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1. Introduction
from existing maps, remote sensors, etc. The data input is usually accom-
plished using computer tapes, digitizers, scanners or manual encoding of
geographically registered grid cells, points, lines, polygons or tables.
l A data storage and retrieval subsystem which organizes the spatial data in a
form that permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for subsequent analysis,
as well as allows for rapid and accurate updates and corrections to be made
to the spatial database. Typical directories include: land cover, soils imagery,
topography, and water information.
l A data manipulation and analysis subsystem which converts data through user-
defined aggregation rules, or pruduces estimates of parameters and constraints
for various space-time optimization or simulation models.
l A data reporting subsystem which displays all or part of the original database,
as well as manipulated data, and the output from spatial models in tabular or
map form.
Three types of computer platforms are used to run GIS software. In chrono-
logical order of development they include mainframes, personal micro-computers
(PCs), and most recently, workstations. Mainframes are the oldest platform for
running GIS applications; they have complex operating systems and problems with
end-user access to the system. However, some users may find the large data han-
dling capabilities of the mainframe quite desirable. PCs are relatively inexpensive
and easy to use. However, they may be inadequate for handling large datasets with
the complex topology and numerous attribute relationships usually encountered
in water resources management (Leipnik et al., 1993). Workstations are the most
recent development and appear to be the workhorses of the ~OS, offering an
excellent combination between the ease of access and simplicity of a PC, and the
data handling power of a mainframe. Workstations provide the GIS users with
the means to handle large and complex datasets and other decision-support tools,
such as hydrologic models, statistical packages and optimization programs. Fig-
ure 1 shows a typical setup for a complete GIS system at the Water Resources
Laboratory of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Flori-
GISIN WATERRESOURCES 253
Fig. 1. Qpical water resourcesGIS laboratory (key: (1) Digitizing table; (2) scanner; (3)
personal computer with AUTOCAD/ArcCAD; (4) tape driver; (5) workstation with UNIX
ARC/INFO; (6) color printer; (7) personalcomputer with PCARC/INFO; (8) typical drainage
map>.
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the intersections of the sub-basins, land use, and soils in a 600 square mile area,
the decision was made to employ GIS.
Eagle (1991) used GIS for interfacing with a real time hydrologic model com-
putation system (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HECs Data Storage System). The
data stored in Data Storage System (DSS) is readily accessible by most ofthe hydro-
logic forecasting models. The DSS system is designed to handle water resources
data of various types, including streamflow, overland flow, and precipitation.
A GIS database was created by Bhaskar et al. (1992) using ARC/INFO and
consisting of all hydrological characteristics required to model rainfall-runoff in
a watershed. All coverages (soils, land use, basin and sub-basin boundaries, etc.)
were stored in different layers in the GIS. An overlay of any or some of the layers
can be easily mapped using GIS. A physically based geomorphic model, referred
to as watershed hydrologic simulation (WAHS) model, was used to simulate the
watershed hydrologic response. Compilation of various geomorphic properties of
drainage basins, such as drainage densities and channel frequencies, can easily
be done using GIS, although certain other parameters, such as stream orders and
distances of the first order streams from the gage, have to be computed externally
and input to the INFO files. Such information can readily be obtained using macros
written in Arc Macro Language @ML). It is apparent that the successful use of
GIS in the future will require development and use of macros to interface modeling
software with the GIS software.
The Maryland State Highway Administration installed a GIS structured for
hydrologic analyses with the objective of improving the efficiency and quality of
hydraulic design by providing engineers with the capability of quickly assembling
land cover, slope and soil data for any watershed in the state. These input parame-
ters are used to run the SCS-TR-20 hydrologic model for existing and proposed
watershed conditions (Ragan and Andrej, 1991; Ragan and Kosicki, 1993). This
system has been named GISHYDRO (GIS for Hydrologic Analysis).
Integrated hydrologic modeling is defined as the combined hydrologic mod-
eling of a surface water and groundwater system using comprehensive computer
models for each system. HSPF (Hydrological Simulation Program-FORTRAN),
a surface water model, and MODFLOW, a ground water model, were used with
an evapotranspiration (ET) code developed for the conditions of the study area
(Ross and Tara, 1993). The study area was a phosphate mine site in Florida. These
three models were then linked through GIS. GIS performed complex map overlays
and spatial analysis to develop input data for the hydrologic data, provided the
linkage mechanisms between models, provided the conversion of the digital land
forms of different projections and scales to a standardized format (referred to as
geo-referencing), and finally provided post-simulation graphics output display and
spatial analysis for evaluating hydrologic simulation results.
The integration of GIS and a finite element model results in easily generated
design layouts incorporating man-made structures as well as natural features of
the terrain which are stored in the GIS database as new items available for further
GIS IN WATER RESOURCES 259
Water and sewer agencies are constantly looking for technologieswhich aid
in smooth and efficient operationsand provide higher levels of service. Plan-
ning, design, analysis,operationand maintenanceof water and sewersystemsin
metropolitan areascan benefit significantly from GIS technologybecauseof the
spatial natureof the datain such designproblems.Much of decisionmaking can
also be automatedthroughthe useof anexpertGIS (McKinney et al., 1992; 1993).
Such a systemautomatesthe processof solving regionalwater problems,and aids
in selectionof minimum cost alternatives(Lamie andWong, 1991).
Interfacing with a GIS can greatly enhancesewersystemmodelsby overcom-
ing their limitations in displaying graphical information (Przybyla and Kiesler,
1991).The capability to accuratelyforecastwaterdemandsandto match existing
and future supplies with thesedemandsplays a key role in water supply manage-
GIS IN WATER RESOURCES 261
Agricultural pollution is difficult to monitor because all pollution sources are non-
point in nature. Monitoring can be greatly assisted by the application of computer
modeling to predict water quality changes with a dependable accuracy. Model inter-
facing with GIS greatly simplifies modeling tasks. He et al. (1993) used AGNPS
(Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution Model) to evaluate the impact of agri-
cultural runoff on water quality in the Cass River of the Saginaw Bay watershed
in Michigan. The model was integrated with the Geographic Resources Analy-
sis Support System (GRASS) to generate parameters needed for AGNPS digital
maps, Management scenarios designed to minimize the sedimentation and nutrient
loading were explored by AGNPS.
Tsihrintzis, Fuentes and Gadipudi (1994a; 1994b), Gadipudi, Tsihrintzis and
Fuentes (1994), and Gadipudi (1994) interfaced ARC/INFO with HSPF to pre-
dict, map, monitor, and manage pollutants from agricultural areas. The study area
was the West Wellfield Interim Protection Area (WWIPA), located in west Dade
County in south Florida (Figure 4). Basic physical datasets included land use, land
cover, topography, water features (e.g. lakes and canals), soils, and boundary maps.
Meteorological data included precipitation, evapotranspiration, temperature, and
wind movement. Additional data included pesticide and nutrient application rates.
A GIS derived database automatically prepared the model input and handled spatial
and time series data, tables and text. Alternatives were studied utilizing GIS and
GIS IN WATER RESOURCES 265
Fig. 4. Land use map for the West Wellfield Interim Protection Area in Miami.
The use of GIS in combination with other models helps in determining the
application of nutrients at uniformly optimum levels. Applying farm chemicals
where they are most necessaryis a cost-effectiveway to reduceenvironmental
hazards(Runyon, 1994).
Fig. 5. Map of the historic (circa 1850) south Florida subregionsand landscapes(Bueno et
al., 1995)
Fig. 6. Map of current south Florida land use and canals(Bueno et al., 1995.)
modeling is the interfacing of water models with the GIS. Since theseinter-
facing tasks require developmentof other programsfor the two systemsto
communicate,the humanelementis involved.Automation of interfacingtasks
is one areato be researchedin incorporatingGIS and popular water models
(e.g., genericinterfaceroutineswhich work with variousmodels).The devel-
opment of customized GIS solely for the purposesof water resourcesand
quality modeling is anotherareafor GIS research.
l Data availability and compatibility seemsto be a big problem in implement-
ing and running any GIS system. Davis et al. (1991) discussedsome basic
scientific issuesand researchneedsin thejoint processingof remotely sensed
and GIS data for environmentalanalysis.As the useof GIS increasesin the
areaof water quality and water resources,spatialinformation should also be
more readily availablefor timely execution.Local authoritiesshouldestablish
centralized data banks for regions all over the country.These banks should
provide digitized mapsandotherspatialdatacompatiblewith varioussystems.
Such data availability could significantly speedup the analysesand decision
making processes.
l As the national infrastructurefor spatial datadevelops,new usersincreasingly
Acknowledgements
This study was partially funded by a grant from the Florida International Uni-
versity Foundation (FIU) and the Office of the Provost.Additional support was
given by the FIU Drinking WaterResearchCenter(DWRC). Specialthanksto Dr.
Thomas Breslin, Director of the Division of SponsoredResearchat FIU, and Dr.
William J. Cooper,Director of the DWRC. Mr. Rao Gadipudi,graduatestudentof
EnvironmentalEngineeringwith the Departmentof Civil andEnvironmentalEngi-
neeringat FIU, assistedin original literaturesearchandsummaries,andcompleted
the thesis: Evaluating the Effects of Agricultural Practiceson Water Quality by
Interfacing GIS with Computer Models under the direction of Dr. Vassilios A.
Tsihrintzis.
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