Mood Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Caleb W. Lack, PhD
Amy L. Green, BA
Childhood mood disorders such as major depression, dysthymia, and bipolar disorder have been found to be highly prevalent
among children and adolescents. The emotional and behavioral dysfunction associated with these mood disorders can cause
impairments across areas of functioning, including academic and social arenas. This article reviews the course, possible causes,
assessment, and treatment of this group of disorders in youth and concludes by examining the implications for nurses and other
health care providers of youth with mood disorders.
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Key words: Depression; Children; Mood disorders
T HE TYPES OF emotional and behavioral
disturbances that occur in youth with mood
disorders can be highly debilitating and include
problems in social, academic, and interpersonal
functioning (Duggal, Carlson, Sroufe, & Egeland,
2001). Although it is developmentally normal for
all children to go through periods when their mood
is either more depressed or more elevated than
normal, having a mood disorder indicates that a
child's mood has been persistently abnormal for an
extended period, which has in turn resulted in
significant distress or impairment (American
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). This impair-
ment can negatively affect a child's social, aca-
demic, and interpersonal functioning (Reynolds &
Kamphaus, 2003).
The purpose of this article is to review the
research literature on mood disorders in children and
adolescents. There are four primary types of mood
disorders recognized by the current version of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-IV-TR; APA, 2000): depressive
disorders, bipolar disorders, mood disorder due to a
medical condition, and substance-induced mood
disorders. In addition to symptoms and diagnostic
criteria, we will also review the etiological theories,
assessment, and treatment of mood disorders in
children and adolescents, highlighting implications
for nurses and other health care providers. The
information contained herein was gathered through
a thorough review of the literature, primarily
utilizing databases such as PsyInfo, ERIC, Medline,
Journal of Pediatric Nursing, Vol 24, No 1 (February), 2009
and PubMed. Information was predominantly
obtained from peer-reviewed or meta-analysis
articles, with most publication dates ranging
between 1987 and 2007.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Depressive symptoms are normative in both
children and adolescents, with most of these
populations reporting depressive symptoms at
some point before adulthood (Ollendick, Shortt, &
Sander, 2005), but diagnosis-level depressive dis-
orders are seen less frequently. Best estimates for
point prevalence rates for depressive disorders
based on a recent meta-analysis are 2.8% for
children younger than 13 years old and 5.6% for
14- to 18-year-olds (Costello, Erkanli, & Angold,
2006), with those aged 8 and younger showing rates
less than 1% (Keenan, Hipwell, Duax, Stouthamer-
Loeber, & Loeber, 2004). In terms of lifetime
prevalence, rates up to 25% before adulthood have
From the Department of Behavioral Sciences, Arkansas Tech
University, Russellville, AR; River Valley Psychological Services,
Russellville, AR.
Corresponding author: Caleb W. Lack, PhD, Department
of Behavioral Sciences, Arkansas Tech University, Russellville,
AR 728010.
E-mail: clack@atu.edu
0882-5963/$ - see front matter
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2008.04.007
13
14
been found (Kessler, Avenevoli, & Merikangas,
2001). Nondiagnostic levels of depressive symp-
toms are seen in much higher rates, with point
prevalence estimates ranging from 20% to 30% in
adolescents (Cooper & Goodyer, 1993; Roberts,
Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1991). In terms of gender
differences, similar prevalence rates are typically
seen across gender prior to adolescence, but higher
rates of depression among females during adoles-
cence have been established in multiple studies
(e.g., Cohen et al., 1993; Kessler et al., 2001) in
ratios as high as 2:1 (Axelson & Birmaher, 2001;
Rushton, Forcier, & Schectman, 2003).
Rates of mania and bipolar disorder in youth are
much lower than those in depressive disorders, and
the disorder itself appears to be rare in children
(Weckerly, 2002). Although few large-scale stu-
dies have been conducted examining prevalence
rates, there is one notable exception (Lewinsohn,
Klein, & Seeley, 1995). This study interviewed
over 1,700 14- to 18-year-olds and found an
estimated lifetime prevalence of 1% for bipolar
disorders (about the same as the adult prevalence
rates), with almost 6% of the sample reporting
subclinical levels of bipolar symptoms (Lewinsohn
et al., 1995). Other adolescent samples have
yielded similar rates (Verhulst, van der Ende,
Ferdinand, & Kasius, 1997), but much lower rates
have been found in preadolescents (approximately
0.1%; Costello et al., 1996; Kessler & Walters,
1998). These numbers are in stark contrast to the
increasing attention this diagnosis has been given
over the last several years, with a wave of books
aimed at the layperson (e.g., Findling, Kowatch, &
Post, 2003; Papolos & Papolos, 2000), scholarly
articles (e.g., Craney & Gellar, 2003; Harris,
2005), and media attention (including a two-part
special on the British Broadcasting Corporation)
given to the diagnosis of childhood bipolar
disorders. There is, however, little evidence to
support the widespread diagnosis of bipolar
disorder in children, and the confusion may be
due in large part to the high rates of comorbidity
seen in youth with mood disorders.
The most common type of co-occurring disorder
in youth with mood disorders is an anxiety
disorder, such as panic or generalized anxiety,
with up to 75% of people having a lifetime
prevalence (Avenevoli, Stolar, Li, Dierker, &
Merikangas, 2001). Point prevalence estimates
range from 25% to 50% for anxiety disorders,
which often developmentally precede the onset of
the depressive disorder (Lewinsohn, Zinbarg,
LACK AND GREEN
Seeley, Lewinsohn, & Sack, 1997). Other com-
monly co-occurring problems include disruptive
behavior disorders, such as conduct disorder and
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD;
14%36%; Angold, Costello, & Erkanli, 1999),
and substance abuse in adolescents (45%50%;
Avenevoli et al., 2001).
ETIOLOGY
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, interpersonal,
family, and life stress models have all been
proposed as hypotheses behind why a mood
disorder is expressed in a child or adolescent
(Ebrneier, Donaghey, & Steele, 2006). Although
each of these is useful in explaining an aspect of
mood disorders, none is effective at completely
explaining each aspect, and all began as adapta-
tions of adult models of depression. Instead, a
more effective way to view the etiology of mood
disorders is as a complex interaction between
biological, psychological, developmental, and
social factors. Researchers have begun to work
toward a transtheoretical perspective to explain
the causes of mood disorders, particularly
depression (e.g., Cicchetti & Toth, 1998). These
models focus on integration of the known
biopsychosocial factors, as discussed in the next
paragraphs, involved in the development and
maintenance of depression.
Biological Model
Neurochemistry, brain structure, and genetic
influence have all been examined in the biological
model of depression. Having a parent, particularly
a mother, with depression is a very strong predictor
of a child developing a mood disorder (Beardslee,
Versage, & Gladstone, 1998). Supporting this
genetic influence are large-scale twin studies
showing a moderate impact of genetics on the
development of depression (e.g., Eaves et al., 1997;
Silberg, Rutter, & Eaves, 2001). What exactly is
inherited is, at this point, unknown, but possibi-
lities include neurochemical differences, tempera-
ment, reactivity to stress, and brain structure.
Several specific neurotransmitters have been
implicated in the development of depression,
including alterations in neurotransmission related
to monoamines such as norepinephrine, serotonin,
and dopamine (Wagner & Ambrosini, 2001),
which has helped to guide pharmacological treat-
ments, especially the use of selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
MOOD DISORDERS
Cognitive Model
These theories emphasized the role that mala-
daptive ways of thinking impact a child's emotions
and behaviors (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979;
Clark, Beck, & Alford, 1999) and focused on three
types of maladaptive cognitive functions that a
person with depression engages in on a daily basis.
First, people with depression engage in automatic
negative thoughts (e.g., Mom is really mad, it must
be something that I did), which lead to inappro-
priately negative interpretations of events. Second,
they have excessively self-critical views of them-
selves or schemas. Third, they tend to have highly
negative views of themselves, the world, and the
future, referred to as the negative cognitive triad.
As an example, a child with depression may think,
I don't do well in school because I'm stupid as an
example of a negative view of themselves, I hate
school as a negative view of their world, and I'll
never be good at anything as a negative view of the
future (Epkins, 2000). Other cognitive theories
emphasize the importance of attributions in depres-
sion (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978;
Goodyer et al., 2007). People with depression
tend to attribute negative outcomes to internal
factors (e.g., I did poorly on the test because I'm
stupid), whereas positive outcomes are attributed
to external factors (e.g., I did well on the test
because the teacher made it easy). These attribu-
tions appear to be stable, or change little from
situation to situation, and global, applying to almost
every situation that a person with depression
encounters (Curry & Craighead, 1990).
Behavioral Model
Behavioral models have focused on depression
being caused by social deficits, in which a lack of
social skills causes high levels of negative feed-
back, rather than positive, from the environment
(Lewinsohn, 1974). Some theories have posited
that this negative feedback is eventually interna-
lized, which leads to negative self-perceptions and
thought processes such as those described earlier
(Cole, Martin, & Powers, 1997). These in turn
cause the child to be predisposed to depressive
symptoms, which can in turn lead to further
maladaptive behavior, creating a continuous nega-
tive feedback loop that maintains symptoms.
Interpersonal Model
The interpersonal theory of Coyne (1976) and
Coyne, Burchill, and Stiles (1990) proposed that
15
people who have depression have interpersonal
behaviors and attitudes, such as constantly seeking
reassurance from others that they are loved, that
lead to rejection from others. Even when others
provide reassurance, its sincerity is questioned, and
further reassurance is sought. This causes a pattern
of negative interactions where the child with
depression seeks more and more reassurance from
others who become disaffected and increasingly
prone to reject the child (Klerman, Weissman,
Rounsaville, & Chevron, 1984).
DSM-IV-TR MOOD DISORDERS
There are four primary types of mood disorders
described in the DSM-IV-TR: depressive disorders,
bipolar disorders, mood disorder due to a medical
condition, and substance-induced mood disorders
(APA, 2000). Differentiation between the disorders
requires knowledge of the four types of mood
episodes (major depressive, manic, mixed, and
hypomanic), which are present or absent depend-
ing on the type of disorder. Although diagnostic
criteria within the disorders are the same for adults
and children, there are differences in common
presentation, which will be highlighted in the
following paragraphs (Kaufman, Martin, King, &
Charney, 2001).
Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder has the same diag-
nostic criteria in children as it does in adults. To
diagnose MDD in children, one needs to be aware
that a child's external behavior (e.g., disruptive-
ness) is sometimes more easily expressed than his
or her internal emotions, so internalizing problems
such as depression can often be overlooked, and
instead, attention is focused on disruptive behavior.
Another diagnostic concern is that some character-
istics of depression, such as irritable mood, are seen
more frequently in children, a fact one has to keep
in mind when assessing for MDD (Hammen &
Rudolph, 2003).
The primary DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criterion for
MDD is having one or more major depressive
episodes. This means that a person must be
displaying at least five of the following symptoms
for most of the day, nearly every day, for at least
two consecutive weeks, with at least one symptom
being depressed mood or disinterest: (1) depressed
most of the day, (2) diminished interest in all or
almost all activities, (3) appetite disturbance, (4)
fatigue, (5) feelings of worthlessness, (6) inability
16
to think or concentrate, and (7) suicidal ideation or
suicidal attempts. The child's mood may be
affected by displaying behaviors such as crying,
feeling discouraged, and repeated emotional out-
bursts. Appetite disturbance may be evident
through either an increase or decrease in appetite
and in weight. The child may exhibit feelings of
worthlessness through statements such as, I'm
stupid and No one likes me. Feelings of
worthlessness can be differentiated between
depressed and nondepressed children by the
depressed child being hesitant in trying to do
something different. Nondepressed children for the
most part will not be hesitant to try something
different. Keep in mind, however, that regardless of
whether the child is depressed or not, he or she may
be tentative about trying something that is new or
different if it is beyond his or her developmental
capabilities. In addition, clinically significant
impairment in social, occupational, and other
important areas must be present. The DSM-IV-TR
recognizes that research has shown that irritable-
ness may be more common than depressed mood or
sadness in children as compared with adults (e.g.,
Goodyer & Cooper, 1993). MDD can either be
diagnosed as a single episode or recurrent episode.
There are several developmental differences
between children and adults in the expression of
depression. Depressed children, especially pre-
schoolers and preadolescents, are more likely to
show a depressed appearance than unpleasant
mood or hopelessness (Carlson & Kashani, 1988;
Kashani & Carlson, 1987; Ryan et al., 1987). A
depressed mood may be shown by behaviors such
as frequent crying, loss of interest in enjoyable
activities, changes in appearance, and increased
social withdrawal (Papolos & Papolos, 2000).
Children are also likely to display exaggerated
somatic complaints (Kashani, Rosenberg, & Reid,
1989; Ryan et al., 1987). Somatic complaints that
often present in children are headaches, stomach-
aches, and aching arms and legs that do not respond
to treatment (Bardick & Bernes, 2005; Table 1).
The most common emotions displayed by depres-
sed children are irritability, indifference, lack of
cooperation, and disinterest (Kashani, Holcomb, &
Orvaschel, 1986).
Dysthymic Disorder
Dysthymia is another depressive disorder recog-
nized by the DSM-IV-TR. In children, it is defined
as a chronically depressed or irritable mood that
occurs most days and persists for most of the day
LACK AND GREEN
Table 1. Common Somatic Symptoms of Mood Episodes
in Youth
Depressive Episodes Manic Episodes
Sleep difficulties such as Decreased need for sleep; may
insomnia or early-morning present in adolescents as not
wakefulness; excessive sleeping for multiple days at a time
sleeping in younger children
Appetite decrease or increase Greatly increased energy
and resulting weight change
Headaches Loss of appetite
Chronic pain in back or chest Increased interest in sex and
sexual activities (in adolescents)
Gastrointestinal difficulties or
complaints of upset stomach
Decreased sexual desire or
interest (in adolescents)
Complaining of not feeling
well with no specifics
Aching feelings in extremities
Excessive fatigue
Dizziness or lightheadedness
for at least 1 year (APA, 2000). In conjunction with
the depressed mood, two or more of the following
symptoms are present: appetite disturbance, sleep
disturbance, fatigue, low self-esteem, inability to
concentrate, and hopelessness. For dysthymia to be
diagnosed, the youth cannot be without the above
symptoms for more than 2 months at a time during
the previous 1 year, and there cannot be a major
depressive episode during that time. Dysthymia is
often considered a low-grade depression, where the
symptoms of MDD are present, but in fewer
numbers and with less severity (Ingram & Trenary,
2005). Up to 70% of youth with DD, however,
develop what is referred to as double depression,
where they experience a major depressive episode
in addition to the DD (Kovacs, Akiskal, Gatsonis,
& Parrone, 1994).
Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder is characterized by mood swings
from extremely low (depression) to extremely high
(mania; Miklowitz, 2001). There is considerable
debate on the nature of bipolar disorder in children
and adolescents, both in terms of symptoms and
epidemiology. Bipolar disorder in adolescents is a
controversial topic due to the many diagnostic
obstacles present. Caution must be exercised when
giving a diagnosis of bipolar disorder to youth,
especially if the clinician is not familiar with
the developmental and symptomatic differences
between adults and children.
One obstacle present is misperception of the
symptoms. A child's behavior such as irritability,
MOOD DISORDERS
defiance, and mood swings may be labeled as
excessive teenage emotional or behavioral dysre-
gulation, especially in the absence of a history of
specific episodes (Hammen & Rudolph, 2003).
Some of the key features of bipolar disorder in
adults are not present in youth, as childhood bipolar
disorder is typically not characterized by acute
onset of symptoms, an interval of moderate
functioning between episodes, or definite episodes
of elevated mood or irritability (Gellar & Luby,
1997). For instance, more rapid cycling of depres-
sion and mania has been seen in adolescents (Gellar
et al., 1998), whereas symptoms such as grandiosity
and euphoric mood are fairly rare (Carlson, 1999).
High rates of psychotic features have also been
noted (Kafantaris, Coletti, Dicker, Padula, &
Pollack, 1998), which makes diagnosis difficult
for inexperienced clinicians.
Another obstacle is that many bipolar disorders
are initially displayed as depression, so diagnosis
only occurs after following the person over time
and with the presence of mania. An additional
obstacle is the co-occurrence of other conditions
such as drug or alcohol abuse, conduct problems,
and especially ADHD (Biederman, Faraone, Chu,
& Wozniak, 1999). There is great concern for the
overlap or similarity of ADHD and bipolar disorder
in adolescents. Biederman et al. (1999) have found
high rates of ADHD in children diagnosed with
mania, as well as high rates of mania among
children diagnosed with ADHD.
According to the DSM-IV-TR, there are two types
of bipolar disorders. Although both require a history
of major depressive episodes, Bipolar I is defined by
the presence of manic or mixed episodes, whereas
Bipolar II has hypomanic episodes (APA, 2000).
Manic episodes are characterized by a period of at
least 1 week where the person's mood is abnormally
and constantly elevated, unrestrained, or irritable.
There must be at least three of the following
symptoms present during the mood disturbance
(four if the mood is only irritable): grandiosity,
decreased need for sleep, more talkative or pressure
to keep talking, having flight of ideas, easily
distracted, increase in goal-directed activity, and
involvement in activities that could have serious
negative consequences. A child could manifest
behaviors such as risk taking, being able to go with
little or no sleep for several days without tiring,
talking too much or too quickly, and changing topics
also very quickly (Bardick & Bernes, 2005).
The diagnostic criteria for children and adults for
manic episodes are similar. A mixed episode meets
17
the criteria for both manic episode and a major
depressive episode nearly every day during a
1-week period. Symptoms most associated with a
mixed episode are appetite disturbance, agitation,
insomnia, psychotic features, and suicidal thinking
(APA, 2000). For both manic and mixed episodes,
the performance of the person must be so impaired
that his or her occupational or social functioning is
compromised or he or she requires hospitalization,
and the symptoms are not due to the effects of drug
abuse, medication, or other treatment. Social
functioning in a child may be compromised through
difficulties in peer and family interactions, school
performance, play and recreation, and social with-
drawal (Bardick & Bernes, 2005). A hypomanic
episode is characterized by a period of at least
4 days where the person's mood is elevated,
unreserved, or irritable (APA, 2000). An additional
three of the symptoms of manic episodes must be
present along with the mood disturbance, and when
these symptoms are present, the person's function-
ing and personality are uncharacteristically
impaired. In contrast to manic and mixed episodes,
however, a hypomanic episode is not severe enough
that it impairs functioning for the individual either
socially or occupationally.
Cyclothymic Disorder
Cyclothymia is the second class of bipolar
disorders. The symptoms for cyclothymia in
children and adolescents include periods of hypo-
manic and depressive symptoms for at least 1 year
that do not meet the criteria for a major depressive
episode; during the year's time, the symptoms have
not been absent for more than 2 months; there has
not been a major depressive, manic, or mixed
episode during the first year of the disturbance; and
it is not better accounted for by another disorder or
medical condition (APA, 2000). In addition, the
symptoms cause severe functional difficulty in
social, occupational, or other important areas.
Other Mood Disorders
There are two other types of mood disorders in
the DSM-IV-TR that should be of particular interest
to nurses due to their causes. Both are characterized
by significant impairment in functioning and a
disturbance in mood that is prominent and persis-
tent and includes one or both of the symptoms: a
depressed mood or a noticeable disinterest in all or
almost activities or a mood that is elevated,
unrestrained, or irritable. The first is mood disorder
due to a general medical condition, where there is
18
evidence that the disturbance is caused by a general
medical condition and that the disorder is not better
accounted for by another mental disorder. Diag-
nostic criteria include the following: full criteria for
major depressive, manic, mixed, or hypomanic
episode need not be met; it must be evidenced from
the history, physical examination, or laboratory
findings that the problem is due to a general
medical condition; it is not accounted for by another
mental disorder; problems do not occur during the
course of a delirium exclusively; and the symptoms
cause significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas in function-
ing. Some examples of general medical conditions
that may cause mood symptoms are Parkinson's
disease, Huntington's disease, endocrine condi-
tions, viral or other infections, or certain cancers.
Prevalence rates range from 25% to 40% in
individuals with certain neurological conditions
such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease,
and multiple sclerosis (APA, 2000).
The second is a substance-induced mood dis-
order, where evidence from background informa-
tion, physical examination, or laboratory findings
suggests that the symptoms developed during or
shortly after a substance intoxication or withdrawal.
Some symptoms that might appear as such but are
not substance induced are the following: symptoms
that come before the onset of the substance use;
symptoms that continue after a considerable time
after the end of an acute withdrawal or severe
intoxication or are greater than what would be
expected given the type or amount of substance use
or the time of use; or there is support that suggests
that there is an existence of a independent non-
substance-induced mood disorder. Some substances
that may co-occur with mood disorders during
intoxication are alcohol, amphetamine, cocaine,
hallucinogens, opioids, and sedatives, to name a
few. Some common substances that can cause a
mood disorder during withdrawal are alcohol,
amphetamine, cocaine, hypnotics, and anxiolytics
(APA, 2000).
ASSESSMENT
Given the large amount of research in the area of
psychological assessment for mood disorders, this
article will not provide a comprehensive review but
instead an overview of the most commonly used
means of assessment. One common feature of all
the assessment methods reviewed here is that they
are all meant to be used as one piece in a
LACK AND GREEN
comprehensive assessment as accurate diagnoses
should rely on a variety of sources of information
(Sattler, 2001). Typical areas of assessment include
current symptoms and symptom development,
developmental history, family history of psycholo-
gical disorders, and current and previous levels of
psychosocial functioning, as reported by the child,
parents, and other caretaking adults (e.g., teachers).
In general, there are two types of instruments that
can aid one in making a diagnosis: diagnostic
interviews and self-report or other-report scales.
Diagnostic interviews can be divided into
structured and semistructured formats. In semi-
structured formats, the interviewer is given leeway
to ask additional questions and follow-up on
answers to asked questions. In structured inter-
views, little variation is allowed in how one asks
questions, and no further questioning is allowed.
Semistructured interviews are used by profes-
sionals, typically psychologists or other mental
health practitioners, who have extensive knowledge
of the field and can thus follow up appropriately on
given information. Structured interviews, on the
other hand, are designed to be used by individuals
with less training or can even be administered via a
computer program. There are both structured and
semistructured interviews that can assist with a
diagnosis of a mood disorder.
The most commonly used diagnostic interview
for mood disorders is the semistructured Kiddie
Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophre-
nia (K-SADS; Orvaschel & Pugi-Antich, 1987). It
has two versions, one that asks about present
episodes (K-SADS-P) and one that asks about both
current and past episodes (K-SADS-E). The K-
SADS requires a highly trained clinician to
administer, is appropriate for ages 616 years,
and requires between 60 and 90 minutes of
administration time. Very strong reliability and
validity have been found for the K-SADS,
especially for the mood disorders of major
depression and bipolar disorder (Kaufman, Birma-
her, Brent, & Rao, 1997; McCauley, Mitchell,
Burke, & Moss, 1988). The most commonly used
structured interview is the National Institutes of
Mental Health's Diagnostic Interview Schedule for
Children (DISC-IV; Schaffer, Fisher, Lucas, Dun-
can, & Schwab-Stone, 2000). It can be adminis-
tered by someone with no clinical training due to
its highly structured format or even self-adminis-
tered via a computer program. Parallel versions
are available to give to the youth directly (aged 9
17 years) or to a caregiver (aged 617 years).
MOOD DISORDERS
Research has found sound psychometric properties
for the DISC-IV and strong validity when diagnoses
based on it are compared with those of semistruc-
tured interviews, clinician's diagnoses, and rating
scales (King et al., 1997).
Self-report and other-report scales are a very
useful adjunct to a diagnostic interview, providing
normative information that allows for a compar-
ison with the youth's peer group. A number of
scales are available that assess depression either
specifically or as part of a broader measure. One of
the most commonly used is the Children's
Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1992). This is a
self-report 27-item multiple choice questionnaire
for those aged 717 years that has been shown to
have strong reliability and validity (see Semrud-
Clikeman, Bennett, & Guli, 2003 for a review).
Another depression-specific self-report measure is
the Reynolds Child Depression Scale (RCDS;
Reynolds, 1989). A very psychometrically strong
measure with 30 items, the RCDS is suitable for
those aged 813 years, with another version
available for those aged 1218 years (Reynolds,
1987). There are several very good parent and
teacher report measures that cover multiple areas
of emotional, psychological, and behavioral func-
tioning, notably the Personality Inventory for
Children-Second Edition (PIC-2; Wirt, Lachar,
Seat, & Broen, 2001), Behavior Assessment System
for Children-Second Edition (BASC-2; Reynolds &
Kamphaus, 2003), and the Child Behavior Check-
list (CBCL; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). Both
the CBCL and BASC-2 have parallel forms for the
child, parent, and teacher, whereas the PIC-2 has
only a parent form. All three scales have been
shown to have very good reliability and validity for
assessment of psychological problems, but the
CBCL and PIC-2 are better used as screening
measures for general distress. The BASC-2's
depression scale, however, has been shown to
have very strong construct validity and is suitable
to use as a specific measure of depressive
symptoms (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001).
It should be noted that a thorough and accurate
assessment may be difficult with children for
several reasons. A lack of insight into symptoms
and development is typical of children, especially
those under the age of 10 years, and even
adolescents may have difficulty giving good
histories of their symptom development. Also,
externalizing symptoms, such as oppositional
behavior or aggression, are more easily observed
and reported on by parents and teachers than
19
internalizing problems, such as depression and
anxiety. As described earlier, the difference in
symptom presentation between adults and children
may provide further confusion if the assessor is
not well versed in how depression is typically
manifested in children. For these reasons, it is
important to always follow a multimodal assess-
ment plan, gathering information from multiple
sources and methods, especially parents or other
caretakers and teachers.
TREATMENT
Pharmacological Treatment
The use of antidepressants to treat depressive
symptoms in youth has become a common practice.
However, guidelines from the American Academy
of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and expert
opinion agree that, unless the depression is severe
or recurrent, use of medication is generally
unwarranted (Birmaher et al., 2007; Cheung et al.,
2008). Nevertheless, treatment of all ranges of
depressive symptoms with medication has become
common practice (Safer, 1997), with SSRIs being
the most frequently prescribed drug for mood
disorders (Ingram & Trenary, 2005). Although
SSRIs have become popular for several reasons,
primary reasons include their efficiency, requiring
only one daily dose, and limited side effects, which
include nausea, insomnia, nervousness, and seda-
tion, that usually disappear after the first few weeks.
Several research studies have found SSRIs to be
effective in treating depression in children and
adolescents. For example, in an evaluation of the
SSRI fluoxetine, Emslie, Weinberg, Rush, Adams,
and Rintelmann (1990) found that with depressed
youths between the ages of 7 and 17 years,
fluoxetine was much more effective in reducing
depression than does a placebo. In the Treatment for
Adolescents With Depression Study (TADS), the
combination of fluoxetine with cognitivebeha-
vioral therapy (CBT) was superior to fluoxetine
alone and to CBT alone. Results showed that 71%
of those in the fluoxetine-with-CBT group, 60.6%
for fluoxetine alone, and 43.2% for CBT alone were
very much improved or much improved (March
et al., 2004). The results from TADS and others
suggest that pharmacotherapy should be used
concurrently with a psychosocial intervention for
those with complex or severe depression.
Two other types of medications often prescribed
to treat mood disorders in adults but are not
20
recommended for use in children or adolescents
are tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxide
inhibitors (MAOIs). For tricyclic antidepressants,
which in adults show effectiveness consistently
and are used often as a reference point for new
treatments (Gitlin, 2002), problems include the
need to increase the dosage to obtain the full effect
and the severe side effects such as heart arrhyth-
mias, tachycardia, urinary problems, sedation,
weight gain, and blurry vision that result from
increased dosage. MAOIs are not used to treat
children due to their side effects (Stark et al.,
2006). These medications have serious dietary
restrictions that are required for their use as foods
that contain tyramine can raise a person's blood
pressure dangerously high (Ingram & Trenary,
2005). Some alcoholic beverages such as wine and
beer and many cheese contain high amounts of
tyramine and should be avoided. Also, MAOIs
cannot be taken in combination with drugs that
have monoamine agonist activity because this may
lead to hypertension or even death (Ingram &
Trenary, 2005).
Controversies Regarding Pharmacotherapy
Although in the past the effectiveness of a drug
served as the main criteria for use, the amount of
risky side effects of antidepressants is taking the
place of treatment effectiveness, especially in the
public eye (Ebrneier et al., 2006). This change, as
well as the concern over highly publicized cases
where youth taking antidepressants had committed
suicide, caused the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) to issue a black-box warning for antide-
pressants, saying that they may lead to an increase
in suicidal thoughts and activities (FDA News,
2004). Studies that have investigated whether
antidepressants cause suicide were unclear and
vague in their results for several reasons (see
Bostwick, 2005 for a review). One reason is the
lack of clarity in the definition of suicide and what
constitutes a child. Some terms that were used to
describe suicide were behavioral activation, impul-
sivity, and emotional liability. Some studies con-
ducted in the United Kingdom considered children
to be any patient 18 years old or younger, others
only used teenagers, and one study considered
preteens to be as young as 5 years old.
Coupled with the vague terminology described
earlier, it has been alleged that pharmaceutical
companies had withheld negative outcomes for
their products and that only positive results were
used for publishing. Critics allege that one of the
LACK AND GREEN
possible reasons for this is that the regulatory
agencies had become lax in their positions, which,
coupled with the profit-minded nature of medica-
tion development, suppressed any negative research
results (Bostwick, 2005). Media stories about youth
killing themselves while taking SSRIs contributed
to the concern of the risk of suicide in children, but
there is still a mixed message of whether anti-
depressant use increases risk of suicide. In a review
of nine studies conducted in the United Kingdom
which had more than 1,700 patients combined,
medicated patients were 1.5 times more likely to
show suicidal behavior than do control subjects but
that rates of suicidal behavior in both control and
experimental subjects were very low (Ferguson
et al., 2005). Other studies have also found that the
link between antidepressants and suicide was weak.
Valuck, Libby, Sills, Giese, and Allen (2004) found
that the longer patients took antidepressants, the
more their risk for suicide decreased. The authors
believed that their results were due to a delayed
antidepressant treatment response. Support was
also found for the theory that comorbidity and
certain demographic factors contributed more to
the risk of suicide than do antidepressants (Valuck
et al., 2004).
In the abovementioned TADS (March et al.,
2004), rates of suicidal thoughts and behaviors were
found to drop significantly across all treatments
options. However, those taking only fluoxetine
during treatment had significantly higher rates of
new or alarming suicidal thoughts or behavior
(15%) than the rates of those in either the
combination CBTfluoxetine (8%) or CBT-alone
(6%) groups, particularly in the early stages of
treatment. This may be because recovery takes
place in stages (Ebrneier et al., 2006), so the
phenomenon of rollback, a rise in energy and
motivation, may occur before mood improves. If
the patient had prior thoughts of suicide before
taking antidepressants, the surge of motivation after
taking the antidepressants could increase the
patient's risk of committing suicide (Bostwick,
2005). Another possible reason for suicide attempts
is that the side effects that are related to SSRIs such
as insomnia and nervousness coupled with motor
restlessness can be very uncomfortable and unbear-
able (Teicher, Glod, & Cole, 1990).
Psychosocial Treatments
In the area of psychotherapy effectiveness, CBT
and interpersonal therapy for adolescents (IPT-A)
have been the two treatment models most widely
MOOD DISORDERS
Table 2. Rates of Comorbid Mood Disorders in Youth With Medical Conditions
Medical Condition Mood Disorder Rate, %
Asthma 15
Cancer 14
Cardiac outpatients 13
Congenital heart disease 1115
Crohn's disease 27
Cystic fibrosis 11.5
Diabetes 5 Data
Orthopedic procedures 23
Pseudoseizures 32
Severe burns 1326
Sickle cell anemia 18
studied and supported (Stark et al., 2006). The main
objectives of CBT are for youth to recognize that
how they think affects how they feel and to learn
how to modify these beliefs (Beck et al., 1979).
CBT draws from both the cognitive and behavioral
models described earlier to design effective inter-
ventions at the cognitive, behavioral, and affective
levels (Young, Weinberger, & Beck, 2001) and
focuses on how crucial information processing is in
maintaining depression (Ingram & Holle, 1992).
CognitiveBehavioral Therapy generally begins
with youth learning that their problems stem from
deficits in skills and their negative thinking. They
are also taught to recognize changes they experi-
ence in their emotions. Once the youth has been
taught about the underlying causes of their depres-
sion, treatment is moved to an interpersonalsocial
skills acquirement phase where he or she learns new
skills for coping, skills for problem solving, skills
for emotional control, and social skills. Youth are
also encouraged to participate in activities that
provide a pleasant experience to relieve them from
depressive symptoms, often referred to as beha-
vioral activation. For the last phase of treatment, the
patients are given the tools necessary to replace
their negative thoughts with more positive
thoughts, a process called cognitive restructuring.
The areas that children are taught to focus and have
a positive outlook on include thoughts about
themselves, life in general, interpersonal relation-
ships, and the future. As a final part of their
treatment, children are given structured therapeutic
homework assignments to apply the strategies that
they learned (Young et al., 2001). Although CBT
for youth has been found to be more effective than
no treatment, its overall effectiveness as a stand-
alone intervention is somewhat in question as most
meta-analyses have found significant benefits (e.g.,
Weisz, McCarty, & Valeri, 2006), but a recent large-
scale clinical trial found it to be no more effective
21
Reference
Data from Wamboldt, Weintraub, and Krafchick (1996)
Data from Essen, Enskar, Kreuger, Larsson, and Sjoden (2000)
Data from Kashani, Lababidi, and Jones (1982)
Data from Karsdarp, Everaerd, Kindt, and Mulder (in press)
Data from Burke, Meyer, Kocoshis, and Orenstien (1989)
Data from Thompson, Gustafson, and Hamlett (1992)
from Engstrom (1992)
Data from Kashani, Venzke, and Millar (1981)
Data from Wyllie, Glazer, Benbadis, Kotagal, and Wolgamuth (1999)
Data from Thombs, Bresnick, and Magyar-Russell (2006)
Data from Schaeffer et al. (1999)
than a placebo for adolescents (March et al., 2006).
Thus, CBT may benefit from being combined with
IPT-A or pharmacotherapy (Stark et al., 2006).
The goals of IPT-A are to diminish the depressive
symptoms in adolescents while improving their
interpersonal functioning (Stark et al., 2006).
Before the treatment begins, the child and therapist
identify one or two problem areas that can include
grief, interpersonal role disputes, role transitions,
interpersonal deficits, and living in a single-parent
family (Ingram & Trenary, 2005). By identifying
these areas, the therapist and child are able to
narrow in on the problem areas and use them as a
basis for treatment. Treatment is then focused on
the problem areas that were identified initially, and
strategies for implementing plans are structured to
solve the areas of concern. IPT-A is considered to
be a promising treatment of depression in adoles-
cents, with studies that have examined IPT-A
finding it to be very effective (Mufson, Moreau,
Weissman, & Garfinkel, 1999; Weissman, Marko-
witz, & Klerman, 2000).
IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSES
With the considerable number of roles that
nurses can play in the provision of care for a child
or adolescent with emotional or behavioral diffi-
culties, knowledge about the signs, symptoms, and
effective treatment options available for psycholo-
gical disorders can be highly beneficial to both the
provider and client. Routine screening for psycho-
logical disorders in youth by nurses at both
inpatient and outpatient settings would allow for
more accurate hypotheses about what is causing a
child's presenting problem, whether it is a
physical, behavioral, and/or emotional complaint.
This is especially true in the case of mood
disorders, which have a number of associated
somatic complaints (Table 1) and frequently
22
co-occur in youth with medical illnesses (Table 2).
Being aware of how depression may present in
terms of somatic symptoms such as sleep dis-
turbance or stomachaches can decrease the amount
of time between a client presenting with a
complaint and proper diagnosis of the problem.
A nurse who is accurately able to assess or explain
why, even though someone's child is presenting
with physical illness, there may not be a purely
physical cause can be effective in preventing
unneeded diagnostic testing and in addressing
parents' concerns for the health of their child.
Knowing some of the likely etiologies, particu-
larly the maladaptive cognitions often seen in those
with depression, can also assist in making a
differential diagnosis and obtaining proper treat-
ment as soon as possible. For example, if a nurse
frequently observes or overhears a patient making
remarks similar with the maladaptive cognitions
mentioned earlier, questioning about depressive
symptoms could lead to a referral to a specialist for
further assessment. Observing patterns of familial
interactions that may be maintaining depressive
symptoms can provide a point of entry to discuss
possible psychological causes of somatic symptoms
if a family is resistant to a nonmedical interpretation
of their child's physical complaints. These recom-
mendations can be especially important for nurses
working within school systems as they are often the
first line of medical contact for many children and
adolescents and may be more familiar with a child
than a nurse in an outpatient clinic setting.
Although this article provides an overview of
assessment methods and diagnostic criteria for
mood disorders, the difficulty in diagnosing and
differentiating between types of mood disorders in
children often requires a multidisciplinary team
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