Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.
org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015
Q. J. eng. Geol. London, 1985 Vol. 18, pp. 173-180.
The stabilization of some arid zone soils with cement and lime
E. G. Akpokodje
Department of Geology, University of Port Harcourt, P.M.B. 5323, Port Har-
court, Nigeria
Summary
Tests on three groups of Australian arid zone soils indicate
that cement is a more effective stabilizing agent than lime.
Sandy soils rich in gypsum and bassanite do not respond to
stabilization. The cement stabilized clayey soils must be
adequately protected against increase in moisture content.
Introduction
Soil stabilization is used to improve the mechanical
properties of inferior soils in the construction of civil
engineering structures such as road pavements, run-
ways, embankments, dam, and shallow foundations.
The type of stabilization chosen in any project de-
pends partly on the nature of the structure and partly
on the geotechnical and physico-chemical properties of
the soils involved. A number of guidelines for deter-
mining the suitability of soil for any type of stabiliza-
tion have been suggested (Sherwood 1957b, 1958;
Uppal & Bhatia 1958; Ingles & Frydman, 1966; Croft,
1968) on the basis of the stabilization responses of the
major soil components. However, the actual choice of
the most appropriate stabilizing agent, and the quan-
tity of the agent required, are usually based on the
7-day unconfined compressive strength of the stabil-
ized soil.
The work described in this paper was an investiga-
tion of the use of hydrated lime and cement in im-
proving the engineering properties of some fine-
grained Australian arid zone engineering soils. Ce-
ment and hydrated lime were chosen because of their
generally successful usage in various civil engineering
projects. In spite of the fact that arid and semi-arid
areas comprise approximately 75% of Australia, arid
zone engineering soils have hitherto been subjected to
relatively few geotechnical studies. This, and the lack
of readily available good, conventional, soil construc-
tion material, have created many problems in the
construction of civil engineering structures in the area.
The soils used in this investigation occur at Fowler's
Gap Arid Zone Research Station, located approx-
imately on latitude 31~ and longitude 141 ~40'E in the
Australian semi-arid region (Fig. 1). The area is
underlain by a complex sequence of Precambrian
metasediments, which are unconformably overlain by
Devonian sandstones and Cainozoic unconsolidated
Printed in Northern Ireland
sediments. The geology of the area has been described
previously (Beavis et al. 1978; Beavis 1981; Beavis et
al. 1982). The climate at Fowler's Gap Station is semi
arid (Bell 1973) with hot summers (October-March)
and mild winters (April-September). The average
daily maximum temperature range during summer is
26-38~ whereas the average daily minimum range in
winter is 3-10~ The mean annual rainfall is 241 mm
(1970-1980) and both rainfall distribution and inten-
sity are highly variable.
Nature of the soils
Most of the soils in the area have been described in
pedologic terms as Desert Loams (Stace et al. 1968).
They occur extensively over different rock types. The
majority of the soil profiles are shallow (less than
250 cm thick), saline and usually have gypsiferous and
calcareous subsoils.
Texturally, three major types of soil occur in the
area, namely clay loam or clay; silty loam; and sandy
loam. Some of the soils (especially the subsoils) often
contain up to 15% CaCO3 or CaSO4 H20, but this
may exceed 30% in some isolated cases. The particle
size distribution, the geotechnical index properties and
the mineralogical composition of these soils are given
in Fig. 2 and Table 1. The overall geotechnical index
properties of the soils show that they fall below the
standards recommended for most geotechnical con-
struction, and would therefore require stabilization.
Methods of testing
The laboratory tests carried out on the untreated soils
include particle size distribution, Atterberg limits,
XRD diffraction, and compaction, while those on
soil-cement/lime mixtures included unconfined com-
pression tests, dry-wet (durability) test, shrinkage and
swelling test, and strength variation with age. The
geotechnical properties were carried out according to
the procedures recommended by both the Standards
Association of Australia (AS 1289, 1977) and the
American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM
1975).
The stabilization tests were performed using the soil
fraction passing ASTM Sieve No. 4 (4.75 mm), white
commercial hydrated lime, and Portland cement type
A. Cylindrical specimens (36 mm diameter by 76 mm
 Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015

174 E . G . AKPOKODJE

Clay Silt Sand ,w Gravel

0-002 0.01 O" I I

Particle size (ram)
X. X Clay/clay loam
. . . . Highly gypsiferous/bassanitic sandy soil
Z~ A Sandy loam
0 0 Silty loam
_T= ~ Highly calcareous
sandysoil
FIG. 2. Particle-size distribution curves of the studied soils.

9 Fowler'sGap aridzoneresearchstation specific volume of water, into cylindrical sampling

FIG. 1. Location map of the studied area.
length) were prepared at the optimum moisture con-
tents and maximum dry densities (standard proctor) of
the soil-cement/lime mixtures (Table 2). This was
done by compacting a mixture of the pre-determined
weights of the stabilizer and the oven-dried soil, with a
tubes of known volumes. All soil-cement/lime mix-
tures were wax cured at approximately 100% relative
humidity. The samples for the soaking test were first
cured for 7 days and then immersed in water for
another 7 days with the wax seal r e m o v e d from both
ends of the samples.
The X R D studies were performed with a Phillips
PW 1050 vertical goniometer (diffractometer), using

TABLE 1. Index properties and mineralogy of the soils

Highly
Clay or gypsiferous Highly
Sandy Silty clay sandy calcareous
loam loam loam soil sandy soil
%Sand 59 15 36 45 48
%Silt 28 75 27 30 26
%Clay 13 10 37 -- 3

Liquid limit 30 34 84 53 35
Plasticity index 12 11 45 NP NP
Linear shrinkage 5 0.9 20 None 1.2

Maximum dry density 18.7 17.6 15.3 14 13.5

(KN/m3)
Optimum moisture 12 17 29 29 31
content (%)

Major clay minerals -- Illite Smectite

Subsidiary clay Smectite, Chlorite, Kaolinite
mineral illite, smectite
kaolinite

Unified system CL CL CH SM GM
AASHO A-6 A-6 A-7-5 A-5 A-3
NP = non-plastic

Q. J. eng. Geol. London, 1985, Vol. 18

 Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015

STABILIZATION OF SOME ARID ZONE SOILS 175

TABLE 2. Nominal dry densities and moulding mois-

ture contents of the different soils-cement mixtures

Maximum dry
density
Moulding
moisture
5~176176
I 0/
Soil type (KN/m3) content (%)
4000
z
Sandy loam 18 15

Silty loam (calcareous

& gypsiferous) 17 17 3000

Clay or clay loam 15 27

Sandy soil (highly Eo 2 0 0 0

gypsiferous/bassanitic) 14 29 u

Highly calcareous sandy

soil 13 31
5 ~ooo
X
iron radiation (FeKa') at 33kv and 2 6 m A and a ~ X "-'--'-x~ X X
manganese filter.
I [ I i I I ..
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12
Test results
Cement content (%)
A A Clay/clay loam
Cement~lime content and unconfined 9 9 Sandy loam
compressive strength [3 [] Silty loam
0 0 Highly calcareous sandy soil
The effects of cement/lime contents on the 7-day
x., x Highly gypsiferouslbassanitic sandy soil
unconfined compressive strength of the soils are shown
in Fig. 3 and 4. A linear relationship exists between FIG. 3. Relationship between unconfined compressive
compressive strength and cement content in all the strength and cement content.
soils investigated, whereas a non-linear relationship
exists in the case of the lime stabilized soils. The
strength developed by cement stabilized soils (includ-
ing these rich in Smectite) is always higher than their
lime stabilized counterparts. This corroborates the ~" 1500
E
findings of Ola (1975), although Croft (1968) con- z
o~o ~ ~ o ~
cluded that lime is the more satisfactory stabilizing e-

agent for clay soils rich in expansive clay minerals.

The regression line relating 7-day compressive IOOO
strength to cement content can be represented by the
equation:
UCS7 = A + BX u
500 -
where UCS7 = 7-day unconfined compressive strength ._
KN/m 2
A = intercept of the regression line with the
X______._X____.__X...._._....--X -X'"
strength axis
B = (difference in UCS between two sam- i I I I I I ....
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12
ples) + (corresponding difference in Lime content (%)
cement content for the two samples)
/', ~ Cloy/cloy loom
X = cement content (percentage by
9 9 Sandy loom
weight).
O I"1 Silty loam
Table 3 gives the ranges of the values of 'A' and 'B'
0 0 Highly calcareous sandy soil
for the different soil types examined. The values of 'A' X ~ X Highly gypsiferous/bossonitic sandy soil
appear to be dependent on the moulding dry density
and cohesion (i.e. clay content). The high values FiG. 4. Relationship between unconfined compressive
(600-2200KN/m)2 for the sandy loam soil can be attri- strength and lime content.

Q. J. eng. Geol. London, 1985, Vol. 18

 Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015

176 E . G . AKPOKODJE

completely in water within 7 days. All other cement

TABLE 3. Ranges of 'A' and 'B' values for the different stabilized soils showed significant strength reductions
soils (Fig. 5). It would appear from Table 4 that the amount
Soil type A( KN/m 2) B of strength reduction is related to the particle size
distribution and the amount and type of clay present.
Sandy loam The greater strength loss in the clay soils is attributed
600 to 2200 265 to 370
to the higher water absorbing capacity of the clay
Clay loam or clay 400 to 1200 231 to 280 fraction, whereas the higher resistance to water
penetration of the illite clay is responsible for the low
Silty loam
325 to 760 110 to 207 strength reduction of the silty loam soil.
Highly Sherwood (1957a) suggested the detrimental effects
gypsiferous/bassanitic of soluble salts on the strength of soaked soil-cement
sandy soil 100 to 445 10 to 25 mixture. It is interesting to note that the water resis-
tant cement stabilized silty soils have low salt contents
Highly calcareous sandy soil 40 to 65 280 to 300 (EC = 0.4 ~mho/cm), whereas the clay soils are highly
saline (EC = 7-11/~mho/cm). The presence of gyp-
sum results in greater strength loss especially in the
buted mainly to the high dry density (18KN/m 3) of the smectite rich clay soils. The reaction between gypsum,
samples, whereas the medium values (400-1200KN/ water and cement results in a volume increase (Sher-
m 2) in the clay soils (dry density 15KN/m3), may be wood 1957a; Neville 1978; French & Crammond 1980)
due to the greater cohesion of the smectite rich soils. causing macro- and micro-fracturing, which acceler-
In contrast, the low values of 'A' (40-65KN/m 2) in ates water penetration and consequently causes
the highly calcareous and gypsiferous/bassanitic sandy greater strength loss on soaking. Unlike gypsum, the
soils are most probably due to the combined effects of presence of appreciable proportions of carbonate (up
low dry density (13KN/m 3) and lack of cohesion (less
than 3% clay).
The value of 'B' is a measure of the amenability of
the soils to cement stabilization and is related to the 4000 Sandy loam ~ X " /
soil texture. High gypsum and bassanite contents re-
duce the amenability of the soil to cement stabiliza-
tion, whereas, high carbonate content does not appear
2000
to have any appreciable effect on the 7-day compres- %
sive strength of soil-cement mixtures. Both beneficial Z
and deleterious effects were attributed to the presence
of various soluble and insoluble salts by Sherwood =_
o I I l I ..... Ij...-'K~/~/
(1957a), Uppal & Kapur (1957) and French & Cram- -.~ ,J
-$
mond (1980). Clay/clay loam _. ~ . . ~ ~jX"
If the minimum acceptable compressive strength for
base course material in road is taken as approximately 2000

1720KN/m 2, then none of the lime-stabilized soils E
o
studied would be acceptable for base course con-
struction. The same is true for the highly gypsifer- t-
._
ous/bassanitic sandy soil. The proportion of cement "~ 0
o
needed is 3 - 5 % for the sandy loam soil, 5 - 7 % for the u

Clay soils, and 7-10% for the silty soils. Silty loam

Soaking and unconfined compressive strength ooo

~ ~ x ~
Conventional specifications (e.g. US and British ~x
standards) stipulate a loss of not more than 20% of the
unconfined compressive strength on soaking. As a I I I I I I
result of the poor relationship between the specified 2 4 6 8 Io 12
7-day compressive strength (1720KN/m a) and pave- Cement content (%)
ment performance (Croft 1968), the strength reduction 0 O 14 days wax cured
on soaking is being regarded increasingly as a more X X 7 days wax cured and 7 days soaked
@ @ Gypsiferous clay; 7days wax cured; 7days soaked
practical and realistic criterion.
Almost all of the soil-lime mixtures and the cement FIG. 5. Effect of soaking on unconfined compressive strength
stabilized gypsiferous/bassanitic sandy soil crumbled of cement stabilized soils.

Q. ]. eng. Geol. London, 1985, Vol. 18

 Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015

STABILIZATION OF SOME ARID ZONE SOILS 177

TABLE 4. Range of soaked strength of soil-cement mixtures of the different soil types

Range of soaked Range of soaked

strength* at 4% strength* at 12%
Soil type cement content (%) cement content (%)
Sandy loam 53-80 85- 96

Clay loam or clay 40-52 80- 90

Gypsiferous clay 25-40 35- 70

Silty loam (calcareous) 55-66 90-115

Highly calcareous sandy

soil 40-58 110-130

Highly gypsiferous/ Soil-cement mixture crumbled

bassanitic sandy soil completely on soaking
* Soaked strength is calculated as percentage of unsoaked strength.

to 20%) tends to increase the water resistance of the

/
soil-cement mixtures (Fig. 6). However, calcareous
clay soils, rich in smectite, do not exhibit this charac- _ X X
teristic behaviour, although the reduction on soaking
is much lower than those for the gypsiferous and non- 4000
calcareous clay soil. Evidence from a number of
studies (Buck & Dolch 1966; Poole & Sotiroponlus
1980; French & Crammond 1980) suggests that the
reaction between CaCO3 and cement paste may be 2000
beneficial in improving aggregate-cement bond
strength. The mechanism producing the beneficial
effects of water on mixtures of calcareous soils and
cement paste is not quite clear. It is suggested that
water may enhance the carbonate-cement paste reac-
tion and the process is probably similar to the so-called

self stabilization of calcrete road pavements (Nutter- Calcareous silty loom X~ I ' ~
burg 1970).
2000
If the 20% reduction in the 7-day compressive
strength is taken as the maximum acceptable strength
reduction, then only those soil-cement mixtures with
not less than 6% cement content would qualify as
good pavement material. Even at such high contents,
the clay soil rich in both smectite and gypsum is not
satisfactory for base course construction without Gypsiferous silty l o a m / /
/- x j
adequate protection from water saturation. The
2000
strength reduction on soaking does not appear to
constitute a major problem in the calcareous silty soils.
The main disadvantage of these soils is the high con-
tent (8-12%) of cement required to obtain the mini-
mum (1720KN/m 2) 7-day compressive strength for / I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 I0 12
pavement materials. Cementcontent (%)
0 14 days wax cured
Curing time and unconfined compressive X 7 day wax cured, 7 days soaked
strength
The results of the tests on the variation of compres- FIc. 6. Effects of CaCO3 and gypsum on the compressive
sive strength with time are given in Figs 7 and 8. The strength of soaked stabilized soils.
Q. J. eng. Geol. London, 1985, Vol. 18
 Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015

178 E . G . AKPOKODJE

6000 passes ASTM Sieve No. 40). This demonstrates the

importance of particle-size distribution, as well as the
clay mineralogy, in the strength-age relationship of
4 % cement stabilization cement stabilized soils. According to Croft (1968),
4000 lime enhances early strength development in smectite-
rich clay soils. This is not, however, apparent from the
E results obtained in this study. In fact, the strength of
z the stabilized smectite-rich clay soils continued to in-
= 2000 crease throughout the 16 weeks of testing. This be-
haviour may be due partly to the appreciable amount
(up to 20%) of kaolinite present in the clay soils.
The relationship between unconfined compressive
o i i strength and time can be considered to provide either
a factor of safety in design or a reduction in the cost of
construction. For example, if the traffic of a road is
4 % lime stabilization anticipated to increase after a certain period, the
._ 4000 strength of the cement-stabilized pavement after such
g a period can be estimated from the relatively linear
o
c 0 strength-time relationship. To reduce the cost of con-
struction, the amount of cement required to obtain the
2000
0 ix designed 7-day compressive strength can be reduced
0 by allowing the pavement to cure for a longer period
before use.

I0 I00
Days
o Sandy loom
,-% C l a y / c l a y loam
O Silty loam
I0000

FIG. 7. Effect of curing time on the unconfined compressive I0% cement stabdlzahon
strength of cement/lime stabilized soils.
8000
z
much higher increase in the strength of the 10%
cement stabilized sandy loam soil after the eighth ~'
week, may be attributed to partial desiccation since ~ 6000
the samples showed some loss of moisture (between
1.5-3%) at the end of the 16th week. The presence of
small proportions of gypsum in the clayey or silty soils
does not have any significant effect on the strength- ~ 4o00 b
age relationship of the stabilized soils. = J Xj
/
The ratios of the strengths at the 28th and ll2th g / X 1 t
days to those of the 7th day for both cement and lime xj-~z"
stabilized soils are given in Table 5. Those for the
highly gypsiferous/bassanitic sandy soils are not consi- 2000
dered to be of any significant engineering use and are
not included. The ratios obtained in this study are in
good agreement with the average values obtained by
Gregg (1967) and Williams (1972). oI 1 I
I0 I00
It would be expected that the illite-dominated silty Days
loam would develop satisfactory strength with time, as O ~ Sandy loam
the clay mineral enhance the development of high L~ ,A Cloylc~ay loam
strength with time (Croft 1968). The low strength X X Silty loom
increase with age may be attributed primarily to the
silt-dominated (between 60% and 70% silt) texture, or FIG. 8. Effect of curing time on the unconfined compressive
the absence of the essential coarse fraction (up to 98% strength of cement stabilized soils.

Q. J. eng. Geol. London, 1985, Vol. 18

 Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015

STABILIZATION OF SOME ARID ZONE SOILS 179

TABLE 5. Ratios o f increase in unconfined compressive strength of soil-cement~lime
mixture with age

4% Cement 10% Cement 4% Lime

Soil type A B A B A B
Sandy loam 1.45 1.92 1.46 3.02 1.60 2.19

Clay or clay loam 1.34 1.70 1.45 1.88 1.35 1.74

Silty loam 1.34 1.72 1.30 1.69 1.50 2.0

A = Ratio of (unconfined compressive strength of 28-day-old specimens)/(unconfined com-
pressive strength of 7-day-old specimens).
B = Ratio of (unconfined compressive strength of l l2-day-old specimens)/(unconfined com-
pressive strength of 7-day-old specimens).

Shrinkage and swelling of stabilized soils
The percentage increase (swell %) and decrease
(linear shrinkage %) of the cement stabilized soils are
given in Figs 9 and 10. The amount of shrinkage is
I0
generally higher than that of swelling. This may be due
to the fact that hydrating cement paste is susceptible to
shrinkage during drying, whereas it may not neces-
sarily swell when soaked. In fact, the addition of
cement reduces the permeability of the soils, thereby
retarding the absorption of water.
The criteria for cement stabilization stipulate a swell
of not more than 2%, which can be easily achieved,

0"5

0-5

0.1

- 9 O.I
0'05 -"~'~-x~ o~ o
0.05

X~x~
0.01 I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 O.Ol l I I ] I I
0 2 4 6 8 l0 12
Cement content (%)
Cement content (%)
A A Clay/clay loam zl A Ctaylclay loam
0 0 Gyps iferous clay/clay loam 0 0 <3ypsiferousclaylclay loam
9 9 Sandy loam 9 9 Sandy loam
X X Silty loam x X Silty loam

FIG. 9. Effect of cement content on the swell of stabilized FIG. 10. Effect of cement content on the linear shrinkage of
soils, stabilized soils.

Q. J. eng. Geol. London, 1985, Vol. 18

 Downloaded from http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/ at Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi on December 31, 2015
180 E . G . AKPOKODJE
even in the highly plastic clay soil, by the addition of
6% cement (and 2% lime). The linear shrinkage at
this same cement content (i.e. 6%), is between 2%
and 3%. It can be concluded, therefore, that shrinkage
and swelling may not constitute serious problems in
the soils stabilized with at least 6% cement.
Conclusion
C e m e n t is a m o r e satisfactory stabilizing agent than
lime in all of the soils examined although an addition
of 2 - 4 % lime is required in the case of the clay soil in
order to improve mixing with cement. The strength
developed by s o i l - c e m e n t mixtures is mainly depend-
ent on the texture and the overall mineralogy (clay
References
AMERICAN SOCIETYFOR TESTINGANDMATERIALS. 1975. Spe-
cial procedures for testing soil and rock for engineering
purposes. 5th edn. Spec. Technical Publ. 479 pp.
BEAVIS, F. C. 1981. Engineering aspects of weathered dolo-
mite in an arid zone. J. geol. Soc. Aust. 28, 191-204.
, BEAVIS, J. C. & READE, L. M. 1978. Engineeering
geology of small water storage structures in Australian
arid,regions. Q.J. eng. Geol. London, 11, 279-90.
, ROBERTS, F. I. & MINSKAYA, L. 1982. Engineering
aspects of weathering of low grade metapellite in an arid
climatic zone. Q.J. eng. Geol. London, 15, 29-45.
BELL, F. O. 1973. Climate of Fowler's Gap Station. In
MABBUTF, J. A. (ed.) Lands in Fowler's Gap Station.
Fowler's Gap. Res. Ser. 3. Univ. NSW, 45-63.
BUCK, A. D. & DOLCH, W. L. 1966. Investigation of a
reaction involving non-dolomitic limestone aggregate in
concrete. J. Am. Const. Inst. 63-78.
CROFT, J. B. 1968. The problem in predicting the suitability
of soils for cementitious stabilization. Eng. Geol. 2,
397-424.
FRENCH, W. J. t~r CRAMMOND,N. J. 1980. The influence of
serpentinite and other rocks on the stability of concretes
in the Middle East. Q.J. eng. Geol. London, 13, 255-80.
GREGG, J. S. 1967. The significance of compressive, tensile
and flexural strength tests in the design of cement stabil-
ized pavement foundations. Proc. 4th Reg. Conf. Africa,
Soil Mech, Cape Town, 185-90.
INGLES,O. G. & FRYDMAN,S. 1966. The effect of cement and
lime on the strength of soil minerals and its relevance to
the stabilization of Australian soils. Proc. 3rd Conf. Aust.
Road Res. Board, Sydney, 2, 1504-25.
NU'ITERBERG, F. O. 1970. Occurrence and testing for delete-
rious salts in road construction material with particular
reference to calcretes. Proc. Symp. on Soils and Earth
Q. J. eng. Geol. London, 1985, Vol. 18
and non-clay) of the soil. The high content of gypsum
and bassanite in the sandy soils render them un-
amenable to cement and lime stabilization. In addi-
tion, the high contents of clay (smectite) and gypsum/
bassanite result in large strength reduction of the
cement stabilized soils on soaking, whereas the abund-
ance of illite and carbonate tend to produce the oppo-
site effect.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The financial support for this inves-
tigation was provided by the University of Port Harcourt,
Nigeria. The research was carried out at the University of
New South Wales, Kensington, Australia. I wish to thank
Professor F. C. Beavis for his invaluable criticisms and
suggestions during the laboratory studies and the writing of
this paper. Acknowledgement is also made to the staff of the
School of Applied Geology and the Fowler's Gap Station.
Structures in Arid Climates, Adelaide, 87-92.
NEVILLE, D. 1978. An investigation of coastal sand used in
two cement stabilization projects, West Malaysia. Proc.
4th Conf. Aust. Road Res. Board, 4, 1274-84.
OLA, S. A., 1975. Stabilization of Nigerian Laterite soils with
cement, bitumen and lime. 6th Reg. Conf. Africa Soil
Mech. Found Eng. Durban, South Africa, 145-52.
POOLE, A. B. & SOTIROPOULUS, P. 1980. Reactions between
dolomite aggregates and cement paste in concretes Q.J.
eng. Geol. London, 13, 281-7.
SHERWOOD, P. T. 1975a. The stabilization with cement of
weathered and sulphate bearing clays. Geotechnique, 7,
179-91.
1975b. A laboratory investigation of suitability of soils
from central Scotland for cement stabilization. Gt. Brit.
Dept. Sci. Res., Road Res. Note, 3139, 19.7.
1958. A study of the pedological classification of soils in
relation to soil-cement stabilization. Gt. Brit. Dept. Sci.
Ind., Road Rec. Note 3284, 15.
STACE, H. C. T., HUBBLE, G. D., BREWER, R., NORTHCOTE,
K. M., SLEEMAN,J. R., MULCAHY,M. J. HALLSWORTH,
E. G. (eds) 1968. A Handbook of Australian Soils.
Rellius, Adelaide, 7-518.
STANDARDS ASSOCIATIONOF AUSTRALIA. 1979. Methods of
testing soils for engineering purposes. AS 1289.
UPPAL., H. L. t~ BHATIA, H. S. 1958. Stabilization of black
cotton soil for use in road construction. Pap. Central Road
Res. Inst. India, 31, 35.
UPPAL, J. S. KAPUR, B. P. 1957. Role of detrimental salts
in soil stabilization with or without cement. III. The
effect of magnesium sulphate. Indian Congr. J. 31, 229.
WILLIAMS, R. I. I. 1972. Properties of cement stabilized
materials. J. Inst. Highw. Engineers, 19, 175-87.