘cannot be sure that performed versions ofthese poems would have replicated the fossilized versions ofthe scrial tradition. There is certainly no proof that these and other compasi- tions in the singers’ brary were performed at the royal court. To what extent, if at all, Babylonian narrative poems of the wrist tradition were silliving literature inthe mid-first nillennium is unknown. What we learn from the singers’ library is merely that senior family members aught their juniors the scrbal artand with traditional written texts that ‘bore on the family’s occupation and informedits craft. ‘Moving from court to classroom, we have already seen that in the Old Babylonian period, shen scribal raining was conducted in Sumerian and used Sumerian set texts, nevertheless some learmer scribes were demonstrating very capably that they could set ‘down on clay episodes from Babylonian nurraive poetry, whether by extemporizing, by ‘composing from memory or by copying from a master tablet. The text most often selected for this exercise was Gilgame’. Acpresentwe are much less wellinformed about sribal tring in Babylonia later in the second millenium, butsome evidence is availablein the Middle Babylonian exercise tablets ‘rom Nippur® These show that inthe thirteenth century the Akkadian Gilgame was «text ‘that learner scribes encountered early in their careers. A bere view of sribal education at bout this time can be had from westen centres in Syria and Anatolia. At Ema, Ugaritand "Harmsa there is ample evidence forthe Akkadian Gilgames, At Emar it occurs ss one of a small mumber of Sumerian and Babylonian literary texts of which copies were kept in the scriptorium excavated inthe 1970s. The surviving colophons report tha these tablets were the wotk of advanced scribes, but atleast one of the compositions survives in more than one ‘copy. This fct suggests tha the function ofthese text in the scriprorium vas pedagoric, view thats reinforced by the selection of genres represented, which ae typical of scxibal ‘maining. Copied alongside Gilgames wore follcale Enlil and Namaitar the Fowler and the Sun God) fable (Tamariskand Date Palm) ,other wisdom literature (he Poem of Early Rulers) and tradivonal sayings (Kine milkam), a small corpus of texts that constituted a smattering of lteramre alongside great quantity ofexical list.” ‘A new study of the fist-millennium school tablets that derive from Babylon, Sippar, Ki, Ur and Uruk shows thar then the elementary taining of leaner sribes fll into t8 ‘phases. Two distin repertoires of texts were written on two different types of tablet. On 1 SeeS ey Kae nee nary anise JCS 52200) 9 6-94 The te of Tras and Dae Pam of whch Ma a3 a 74156 aot er the beer peeved cep eanaetdy CW De Eman online nd Taare Rebs {9.2479 (989) pp 161-6 the Pm tary Rar, Mak 69 cnn ong eee Pa Mi 78128 7012744 74H TLsze Pst some A 79-788 el Yt wie, ba sere renon ro dea tat een eng these compen (M Gi, Pees om ae Mean u Or7 9895. © See firter M Ch la O77 pp. 525, 1 Pera Geshe Sih in ani nro Che (ROAT 275 ens 200,36 INTRODUCTION ‘this evidence theless advanced ofthese phases was mostly given over to mastering the basic ssilabary and lexicon but included the essential pantheon, the study of proverbs and an acquaintance with a very limited group of literary texts, These literary texts constituted @ ‘minor element in the fis phase of instruction, for they are present on only atiny numberof the extant tablets They include Gilgame, the birth-legend of Sargon, the Cuthean Legend ‘of Naram-Sin, the literary leter once known as the Weidner Chronicle, literary letter of ‘Samsuiluna, and the Poor Man of Nippur. Oral versions of the legends of Gilgame, Sargon and Nardin-Sin were probably well known to Babylonian children, and thei erly exposure to written texts about these fabled heroes of remotest antiquity in the ist level of schooling sought to take advantage of this fanilariy: The humorous Poor Man of Nippur, widely ci ‘culated in antiquity,” would aso have been a familar and entertaining tale- One may safely ‘observe that young children vil always show interest in a good story. ‘The second phase of elementary instruction exposed the student t9 much more ltera~ ‘are forthe tablets typical ofthis phase often include several passages from different liter ary texts When considered against the waditional body of literature passed down theough ‘the generations, however, the corpus of texts studied atthis point was restricted. Apart from ‘vocabularies and other advanced lexical texts it comprised principally compositions that ‘extol Marduk and Babylon (notably Ena ei, Ludll bef nme, the Marduk prayers and ‘insr = Babylon) and texts related to exorcism, Its purpose, then, was twofold: to fill the students mind with the theological and politcal ideclogy current inthe capital and to pre- pare him for an apprenticeship as ajusior pu, position that we know from colophons was held by many novice scribes. As far as exposure to literature goes, the storytelling that characterized the frst phase has given way to more serious matters, the inculeation of a ‘world-view and the acquisition of practical expertise. Whar emerges from study of Late Bubylonian school tablet is that the Epic of Gilgames was not alone in being poorly represented as a copybook during the second ‘Phase of instruction. Ir seems that many traditional texts, including all the old mythological narratives such as Etana, Adapa, Anz, Nengal and Eretkigal and Atra-hasis, were com> pletely ignored in elementary education I believe that this was not because they were “unpopular burt because they did not suit the pedagogical needs of primary taining in the firse millennium ne, Jemay be instructive to look athow things stood before the frst millennium. iis lear that in the Old Babyionian period there came a point in his education when the pupil moved on ‘rom copying outshort excerpts of traditional literature to insribing long tablets with whole ‘compositions or with substantial sections of them. This move matked the transfer of apprentice scribes from the elementary phases of education to a more advanced engage- ‘ment with the text. Iis the products ofthese advanced students that modern schoarship is currently employing in the task of recovering the Old Babylonian corpus of traditional ‘Sumerian literature 7 onthe ieon stare OR Gurney, Teal he Poo Man of Nipur andi sce pare’ ‘nS 2 0973), 96.19 38: abo" oe Mat para eopee nag,JOS3T CH), {THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE EPIC 37 More importantly forthe present discussion, the Old Babylonian euriculum provides 3 ‘model that can serve fo shed light on the progress of later Babylonian seribes. Our know! edge of first-millennium seriballterarure is dominated by de ables from Kuyuniik, ‘whence came the ryalibraries that were collected by AWurbanipal and hs predecessors on the Asryrian throne and tha provided the feundation-stone forthe discipline of Assyriolo- «gy, Although this collection of tablets remains the richest source of manuscripts for most Babylonian literary compositions it as unique as a library of clay tablets. The norm for what we call aibray, both in Babylonia and in Assyria, isa collection ofrblets stemming froma domestic dueling, typically tablets accumulated over several generations ofa single family in which the men were employed in one or other of the intelectual professions— diviners, exorciss, cut singers—for which literacy ad become necessary. The origin of ‘many wblets, their time and place of composition, ean often be determined from the colophons typically append the main text-And in Late Babylonian colophons of library tablets from Uruk and Babylon we read, time and agaio, that a given tablet belongs 10 So- and-s0,a professional man, but was away written outby Such-and-such, his son, nephew or other young rclave. Writers of such tablets often explicitly identify themselves in colophons as apprentices or junior professionals." A study of the careers of members of the scholarly families of Uruk inthe Persian and Seleucid periods shows that writing schol- sry tablets was generally a task for young men; the same tablets owners, by contrat, were :more senior, usally by a whole generation." Another revealing case isthe two Middle [Assyrian copies of a bilingual hymn to Ninisinna writen on the same day by sons of the same father (junior seribes?)seach brother checked the work ofthe other. tis more lau- sible to explain this eventnotas evidence tha, or some reason, the father needed two copies ofthis text, bur as wimess roa rest ofthe proficiency ofsribal apprentices. “We know thatthe scrbal art in Mesopotamia was, like many 2 traditional craft, passed ‘down through the generations from father son Itseems tome very likely that most tablets ‘written by youngsters for tei seniors are the final products ofa boy's education. They were the proofthathe had mastered theart of writing andthe immense body ofearing that went ‘with In tie view very many manuscripts of literary texts from thefrst-millennium sites— Su Harge Kophon 818,31, 97-8 100, 1025, 143, 1469, 167, 0pm, 92. Urakseie members of oestriol ten har oe ou ees te Utne Bison #0 9,098), andy ounpt ers nee er amano were roby eased marge hd os 89.84 958, 86,9. "Ser Bid, dex raps’ Smt arpa Guarnoveie) apprentice pe sdewinin ce a lrg, ssi pv mana slug, nero eae ot ‘Shane “ree genus hr apr pie lr america een alin pp 2056, bo ere hse aeons Gr» Re, oa nel MOEN (Fachabiane. Ser fortcomine wes Beano Rabean Two shal’ ster ately une LE Rereand LL Bag, Thence of Anbu’ Fab p. 331-1, bee thy conceit sre tm shasta scorer In he ety sap bewrteecpiel aHeS.. Me e onned bls aye onan SSivicrw wp) Conary eruncentnting tee no cencefo he ie An uns ate wer ‘Sschoy bles ater when he nas 2) Theater clophone chem cn howneroaet writeny Hs [RAR 16 0 Hanger Kap a cfr Greg, RAS 1987.9. 10.