IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 5, NO.
1, JANUARY 2014
PHEV Utilization Model Considering Type-of-Trip
and Recharging Flexibility
Pia Grahn, Student Member, IEEE, Karin Alvehag, Member, IEEE, and Lennart Sder, Senior Member, IEEE
AbstractElectric vehicles (EVs) may soon enter the vehicle
market in large numbers and change the overall fuel usage within
the passenger transport sector. With increased variable consump-
tion from EVs together with anticipated increased production
from variable sources, due to renewable wind and solar power,
also the balancing of the electric power system incur increased
attention. This emphasizes the importance of developing models
to estimate and investigate the stochasticity of personal car travel
behavior and induced EV charging load. Several studies have
been made in order to model the stochasticity of passenger car
travel behavior but none have captured the charging behavior
dependence of the type-of-trip conducted. This paper proposes a
new model for plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) utilization
and recharging price sensitivity, to determine charging load
profiles based on driving patterns due to the type-of-trip and
corresponding charging need. This approach makes it possible
to relate the type-of-trip with the consumption level, the parking
location, and the charging opportunity. The proposed model is
applied in a case study using Swedish car travel data. The results
show the charging load impact and variation due to the stochastic
PHEV type-of-trip mobility, allowing quantification of the PHEV
charging impact on the system.
Index TermsCharging flexibility, electric vehicle charging
(EVC) behavior, load profiles, Plug-in-hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs), price sensitivity, type-of-trip.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE USAGE OF internal combustion engine vehicles con-
tributes to a large part of all greenhouse gas emissions
around the globe. These emissions could be cut drastically if
all passenger cars instead were electricity-driven based on the
power production mix. With a change into an electricity-driven
passenger vehicle fleet, the electric power sector will find it-
self having a considerably increased amount of variable elec-
tricity consumers, consuming power from the grid due to travel
and electric vehicle charging (EVC) behaviors. These travel and
EVC behaviors will thus, to some extent, create new quantities
in the overall load profiles and introduce new load variations
related to the stochastic individual car travel behaviors. If for
example all passenger vehicles in Sweden of around 4.5 mil-
lion were electricity-driven and 50% happened to be charging
at the same time, this would mean a load increase of 5100 MW.
Manuscript received October 22, 2012; revised March 27, 2013 and July 30,
2013; accepted August 13, 2013. Date of publication October 07, 2013; date of
current version December 24, 2013. Paper no. TSG-00741-2012.
The authors are with the KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School
of Electrical Engineering, Electric Power Systems, SE-100 44 Stockholm,
Sweden (e-mail: pia.grahn@ee.kth.se).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2013.2279022
1949-3053 2013 IEEE
139
In 2012 the Swedish demand reach a maximum of 26035 MW
in the morning hours 9 A.M.10 A.M. of February 3rd [1]. If
many electric vehicles (EVs) starts charging when arriving to
work and the timing for the charging coincides with the timing
for the load peak, it would significantly increase the load peak.
This makes it important to investigate travel behaviors and fu-
ture charging patterns of EVs.
The increased amount of EVs with variable charging con-
sumption is followed also by an increased opportunity for the
EVs to act as individual and flexible loads in the system. Flex-
ible EV batteries could prove themselves to become useful in a
smart grid, and the exemplified additional EVC load could in-
stead help mitigate load variations and load peaks. The oppor-
tunity of using EV batteries as grid ancillary services has for
example been studied in [2][5]. The potential of using EV bat-
teries as flexible loads will depend on the randomness of parking
events, charging opportunities, charging costs, and charging be-
havior and there will exist a potential only if some level of flex-
ibility is assumed for the charging behavior of the EV drivers.
Previous research has been carried out in the sense of opti-
mizing the EVC with the purposes of minimizing the customer
charging cost [6], [7], maximizing the aggregator profit [8],
maximizing the use of the networks [9][11], and minimizing
system losses and improving voltage regulation [12]. However,
these optimization approaches are assuming external charging
control based on given information of the driving and EVC
behavior. If knowing the starting times and/or ending times
and the EVC demand, an external actor, often called an aggre-
gator, could optimize the charging duration and/or the charging
power. However, this requires that the external actor knows
the charging demand and can impact the charging time and/or
charging power for several vehicles.
Several studies have been made in order to capture the
stochasticity of passenger car travel behavior, without having
the driver sharing information concerning the next trip in the
plug-in moment. In order to estimate load profiles, the base
cases in these mobility models are in broad terms based on
the assumptions that vehicle owners will travel and park in the
same way as they do today and likely connect their vehicle for
charging as soon as they are parked, an outlet is available and
there is a need for a refill. This is in literature referred to as un-
controlled charging and was modeled with various approaches
in [13][17]. In both [13] and [14] predefined starting times for
the charging were considered and in [16][17] it was assumed
that the vehicles were connected for charge only after the last
trip of the day, based on data of the last arrival time. In [18]
the uncontrolled EVC behavior was described with a Markov
Chain model in order to find the network line loading due to
140 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 5, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014

EVs. The model in [18] does consider charging at several times

during the day related to the driving behavior, parking events
and additional charging opportunities. However, that approach
thus does not capture the dependence between the time for
movement and the consumption during that movement, but
treats them separately, loosing the time-dependency of the
consumption during the movement. The publications [13][19]
all have the general purpose to find the load impact of antici-
pated future EVC behavior to the grid. However, none of them
have included the stochasticity of all parking events related
to the type-of-trip conducted in time and their relationship
to the EVC load and the eventual need to drive on a second
fuel and be a flexible recharger. In [19] a Markov model was
developed allowing simulations of plug-in-vehicle mobility and
charging flexibility that takes into account the dependency of
the trip duration and the consumption during that trip. However,
that paper did not take into account different parking states
with or without charging opportunities, the time-dependent
type-of-trip, the consumption during a type-of-trip or the usage
of a second fuel versus a fast charging option. It was also
not possible to evaluate the electricity and second fuel cost
for flexible rechargers compared to inflexible rechargers and Fig. 1. PHEV utilization model structure.
related emissions. This is all considered in the model
presented in this paper. II. PROPOSED PHEV UTILIZATION MODEL CONSIDERING
This paper introduces a Markov chain model with which it TYPE-OF-TRIP AND RECHARGING FLEXIBILITY
is possible to simulate detailed plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle
The model in this paper focuses on PHEVs with external bat-
(PHEV) mobility behavior considering the type-of-trip and re-
tery charging possibilities and a second engine that could be run
lated charging opportunities including flexible recharging due
by a non-electric fuel. In order to simulate the flexibility of bat-
to charging price sensitivity. The model takes into account the
tery charging in the electric power system, a Markov model is
dependency of the trip duration and the consumption during that
developed. The Markov model is chosen because of the ran-
trip. In the model the consumption from the battery or the second
domness in car traveling, and the car trips are seen as events
fuel takes place during the vehicle movement related to the
following a stochastic process. The Markov property is here as-
type-of-trip conducted. The new PHEV utilization model con-
sumed to apply to car travels, hence future states of a vehicle
sidering type-of-trip and recharging flexibility thus takes into
are assumed to be independent of earlier states up to the given
account detailed starting times and ending times for passenger
state. The probabilities in the Markov chain are parameterized
car trips dependent on type-of-trip and relates them to parking
to replicate observed driving patterns which are time-of-day and
events with different charging opportunities, also capturing a
day-of-week dependent. The proposed PHEV utilization model
second fuel usage. By using the utilization model it is pos-
is presented in Fig. 1.
sible to evaluate PHEV charging load profiles and standard de-
viations including PHEV recharging flexibility. It is also pos-
A. Electric Vehicle Utilization
sible to evaluate the cost of the electricity usage versus the cost
of a second fuel for flexible rechargers compared to inflexible In each time step , a stochastic variable describes an
rechargers and also related emissions. The modeling ap- event and the stochastic process is defined as where
proach requires that statistics or estimations of passenger car is the time interval for discrete time , [21].
travel behavior are available. The Markov chain includes a set of states that could oc-
The proposed model is implemented in a case study with cupy, and to model the PHEV mobility, the set of states that
data from a detailed Swedish National Travel Survey named a PHEV can occupy is based on the natural states of a ve-
RES0506 [20]. This type of National Travel Survey is made hicle in use: driving and parked. Here, the PHEV can occupy
in many countries in addition to Sweden, for example in U.S., one of the states; Parking state, or Driving
U.K., Germany, Denmark, The Netherlands, New Zealand, and state, , (box in Fig. 1). Hence, the set of states
South Africa. The simulation results provide information re- is . The transition probability for
garding PHEV mobility due to the type-of-trip, charging du- a vehicle to change state from to in one time step is denoted
rations and charging load and second fuel usage as a function as where . The transition matrix has the
of time, making it possible to visualize PHEV utilization and size of , where the elements of the
charging impact to the overall load. This allows actors on the matrix are the time-dependent transition probabilities with
electricity market, as for example distribution system operators , (box in Fig. 1). Several elements in are zero
(DSOs), to account for future PHEV charging load variations since changing from a driving state to another driving state re-
and quantify load impact on the system. quires that the PHEV first occupies a parking state. The same
GRAHN et al.: PHEV UTILIZATION MODEL CONSIDERING TYPE-OF-TRIP AND RECHARGING FLEXIBILITY 141

holds for changing state from a parking state to another parking where is the number of PHEVs that are starting a type-of-
state when the PHEV first needs to occupy a driving state. trip and is the number of PHEVs that
In box in Fig. 1 charging opportunities in parking states re- are ending a type-of-trip at time . The total
lated to the type-of-trip are defined. If the PHEV occupies any of number of driving PHEVs in driving state is:
the parking states the PHEV is parked. If the PHEV
occupy any of the driving states the PHEV is run- (5)
ning and thus consuming electricity from the battery given there
It is assumed that the probability to start a type-of-trip is inde-
is enough left, otherwise the second engine and its fuel is used.
pendent of current parking state. The elements of the time-de-
The driving states represent several type-of-trips performed by
pendent transition matrices is estimated as:
the PHEV between the different parking locations. After occu-
pying a parking state, the PHEV can either stay or end up in
any driving state. In the driving states, the PHEV can have dif- (6)
ferent electric power consumption or fuel consumption due to
the type-of-trip. The parking states offer different charging op- for changing from any parking state into driving state , and
portunities. After occupying a driving state the PHEV can end
up in a parking state with charging opportunity dependent on (7)
the type-of-trip conducted. The Markov chain starts in an initial
state at time step 0, by letting a PHEV occupy one of the states for changing from driving state into parking state . For re-
in the set . The initial state probabilities are: maining in parking state the element is estimated as:

(1) (8)

From these, the initial state for PHEV is sam-

For remaining in driving state the element is:
pled. The probability for vehicle to occupy a state
in the next time step is .
is equal to the row in the matrix which corresponds (9)
to the state in time step . Time-dependent state sequences for
events at time steps for each PHEV may hence be
generated by comparing the probabilities in the corresponding C. Electricity Driving Mode
row with a random number sampled from a uniform distribution
The state of charge (SOC), , for PHEV increases
(box in Fig. 1). If the PHEV is parked in state
if the PHEV is charging with where is
at time , thus , then one takes the first row in
the charging load, the charging efficiency, and the time
and samples the next state , from the probabilities in this
step length. If the PHEV is consuming electricity the SOC de-
row.
creases with where is the electric power
B. Estimation of State Transition Probabilities consumption as a function of the velocity , and the electricity
consumption level , due to the type-of-trip, (box in Fig. 1).
The transition state probabilities for changing states are time- If the PHEV is parked and connected without charging the SOC
dependent, and a PHEV can only occupy one state at a certain remains the same as in previous time step. If the PHEV is parked
time step . In order to estimate the transition state probabilities, and disconnected the battery is assumed to be self-discharging
an initial number of parked vehicles is expressed as the sum with an estimated rate of . Hence, the following holds:
of the shares of the maximum numbers of PHEVs in
parking states, : if charging,
if consuming,
if disconnected,
(2) if connected.
(10)
For each PHEV , the battery has initially a level of and
The initial number of driving vehicles is expressed as the the SOC of the battery lies in between an individual minimum
sum of the initial numbers of PHEVs in driving states, SOC level , for battery life sustaining reasons, and a fully
: charged battery:

(11)
(3)
PHEV utilization parameters can further be found, (box in
The total number of parked PHEVs in the next time step is: Fig. 1). The cumulative distance driven with electricity is
calculated as:

(4) if running on electricity,

(12)
else.
142 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 5, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014

The cumulative electric energy drawn from the grid is:

if charging,
(13)
else.

With as the variable charging price, the cumulative elec-

tricity charging cost for vehicle is calculated as:

if charging,
(14)
else.

D. Second Fuel Driving Mode Fig. 2. Price-limit example.

The second fuel usage , is estimated for when the PHEV

is running on a second fuel. The state of tank (SOT), , sufficiently high for the PHEV recharger to become flexible.
can be calculated in each time step by reducing the tank due to The flexible recharger then agrees on postponing the charging
the velocity and the second fuel consumption level , related moment if the SOC level for PHEV is not below a certain frac-
to the type-of-trip. If there is not enough fuel in the tank for tion . It is assumed that the charging reacts on price signals.
driving in the next time step, a refill may take place: It is also assumed that the total electricity charging cost/km,
if refueling event, for both slow and medium charging, is less than the second
if consuming, fuel cost/km, so that the electricity charging is preferred over
else. a second fuel refill. In the flexible case the following condition
(15) is added to (10):
The initial is assumed to be , with .
It is now possible to count the cumulative number of refill events
. (20)
To model the individual price-limit for which a flexible
(16) recharger decides to postpone the charging moment, the mean
daily charging price is used. A daily price-limit , is set
for each individual as:
where is a binary variable, adding up to the number of
refueling events. It is also possible to calculate the cumulative (21)
distance driven with the second fuel for vehicle .
where is a random variable that is sampled for each flexible
if running on second fuel, individual, but kept constant the whole day, from a uniform dis-
(17) tribution . The time periods , for when the
else.
flexible rechargers are postponing the charging moment are de-
If knowing the fuel cost per liter , and the number of total fined by:
refills needed , the cumulative second fuel cost , at time
may also be calculated: (22)

A forecasted daily charging price and an individual price-

(18)
E. Flexible Recharging and Price Sensitivity
A charging price is here assumed to follow price signals
from the electricity spot price capturing the daily variations,
with forecasts performed one day before. This means that the
charging behavior could be set to react to the spot price varia-
tions. A variable charging price at time is set by sampling a
daily charging price and adding a charging price constant :
(19)
H is added in order to model an extra cost added by for example
the retailer. It is assumed that each slow and medium charging
event has a fixed cost which is added to the cumulative
variable charging cost , cost is assumed to be constant for each fast charging event, and
To model charging price sensitivity, time periods , are
defined for when the electricity charging price is assumed to be
limit are illustrated in Fig. 2. If the SOC is running low
when the flexible recharger is performing a trip, it is assumed
that a flexible recharger stops at a fast charging station during
and recharges the battery instead of running on the second
fuel. It is assumed that in these cases a fast charging station exits
in a reachable distance. The battery is charged with a charging
power of at a fixed fast charging cost of , while the
distance driven and consumption are kept constant. Both the fast
charging and the tank refill are assumed to be made during a
time step when the vehicle is performing a trip, and the vehicle
is assumed to stop in order to refill the battery or the tank. The
movement for the vehicle during a refill or fast charging event
at one time step is therefore neglected.
It is assumed that the fixed cost is if one
wants to charge with high power at a fast charging station. This
is added as an extra cost for flexible rechargers which have this
option when performing a trip and the SOC runs low. The total
GRAHN et al.: PHEV UTILIZATION MODEL CONSIDERING TYPE-OF-TRIP AND RECHARGING FLEXIBILITY 143

cumulative charging cost for vehicle at time is calcu- TABLE I

lated as: CASE STUDY

(23)

where is a binary variable adding up to the number of slow

and medium charging events, and is a binary variable
adding up the number of fast charging events for vehicle at
time . TABLE II
STATES RELATED TO TYPE-OF-TRIP AND CHARGING OPPORTUNITY
F. Load Profiles
The charging load from the charging for PHEV at
time step is calculated as:
if charging in slow mode,
if charging in medium mode,
if charging in fast mode,
if self-discharging.
(24)
The expected mean load profile from one vehicle is further esti-
mated using Monte Carlo simulations for samples, (box
in Fig. 1). The expected standard deviation is estimated
and the expected total mean load profile is estimated by adding
the overall mean load , to the expected mean load from a
number of PHEVs, (box in Fig. 1).

(25)

Furthermore, the distance driven with electricity , the total

electricity consumed from the grid , the total charging cost
, the distance driven with the second fuel and the total
second fuel cost , may all be obtained for each vehicle at
time allowing for estimations of expected values and standard
deviations using Monte Carlo simulations for samples.

III. CASE STUDY

To show the value of the model developed in this paper, a
case study is carried out. The case study shows the importance
of having a more detailed model including the type-of-trip and
the recharging flexibility, (the model in Fig. 1), compared to a
simpler model. Case I is a case with inflexible rechargers con-
sidering the new model with various types-of-trips and related
charging opportunities. Case II is a case with flexible rechargers
considering the new model with various types-of-trips and re-
lated charging opportunities. Case III is a case with inflexible
rechargers only considering one type-of-trip and one charging
opportunity based on a previous model in [19]. The cases are
summarized in Table I. Compared to Case III based on model
in [19], the new model takes into account different charging op-
portunities related to the type-of-trip and the velocity and con-
sumption level related to the type-of-trip, which were neglected
in earlier models. With the proposed model it is also possible
to define type-of-trips that are related to parking opportunities
without charging outlets. The flexibility is also developed fur-
ther allowing for the choice between fast charging and driving
on a second fuel due to price sensitivity. The new model al-
lows for calculations of emissions, distance driven with
Fig. 3. Transition states.
the second fuel, and electricity and utility costs for inflexible
rechargers compared to flexible rechargers.
A. Travel Behavior Data
In the case study, the number of parking states are set
to 3, (A, B, and C), and the number of driving states are
set to 10. In parking states it is assumed that the ve-
hicle is parked with charging opportunities and in the state
the PHEV is parked without charging opportunity. If the PHEV
occupy any of the driving states 110, the PHEV is performing
a type-of-trip with errand 110. The PHEV is assumed to be
parked initially in state . The driving and parking states with
their charging opportunities are set according to Table II, (box I,
Fig. 1), and the transition state probabilities are illustrated in
Fig. 3, (box II, Fig. 1). Cases I.a, I.c, II, and III all represents
a weekday while Case I.b represents a Saturday. For Case I.a,
Case I.b, and Case II it is assumed that parking states A offer
144
Fig. 4. Share of starting vehicle trips a weekday used to model PHEVs driving
pattern with type-of-trip defined in Table II, [20].
medium charging power outlets, parking states B offer slow
charging power outlets and parking state C offers no outlets.
For Case I.c it is assumed that parking state C offers medium
charging power outlets while parking states A and B offer no
outles. For Case III slow charging is assumed to be offered at
all parking events.
This leads to a transition matrix, (box III, Fig. 1), on the form
shown in the equation at bottom of the page, where . Pas-
senger car travel data can for example be found in the Swedish
National travel survey (RES0506) [20]. The RES0506 database
covers detailed travel information from the period of 1st Oc-
tober 2005 to 30th September 2006 of respondents movements,
mode of transport, errand of the journey, starting and ending
times. In the database information can also be found concerning
gender, age, employment, holding of driving licences, and the
households number of cars as well as housing form. Data for
the amount of a type-of-trip with car starting, or ending
, at time , were obtained from RES0506. The data were pri-
marily hourly, whilst for the simulations they were interpolated
into hourly steps. The share of these type-of-trips
starting and ending times for a weekday are illustrated in Figs. 4
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 5, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014
Fig. 5. Share of ending vehicle trips a weekday used to model PHEVs driving
pattern with type-of-trip defined in Table II, [20].
and 5. The travel behaviors for the car trips made in Sweden
during average weekdays and weekend days were divided into
groups according to type-of-trips performed in the RES0506
database. The result of this grouping is presented in Table II.
The number of car travel data-points were , and in
order to estimate the transition probabilities the initial number of
driving vehicles in type-of-trip , for weekdays were set to
, , ,
, . The estimations result in a transition
probability matrix for each time step and
weekday, Saturday, or Sunday.
The velocity is assumed to be type-of-trip dependent. Fur-
thermore, the electricity consumption , and the second fuel
consumption , are assumed to be type-of-trip and velocity-
dependent. The type-of-trips are categorized in three groups,
. The grouping is made based on the character-
istic of the type-of-trip which is assumed to impact the velocity
and consumption due to external conditions such as for example
driving in a rural or urban area. The grouping is made consid-
ering the errand, and commuting type-of-trips 1, 2, and gro-
ceries shopping type-of-trip 3 are set to belong to . These
(26)
GRAHN et al.: PHEV UTILIZATION MODEL CONSIDERING TYPE-OF-TRIP AND RECHARGING FLEXIBILITY 145

type-of-trips are assumed to be similar to each other and per-

formed with a relatively low mean velocity and consumption.
The type-of-trips 5, 6, 8, and 9 are trips related to bank, post,
medical care, restaurant or entertainment errands, and these are
here set to belong to . These type-of-trips are assumed to
be similar to each other and performed in an urban environment
with a slightly higher mean velocity and consumption than for
. The type-of-trips 4, 7, and 10 are trips related to other
shopping, visiting family and friends or other errands, and these
are here set to belong to . These type-of-trips are assumed
to include more highway driving implying a higher mean ve-
Fig. 6. Sample of one day Case I PHEV utilization. (a) Transition states. (b)
locity and consumption. Second fuel state of tank, . (c) Battery state of charge, . (d)
It is thus assumed that the consumption level while driving Charging load profile, .
holds for type-of-trips 1, 2, 3, is for type-of-trips 5, 6, 8, 9,
and is for type-of-trips 4, 7, 10. The electricity consumption found to be around 2.382 millions [25]. To illustrate a maximum
or second fuel consumption , while driving is assumed impact of EVC in this area the number of PHEVs is set to
to be related to three different velocities sampled from 2.382 millions. The time step length is set to hours,
normal distributions with 20% standard deviation from mean: and the time period simulated is one week, .
, and The time period is simulated for samples.
. These velocities are used to find the distance driven
and the electricity or second fuel used in each . C. Charging Price Data
Depending on the driving cycle, the electricity consumption The charging price is sampled from days of spot
of an EV is in [22] estimated to lie in between 0.12 kWh/km and price data from Nordpool in JanuaryMars 2012 [24]. A daily
0.20 kWh/km. Electricity consumption levels are sampled spot price is here sampled from where is the
from normal distributions with 10% standard deviation from standard deviation. The variable charging price is set by
mean: , and adding to the spot price and also a fixed
. This results in three elec- charging cost for each slow and medium charging event,
tricity consumptions levels kWh/h when driving. of 1 euro, and for each fast charging event a fixed cost
The second fuel consumption levels are sampled from of 2 euro. The individual variation in the price-limit is allowed
sampled from normal distributions with 10% standard deviation to vary with 17% less than the mean price , during weekdays
from mean: , , and 1% during weekend days, set by
, respectively. This results in .
three consumptions liters/h when driving using To be able to compare energy demand and emissions,
the second fuel. For Case III values for , and are used. the second fuel is assumed to be diesel with an energy content
of 9.7 kWh/liter and an emission rate of 2.67 kg , and
B. Charging Behavior Data the emission due to the electricity use is assumed to be 0.1 kg
The minimum SOC in order to sustain battery life-time re- based on a Nordic production mix.
quirements is assumed to be in the interval .
The self-discharging rate when parked and disconnected is IV. RESULTS
assumed to be [23]. The self-discharging This section presents results of simulations made with the
beyond the first 24 hours of around 1 to 2 percent per month model in Fig. 1 compared with the model in [19]. The simula-
is neglected in this case study. The battery size , tions were performed with MATLAB 7.10.0 on a computer with
and the individual tank size are assumed to be Processor: Intel(R) Core(TM) i5 CPU M 540 @ 2.53 GHz. In-
uniformly distributed in the intervals [9,11] kWh and [45,55] stalled memory (RAM): 4 GB. System type: 32-bit Operating
liter, respectively. For the individual flexible rechargers, (Case System.
II), the minimum fraction of the battery levels are set to An example of the transition between states for an inflexible
. The slow charging , is set to 2.3 kW, Case I PHEV during a week is presented in Fig. 6, showing the
for one-phase charging at (230 V, 10 A), the medium charging states; Parked, P represented by 13 and Driving, D by 413
to 3.7 kW for (230 V, 16 A) and the fast charging to 50 (box IV, Fig. 1). The SOC in the PHEV battery, the SOT due
kW. The charging efficiency , is set to 90%. The added load to driving and refueling, and the charging load induced by the
is the overall electricity use in Swedish area SE3 based on data PHEV are shown (box V, VI, Fig. 1). Fig. 7 shows how the sim-
for 21 weekdays in February, 12 Saturdays in JanuaryMarch, ulation of converges at 6 P.M. for samples.
and 12 Sundays in JanuaryMarch 2012 in Sweden [24]. The The simulation time for 1000 samples with the method is ap-
total Swedish area SE3 includes counties such as Gotland, proximately 1 h.
Stockholm, Sdermanlands, Uppsala, Vrmland, Vstmanland,
rebro, stergtland, and parts of Jnkping, Halland, Kalmar, A. Resulting Load Profiles and PHEV Utilization
Vstra Gtaland, Gvleborg, and Dalarna. The total number of After the simulations, (box VII, Fig. 1), the overall load is
people with a car and a drivers licence in these counties are added to the charging load (box VIII, Fig. 1) and resulting ex-
146 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 5, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014

Fig. 7. Convergence at 6 P.M., .

Fig. 9. Case I.a. Expected mean load a weekday with 100% inflexible PHEVs
TABLE III charging at parking state A, , and , .
AVERAGE WEEKLY PHEV UTILIZATION AND COST

Fig. 10. Case II. Expected mean load a weekday with 100% flexible PHEVs
charging at parking state A, , and , .

Fig. 8. Inflexible Case I, compared to flexible Case II, weekly PHEV utiliza-
tion, emissions and costs. (a) Electricity charging cost. (b) emissions.

pected load profiles and additional utilization parameters are ob-

tained, (box IX, Fig. 1). In Table III results regarding costs and
fuel usage are listed. The flexible recharger drives more in elec-
tric driving mode than the inflexible recharger which instead
uses the second fuel more, due to the fast charging option. Fur-
thermore, the cost/km is less for the flexible rechargers, which
also needs less energy in total. Samples of one weeks average
fuel usage, utility costs and emissions for inflexible and
flexible rechargers are visualized in Fig. 8. Fig. 8(a) shows how
the weekly electricity charging cost/km is more for inflexible
rechargers than for flexible rechargers and Fig. 8(b) shows larger
emissions and kilometer cost for inflexible rechargers. In
Fig. 11. Case III. One type-of-trip with one slow charging at all parking events,
Case II for flexible rechargers, the total distance driven each expected mean load a weekday with 100% inflexible PHEVs, , and
week is less than in Case I for the inflexible recharger and this , .
needs to be considered when comparing the results. The dis-
tance deviation is due to the assumption that the PHEV stops less than during weekdays which is related to less driving during
and recharges at a fast charging station instead of driving with weekend days. In Fig. 13 the load profile is shifted towards the
the second fuel when the electricity in the battery is insufficient middle of the day and the end of the day. This is because only
during a trip. It can be seen in Fig. 9 for Case I.a and Fig. 11 parking state C offers charging outlets in this case.
for Case III that the travel behavior and charging opportunities Comparing Fig. 9 for Case I.a and Fig. 11 for Case III of the
result in charging patterns with load peaks in the morning hours total expected load profile, a difference in the valley between
and evening hours which can be related to charging when ar- the load peaks can be seen. Firstly, this is due to the depen-
riving to work and charging when arriving home after work. dence between the type-of-trip and the velocity and the con-
The timing for these load peaks coincides with the timing for sumption level during that trip inducing a related charging need
overall high demand and high power prices. This should be con- that the new model captures. Secondly, this is due to the de-
sidered if wanting to design incentives in order to impact EVC pendence between the different charging opportunities related
patterns. In Fig. 12 for Case I.b the load profile during a Saturday to the performed type-of-trip. Case I.a in Fig. 9 and Case II
is shown, and it can be seen that the load increase with PHEVs is 10 show a greater load variation with flexible rechargers than
GRAHN et al.: PHEV UTILIZATION MODEL CONSIDERING TYPE-OF-TRIP AND RECHARGING FLEXIBILITY
Fig. 12. Case I.b. Expected mean load a Saturday with 100% inflexible PHEVs
charging at parking state A, , and
Fig. 13. Case I.c. Expected mean load a weekday with 100% inflexible PHEVs
charging at parking state C, , and
inflexible. This is due to the increased stochasticity with indi-
vidual lower boundary for the SOC to postpone charging, and
the individual price-limit. However, as can be seen in Fig. 10
for Case II, a load shift towards the afternoon is possible with
flexible rechargers, smoothing the overall expected mean load
profile and decreasing the additional charging load during load
peaks.
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
With the proposed PHEV utilization and recharging flex-
ibility model developed in this paper, charging patterns
dependent on the type-of-trip are captured based on stochastic
individual car travel behavior and the second fuel usage is
taking into account. The case study results show the differences
of estimated mean load profiles and standard deviations related
to charging opportunities. The stochastic PHEV mobility and
charging behavior due to the type-of-trip creates a greater load
valley in the middle of the day compared to the results of the
simpler model based on the type-of-trip dependencies and
charging opportunities. The results show how the type-of-trips
and different charging opportunities at parking sites impact the
load profiles with a shifting of the EVC load which demon-
strates the importance to include type-of-trip dependencies and
the impact of the related charging opportunities. The results
also show that with flexible PHEV rechargers load peaks
may be mitigated, indicating a potential for load shifting with
flexible PHEV rechargers together with an opportunity of
reducing PHEV utilization costs, second fuel usage and
emissions. With this type of model the charging need in each
time step is estimated implying that if data were available of
147
emissions from the power production in each time step,
this model could be used to estimate the emission related to
time-dependent EVC. This enables for a future extension of
the flexibility model, when a signal for high versus low
emissions could be implemented in addition to the charging
prices, allowing for flexible rechargers to act upon either a wish
to reduce emissions or charging cost according to their choice.
In future work the model can be extended to include models of
the physical power grid and of vehicle-to-grid (V2G).
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Pia Grahn (SM10) was born in Lycksele, Sweden,
in 1984. She received her M.Sc. degree in engi-
neering physics from Uppsala University, Sweden,
in 2009, began her Ph.D. at Electric Power Systems
at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden, in 2010, and her research topic is on the
integration of electric vehicles.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 5, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014
Karin Alvehag (M11) was born in Stockholm,
Sweden, in 1981. She received the M.Sc. degree
in engineering physics and the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering from the KTH Royal Institute
of Technology, Stockholm, in 2006 and 2011,
respectively. Her research topics are distributed gen-
eration, distribution system reliability, risk analysis,
quality regulation, and customer interruption cost
assessments.
Lennart Sder (M91) was born in Solna, Sweden,
in 1956. He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in
electrical engineering from the KTH Royal Institute
of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, in 1982 and
1988, respectively. He is currently a Professor in
Electric Power Systems at the Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH). He also works with projects
concerning deregulated electricity markets and
integration of wind power.