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Lecture 5 Rock

Cycle &
Igneous Rocks

Engr. Irfan Ahmad


(Lecture CED UOL)
Rocks
Rock is the most common and abundant material on Earth
Rocks are aggregates of two or more individual minerals.
When a rock is examined closely, we find that it consists of
smaller crystals or grains called minerals. Each mineral has its
own composition and physical properties. The grains or
crystals may be microscopically small or easily seen with the
unaided eye.
The nature and appearance of a rock is strongly influenced by
the minerals that compose it.
In addition, a rocks texturethe size, shape, and/or
arrangement of its constituent mineralsalso has a significant
effect on its appearance.
A rocks mineral composition and texture, in turn, are a
reflection of the geologic processes that created it.
Rock Types
Geologists divide rocks into three major groups:
1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
Rock Cycle
Rock Cycle
Basic Rock Cycle:
1. Magma is molten material that forms inside
Earth. Eventually magma cools and solidifies.
This process, called crystallization, may
occur either beneath the surface or,
following a volcanic eruption, at the surface.
In either situation, the resulting rocks are
called igneous rocks (ignis = fire).
2. If igneous rocks are exposed at the surface, they
will undergo weathering, in which the day-in
and day-out influences of the atmosphere
slowly disintegrate and decompose rocks. The
materials that result are often moved
downslope by gravity before being picked up
and transported by any of a number of erosional
agents, such as running water, glaciers, wind, or
waves. Eventually these particles and dissolved
substances, called sediment, are deposited.
3. Next the sediments undergo lithification, a term
meaning conversion into rock. Sediment is
usually lithified into sedimentary rock when
compacted by the weight of overlying layers or
when cemented as percolating groundwater fills
the pores with mineral matter.
4. If the resulting sedimentary rock is buried deep
within Earth and involved in the dynamics of
mountain building or intruded by a mass of
magma, it will be subjected to great pressures
and/or intense heat. The sedimentary rock will
react to the changing environment and turn into
the third rock type, metamorphic rock.
5. When metamorphic rock is subjected to
additional pressure changes or to still higher
temperatures, it will melt, creating magma,
which will eventually crystallize into igneous
rock, starting the cycle all over again.
Alternative Paths:
The paths shown in the basic cycle are not the only ones
that are possible.
1. Igneous rocks, rather than being exposed to
weathering and erosion at Earths surface, may
remain deeply buried. Eventually these masses may
be subjected to the strong compressional forces and
high temperatures associated with mountain building.
When this occurs, they are transformed directly into
metamorphic rocks.
2. Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, as well as
sediment, do not always remain buried. Rather,
overlying layers may be stripped away, exposing the
once buried rock. When this happens, the material is
attacked by weathering processes and turned into
new raw materials for sedimentary rocks.
Igneous Rocks
Definition
The rocks which are formed by cooling and
solidification of magma or lava are known as
igneous rocks.
Magma: molten rock within the Earth
Lava: molten rock on the Earths surface
Formation of Igneous Rocks
Magma (molten rock)
originates deep within
the interior of the Earth
Rises to surface because
it is less dense than
surrounding rock
As the magma rises, it
cools and begins to
crystallize
There are two (2) basic types or forms of
igneous rocks:
1. Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic rocks): igneous
rocks that form from cooling magma at depth
2. Extrusive igneous rocks (Volcanic rocks): igneous
rocks that form from volcanic activity (at or near
surface)
In general:
Plutonic rocks are usually coarse-grained
Extrusive rocks are usually fine-grained
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks are classified on a two fold
basis:
1. Textural
2. Chemical (mineral)
Igneous Texture
Texture refers to size, shape and pattern of mineral grains.
Igneous rock textures depend on cooling history.
Fine-grained texture (Aphanitic)--due to fast cooling (at or near
surface)
Coarse-grained texture (Phaneritic)--due to slow cooling at depth
Porphyritic texture-- coarse crystals (phenocrysts) surrounded by
fine-grained groundmass of aphanitic crystals; forms due to
initial slow cooling, then magma rising to (or close to) surface and
the remaining magma cooling quickly
Glassy texture -- due to very rapid cooling --magma cools so fast
crystals don't have time to form. Obsidian (volcanic glass) forms this
way.
Vesicular texture-- full of rounded holes (vesicles) --forms due to
escape of gas bubbles during cooling of lava. Pumice is a light-
colored rock with this vesicular texture.
Pyroclastic texture-- chunks of molten material that fuse together
Igneous Textures
Mineral Content
The kinds and amount of the various minerals in an
igneous rock depends principally on chemical composition
of the magma or lava.
Acidic Rock (Felsic):
High content of silica ( > 65% )
Mineral like Quartz and feldspar are common in
them Light in color
Low in specific gravity
Examples are; Granite and Rhyolite
Intermediate Rocks:
Between the two extremes in silica content and other minerals
Example; Diorite and Andesite
Basic Rocks (Mafic):
These have lower content of silica ( < 35%) but more
iron and magnesium
Contains ferromagnesian minerals like pyroxene,
amphibole, biotite and olivine
Dark in color
More specific gravity
Examples are; basalt, gabbro
Ultrabasic Rocks (ultra Mafic):
Rocks with almost no feldspar
Examples are; peridotite
Classification of Igneous rocks on the basis of silica content
Kinds of Igneous Rocks
Granite and Rhyolite
Granite
Coarse Grained
Acidic (Felsic)
Intrusive
Rhyolite
Extrusive equivalent of
granite
fine grained
Acidic (Felsic)
May contain glass
fragments and vesicles
Less common and less
voluminous than
granite
Andesite and Diorite
Andesite
Extrusive
Basic / Mafic
Aphanitic texture

Diorite
Coarse grained
Intrusive
Basic/ Mafic
Basalt and Gabbro
Basalt
Fine Grained
Extrusive
Basic

Gabbro
Coarse Grained
Intrusive
Basic/ Mafic
Peridotite
Coarse grained
Intrusive
Ultra basic/ Ultra Mafic
Obsidian
Extrusive
Dark colored
Glassy texture

Pumice
Extrusive
Vesicular texture
Frothy appearance with
numerous voids
Igneous Intrusions
Igneous intrusions are rock bodies that form from
crystallization of magma at depth within earth's crust.
They are categorized based on their shape and overall
size.
They come in a variety of shapes and sizes:
Discordant: cut across pre-existing fabric of rock layers
Dikes are small igneous intrusions that cut across rocks
into which the magma intrudes. They are commonly sheet-
like, only a few meters wide, but possibly laterally
extensive. Think of magma invading a vertical or near-
vertical fracture in rock. Igneous rock would fill the crack
due to crystallization of magma. One would call the rock
body a dike.
Stocks are fairly large (10s of miles) igneous intrusions that
cut across pre-existing rock layers. In size, they are on the
order of an individual mountain peak.
Batholiths are huge igneous intrusions made of many
stocks. Their size is on the scale of an entire mountain
range (100s of miles).
Concordant: follow pre-existing fabric of rock layers
without interruption of layering.
Sills are also small igneous intrusions. They are sheets of
rock that, unlike dikes, are parallel to pre-existing rocks.
Think of magma invading sedimentary rocks by spreading
out between rock layers. That magma would cool to form a
sill.
Laccoliths are rather large, mushroom-shaped intrusions
that puff up in the center due to gases.
Lopoliths are also large, inverted mushroom-shaped
(spoon-shaped) intrusions that sag down in the middle
because of dense rocks.
Rock is a natural geological composite material composed of
grains held together by cohesive forces. The resultant
grainy structures in rock can be clearly observed. This
configuration often results in rocks having heterogeneities,
anisotropies, discontinuities, inelasticity, and commonly,
weaknesses and defects. Mechanical failure can be
triggered by initial weaknesses, resulting in crack
propagations.

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