IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, VOL. IGA-6, NO.

6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970 607

Resistance of Low-Voltage AC Arcs

LAWRENCE E. FISHER, FELLOW, IEEE

Abstract-Arcing tests conducted in the electrical laboratory and provide the ball-park most probable values of arc
indicate that the most probable value of resistance of the low- resistance.
voltage arc in ohms is equal to 40 divided by the arcing current to the
0.85 power. It is believed that this equation is approximately correct Knowing the value of resistance Rare it is then possible
for 120 to 600 volt, 60--Hz ac stable arcing as ir a typical arcing burn- to calculate the most probable value of arcing current at
down in a panelboard or switchboard in which the arc length is any point in the low-voltage system where the impedance
approximately 21/2 inches. At any point in the low-voltage system is R + jX by the equation
having an impedance of R + jX, the most probable value of arcing
current is equal to V/(Raro + R + jX). The calculation is made by a Iarc = V/(Rarc + R + jX).
process of iteration starting with the bolted fault value of current.
Curves of arcing current versus bolted fault current simplify The calculation is explained by an example for any
the problem of calculating the arcing-current value. point where the bolted fault impedance is a fixed known
value. Since Rare varies with current, the calculation
involves a simple process of iteration starting with the
INTRODUCTION bolted fault-current value. The calculated arcing current
VALUES for the resistance of typical arcing on low- decreases rapidly with each calculation so that only a few
voltage circuits were determined by single-phase ac calculations are required to obtain the final stable value.
tests in the electrical laboratory. Stable arcing was For any point in a system having a fixed bolted fault
initiated from the end of a bus bar to the box of a panel- current, printout sheets from a computer program indicate
board. The arc resistance was calculated by subtracting the most probable arcing current at that point for the
the measured value of R + jX for a bolted short-circuit typical voltages of 120, 208, 240, 277, and 480 volts at
test from that for the arcing test. Admittedly, low- R/Z factors (power factors) of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0,
voltage arcing- is quite unpredictable. The tests, however, corresponding to bolted fault values from 1000 to 200 000
indicate that the most probable value of resistance of the amperes. Curves plotted from these printout sheets
arc as in a burndown is 40 divided by the arcing current simplify the problem since the final interated value of
to the 0.85 power based on 21/2 inches (6.35 cm) as a arcing fault current is read directly from the curves
typical arc length. MIore generally, the arc resistance for any value of available bolted fault current at that
varies with the length of the arc. The resistance is equal point.
to 25 VL/I0 85 in which L is the arc length in inches; or it is
equal to 155 VL/I0 85 in which L is the length in centi- PRELIMINARY EXPLORATORY TESTS
meters, and I is the arcing current in amperes. The tests A number of exploratory arcing tests were conducted
cover a range from 650 to 41 600 amperes bolted fault in the electrical laboratory in Plainville, Conn., in Sep-
values and 600 to 20 640 amperes arcing-current values at tember 1967 (Table I). The primary purpose of these
voltages from 146 to 277 volts. Further testing is needed tests was to develop an acceptable technique for measuring
using great care in reading the bolted- and arcing-current the arc resistance. These tests were conducted in a small
values to establish the arcing resistance more accurately busway feed-in box with 1/2- and 1-inch through-air
and investigate the influence of other factors. These spacings from bus bar to box. The arcing was initiated by
present tests, however, demonstrate the method of test using the wire from a paper clip to bridge the gap be-
tween bar and box. The wire burned off instantly, and
Paper 70 TP 78-IGA, approved by the Industrial and Com- stable arcing burned continuously until the circuit breaker
mericial Power Systems Committee of the IEEE IGA Group for tripped on tests 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, and 12. On test 9, with an
presentation at the 1970 IEEE Industry and General Applications
Group Annual Meeting, Chicago, Ill., October 5-8. Manuscript open-circuit voltage of 146, the voltage during arcing was
received September 15, 1970. near 125 volts. As was expected, the arcing burned con-
The author is an Electrical Engineering Consultant, West Hart-
ford, Conn. 06107. tinuously, even at this low value of voltage.
608 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970

TABLE I
LOW-VOLTAGE POWER ARCING TESTS, SEPTEMBER 22 AND 25, 1967

Length Bolted Open-

Current Arcing of Arc Fault Circuit Load Did Arc Arcing
Available Current Gap Voltage Voltage PF Maintain Time
Test (amperes) (amperes) (inches) (volts) (volts) (percent) Itself? (cycles)
1 500 1/2 278 5.9 Yes 10
2 1 277 5.9 Yes 10
3 996 1 224 276 7.9 Yes 15
4 996 900 1 224 276 7.9 Yes 15
5 1140 1 240 277 100 No 1
6 1140 1/2 240 277 100 No 11/2
7 980 900 1/2 208 Low Yes 15
8a 940 750 1/2 104 120'/2 Low No 4
8b 940 1/2 104 120'/2 Low No 1/2
9 1150 1000 1/2 125 146 Low Yes 15
10 500 1 186 207 41.3 No 1 l/2
11 500 1/2 186 207 41.3 No 2
12 650 600 1/2 241 278 41.8 Yes 15
Circuit breaker was set to trip at end of 10 cycles on tests 1 and 2 and 15 cycles on tests 3-12.

TABLE II
ARCING TESTS IN BLACK ROCK LABORATORY

Bolted Arcing Arc Was Arcing Was

Current Current Gap PF Arcing Time Box
Test (amperes) (amperes) (inches) (percent) Stable? (cycles) Grounded?
1 1490 1 22 No 0 No
2 1490 1 22 No 2 No
3 1490 1 22 No No
4 2910 1 44 No No
5 2910 1 44 No 1 No
6 2910 2570 1 44 Yes 12 Yes
7 2910 2570 1 44 Yes 12 Yes
8 7400 6000 1 44 Yes 12 Yes
9 10580 8450 1 40 Yes 12 Yes
10 10580 1 40 No 1/2 Yes
11 10580 8450 2 40 Yes 8 Yes
12 10580 2 40 No 0 No
13 25000 2 22 No 1/8 No
14 25000 2 22 No Yes
15 25000 16600 21/4 22 Yes 12 Yes
16 25000 16600 2'/4 22 No Yes
17 41600 22 Yes 12 Yes
18 41600 22 No - Yes
19 41600 20640 31/2 22 Yes 15 Yes
20 41600 20640 4 22 Yes 15 Yes
All tests were conducted single phase at 263 volts.

Tests 5 and 6 tend to indicate that sustained arcing is percent PF, and the arcing current was 600 amperes with
not likely on high power factor circuits, but two tests are a 1/2-inch arc length:
not sufficient to be sure. Experience in arcing on over-
load tests on enclosed switches and circuit breakers show Zbolted = 278/650 = 0.4275 ohm = 0.179 + jO.388 ohm
that the weak unstable arcing at high power factors is Zarc = 278/600 = 0.463 ohm.
easy to interrupt, but vicious arcing at and below 0.45
PF requires a very effective interrupting device. Experi- Since there is no reason for the 0.388-ohm reactance to
mental tests at 80 amperes, 480 volts indicate weak un- change, the total resistance on the arcing test is
stable arcing at 100-percent PF but spectacular sustained A/V.4632- 0.3882 = 0.254 ohm.
arcing at low power factors at the same current and
voltage [1]. A detailed analysis of the results of these Then the arc resistance is
tests is not important since they were intended as pre- 0.254 - 0.179 = 0.075 ohm.
liminary exploratory tests. The decision was made, how-
ever, to use the wire from a paper -clip as the method of This agrees approximately with the equation established
initiating arcing future tests.
on by later tests:
To explain how the arc resistance was determined from
these tests, note that on test 12 at 278 volts open circuit, Rare = 25A/arc length/Ij0rM -=
the bolted or available current was 650 amperes at 41.8- 25\/i72/6000 85 - 0.077 ohm.
FISHER: RESISTANCE OF LOW-VOLTAGE AC ARCS 609

(a) (b) (e)

(d) (e)
Fig. 1. Arcing tests in Black Rock Short-Circuit Laboratory.

ARCING TESTS IN BLACK ROCK LABORATORY edges of the two 1/4- by 2-inch bars at a location in the
upper third of the box. This method was selected based on
On February 6, 1968, in an effort to obtain further
information on the resistance of low-voltage arcing, a its successful use in performing hundreds of arcing tests
number of arcing tests were conducted in the General during a period of over 30 years. Extensive arcing tests in
Electric Company's Black Rock Short-Circuit Laboratory buswavs with bare bus bars and porcelain insulators were
in New Britain, Conn. (Table II). conducted in the 1930's using a paper clip wire to initiate
Since the most serious arcing burndowns have occurred arcing, and it was established definitely that, unless
at 277 volts on 480Y/277-volt systems, it was decided to restricted, single- or three-phase arcing is driven by
conduct the arcing tests at a voltage near or somewhat electromagnetic force away from the source of power
below 277 volts. At the Black Rock Laboratory, the [1]. The force is the same as that in an electric motor
single-phase 263-volt transformer tap was used. Calibrated (Fig. 2). The expired patent of [2] teaches how 480-volt
settings at this voltage were available with (bolted fault) three-phase arcing can be driven any distance to the end
currents ranging from 1500 to 42 500 amperes with still
of the busway so fast that the busway is not damaged
higher values if desired. significantly, and the arc is then extinguished in an en-
For the tests a standard 41/2- by 17- by 30-inch panel- larged end box with protective screen mesh on the end.
board box without front was used with one phase pair of On these arcing tests in the panelboard, it was decided
1/4- by 2-inch bus bars mounted with a 1-inch air space to use the paper clip wire primarily because it burns off
between bars and to the box and another pair with a instantly and produces only a small amount of molten
2-inch air space. The panelboard is shown connected to metal. Also, it was decided to initiate the arcing from bar
to bar and permit the arc to travel at least a short distance
the laboratory terminal in Fig. l(a). Fig. l(b) shows an on the two bars to most accurately simulate the movement
interesting display of 2570-ampere arcing with 2900
amperes available. Fig. l(c) shows the extent of damage
in an actual burndown and yet maintain control of the
after 12 cycles of arcing at 16 600 amperes with 25 350 location of the stable arcing from the end of the one bar to
amperes available. Fig. l(d) and (e) shows the extent of
the box. (On the previous exploratory arcing tests, only
one bus bar was used.)
damage after 20 640-ampere arcing for 12 cycles with
41 600 (bolted fault) amperes available. Arcing Test Voltage and Currents
Method of Arc Initiation and Control All tests were conducted at 263-volt single-phase 60-Hz
ac between the two bars and from one bar to the box.
On each test the arc was initiated by a wire from a The steel box and the bar toward the center line of the
paper clip bent in a U shape placed between the bars with box were connected to one laboratory terminal. On each
the upper ends of the U-shaped wire pressing against the test when the laboratory circuit breaker was closed, the
610 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS)
SHEET OF PAPER ON WHICH HAS BEEN DRAWN THE DOWN-
WARD FLUX CAUSED BY THE CURRENT IN THE BARS AND
CIRCULAR FLUX LINES CAUSED BY THE CURRENT FLOWINC
!TOWARD THE LEFT IN THE ARC. THE CROWDING OF THE
.FLUX LINES BEHIND THE ARC FORCES THE ARC TO
TRAVEL AWAY FROM T'E SOURCE.
Fig. 2. Electromagnetic forces causing single- and three-phase
arcing to travel at high speed in direction away from source of
power.
Fig. 3. Oscillogram of 16 600-ampere arcing current with 25 350
amperes available. Top wave is current, middle wave is supply
voltage, and a timing wave is at bottom.
paper clip burned off, and the arcing was driven instantly
downward to the ends of the bars where it burned con-
tinuously from the end of one bar to the end wall of the
box until the circuit breaker was turned off. Tests were
conducted at the following available bolted fault values:
2910, 7400, 10630, 25350, and 41 600 amperes. The
arcing burned continuously for about 10 or 12 cycles until
the breaker was tripped. The 11-cycle arcing current on
test 19 with 41600 amperes available was 20 640 amperes.
This was repeated on test 20 with almost the same results
except for arc length. On these tests the are length varied
from 1 inch on the first test to 31/2 inches on test 19. The
end of the bar had burned back, and a large hole was
burned in the end wall of the box, increasing the arc
length (Fig. 1(e)) to approximately 31/2 inches. After test
20, the arc length was 4 inches.
Calculation of Arc Resistance
The method used to determine the arc resistance was
as follows. First, the total circuit values of V, I, R, X, and Z
were determined from oscillograms of the bolted fault
short-circuit test. Then from the arcing-test oscillograms
the values of rms current and impedance were determined
NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970
in the same manner. The arcing-current waveshape dif-
fered somewhat from a sine wave due to the wave dis-
tortion produced by the arcing. Therefore, an analysis of
the sine wave was necessary to determine the rms value of
the arcing current. This caused a 5-percent reduction in
the arcing current from the rms value based on the
peak value (Fig. 3). Knowing that the reactance X
remains unchanged, the resistance on the arcing test is
equal to the square root of (Z2 - X2). Then the arc
resistance Rarc = Rare test - Rbolted test. An analysis of
these tests, especially tests 9, 15, and 19, resulted in the
equation for the resistance of low-voltage arcing.
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS
Further carefully planned arcing tests should be
conducted to determine the value of arc r-esistance more
accurately. It is believed, however, that these tests
estab]ish the ball-park resistance in ohms of 60-Hz
ac arcing by the equation
Rare = 25 X/L/IarcO 85
in which R is the arc resistance in ohms and L is the arc
length in inches. In low-voltage panelboards and switch-
boards the distance between opposite-polarity bus bars is
typically 2 inches over surface and at least 1 inch through
air. The length of arc in a typical burndown is believed to
be about 21/2 inches, resulting in
Rarc = 40/Ia,c 8"
However, in some large switchboards, the bus bars are far-
ther apart, and in 240-volt lighting panelboards, for exam-
ple, they are closer together. If a switchboard has bare main
bus bars fed from one end with all tapoff connections
heavily taped, the bars at the output end might be brought
close together and close to the housing to increase the
arcing current or spread apart to decrease it or they may
be provided with an arc extinguisher. A more practical
solution however, appears to be the ground-fault relay
or any means of tripping the main breaker quickly.
It may or may not be significant that on this series of
single-phase tests, no stable arcing was achieved on tests
with the panelboard box ungrounded. For example, stable
arcing did not occur on tests 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, and 13.
Possibly when the box is ungrounded, the electromagnetic
forces expand the loop of arcing from the ends of the
two bars outward on each side, increasing the arc length
until it is extinguished. This probably would not- occur
with three-phase arcing. Note, however, that with the
box grounded, stable arcing did not always occur, for
example, in tests 10, 14, 16, and 18. Those tests on which
stable arcing did occur prove that stable arcing can
occur but do not prove that it will always occur. Con-
versely, the absence of stable arcing on a few tests does
not prove that it can never occur. It is known from ex-
perience and other tests that three-phase stable destruc-
tive arcing can occur on ungrounded systems. For ex-
ample, in some cases with inadequate protection a bus-
way has been burned off completely (Fig. 4).
FISHER: RESISTANCE OF LOW-VOLTAGE AC ARCS

Step 1: For the first step use the bolted value of 49 000
amperes:
Rare = 40/49 0000-85.
By slide rule
49 000 85 = 1000.85 X 4900.85 = 50 X 194 = 9700
Rare = 40/9700 = 0.00413 ohm
Zarc = 0.00413 + 00111 + jO.00554 = 0.00763
Iarc = 277/0.00763 = 36 300 amperes.
Step 2: At 36 300 amperes
Rarc = 40/363000 85 = 0.00530 ohm
Fig. 4. Busway burnoff. To prevent this on grounded and un-
grounded systems, select protective device that will interrupt Zarn = 0.00641 + jO.00554 = 0.00843
arcing current in 6 cycles or less.
Iare = 277/0.00843 = 32 800.
Step 3:
CURVES OF ARCING CURRENT VERSUS
AVAILABLE CURRENT Rarc = 40/6900 = 0.0058 ohm
Computer printout sheets shown in the Appendix list Z = 00691 + jO.00554 = 0.00885
the arcing current corresponding to any given fixed bolted
fault values from 500 to 200 000 amperes at typical voltages I = 277/0.00885 = 31 200 amperes.
of 120, 208, 240, 277, and 480 volts at R/Z factors (power Step 4:
factors) of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 and for arc lengths of
1, 21/2, 4, and 9 inches. Rarc = 40/6600 = 0.00606 ohm
Figs. 5 and 6 show the same output for the 2'/2-inch Z = 00717 + jO.00554 = 0.00906
arc length in the form of curves from which the arcing
current can be read directly. For example, on Fig. 5 at
I = 30 600 amperes.
277 volts with 50 000 amperes available, follow the 450 Step 5:
line to point Q at 0.2 PF; then straight upward reading
31 000-ampere arcing current. This is approximately 0.6 Rare = 40/6400 ohm
= 0.00625
of 50 000 which can be seen on the ordinate scale on the Z = 0.00736 + jO.00554 = 0.0092
left.
IarC = 277/0.0092 = 30 000 amperes.
Calculation of Arcing Burndown Current in USE OF CURVES TO DETERMINE ARCING CURRENT
Main Switchboard
For this same example, the arcing current can be read
Example: Assume a main switchboard or unit sub- directly from the curves of Fig. 6. This method is satis-
station having a 2000-kVA 480Y/277-volt transformer with factory for any point in the low-voltage system where the
49 000 amperes bolted three-phase short-circuit current bolted short-circuit current is a known fixed value such as
available: 49000 amperes, 277 volts at 0.2 PF in this example.
Z3. = 0.00111 + jO.00554 = 0.00565 ohm From Fig. 5 start on the 450 line designated 50 000
amperes (49 000 available), 277 volts at point Q on the
I = 277/0.00565 = 49 000 amperes rms symetrical. 0.2 PF curve; proceed upward reading 30 000-ampere
arcing current.
Assume that the transformer is close to the switchboard This may appear to be a surprisingly high value of
with low-impedance connections so that this 49 000 arcing current. Actually, in this example, if a 3000-ampere
amperes is available three phase and approximately the main circuit breaker has instantaneous trips set at 6 X
same for a single-phase line-to-neutral and line-to-housing 3000 = 18 000 amperes, it would trip instantly for arcing
short circuit in the switchboard. To calculate the most in the switchboard with the result that instead of a costly
probable single-phase line-to-housing arcing burndown burndown, only minor arcing damage would be expected.
current assuming, for example, that two fuses are blown,
proceed as follows. The calculation can be made on the EXPLANATION OF Low VALUES
LL scales of the slide rule or preferably by computer by a OF BURNDOWN CURRENTS
few steps of iteration as follows. This example applies to It should be recognized that there are factors other
any point on the low-voltage system where the bolted than arc resistance that can reduce the current, thereby
fault current is a fixed value such as 49 000 amperes. accounting for much lower currents with the resulting
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FISHER: RESISTANCE OF LOW-VOLTAGE AC ARCS
disastrous burndowns. First, instead of short low-im-
pedance connections from the transformer to the main
protective device, as in a unit substation, it is more
typical, especially in network systems, to have much
longer and higher impedance and sometimes current-
limiting high-impedance connections. Then with a given
R + jX bolted fault three-phase impedance at the trans-
former terminals, it would be necessary to add the rather
high value of impedance for the service-entrance con-
nections. Then the single-phase line-to-housing bolted
fault impedance at the switchboard would be R + jX
plus the total impedance of the service entrance going
out one phase conductor with return to the transformer
neutral by the typically widely spaced grounding and
other conductors. For example, it is typical practice
in many network systems and spot-network systems to
locate the neutral bus bar on the ceiling possibly 10 or 15
feet from the phase bus bars near the floor for the con-
venience of the power company employees or vice versa
[3, fig. 2] with the phase bars on the ceiling, a rather
long total length of run from the transformer terminals
to the switchboard, and the neutral at a lower level.
The result is a significantly higher impedance for the
single-phase circuit going out one phase conductor with
return through the switchboard housing and on the widely
spaced neutral bus bar at 277 volts. [4] shows the ex-
tremely high impedance that can result in a single-phase
circuit out one wire in conduit with return in a widely
spaced ground wire (or structural steel) outside the
conduit. Another factor that has been known to reduce the
burndown current is a spot-network system design with
four transformers but with only one connected when the
accidental arcing occurred during construction. Some-
times, the service-entrance busway housing ends at
the transformer vault wall with no grounding connection
or connection to the neutral at the input end. For arcing
in the busway, the single-phase current would flow
out one phase conductor, through the arc to the busway
housing, thence through the busway housing to the switch-
board housing, then through a grounding conductor to
the neutral in the switchboard, returning to the trans-
former in the busway neutral and open bus bars which may
be widely spaced in the transformer vault. To still further
increase the impedance, all of the bolted grounding
connections in the bars and housings may not be tightened
securely, and in some cases the switchboard housing may
be grounded but not connected directly to the neutral.
Another factor contributing to lower arcing currents
downstream is the somewhat higher impedance of the
line-to-housing circuit of busways and cables in conduit
[5a]. These line-plus-housing impedance values may not be
available from all manufacturers.
Probably the most important factor, however, for arcing
in a large switchboard (rated over 1600 amperes) is that
the arc is likely to be almost 9 inches long. During pro-
longed arcing, the arc length can be expected to increase
as the ends of the bars burn off, resulting in still lower
values of arcing current. Fig. 7 shows that, for a 9-inch
arc at 277 volts, the arcing current would be less
613
than 6000 amperes, even with 200 000 amperes avail-
able.
LINE-TO-LINE SINGLE-PHASE, DOUBLE LINE-TO-LINE,
AND THREE-PHASE ARCING
The results of these tests conducted single phase apply
directly to single-phase arcing at any voltage from line-to-
housing. For three-phase 480-volt arcing from the ends
of the bus bars to the housing, it is believed that the
arcing can be considered as three separate Y-connected
277-volt arcs, each burning from the end of its phase
bar to a ball of fire on the housing. Thus it is believed
that the three-phase arcing current would be the same as
the single-phase line-to-housing arcing current for those
conditions wherein the three- and single-phase bolted
fault currents are the same. Also, for double line-to-
housing arcing, the current is considered to be the same as
three phase. For most points further out on the low-voltage
system, however, the single-phase line-to-housing bolted
and arcing currents are much less than the three-phase
values [b].
As an approximation, the single-phase line-to-line arcing
current would be based on 86 percent of the three-phase
bolted fault current with the arcing current read from the
line-to-line voltage curve provided there is no arcing to a
grounded housing.
DISCUSSION OF THIS WORK IN RELATION TO OTHER
PAPERS AND ARCING BURNDOWNS
The author recognizes that many tests and experi-
mental studies of arcing have been conducted and many
papers written on this subject in addition to the nine
references listed. Unpublished work was done by the
author in the 1930's and 1940's, with results agreeing
fairly closely with those in [7] and this present paper.
Extensive work has been done on dc high-intensity arcing
[8]. Significant information from [8] is that the dc arc
resistance decreases with increasing current up to a certain
point where the arcing changes abruptly to high-intensity
arcing. Then the resistance increases with' increasing
current and "crammed within a fraction of a millimeter of
the anode is 80 to 90 percent of the total energy input
producing temperatures of 7000 to 10 000C and a tail
flame with a flame vapor velocity of 5000 cm/s (100
miles an hour)" [8]. In the tests at Black Rock we saw no
evidence of any abrupt chainge in the arcing in a range
from 100 to 20 000 amperes. The arc resistance continued
to decrease with increasing current. Possibly, time is a
far more important factor than current in producing the
change to high-intensity arcing. Perhaps in these major
burndowns of large switchboards, high-intensity ac
arcing with higher values of resistance is occurring simply
because the current is permitted to continue for 10
minutes or longer, allowing time to raise the temperature
of large masses of copper and steel to the boiling point.
It appears logical that high-intensity arcing did not
occur in the tests at the Black Rock Laboratory because
the arcing current was interrupted in 15 cycles and that it
614 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970
JO V AI f 4R IC O' A M
P` E~ H C M E . = 2 5 i l . g I O
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AMPERES .?PF . 4PV .6PF .3PF 1.0PP AMI>ERES, .PPE 4PF .6PF .3ipF -1.OPF
120'n 500 333 345 312 234 261 120 500 256 216 133 166 1 49
1000) 725 6 44 573 522 475 1 000) 424 356 307 270 242
5000 29935 2571 2250 19913 .1796 5000 10(03 864 762 636 626
1 0000 5247 4456 31366 3413 30513 10000 122.3 1092 991 911 846
20000 31316 7401 6334 5624 5036 2-0000 1363 6123 1136 1119 1060
30000( 11603 9706 ;33 67 7377 6616 3000)0 1 4 13 13/42 1277 1219 1169
40000 13374 11601 10015 8347 7950 40000 14-44 1333 1323 1279 1235
50000 15763 13204 I114214 10115 9109 50000 1459 1409 1 3 62 1319 12819
75000 19363~ 16333 14239 12633 11490 75000 1 431 14445 1410 1379 13-49
100000 21905 13654 163.92 14639 13371 10.0001) 1491 1463 1 -43 6 1411 13;37
150000 2 52 03 21P.76 19436 .17665 16227 150000 1501 1432 1463 1445 1428
200000O 272P202 155 131 337.0o~ 1506 1492 1473 1463 1450
2 09 500 443 422 39 3 376 355 2013 500 397 360 3239 300 277
1000 879 322 770 723 6831 1000 757 679 613 553 511
5000 4140 3799 3499 3235 3003 5000 -3225 2,303 2477 2211 1995
1 0000 793~3 7261 6631 6035 5613 10000 5313 4990 4353 33,6 3 3470
20000 15935, 13744 12437 11326 10377 20000 10127 3574 7426 6551 5867
30-000 22P231 193 54 17T364 16191 14779 30)000 13713 11533 9955 3771 73 53
40000 2392P3 25699 23026 20301 173937 40000 1 679 5 14075 12135 10691 9577
50000) 35411 31335 2-7934 25215 22903 50000 19494 16307 14053 12393 11113
75000 50923 44716 39693 3 559 3 32223 75000 25011 20920 13075 1593 1 14373
100000 65635 57307 50651 452;30 40396 100000 2-9277 2456.6 2-1305 13905 17059
150000 93239 30739 70933 63139 561352 150000 354141 300410 26234 23499 21333
200000 119950 102-394 39587 79520 71466 200000 39652 33993 30006 27016 24673
240 500 457, 434 412 392 374 240 500 416 3133 353 327 304
1000 901 3~~ ~~~~~~50
&.04 760 721 1000 304A' 733 670 616 569
5000 4303 3995 3719 3471 3249 5 r,000 3533 3173 2343 2566, 2334-
10000 3376 7713 7125 6606 6145 10000 6663 53,32 51064 4623 4179
20000 16203 14736 1 354-3 12469 11523 20000 1 21 30 10463 9176 8154 7334
30000 23763 21552 19645 18001 1 6530 30000 16997 14547 12679 11226 10074
40000 31119 23093 25516. 23305 21407 40000 2I1436 1322 40 1 53 40 13996 12543
50000) 33315 34473 31210 23433 26062 50000 2-5535 21635 13743 16533 14312
75000 55749 49319 441347 40667 37134 75000 34636 291/46 2-5164 22171 19849
100000 72551 64507 57330 52265 47597 100000 424'34 35616 30703 27053 24231
1501000 104719 92/415 32355 740S31 67217 1 500'00 5 5/196 46397 40014 35303 31632
200000 135337 1 13320 105431 94526 35556 200000 659 34 55159 47669 42160 37926
277 500' 465 444 425 407 390 277 500 432 402 375 350 3283
1000 919 3 74 33 793 756 1 000 342 777 719 667 621
15r000 4A3 3 /4157 3906 3676 3463 5000 3836 5 34:34 3160 2 3383 2-646
10000 3634 3 03
O)6 75/46 7060 6623 10000 7 3 34 6536 53 70 5313 4344
2-0000 1 69 36 15645 1449 6 1 3474_1 12564 20000 13727 1.2077 10736 9639 8734
300001 241972 22951 21163 19596 180203 3(0000 19643 17144 15143 13539 12226
40000 323Pl5 0 30073 2-7647 25517 23643 ~ 40000 25214 213q7~3 1924-3 17151 15454
50009 40603 37062 33975 31233 23932 50000 30509 2-6351 23109 20544 18433
75000 575/3 540137 49-233 451 73 41625750 429 367 31966 283313 25411
100000 77993 70470 64027 53506 53759 100000 54,022 46003 399 70 35325 31663
150000 113770 102121 92272 83927 76323 150000 74-033 62612 54168 47763 42766
2010000 1 433 62 132524 I119 2 53 1 0-3111I 93695 200.000 91734 77164' 66610 53634 52539
430 500 A393 470 453 446 435 430 500 .463 44-9 431 414 393
1000 961 933 907 831 8357 1000 927 835 8 46 809 774
15000r 4 7 32S 4560 4396 .4241. 4093 5000 4494 42315 3997 3779 3573
10(000 9335 90107 8650 3313 7995 1 0000 13326 8264 7752 72.37 6965
200001) I~ 513536 1 7753S 169,31 162-52 15569 20000 17273 16055 14960 13976 -13092P
30000 2 7693 2 633S3 2-5164 P-240;2k 22954 30000 25530 23619 21915 20395 1903.3
_400 00 64 34932- 3 32441 31672. 30210400 335 312 262 267 279
500100 4 5 7 140 43409 412P4.3 3 9232A 37366 5n000 4160-59 33294
)1 35332 32714 30/402
75000 63050 641369 60967 571324A 5/49 22 75000 61 300 56052 5 14 62 4 7 449 43933
100000 901 53 %35072 803n38 7 60)7 31 72113 100(000 3I0 503 73319 67077 61655 56935
1530 3919 1259)0I? 118561 11134r-A4 105700 1 50000) 117937 1 06 762 97164i 33911 8 1795
29 00l)r77?n(6 1%661 4 0 156052n
5 146361I 1 3 3'491) 2)000on 1 54314, 13~9 03 5 126095 1 1 5010 105519

Fig. 7. Fig. 8.

will never occur in actual service if the arcing current is use of a computer program to calculate bolted short-
interrupted quickly. This could be investigated in future circuit currents available three phase, single phase,
tests with a duration of 5 to 10 minutes with the best line-to-line, single-phase line-to-full-size neutral, single-
possible laboratory equipment in order to make a more phase line-to-housing, and the most probable single-
scientific study of all the factors and parameters of the arc- phase line-to-housing arcing current values at 36 locations
ing. in the low-voltage system in a commercial building.
RECOMMENDDARCING POTECTIONAfter
this information concerniing the most probable
RECOMMENDDARCING ROTECTIONarcing current values was determined, proper protective
Based on our present knowledge of this subject, it is devices were selected to provide arcing protection.
recommended that protective devices be provided that will
interrupt arcing current as quickly as possible, preferablyCoc soN:FTR TET
in less than 15 cycles. It is believed that these arcing tests provide an increase
A companion paper, as yet unpublished [9] provides in our knowledge of the resistance of low-voltage arcing,
further specific information for calculating bolted and but further tests should be conducted. Future tests
arcing short-circuit current values at the end of runs should be made with great care and accuracy in deter-
of busway and cables in conduit. It demonstrates the mining the exact values of bolted and arcing currents with
FISHER: RESISTANCE OF LOW-VOLTAGE AC ARCS 615

VRLTS AV!AILAf7LE ARCING AMPRF.S - ARC RES.= 50 /It?.5 VOLTS AVAIL-ARLE ARCING AlPERRES ARC RES.- 75
AMPERES
-
/It.S5
.:PPF .4PP .6 PF .5PF 1 .OPF MPER,ES .2PF .4PF .6PF . 3PP .1.OPF
12n o00 1 59 133 115 103 92 1PO 500 26 25 23 23 21
1000
5000
220 13P 1 65 1 43 1 35 1 000 27 R{-( 5 25 24
316 29.5 277 262 249 5000 2;3 27 27 27 27
10000 332 318 307 297 237 10000 28 27 27 27 27
0000 340 333. 326 319 313 20000 27 27 27 23 28
30000 342 333 332 328 324 30000 23 23 23 27 27
40000 343 340 337 333 330 40000
50000 344 342 338 336 333
27 23 23 23 23
50000o 7 27 27 27 28
75000
100000
345
3/t6
344
344
341
343
3z40 333 7 50o0 23 23S P23 27 27
342 340 100000 23 23 2P 2P 2g
150000 346 346 345 343 342 150000
200000 347 346 346 345 344
27 27
27
27
2-7
27
27
23
500 354
200000 27 27
208
1000 656
313 280 252 229 2103 500 223 1313 162 143 1283
572 506 452 408 1000 353 296 255 225 203
5000 2473 2090 1808 1 59S 1423 5000 701 618 556 503 470
10000 4065 3403 2934 258 6 2317 10000 796 731 679 636 599
20000 6202 5195 4493 3984 3590 20000
30000 7592. 6411
349 307 771 739 711
40000 8565
5592 4987 4519 30000 367 836 310 735 762
7304 6422 5764 5251 40000 876 352 1330 310 791
50000 9273 7992
9131
7081 6393 5352 50000 3s31 862 844 827 311
75000 10423 8267 7553 6989 75.1000 339 875 363 851 833
100000 11091 9942 9063 8373 7804 10Oo00 993 832 872 863 853
150000 112 10
03 60 10039
200000 12209 11394 10719
9453 8915 150000
200000
896 890 833 375 869
10143 9647 39 3 393 S37 883 877
240 So0 333 345 312 234 261 240 500 279 239 203 1 34 165
1000 725. 6444 57o3 522 475 1 000 -479- 404 349 303 276
5000 29535 2571 2250 19953 1796 5000 1297 1095 953 850 770
1 0000
20000
5247
3316
44-56
7401
33 66
6334
3413 3053 10000
20000
1690
19301
1466
1791
1306
1645
118/3
1526
1037
1423
5624 5036
30000 11603 9706 8367 7377 6616 30DO0 209 /! 1940 1313 1707 1617
40000 133 74 11601 10015 8847 7950 40000 2 154 2025 1915 1321 1739
50000 15763> 13204 11 42z 10115 9 109 50000 2190 2030 1934 1900 1325
75000
100000
1936S
21905
16 333
13654
14239 12633
14639
11490 75)00
100000
2240
2264
21 53 2036
2142
2020
2038
1960
163S2 13371 2200 2033
150000 25 20 21376 19436 17663 16227 1503000 2233 2244 2202. 2163 2125
200000 27229 24022 21655 193,17 18337 200000 2301 2266 2234 2203 2173
277 50:0 406 370 340 313 239 277 500 32.4 232 249 222 201
1000 779 704r 6z40 534 537 1000 534 502 439 339 349
5000 3394 2930 2645 2373 2143 5000 1966 1645 1418 1250 1121
10000 6214 5331 4727 4203 3733 10000 29 60 2434 2153 1910 1723
20000 110631 9443 8221 7272 6522 20000 4024 3446 3040 2736 2493
30000 15243 12915 11186 9369 8839 30000 4571 3997 353 1 3261 3006
40000 1 39 54 15974 1 3300 12162 10333 40000 43397 4357 3952 3633 3375
50000
75000
22291
29411
13724 16154 14231 12742 50000 5111
5416
4610 4224 3914 3659
24605 21211 13693 16764 75000 5004 4670 4391 4153
100000
150000
35233 29460 25425 22452 20163 100000
150000
5576 5231 4941 4691 4475
44269 37136 32197 23564 25769 5740 5402- 5255 5053 4,372
200000!) 50951 43009 37503 33/435 30290 200000 51322 5617 5432 5263 5109
430 50o 457 434 412 392 374 430 500 42 A
392 363 333 315
1000
5000
gn9 350 804 760 721 1000 323
3713
754 693 640 593
4303 3995 3719 3471 3249 5000 3323 2992 2713 247:735
10000 3376I 7713 7125 6606 61415 10000 69;3 5 6165 5495 4943 443
20000 16203e 14z1736 13543 12469 11523 20000 12-396 11223 9903 33.I0 7975
3000( 23763 21552 19645 13001 16530 30000 132P64 15771 13327 12291I 11056
40000
50000
31119
3331 5 230939
34473
25516 23"05
1333
214107 40000 23242 199/49 1742! 1 1544/4 133b65S
31210 2 26062 50000 27909 2 3;- 4 2 0762 1 3 3 72 16/479
75S0.3 537413 Z9319 444347 .410667 371 314 7500n 33514 32R649 23292P 2.49 67 22362
lon000 72551 64507 57330 52265 47597 100000 46 79 /44
1 500.00642,
40435 3149 4A 30-01 27575
150000 104719 9P2415 32355 7-40G61 67217 A14 53347 46431 409 02 36633
2O00o0 135337 115320 105431 94526 35556 2!pP000 7791 5 65176 561 3 6 49 533 44414
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

a thorough analysis of the effect of the wave distortion on At least one typical cycle of the arcing current should be
the rms value of arcing current. divided into many segments and analyzed to determine
Regardless of whether the tests are conducted in the accurately the exact value of rms current.
same manner using two bus bars, the bolted short-circuit
test should be taken with the bolted connection made at APPENDIX
the exact same point where arcing is to occur, forARcING-CURRENT CALCUTIONS BY COMPUTER
from the end of the one bus bar to the housing. Then the
arcing test should be made shortly afterward on the same For points in the low-voltage system having fixed
day to lessen the chance of a change in circuit parameters. values of single-phase short-circuit current from 500 to
A measurement should be made on each test of the arc 200 000 amperes, the corresponding arcing-current values
length from the burned end of the bus bar to the burned are listed on Figs. 7-10.
spot or hole in the housing. Since arcing damage in service The calculations cover system R/Z factors (PF) of
requires several cycles, it is suggested that the arcing 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 at voltages of 120, 208, 240, 277,
test be conducted by closing the circuit to eliminate and 480 volts for arc lengths of 1 inch with Rarc = 25/
asymmetry as much as possible, reading the symmetrical I0.85, 21/2 inches with Rarc = 40/lI8, 4 inches with Rarc -
value of current at least 4 cycles after arc initiation. 50/1I85, and 9 inches with Rare = 75/10.85.
616 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970

The values from Fig. 9 designated Rarc = 40/l-055
were used to draw the curves of Fig. 5 and 6. The use of
values from Fig. 10 is suggested for large switchboards,
because it is believed that the are length may be almost
9 inches.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author acknowledges the work and able assistance
of K. L. Payne and J. LeBell in connection with the tests
in the electrical laboratory, and that of Lynn Harton in
work on the computer program for calculating the value
of arcing currents for the curves of Figs. 5 and 6.
REFERENCES
[1] "Michigan arc display," Elec. Eng., vol. 65, p. 278, June 1946.
[21 L. E. Fisher and W. H. Frank, "Busway design that permits
accidental arcing to be driven to output end where it is ex-
tinguiished," U.S. Patent 2116676, May 10, 1938, expired.
[3] L. E. Fisher, "Tripping network protectors to protect service
entrance conductors to industrial and commercial buildings,"
IEEE Trans. Ind. Gen. Appl., vol. IGA-5, pp. 536-539, Sep-
tember/October 1969.
[4] R. H. Kaufmann, "Some fundamentals of equipment-grounding
circuit design," AIEE Trans. (Appl. Ind.), vol. 73, pp. 227-232,
November 1954
[5] L. E. Fisher, "Proper grounding can improve reliability in
low-voltage systems," IEEE Trans. Ind. Gen. Appl., vol.
IGA-5, pp. 374-379, July/August 1969.
[6] T. E. Browne, Jr., "The electric arc as a circuit element,"
J. Electrochem. Soc., vol. 102EI, January 1955.
[7] R. R. Conrad and D. Dalasta, "A new ground fault protective
system for electric distribution circuits," IEEE Trans. Ind.
Gen. Appl., vol. IGA-3, pp. 217-227, May/June 1967.
[81 S. Korman, "High intensity arc," Sci. Technol., pp. 90-98,
110, and 112, June 1964.
[9] L. E. Fisher, "Method of calculating low voltage short-circuit
currents (including line-to-housing bolted and arcing currents),"
to be presented at the 1971 IEEE Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems Tech. Conf., Detroit, Mich., May 3-5.

Lawrence E. Fisher (M'36-SM'38-F'67) was born in Sweetser, Ind., on March 31, 1905.
He received the B.S.E. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, in 1927.
In 1928 he was employed as an Electrical Engineer by the Reynolds Spring Company,
Jackson, Mich. As a Design Engineer, he worked for the Square D Company from 1929 to
1933 and the Hudson Motor Car Company, Detroit, Mich., from 1933 to 1934. He became
Director of Research for Bulldog Electric Products Company, Detroit, in 1934. In 1947 he
became Assistant Chief Engineer for Howell Electric Motor Company, Howell, Mich. In
1948 he joined the Lawrence Institute of Technology, Detroit, as Professor and Head of the
Department of Electrical Engineering, while working as an Associate in Electrical Engineer-
ing for the W. H. Hinchman Company, Detroit. In 1951 he was employed as a Systems
Engineer by the General Electric Company. His primary interest is in the field of safety
and improved performance of busways, switchboards, and protective devices in low-voltage
distribution systems for commercial buildings and industrial plants. He is the author of many
technical papers and holds 50 patents. He is listed in Who's Who in Engineering (sixth
edition), International Blue Book (1948-1949), and American Men of Science (eleventh edition).
Since retiring from the GeneraljElectric Company, he has become an Electrical Engineering Consultant.
Mr. Fisher is a member of the National Society of Professional Engineers, and is a Registered Professional Engineer in the
States of Connecticut and Michigan. He was instrumental in organizing a Chapter of the Industry and General Applications
Group within the Connecticut Section of the IEEE and was the first Chapter Chairman.