1.

0 Fundamentals and theory

1.0.1 Nucleus structure

An atom comprise of a central nucleus enveloped by electrons spinning physically in

fixed orbitals. The nucleus is comprise of neutrons and protons, on the whole called
nucleons. The atomic number is the number of protons (Z) and the atomic mass number
is the sum of of nucleons (A) in a nucleus is known as the atomic mass number, while
neutrons (AeZ) is denoted as N. The magnitude of a positively charged proton is
e=1.6022 10-19 Isotopes of an element are atoms which nucleus has the same proton
but different neutron. They have the same physical arrangement and thus same chemical
properties.

1.0.2 Binding energy

The total of the mass of the constituent proton and neutron is more than the mass of a
nucleus . The mass defect is the energy that would be discharged in forming nucleus,
because the binding of nucleons form a nucleus. The equivalent energy is known as
binding energy of nucleus, which is equivalent to the energy needed to separate nucleus
into discrete nucleons. The repulsive electrostatic forces increases the atomic number
due to more of protons in the element, therefore, the number of neutrons must increase
proportionally to maintain stability. Less energy is required to displace a nucleon from
the nucleus, due to the increasing repulsive force. The BE/A (Binding energy to atomic
mass ratio) has decreased, indicating the atomic stability has decreased. The increase is
BE/A as atomic mass decreases is the main reason that energy is released during fission
process.

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1.0.3 Radiation

Nuclear reactions trigger the conversion of an element into a different isotope or an

entirely different element (Proton number change) that produces radioactive radiation.
There are three general types of radiation:
Alpha rays: alpha particle emited from the nucleus produces alpha rays. Alpha particle
consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The atomic mass is reduced by 4 units and the
atomic number will be reduced by 2 units when an atom emits a single alpha particle.

Beta rays: Beta ray are emitted when a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron,
following the discharge of the electron from the atoms nucleus: The atomic mass
number of an atom that emits beta particles remains as there is no change in nuclear
particles. Nonetheless, the atomic number is reduced by 1 as the neutron is transformed
into a proton.

Gamma rays: Gamma ray is the discharge of electromagnetic radiation decaying from an
atoms nucleus. Gamma radiation does not emit any particles, and therefore gamma
radiation will not induce any transformation of atoms.

1.0.4 Nuclear fission

In 1939, Fermi and Hahn observed that the blasting of uranium by neutrons can divide
the uranium nucleus into two large nuclei, releasing tremendous amount of energy in
process. The energy of the neutron triggers the target element to divide into two (or
more) elements that are smaller than the parent atom. When a nucleus undergoes fission,
it breaks into many smaller fractions which are approximately equivalent to half the
initial weight. In the process, two or three neutrons are being consumed. The total of the
masses of these fractions is lower than the initial mass. Energy is gained from the neutron
mass loss.

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1.0.5 Chain Reaction

This process occurs where neutrons discharged in fission yields an extra fission in
minimum one new nucleus (Viswanathan, (2017). This nucleus in turn yields more
neutrons, and the process goes on shown in the reation below:
235U + nfission +2 or 3 n + 200 MeV

Illustration of a typical fission reaction (Viswanathan,2017).

1.0.6 Critical Mass

Not all of the neutrons produced in the fission reaction have the potential for continuing
the fission reaction. However, the chain reaction will not be self-sustained if the neutrons
are lost faster that formed. Critical mass is achieved when the chain reaction becomes
self-sustaining.

Most of the nuclear power plant uses uranium as a fuel source. Uranium used in nuclear
power generation exists as 235U and 238U. The two isotopes of uranium vary only in the
number of their neutrons. When a 235U isotope absorbs a neutron, it becomes unstable,
then catalyze nuclear fission. Conversely, a 238U nucleus, does not divide when a
neutron is absorbed; but it transmute into 239Pu. Uranium enrichment is a method to
increase the concentration of uranium 235U for a more efficient nuclear fission.
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1.1 Production and consumption of nuclear energy

The nuclear energy output has steadily increased to meet the demands of economic
growth (Gralla, 2016). The total net production of electricity energy generation in 2015
was 20.500; while nuclear electricity generation was 2798 TWh representing 13.6% of
the total energy generated (OECD, 2016).
United States is the largest nuclear energy producer globally with France and Russia
ranked second and third in 2015. The nuclear energy generation is 798 TWh, 416.8 TWh
and 195.2 TWh respectively. France has the highest proportion of energy consumption
from nuclear energy, 76.35% of the energy consumed is sourced from nuclear energy.
This is due to government long-term policy for energy independence (Malischek and
Truby, 2016).
In 2016, 30 countries possess operational nuclear power plant with 450 nuclear reactors
for electricity generation and 60 new nuclear plants are under construction in 15 countries
(NEA, 2016). Nuclear power protocols are arranged by international intergovernmental
organization such as Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and International Framework for
Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC) which aims to reduces nuclear waste and the risk
of nuclear race (ifnec, 2016).
The vast majority of nuclear energy generated is used for electricity generation (NEI,
2016). Nuclear power plant uses uranium to create fission which produces heat to water
into steam, which cause a turbine to rotate to generate electricity.
In smaller scale usage, such as industry uses nuclear energy in the form of radioisotopes
to accurately determine the thickness and density of material as radiation losses energy
across a medium. Trace isotopes can also track leakage of piping system and gauge the
corrosion of the inner part of equipment.
Usually, trace amounts of radioisotopes are used as as tracers in to materials. The tracers
enable operators to determine the point of leakage from piping systems and regulate the
rate of machinery wear and corrosion of processing equipment. Radioisotopes also allow
the operator to determine the velocity of materials pass through pipes and to indicate the
efficacy of filtration systems. Radioisotopes are also use to examine metal product for
defects and to calibrate instrument.

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Nuclear energy is also used for reverse osmosis in desalination as is it more economical
than conventional fossil fuel. Nuclear energy has proven to achieve lower operating cost
in countries such as Japan because desalination process is extremely energy intensive
(NEI, 2016).

2.1 Nuclear technology

To sustain a controlled nuclear reaction, only a single neutron is permitted to hit another
uranium nucleus for every two or three neutrons discharged. If this ratio is less than 1the
reaction will stop; if more than 1, it will become uncontrolled. Thus, a neutron-absorbing
element is important to regulate the quantity of free neutrons in the reaction. The majority
of reactors are regulated by a control rod that is built from vigorous neutron-absorbent
material.
There are different types of thermal nuclear reactors, such as pressurized water, boiling
water, gas-cooled, pressurized heavy water, light-water subsegraphite, and so on. These
reactors are mainly utilized for power generation; with all generating heat energy and
subsequently electrical energy. All nuclear reactors types share two similar component:
control rods and a coolant. The rate of fission is fixed by the control of number of
neutron. These rods are made with neutron absorbing material. Water is the usually
preferred used coolant. Other than requsite to capture neutrons, the neutrons generally
possess excess kinetic energy. These rapid neutrons can be decelerated by a moderator
such as heavy water and fresh water. Slowed neutrons have more chance to produce
further nuclear fissions or be absorbed by the control rod. Uranium 235U undergoes
fission more easily with thermal or slow neutrons.

2.1.1 Fission to electricity

Nuclear power is the regulated use of nuclear energy to create productive work which
involves propulsion, heat, mainly the generation of electricity. Nuclear energy is
generated by radioactive material usually uranium is used, is concentrated so that the

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radioactive decay is expedited in a controlled chain reaction that produces heat energy
that can be directly used to heat water, generate steam, and drive a steam turbine. Three
neutrons are discharged apart rom the two daughter atoms during the fission of 235U. A
self-sustaining chain reaction can be caused by the collision of neutron of released
neutron with adjacent 235U nuclei. As the atoms continue to split, tremendous energy is
released. A nuclear plant produces electricity comparable to a fossil fuel power plant
which uses heat to turn a turbine to create electricity. Nuclear fuel have much higher
density of energy that fossil fuel; approximately 17,000 kg of coal generates the
equivalent quantity of electricity as a 1 kg uranium.

2 .2 Case studies: Nuclear energy in France

France has long been a dominant pioneer in nuclear energy (Ben et al., 2015) to fulfil the
demand of electricity, economic expansion, and environmental concerns. The French
electricity system is derived from many sources of generation, mainly coal, oil, gas,
nuclear, wind, solar, hydro and other RES (tidal and thermal). The countrys electricity
generation is administered by the RTE (Rseau de Transport d'lectricit)). France has
58 nuclear reactors run by Electricite de France (EdF), with a total capacity of 63.2 GWe,
generating 436 TWh of electricity in 2014, or 77.5% of the total electrical energy(World-
nuclear, 2017). The population boom and industrialization have led France to prioritize
on nuclear energy (Ben et al., 2015). In 1974, the French government planned to develop
its nuclear power capacity, after the first oil crisis occurred. Electricity production from
nuclear sources exceeded that of fossil fuel in 1982. As a European Union member,
France is required to adhere to a limit for renewables energy within its local electricity
mix (Marques et al, 2015). Since the last decade until 2014, France has exported up to 70
TWh net each year and EdF forecasts exports to expand at 55-70 TWh/yr, primarily to
Italy, UK, Switzerland, and Belgium, as well as to Spain (World-nuclear, 2017).
Since the implementation of nuclear power, French electricity prices are comparatively
low. In 2007, France ranks fourth in the EU in electricity prices, behind Finland,
Denmark and Sweden (M Schneider, 2008). The low cost of energy price was vital for
the industrial sector to become more competitive.

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Nuclear power plants have relatively low greenhouse gas emission. Carbon dioxide
(CO2) emission is related to oil consumption. In 2006, total greenhouse gas emissions in
France were almost 4% below the 1990 level (M Schneider, 2008) due to increased usage
of nuclear power. Per capita greenhouse gas emissions have decreased steadily since
1999.
Despite all the advantages, France Electricit de France has to shutdown 18 of its 58
reactors beginning from 2017. The annual nuclear energy output could fall from 378
terawatt hours (TWH) in 2016, from 417 TWH previous year (economist, 2016). France
nuclear regulator has found high carbon levels in steel found in cylindrical steam
generators, risking fracture of the generator during sudden changes in temperature.
Switching on a nuclear generator is extremely costly and can take months. Furthermore,
around 80% of the French nuclear reactors are built in the 1970s with 40 year lifespan,
with many facing imminent shutdown in the coming years (economist, 2016).

2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy

2 .3.1 Advantages of nuclear energy

2.3.1.1 Low environmental impact

Global warming and climate change represent a significant danger to our future.
Approximately 40% of the total CO2 emissions come from electricity generation, mainly
because of fossil fuels. (Soltanieh & Rezaeian, 2016). In order to meet the supply of clean
energy, carbonless energy resources such as renewables and nuclear must be further
exploited. In 2011, the global production of nuclear energy generated is 2518 TWh of
electricity. Nuclear power plant emits 73 million tonnes of CO2 , while coal power
plant emits significantly higher CO2, 236 million tonnes producing the similar amount of
energy (world-nuclear-2011).Nuclear power plant as compared to fossil fuel also does not
generate air-borne particles such as particulate matter (PM), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxide (NOx) which are air pollutant that causes major health concerns
(OECD,2015).

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2.3.1.2 Low operating cost

Based on data by Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) in 2011, nuclear

power had the lowest electricity production costs compared to other energy source at 2.10
cents per kWh, petroleum highest at 21.56 cents per kWh (IER, 2012). Uranium fuel is a
widely abundant raw material, and even large price fluctuation will have insignificant
effect on the operating cost since small amount of uranium fuel is required for electricity
generation (Hore-Lacy, 2016). The enrichment process of uranium into fuel element
represents about half of the fuel cost. However, disposal cost of radioactive waste for
storing, transporting and managing. Fuel disposal can contributes up to 10% of the total
running costs per kWh.

2.3.1.3 Energy independence and security

Nuclear power plant can supply enormous energy, which ensures long term energy
security, independence and diversification of energy supply. Uranium deposit are
distributed widely across the globe, countries which implement nuclear power does not
need to depend on imported energy source. Energy independence minimizes the risk of
political and economic uncertainties due to energy shortage (Hore-Lacy, 2016).

2.3.2 Disadvantages of nuclear energy

2.3.2.1 High capital cost

The high cost of nuclear power plant has hinder developing countries from adopting
nuclear power, as it cannot compete with cheaper fossil fuel (Lovering et al., 2016). The
average duration of nuclear power plant construction is 8 years. Long period of
construction increases the Interest During Construction (IDC), which can achieve 54% of
total construction costs for a 15% cost of capital and a ten-year construction duration
(Davis, 2011). The average nuclear power plant built in United States cost $3,850/kWe in
2009, with cost continue to rise yearly (ucsusa, 2009).

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2.3.2.2 Radioactive risk

Radioactive waste at atomic power plants is delivered by the contamination of different

materials with the radionuclides produced by fission in the reactor or discharged from the
fuel or cladding surfaces (V.M Efremenkov, 1989). Most radioactive waste are
reprocessed or recycled for other uses. Radioactive discharge from nuclear plants can
also have an adverse effect on human health and the environment. Massive quantities of
radioactive waste are usually unintentionally released due to plant accidents such as the
Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant accident and Chernobyl disaster. In the
Fukushima accident, large amount of radiocesium (137Cs) were deposited in the
surrounding area, absorbed into the soil, water and by plants, causing long-term
ecological damages (Iwagami, 2016). In the Chernobyl disaster, local population affected
by high dose radiation had elevated risk of cancer and birth defects. Radiological
contamination can be spread through different media at its immediate surrounding. Minor
radioactive leak from nuclear plant occurs occasionally (Leo Van Velzen, 2015). Hazard
components with nuclear power involves potential nuclear catastrophe because of:
mischances, carelessness, poor design, and cataclysmic events (M. Pearce, 2012).

2.3.3.3 Technological replacement

Nuclear power plants are at risk being replace by renewable energy such as solar, wind
and geothermal especially in the coming years. Recent advancement in renewable energy
makes it more economical and environmental friendly than nuclear energy, especially in
small scale generation.

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3.0 Conclusion

The nuclear industry must address challenging issues in the present and for future era,
most importantly technical solution, especially the environmental hazard of nuclear
energy. To replace other non-renewable energy source, innovation has to be made to
boost the energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions. All responsible parties should
eliminate all radioactive waste and cut down the environmental effects during mining and
extraction operations. Since our future energy demand cannot be solely dependent on
fossil fuel, nuclear energy can be a viable alternative for more economical and
environmental friendly source of energy.

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