DES-12410; No of Pages 17

Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Desalination
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

A review on RO membrane technology: Developments and challenges

Seema S. Shenvi a, Arun M. Isloor a,, A.F. Ismail b,
a
Membrane Technology Laboratory, Chemistry Department, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore 575 025, India
b
Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

H I G H L I G H T S

RO based desalination is one of the most important technologies for the production of fresh water.
This review highlights about important milestones in RO technology.
The material property, mainly dominates the RO process.
Few of the problems associated with RO technology is also discussed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Reverse osmosis (RO) based desalination is one of the most important and widely recognized technologies for
Received 1 September 2014 production of fresh water from saline water. Since its conception and initiation, a signicant development has
Received in revised form 27 December 2014 been witnessed in this technology w.r.t. materials, synthesis techniques, modication and modules over the
Accepted 29 December 2014
last few decades. The working of a RO plant inclusive of the pretreatment and post-treatment procedures has
Available online xxxx
been briey discussed in the article. The main objective of this review is to highlight the historical milestones
Keywords:
achieved in RO technology in terms of membrane performance, the developments seen over the last few years
RO membrane and the challenges perceived.
Flux The material properties of the membrane dominate the performance of a RO process. The emergence of nano-
Nano-technology technology and biomimetic RO membranes as the futuristic tools is capable of revolutionizing the entire RO pro-
Desalination cess. Hence the development of nano-structured membranes involving thin lm nano-composite membranes,
carbon-nanotube membranes and aquaporin-based membranes has been focussed in detail. The problems asso-
ciated with a RO process such as scaling, brine disposal and boron removal are briefed and the measures adopted
to address the same have been discussed.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2. Brief history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3. RO plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4. Reverse osmosis membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.1. Polymeric membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.1.1. Cellulosic membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.1.2. Thin lm composite polyamide membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.2. Inorganic/ceramic membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.3. Mixed matrix membranes (MMM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4.4. Biomimetic membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5. Reverse osmosis modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1. Hollow ber module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2. Spiral wound module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: isloor@yahoo.com (A.M. Isloor).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.042
0011-9164/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: S.S. Shenvi, et al., A review on RO membrane technology: Developments and challenges, Desalination (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.042
2 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx

6. Problems associated with RO process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

6.1. Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.2. Boron removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6.3. Brine disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
7. Conclusion and future opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

1. Introduction
There has been an increasing demand for fresh water supply owing
to population boom, global warming and the geography of our planet
[1]. The world population has increased fourfold while the fresh water
consumption has increased ninefold in the 20th century. By the year
2025, several countries are expected to face severe water crisis; the
problem being manifold critical where water shortage already exists
(Fig. 1) [2]. The water shortage problems are due to both, man-made
and natural causes.
Seawater desalination is one of the leading technologies to cater to
this problem. It refers to the removal of salts and other minerals from
sea water or brackish water in order to obtain pure water for human
consumption and for domestic/industrial utilization. Over the past few
decades, a number of technologies have been developed in this regard
which include multi-stage ash (MSF) distillation, multi-effect distilla-
tion (MED), mechanical vapor pressure compression (MVC) distillation
and membrane based reverse osmosis (RO), electrodialysis (ED) and
nanoltration (NF) process. More than 50% of the installed desalination
plants worldwide use RO technology because of its simplicity and rela-
tively low energy cost in comparison with distillation based thermal
processes. The market for RO based desalination has seen a steady in-
crease due to advancement in RO technology in terms of membrane ma-
terial and energy consumption which has enabled a reduction in cost of
pure water production. According to Global Water Intelligence and
International Desalination Association, nearly 19.8 billion gallons
per day fresh water is produced from the installed desalination
plants worldwide. The membrane industry is a large segment worth bil-
lions (Fig. 2). The leading membrane manufacturing companies are
Hydranautics (Nitto-Denko), DOW-Filmtec, Toray, CSM, Koch Mem-
brane Systems and GE Osmonics. Millions and millions are spent by
these companies to cater to the growing water demands. The factors
affecting the desalination market may vary, but the underlying reasons
are due to three P's: Pollution, population and progress. Pollution of the
existing water bodies in addition to climate change, ever increasing
population and industrial development has stressed upon the need to
increase fresh water supply.
The heart of RO based separation is the semi permeable membrane
known as RO membrane which preferentially allows water molecules
to pass through it, by obstructing the passage of salts under the inu-
ence of externally applied pressure (Fig. 3). The salt and water permeate
through an RO membrane by solution-diffusion transport mechanism
[35]. When the applied pressure is higher than the osmotic pressure
(p N ), water starts owing from concentrated salt solution to dilute
solution through the membrane.
J Ap
where is the osmotic pressure difference between the feed and the
permeate, p is the pressure difference across the membrane and A is
a constant which describe the physical characteristics of the membrane
itself. RO membranes are characterized by the average pore size of less
than 1 nm and require very high pressures up to 80 bar. Such high pres-
sures are required to overcome the osmotic pressure of sea water,
which is about 25 bar. The performance of these membranes is usually
governed by water ux and salt rejection. An ideal RO membrane has
a salt rejection of more than 99%. NF membranes are also used for desa-
lination application, but the salt removal capacity is not as high as that of
RO membrane. Depending upon the requirement or application of pure
water, either NF or RO membrane can be used.
Considering the importance of this technology, abundant work is
carried out very regularly on RO membranes, which necessitate a timely
review to keep the academic and industrial world updated. This article
is dedicated to give a comprehensive review of RO process, the materials
used to prepare these membranes, their development over the period of

Fig. 1. People living in areas of water stress, by level of stress, Source: OECD Environmental Fig. 2. Market for desalination technology.
Outlook to 2030. Source: GWI Desal Data.

Please cite this article as: S.S. Shenvi, et al., A review on RO membrane technology: Developments and challenges, Desalination (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.042
 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of reverse osmosis process.
years, the structure of these membranes, plant setup, limitations and
advantages of the process.
2. Brief history
Even though the concept of membrane based separation was known
since eighteenth century, it was never applied for desalination applica-
tion. The concept of using sea water as a source for fresh water was put
forth by Hassler in the year 1949 in his report entitled The Sea as a
Source of Fresh Water [6]. The process proposed by him for the execu-
tion of this idea was not successful, but it encouraged others to pursue
the same. Reid and co-workers rst initiated work on RO membranes
in the year 1957, when they developed cellulose diacetate lm showing
salt rejection upto 96% [7]. Unfortunately, these lms had very low
water permeability which was not ideal for practical applications. A
major breakthrough was achieved in 1960, when Loeb and Sourirajan
developed cellulose diacetate asymmetric membrane. This membrane
exhibited high ux and salt rejection owing to the thin surface followed
by a porous structure. Since then, membrane technology developed
from mere laboratory tool to a well-developed industrial process
where potable water was produced for industries and ultrapure water
was produced for semiconductor industries. This trend continued till
Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of A) Thin lm composite PA membrane B) Integrally skinned asymmetric membrane.
Please cite this article as: S.S. Shenvi, et al., A review on RO membrane technology: Developments and challenges, Desalination (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.042
3
1980s, after which the drawbacks of cellulose derived RO membranes
led to continuous research for the development of other substitutes. In
the due course, trials to develop new type of RO membrane by interfa-
cial polycondensation to form a very thin layer were experimented.
Dupont developed hollow ne ber membrane made out of aromatic
polyamide with pendant sulfonic acid groups. But it was in the year
1985, Cadotte reported the preparation of high performance membrane
using in-situ interfacial polycondensation between poly/monomeric
amine and poly/monomeric functional acid halide [8]. The high perfor-
mance of these polyamide membranes prompted other industries to
adopt this technology over conventional cellulose derived RO mem-
brane. The next stage of development involved crosslinking of these
polyamide lms that had ve times higher ux and ve times better
water quality than that of CA membrane [9]. Today, most of the RO de-
salination plants use polyamide membranes. The technology has further
witnessed different membrane modules such as spiral wound, tubular
and hollow ber to enhance the separation with higher energy efcien-
cy. Theoretically, 0.7 kWh/m3 should be the minimum energy required
to convert sea water to pure water [10]. However, with the current
choice of materials, modules and technology, the energy consumption
still stands between 2 and 5 kWh/m3. The research is thus currently fo-
cused to increase the pure water recovery rate at lower energy, with the
development of more superior performing, fouling resistant and chlo-
rine resistant membrane. Fig. 4 represents the schematic illustration of
A) thin lm composite PA membrane and B) integrally skinned asym-
metric membrane.
3. RO plant
A typical RO system consists of four major processes: Pretreatment,
high pressure pumping, salt separation and post treatment [11,12].
(i) Pretreatment: Pretreatment of sea water before it reaches the RO
element is critically essential since untreated sea water is known
to contain number of contaminants such as colloidal suspension,
matter of biological origin, mud, sand and other suspended
solids. The RO membrane is susceptible to attack from these ele-
ments, since its design does not cater with handling of solid sus-
pensions [13]. If for some reasons, ne particles block the
membrane, it results in irreversible fouling. This compromises
the membrane life, performance and the production cost [14,
15]. Ideally, the steps involved in RO pretreatment include:
screening, chlorination, acid treatment, multi-media ltration,
4 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx
microltration, and dechlorination [16]. Deep media lters
consisting of anthracite, sand and packing layers screen particles
up to 510 m. Microltration is used to retain particles up to
0.2 m [13]. Different chemicals used for pretreatment include
ferric chloride as occulant, sodium hypochlorite, sulfuric acid,
sodium bisulte to dechlorinate [17].
(ii) Pressurization: High pressure stainless steel pumps are required
to pump the pretreated water through the module. The pressure
required depends upon the type of feed water whether brackish
or sea water. The membrane used in the module should have suf-
cient mechanical strength to sustain such high pressure. The
high pressure operating pumps make RO process very noisy.
(iii) Separation: The key element of the RO system is the membrane
itself. The membrane acts as a semipermeable barrier which al-
lows selective passage of water through it retaining salts. At the
applied pressure, some salts from the feed is capable of entering
the permeate side of the membrane. The water may also contain
certain amount of dissolved gases, which is degasied at post
treatment stage. Conventional RO membranes used cellulose ac-
etate/diacetate/triacetate as the base material, but these days, the
market is dominated with ultrathin polyamide membranes. The
commonly used congurations include spiral wound module
and hollow ber module.
(iv) Post-treatment: At post-treatment stage, permeate collected is
subjected to pH adjustment from acidic to neutral. Other steps
include degasication of carbon dioxide, recarbonation, aeration
to remove H2S and disinfection using chlorine gas or calcium hy-
pochlorite [18,19]. Remineralization can be accomplished either
by chemical injection or ltration [12,20,21]. This is necessary
to improve the taste of water as well as to meet the nal require-
ments of the produced water. Treatment of the brine and other
chemicals generated during pure water production is also impor-
tant before its discharge in the sea [2224].
4. Reverse osmosis membranes
4.1. Polymeric membranes
4.1.1. Cellulosic membranes
Reid in the year 1955, proposed a report titled Osmotic Membranes
for dimineralization [6]. Several experiments were carried out by Reid
and his co-workers which were supported by Ofce of Saline Water
(OSW). They hand casted cellulose acetate membranes using acetone
as the solvent. The salt rejection shown by these membranes was high
enough, however the ux was disappointingly low. It was so low that
it had to be expressed in L/cm2 h which was not suitable for practical
applications. In early 1960s, Loeb and Sourirajan developed heat treated
cellulose diacetate (CDA) membrane having asymmetric morphology
[25]. These membranes showed higher ux and rejection than those
prepared by Reid [26]. Thus, the rst practical RO membrane was
invented. Substitute for CDA led to the development of cellulose triace-
tate (CTA) membranes. CTA exhibited more thermal and chemical resis-
tance in addition to resistance towards biological attack which was the
major drawback of CDA membranes. Later, blend of CDA and CTA was
suggested to overcome the problem of compaction generally faced by
CTA membranes when operated at high pressures [27]. Over the years,
polyamide membranes have surpassed cellulosic membranes owing to
their superior performance. However, CA membranes still enjoy the
popularity of being more chlorine resistant (tolerance limit 1 ppm)
than polyamide, and occupies a small market of desalination. The per-
formance of CA membranes is strongly affected by degree of acetylation.
An increase in degree of acetylation indicated an increase in water to
salt permeation ratio but resulted in very low ux values [28]. Commer-
cial CA membranes having 40 wt.% acetate content, and degree of
Please cite this article as: S.S. Shenvi, et al., A review on RO membrane technology: Developments and challenges, Desalination (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.042
acetylation 2.7 showed salt rejection between 98 and 99% [29]. CA
membranes are known to undergo hydrolysis in both alkaline and acidic
conditions. The operational pH range for these membranes is hence
very narrow (pH 46). Slow hydrolysis increased the ux, but reduced
the rejection drastically [30]. Few notable modications to improve
the separation capacity have been suggested in literature. Radiation
grafting of styrene to cellulose acetate lm by use of carbon tetrachlo-
ride increased the ux and salt rejection [31]. Blend of cellulosic mate-
rials with other functional polymers or monomers is one of the
simplest methods. One such polymer, poly(methylhydrosiloxane)
(PMHS) was used by the group Ferjani et al. to improve the surface
and bulk properties of cellulose diacetate RO membranes [3234]. Addi-
tion of PMHS increased the salt rejection of the membrane by 1525%,
but at the same time, 23 fold decrease in ux was observed. This was
attributed to the hydrophobic nature of the additive. Polypropylene ad-
dition to cellulose acetate to prepare composite, resulted in better RO
performance [35]. At lower percentage of polypropylene, compatible
blend was formed leading to decrease in size of aggregate pores, thereby
resulting in good desalination performance. Addition of silver nanopar-
ticles in the active layer helps in improving the biofouling resistance of
the membrane with no deterioration in ux and salt rejection [36]. A
new family of cellulose derivatives, acetylated cellulose ether (ACE)
was recently synthesized and reported by Han et al. [37] for desalination
application. The use of this derivative for preparation of a dense RO
membrane, as a microporous support as well as support for PA lm
was well researched. This material possesses higher chemical and me-
chanical strength than CA and CTA membrane without signicant loss
in hydrophilicity.
The research on cellulosic RO membranes is not much focused upon
these days, since polyamide membranes dominate the desalination
market. Efforts are now directed towards development of more chlorine
and fouling resistant PA membranes.
4.1.2. Thin lm composite polyamide membranes
Polyamide (PA) membranes form the most important and widely
used class of RO membranes. The amount of research carried out on in-
tegrally skinned asymmetric polyamide membrane is very limited [38,
39]. Noteworthy mention of one such membrane is fully aromatic hol-
low ne ber PA membrane with pendant sulfonic acid groups, devel-
oped by Hoehn and Richter which was commercialized by DuPont
under the name B-9 Permasep [40]. The membrane performed well
compared to conventional CA RO membranes, but their susceptibility
to chlorine attack after prolonged use led to its withdrawal by DuPont.
After the development of thin lm composite (TFC) membrane by
Cadotte [41], abundant research has been carried out on this type of
composite membrane. Immediately after its commercialization by
FILMTEC (now DOW-FILMTEC), other companies also started patenting
TFC membranes [4244].
A typical PA TFC membrane consists of a polyester material upon
which a porous substrate (usually polysulfone) is cast for mechanical
support. The active layer, which is deposited as a thin lm on porous
layer consists of a crosslinked polyamide layer (Fig. 5). The advantage
of asymmetric TFC membrane, compared to integral asymmetric mem-
brane is that it allows optimization of the individual components com-
prising it. Research is carried on these membranes in terms of choice
of substrate and their modication, choice of additives, choice of mono-
mers and their modication for optimization of thin lm, to enhance the
permeation, salt rejection and fouling resistance. The following section
deals with the ongoing research on TFC membranes. A number of re-
view papers have been published that deal with the development of
composite membranes for RO applications. For a more detailed review
on TFC membrane, readers are requested to refer [8,4548].
4.1.2.1. Choice and modication of substrate. Even though the main role of
the substrate is to provide mechanical strength to the PA lm to with-
stand high operating pressures of a RO process, the choice and nature
 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx
Fig. 5. SEM image of the surface and a cross section of a TFC membrane [49].
of the support is very important as it co-denes the interface where in-
terfacial polymerization occurs [50]. Fine tuning of the substrate proper-
ties is essential to form a defect free PA lm. To achieve this, the surface
of the substrate should be as smooth as possible.
Modication is possible either by addition of additives or by plasma
treatment. From water soluble hydrophilic additives such as PVP and
PEG, the focus is shifting to inorganic llers as better additives [51,52].
A smoother and thicker surface has been reported by this modication.
Also, there is improvement in permeability and antifouling behavior of
the membrane. Membranes with water soluble hydrophilic additives
give relatively thinner and less permeable PA layers. Modication also
involves addition of solvent in the coagulation bath during phase inver-
sion, which increases the porosity of the membranes [53]. Permanent
hydrophilicity can be imparted to the membrane surface by plasma
treatment [5456]. Water permeability and chlorine resistance of the
membranes is enhanced by this modication. Polysulfone (PSf) is wide-
ly used support material because of its ease of availability, low cost,
thermal, mechanical and chemical stability. The other polymers which
can be used as a substitute for PSf include poly(ether ether ketone), pol-
yimide, Polyvinyl diuoride, poly (phthalazinone ether ketone) and
polypropylene [50,55,57,58]. Recently, the use of hydrolyzed CA/CTA
has been explored as a hydrophilic support membrane [59]. The mem-
brane displayed NaCl rejection up to 97%. Covalent bond formation be-
tween the active layer & support layer resulted in a stabilized composite
system. Use of electrospun nanobers as supports are capable of giving
superior performance compared to asymmetric at sheet membrane
due to their large surface-to-volume ratio. But the use of these mem-
branes has so far been carried out for nanoltration, forward osmosis
and pressure retarded osmosis [6064].
4.1.2.2. Modication of thin PA layer. Modication of thin barrier layer is
necessary for two separate but closely related reasons. One is to im-
prove the permeability and salt rejection, and second to improve the
fouling resistance of the membrane.
Fouling refers to decline in ux and hence the life-span of a mem-
brane due to colloidal fouling, biofouling, and organic fouling [6567].
The interaction between the foulants and membrane surface gives rise
to this phenomenon. The extent of the interaction mainly depends
upon the nature of the barrier layer. The approach to address this
issue is to alter the membrane surface, so as to reduce the interaction
between the foulant and the barrier layer. Hydrophilization of the mem-
brane surface is generally opted in this scenario, which can be achieved
by addition of some hydrophilic additives or by grafting of functional
monomers on the membrane surface by some advanced techniques
such as plasma treatment, redox reaction or by radiation [68]. Numbers
of additives are used in the current era which include polyvinyl alcohol,
polyethylene glycol, nano llers, surface modifying macromolecules,
zwitterions, grafting of hydrophilic polymer brushes, dendrimers, etc.
[6980]. In-situ generated surface modifying macromolecules
(iLSMM) improved the hydrophilicity, stability, and ux of the mem-
branes prepared thereof [81]. This was attributed to the presence of
Please cite this article as: S.S. Shenvi, et al., A review on RO membrane technology: Developments and challenges, Desalination (2015), http://
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5
PEG groups which have large co-ordination number of water molecules
at the surface. In-situ LSMM showed superior performance than con-
ventional ex-situ LSMM due to its better dispersion in the PA layer. Ad-
dition of sulfated cyclodextrin by Wu et al. increased the negative
charged density of the membrane surface, resulting in higher salt rejec-
tion and signicant improvement in antifouling performance [70]. Ex-
perimental results indicated that membrane surfaces anchored with
hydrophilic polymers such as poly(methacrylic acid) and polyacryl-
amide via plasma treatment have superior bio-fouling resistance and
cleaning effectiveness [76]. Hydrophilization through zwitter ions is
also an attractive option to improve the fouling resistance. Higher ener-
gy is required to remove water bound on zwitterionic surface, since
binding between them occurs by ionic solvation and not by hydrogen
bonding [8285]. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) coated silver nanoparticles
were reported by Rahaman et al. recently, to form layer by layer assem-
bly consisting of polyacrylic acid and PEI. The biocidal property of silver
nanoparticles, in addition to the hydrophilic membrane surface grafted
with polymer brushes of poly(sulfobetaine) and poly(dimethylsilox-
ane) improved the fouling resistance of the resultant membranes [86].
The modied membranes showed slight decrease in ux due to increase
in thickness of the active layer by LBL assembly which increased the re-
sistance of water ow through the membrane. Coating of natural mate-
rials like sericin on PA membrane changes its surface properties and
behavior to a considerable extent [87]. The presence of sericin increased
the surface hydrophilicity, smoothness and negative charge of the
membrane. It showed increased salt rejection and antifouling property
but exhibited lower performance in terms of ux.
Exposure of PA membrane to chlorine (commonly used as disinfec-
tant in water treatment) changes their hydrogen bonding behavior
from intermolecular to intramolecular. Therefore it is necessary to de-
velop chlorine resistant membranes [88,89]. Replacement of amide
linkage with imide linkage eliminated the chlorine resistant site giving
chlorine resistant membrane [90]. Other similar works which focus on
increasing the chlorine resistance of PA membrane by decreasing
the reactivity of nitrogen atom in amide bond are available in literature
[9193]. An aromatic PA RO membrane having strong antimicrobial and
high chorine tolerance was prepared by grafting of 3-monomethylol-
5,5-dimethylhydantoin (MDMH) on to the membrane surface [94].
The chlorination product, N-halamine possesses strong anti-microbial
Fig. 6. Reversible Chlorination reaction of MDMH [94].
6 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx

Table 1 Table 1 (continued)

Newly reported monomers for synthesis of thin lm composite PA membranes.

Amine source Acid chloride source Ref.

[104]

[95]

[105]

[96]

[77]

[97]

property which could kill microorganisms on the membrane surface

and revert back to MDMH (Fig. 6).
The properties of the membrane in terms of selectivity and perme-
[98]
ability are mainly governed by the nature of PA layer and its fabrication
[96105]. Optimum performance by the PA lm can be controlled by
varying the polymerization conditions, or by addition of some additives
or by surface modication (post-treatment). Variation in polymeriza-
tion conditions includes choice of the monomers, their concentration,
choice of the solvent, reaction time and curing conditions [106108].
[80] Different combination of monomers are used with an aim to achieve su-
perior performing TFC membrane. Some of the relatively new mono-
mers reported for preparation of PA layer in TFC are given in Table 1.
Addition of solvents such as DMSO, propanol and DMF in aqueous
amine solution increased the permeation property of the membrane.
This behavior was ascribed to higher rate of diffusion of amine owing
to increased miscibility of water and organic solvent [109,110]. Interac-
[99]
tion between PA lm and hydrouoric acid (HF) and isopropyl alcohol
(IPA) was discussed by Mukherjee et al. [111]. Reduction in polymer
chains entanglement, due to limited hydrolysis of amide network by
the acid, lead to enhanced ux. The carboxylic acid and amidic groups
generated due to acid hydrolysis increased the desalination property
[100] of the membranes. Use of DMF and DMSO as activating solvents helped
in removing the defects in the PA layer by compression effects created
by swelling of PA. This effect increased the salt rejection [112]. Alkaline
catalysts neutralize the hydrochloric acid produced during the interfa-
cial polymerization (IP) reaction. Acid acceptors such as sodium hy-
droxide, sodium carbonate, triethylamine are used for this purpose. It
[101] is argued that the strength of acid acceptor affects the membrane struc-
ture in terms of crosslinking and porosity, thereby affecting permeabil-
ity and selectivity. Recently, Xiang et al. studied the effect of different
ammonium salts on the piperazine PA membrane. The conclusions de-
duced from the experimental study indicated that, ammonium salts
having higher steric conguration resulted in superior salt rejection
[49] and a rougher surface [113]. The choice of organic solvent also plays a
signicant role in inuencing the solubility and diffusivity of amine
monomer thus affecting the reaction rate and morphology of the PA
lm. When the organic phase during IP was changed from commonly
used hexane to toluene, the surface charge of the membrane changed
[102]
from neutral to positive [101,114]. It is a known fact that charged mem-
branes perform better than uncharged one. Incorporation of monomers
which are source of sulfonyl groups enhances water permeability and
salt rejection when added to the aqueous amine solution [95,104,114].
When 2,2-benzidinedisulfonic acid (BDSA) was added in addition to
[103]
MPD in aqueous solution, ux of the membrane increased from 20
LMH to 45 LMH at 16 bar pressure. Also, there was notable increase in
the salt rejection of the membrane [95].
Novel concept of patterned TFC surface has been introduced by
Maruf et al. recently [115]. The experimental results demonstrated
that patterned membranes faired better than their unpatterned counter
parts w.r.t ux and rejection. Surface patterns induce hydrodynamic

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 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx
secondary ow at the membrane surface (Fig. 7). It modies the ow
prole and local streamlines of the feed solution in the proximity of pat-
terns producing localized turbulence [116].
Atomic layer deposition (ALD) as a new technology to modify RO
membranes is a very attractive notion. The number of ALD cycles govern
the thickness of the membranes which affect salt rejection and ux of
the membranes [117]. Optimized ALD cycles gave polar and hydrophilic
surface resulting in better antifouling resistant membranes.
4.2. Inorganic/ceramic membranes
Inorganic membranes offer the advantage of being chemically inert
and thermally more stable than polymeric membranes. Zeolites form
an important class of these membranes. Other materials mainly include
titania, silica, alumina and zirconia. Ceramic membranes can be pre-
pared either by slip-coating sintering technique or by solgel method.
Deposition of progressively ne particles at each stage gives anisotropic
structure to these membranes in which a meso or micro porous active
layer is formed on the surface of a macro porous support [118]. The
pore size and framework density determine the separation capacity of
inorganic membranes when used for water purication. Pore size gov-
erns ion selectivity, and the framework determines water permeability
[119]. Changing the atoms (in case of zeolite) in the framework will
change the channel width, and hence inuence water permeability.
Work on zeolite membranes received considerable momentum after
simulation work conducted on them indicated 100% sodium ions rejec-
tion by a perfect crystal of all Si or ZK-4 membrane through RO process
[120]. The separation through zeolite membrane occurs via size exclu-
sion wherein the size of hydrated sodium ion is larger than that of zeo-
lite aperture (0.42 nm) [121]. Development of a continuous, defect-free
zeolite crystal is difcult to develop [122]. This is overcome by second-
ary growth of a zeolite layer on a zeolite seeded porous -alumina sup-
port or a stainless steel support in a hydrothermal process [123125].
Commonly used zeolites include MFI-type, Sodalite (SODA) and Linde
Type A (LTA). Most widely used zeolite membranes are of MFI type,
consisting of straight channels interconnected by zigzag channels
(Fig. 8A). One of the earliest works on zeolite membranes for reverse os-
mosis was reported by Kumakiri et al. [126] for separation of water/mix-
tures. The membranes prepared were reported to be 5 m thick having
pore size of ~0.4 nm which showed 44% rejection of ethanol. However
use of them as RO membranes for desalination was reported in 2004
by Li et al. [121]. At steady state, the sodium ions rejected by these
membranes was 76.4%. Decrease in rejection with increase in ionic
strength was attributed to the presence of two types of pores within ze-
olite membranes. One is diameter zeolite channel and second is micro-
porous intercrystal pore which also has nano dimensions (Fig. 8B).
Permeation of ions through the intercrystal pores at higher concentra-
tion must have resulted in decreased rejection. The ion double layer
formed by adsorption of hydrated ions at the surface of intercrystal
Fig. 7. Unpatterned and patterned TFC PA surface [115].
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7
Fig. 8. A) Zig-zag channel system in MFI [130] B) Intercrystal pore and zeolite pore in MFI
[121].
pores/boundaries restricted the diffusion of water through the pores
which explains reduction in ux with increase in permeation time
[127]. Balance of Si/Al ratio help in formation of tailor made defect
free zeolite crystals with altered hydrophilicity which may inuence
the salt rejection and water permeation [124,128]. An increase in tem-
perature enhances the pure water permeation but decreases the salt re-
jection [129]. This is due to accelerated ion diffusion, alteration in the
zeolite structure, and change in hydration diameter of ions at higher
temperature. Hydroxysodalite (HS) zeolite membrane (pore size
0.4 nm) is another such membrane having potential RO application
[130].
Lu et al. succeeded in reducing the thickness of the aluminum-doped
ZSM-5 zeolite membrane (1.2 m-0.7 m) which enhanced the mem-
brane permeability signicantly. The membranes showed sodium rejec-
tion from 97 to 99% with efcient regeneration capacity (Fig. 9) [131,
132].
Other than zeolites, use of clay minerals has also been reported to
prepare RO membranes. Clay can act as osmotic membranes [133].
Use of bentonite and montmorillonite clay capable of showing salt re-
jection is available in literature [134136]. The negative charge present
on the surface of these materials, repels anions. Since cations need to be
associated with their anionic counterpart in order to maintain electrical
neutrality, only water passes through the pore space generated by over-
lapping of clay platelets [133]. Clay membranes deposited on a porous
support show signicantly higher water permeation than compact
thick dense membranes due to reduction in thickness of the membrane
[137,138].
In spite of the advantages offered by inorganic membranes over
polymeric membranes, certain aspects of these membranes such as
cost have hindered its commercialization for desalination. Moreover,
the thickness is higher than the polymeric membranes which affects
the membrane performance. Development of this class of RO mem-
branes can further be done by exploring other materials/minerals or
by reducing the membrane thickness even further.
8 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx

Fig. 9. Surface and cross section of zeolite membrane [132].

4.3. Mixed matrix membranes (MMM)
Mixed matrix membranes, also known as composite membranes
boost the properties of host polymer matrix by taking advantage of
the properties offered by inorganic llers added to them. The common
trade-off relation between permeability and selectivity can be duly ad-
dressed by such organic-inorganic hybrid systems. The synergistic rela-
tion between the host and guest help in improving permeability,
selectivity, thermal and chemical stability in addition to fouling resis-
tance of the composites. A host of inorganic llers have been explored
for this purpose that include zeolites, carbon nano tubes, silica, silver,
alumina, TiO2 nanoparticles, etc. [139143]. Thin lm nanocomposites
(TFN) can be prepared by one of the following ways; a) nanoparticles
may be dispersed in aqueous solution of MPD during interfacial poly-
merization, b) dispersion in organic solution of TMC during crosslinking
or c) deposition on the surface after formation of PA lm by dipping the
TFC membrane in the colloidal solution of nanoparticles.
Most of the studies performed on TFN have shown that they exhibit
superior performance in comparison to TFC [140,144147]. Studies
have been conducted to investigate the effect of nanoparticle size on
TFN properties. Smaller size particles altered the membrane perfor-
mance to a greater extent. Increase in ux upon addition of inorganic
ller modied the polymer structure which affected the transport of
water molecules through the membrane [140]. Addition of nano zeo-
lites and silicates has proved to increase the contact angle, surface
roughness, interfacial surface energy and water permeability [145,
148]. Lind et al. investigated the inuence of zeolite crystal size on the
properties of TFN membrane [149]. As per their results, the addition of
nano zeolites formed more permeable, negatively charged thicker
membranes. Smaller particles enhanced permeability, but larger
particles increased the surface properties. The morphology of the sur-
face of TFN also changed due to defects in zeolite structure and reduced
extent of crosslinking [150]. Signicant improvement in pure water ux
without loss in rejection has been attributed to preferential ow chan-
nels provided by zeolite pores for water (2.7 ) [151]. These pores are
large enough to allow passage of water molecules but are too small for
solute transport (89 ). Fig. 10 represents the Schematic illustration
of immobilization of Ag-np onto the surface of polyamide TFC
membrane.
Use of hydrophilized ordered meso carbon (H-OMC) was
explored in another such work to prepare well dispersed TFN,
devoid of aggregates [153]. This membrane was capable of showing
improved membrane performance with respect to water permeability
and BSA adsorption. This highlighted the inuence of ordered structure
in generating active pores for water permeation through the PA
layer. Non-porous inorganic llers include silica [140,154]. Control-
ling, tuning and functionalization of these nano particles help in
synthesizing tailored TFN membranes. Wu et al. functionalized mesopo-
rous silica nanoparticles (mMSN) with amine groups using 3-
aminopropyltriethoxysilane [155]. The ux of modied membranes in-
creased by an order of 1.5 to that of TFC membrane. The increased inter-
action between the functional groups and polymer matrix improved the
water transport. Addition of mMSN also enhanced the antifouling ability
and long term stability of the membrane. At very low nanosilica loading
up to 0.1% w/v, hydrophilicity increased signicantly with decrease in
contact angle from 81 to 47. High permeability and salt rejection
above 96% was observed for such system [156]. The bactericidal proper-
ty of silver and titania have been well utilized in the synthesis of mem-
branes to improve the fouling resistance, in addition to thermal and
chemical stability [152,157162]. TiO2 can release strong oxidative

Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of immobilization of Ag-np onto the surface of polyamide TFC membrane [152].

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 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx
Fig. 11. Schematic representation of passage of water molecules through aquaporin [144].
species (radicals) under UV irradiation which inhibits formation of bio-
lm on membrane surface, thereby increasing the life of membrane
[163]. In a very recent work, commercial RO membrane was modied
with silver nanoparticles coated with polyethyleneimine (Ag-PEI) and
polyacrylic acid via polyelectrolyte layer by layer self-assembly [86].
Surface modication resulted in signicant reduction of irreversible
bacterial cell (Escherichia coli bacteria). Irreversible binding of silver
nanoparticles to the membrane surface was achieved by the reaction
of silver salt with a reducing agent at the membrane surface [164]. Ex-
cept for slight reduction in water permeability (up to 17%), rest of the
membrane properties remained unchanged. Addition of the nanoparti-
cles imparted a very strong antibacterial property to the membrane. Use
of silver nanoparticles for commercialization is still a matter of research
due to severe leaching problem. Use of nanoparticles should be carefully
considered due to their potential toxicity.
4.4. Biomimetic membranes
RO membrane systems can be compared to active biological chan-
nels that transfer 107 ions per pore per second that correspond to ener-
gy requirement of 2.556.4 kWh/m3 of water produced from sea water
having salinity equal to 3.5 wt.% [165].
Aquaporins are water channel proteins bound to phospholipid cellu-
lar membranes, through which water can ow rapidly inside the cell
than by diffusing through the phospholipid bilayer (Fig. 11). The solutes
during the transport are retained by the proteins. In 2003, Nobel Prize in
chemistry was awarded to Peter Agre for discovery of aquaporins.
Kumar et al. pioneered the work on aquaporins in synthetic membranes
by studying the permeability and transport properties of amphiphilic
triblock-polymer vesicles containing Aquaporin Z from E. coli bacterial
cells [166]. Biomimetic membranes containing aquaporin proteins pro-
duced by multiple different procedures was investigated by Holme in
his patent titled Biomimetic Water Membrane Comprising Aquaporins
Used in the Production of Salinity Power [167]. Aquaporins are general-
ly embedded into an ultrathin amphiphilic lipid lm or proteoliposomes
(protein-containing vesicles) so as to mimic their natural environment
[168]. Different techniques have been suggested for the development
of aquaporin-based biomimetic membrane (ABM) in literature includ-
ing membrane supported lipid bilayer via vesicle fusion, vesicles
suspended over membrane pores, polymer tethered bio-layers, and po-
lymerized proteoliposomes [169]. Few membranes embedded with
aquaporins are available in literature [170172].
Zhao et al. reported preparation of TFC RO membrane by soaking PSf
substrate with m-phenylenediamine (MPD) containing aquaporin-
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9
based proteoliposomes. The substrate was subsequently crosslinked
with TMC to give a crosslinked polyamide layer having proteoliposomes
[169] (Fig. 12). The ABM membrane resulted in 40% higher permeability
compared to commercial brackish water RO membrane and one order
higher than seawater RO membrane. Li et al. decorated proteoliposomes
with polydopamine (PDA) to increase its afnity towards Poly(amide-
imide) (PAI) support (Fig. 13) [168]. The immobilized proteoliposomes
were subsequently encapsulated in a layer formed by crosslinking of
poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI) and (PAI). At just 0.1 MPa pressure, these
membranes showed 95% MgCl2 rejection and 50% higher ux.
Nano structures that mimic the fast transport of uids in biological
cellular channels have gained wide popularity for last few years.
Majumder et al. demonstrated how aligned carbon nano tube system
can increase water transport through a membrane by 45 orders of
magnitude than those from conventional uid-ow theory [174]. The
increase in ux is due to atomic-scale smoothness of vertically aligned
CNT (VACNT) walls that enables frictionless transport of water [175].
Other theories have also been put forth to explain this phenomena
[176178]. Ion transport through CNT channels indicated, ion exclusion
by CNT was dominated by electrostatic interaction with the charged
functional groups at its tip and not by steric interaction (Fig. 14) [46].
Therefore some charge should be planted onto the mouth of VACNT so
that rejection is governed by Donnan exclusion. In order to explain the
rejection through sieving mechanism, the mouth of CNT should be al-
tered [179182]. Currently the technology involved in synthesizing
VACNT comprise of continuous high-yield chemical vapor deposition,
and alignment by application of magnetic eld post synthesis [183].
If such highly efcient VACNT membranes become a reality, RO
membranes capable of showing b99% salt rejection, and ux of 46
orders of magnitude higher than conventional TFC membranes will rev-
olutionize desalination industry. Research on CNT and VACNT mem-
branes is in progress [78,185189].
Unlike CNT whose inner wall is hydrophobic, alluminosilicate nano-
tube has hydrophilic interior, with an interior diameter of 1 nm, and ex-
ternal diameter of ca. 2.32.7 nm (Fig. 15) [190]. Lyotropic liquid
crystals having effective pore size of 0.751 nm are capable of showing
enhanced water transport through them by selectively obstructing hy-
drated salt ions [191,192]. Tuning and optimization of these materials
will open new dimensions in the eld of RO technology. The principle,
working and applications of biomimetic and bioinspired membranes,
particularly aquaporins and VACNT has been summarized well in fol-
lowing references [119,193].
The use of such biomimetic systems having the potential of increas-
ing water permeability manifold will reduce the energy demands of re-
verse osmosis desalination [175]. Incorporation of mere 0.03% VACNT
and 0.005 mol% of aquaporinZ into membranes, may result in ux ex-
ceeding current commercial RO membranes [183]. Certain aspects of
these futuristic materials, such as mechanical strength and availability
in large quantities in case of aquaporins, and membrane area, packing
density, long fabrication process in case of VACNT needs to be addressed
immediately [194].
5. Reverse osmosis modules
The major criteria needed to be considered during membrane mod-
ule selection are cost, concentration polarization, operational parame-
ters (particularly pressure) and resistance to fouling. Number of
module designs is centered on two basic type of membrane congura-
tion: at and tubular [195]. Plate-and-frame and spiral wound module
comprise at membranes. Depending on the difference in their diame-
ter, tubular membrane congurations are classied into tubular, capil-
lary and hollow ber module. For reverse osmosis, two modules
namely hollow ber module and spiral wound module are widely
used which has been discussed briey below. A number of modied
modules conceptualized around these basic models have been patented
[196199].
10 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx

Fig. 12. Preparation of aquaporin based-biomimetic membrane by interfacial polymerization [173].

5.1. Hollow ber module
The hollow ber module was rst developed by Mahon at Dow
Chemical in the year 1966 [200]. It has been manufactured and
marketed by other companies too since then. Hollow ber module is
usually used for cellulosic derived membranes. The development of
commercial cellulose acetate hollow ber membrane module is avail-
able in literature [201]. In this module, thousands of hollow bers are
bundled together into an element making the pressure vessels. Each
pressure vessel consists of number of such elements. This conguration
offers high packing density, uniform permeate ow with small pressure
drop. The permeate water produced by hollow ber module is nearly
ten times more than that of spiral wound modules, due to high mem-
brane surface area. In order to withstand high operational pressures, -
bers usually have small diameters with thick walls. The water owing
through the ber is directly proportional to the diameter to fourth
order, while membrane area changes by power of two. This implies
the importance of manufacturing hollow bers having identical diame-
ters [202]. Unfortunately, the difculty in applying the technology of
hollow ber membrane to the widely used polyamide membranes on

Fig. 13. Schematic representation of embedding of PDA coated proteoliposomes in PEI-PAI crosslinked membrane [168].

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 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx
Fig. 14. Schematic illustration of transport of water molecule through VACNT [184].
a commercial scale has restricted their use to only cellulosic mem-
branes. However, there are some reports suggesting the synthesis of
TFC PA hollow ber membranes on a laboratory scale in recent past
[203,204].
5.2. Spiral wound module
Spiral wound module is an advanced form of plate and frame model
in which two membranes with their active side are placed facing each
other separated by a feed channel spacer and centrally connected to
perforated permeate collection coil (Fig. 16). The technology for indus-
trial application was developed in the year 1968 by Gulf General Atomic
under the sponsorship of OSW [205]. Over the years since its invention,
slight modications done in this element have been patented
[206208]. As mentioned previously, the membranes are separated by
feed channel spacer who act as turbulence promoter and allows uni-
form passage of feed water through the membrane. The membrane
and the feed spacer (leaves) are then glued along the three open
edges forming membrane envelope coiled around the perforated tube.
Feed passes axially down the module across the membrane envelope
[118].
Clean water passes through the membrane surface into the perme-
ate channel in a spiral direction to the center of the element and exits
via collection tube. A single pressure vessel may contain different num-
bers of spiral wound elements depending upon the requirement. In re-
cent years, development of seawater RO elements has been focused on
maximizing the membrane area to increase the desalination capacity.
Fig. 15. Schematic presentation of aluminosilicate single-walled nanotube [190].
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11
Fig. 16. Spiral wound RO membrane module.
Studies indicate reduction up to nearly 20% of the total desalination
cost by use of large modules (16 in.. and 18 in..) compared to the con-
ventional 8 inch element (Table 2) [209]. The MegaMagnum RO ele-
ment developed by Koch Membrane Systems, Inc. (KMS) boasts RO
element having an 18 inch diameter. Most of the leading RO system
manufacturers provide 16 inch elements.
Polyamide TFC membranes are used for spiral wound module. In
spite of hollow ber module having advantage over spiral wound with
respect to higher packing density and thus the production, most of the
hollow ber modules have been replaced by spiral wound modules.
This is due to their inherent fouling resistance and their fewer require-
ments for feed pretreatment. Seawater, industrial and brackish RO
water treatment is usually carried out with the help of this module
which shows total pure water recovery up to 7090% [46,210,211].
6. Problems associated with RO process
6.1. Scaling
The concentration of different marginally soluble salts i.e., divalent
and multivalent, increases during ltration of seawater through mem-
brane. When the solubility limit of these salts reaches supersaturation
level, they tend to precipitate and form a scale on the membrane surface
which affects the productivity of the RO process [212]. The use of
antiscalants is the widely adopted technique to prevent scaling by
salts such as silica, iron, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, gypsum,
etc. The presence of these salts in different concentration depend on
the source of the feed water. The anti-scaling agents increase the thresh-
old for the onset of scale formation on the membrane surface [213].
Commonly used anti-scalants, such as organic polymers, surface active
reagents, organic phosphonates and phosphates, interfere with the ki-
netics of crystal nucleation, formation and growth [214]. Scaling formed
as a result of presence of silica increases the complexity of the desalina-
tion process since silica deposits are difcult and costly to remove. The
controlled removal of silica by use of anti-scalants is an issue that has
bee not resolved completely due to the varying parameters inuencing
silica precipitation [215]. Carbonate scaling can be prevented by
adjusting the pH of feed water between 4 and 6. Rahardianto et al. sug-
gested increasing levels of bicarbonate to reduce gypsum scaling in in-
land brackish water feed [216]. The bicarbonate adsorption onto the
crystal surface, led to inhibition of gypsum scaling on membrane
surface. Surface nano-structuring of a PA RO membrane with
poly(methacrylic acid), with an aim to reduce the scaling propensity in-
duced by gypsum was investigated by Kim et al. [217]. Pre-treatment of
the feed by pH adjustment, ion exchange, NF/UF may additionally help
in reducing scaling [218]. Flow reversal mechanism to prevent scaling
has also been proposed by Pomerantz et al. [219]. Reversal of the ow
12 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx

Table 2
Projection of the number of RO elements and pressure vessels required for plants of different capacities using 16 inch. and 8 inch RO system [207].

Plant size 16-inch ESPA2 membrane element 8-inch LFC membrane element Savings in no. of Savings in no. of
(m3/d) elements pressure vessels
Membrane area No. of No. of pressure Membrane area No. of No. of pressure
required (m2) elements vessel required (m2) elements vessel

2000 1995.25 24 6 5144.99 147 21 123 15

5000 4988.13 48 12 12,862.47 357 51 309 39
10,000 9976.25 96 24 25,724.93 693 99 597 75
100,000 99,762.54 852 213 257,249.3 6930 990 6078 777

before the induction time is reached replaces the supersaturated brine
with the unsaturated feed and zeroes the elapsed nucleation time
thus resetting the induction clock.
6.2. Boron removal
Boron removal by RO membranes is one of the hottest topics that
continue to remain as a challenge today. As per WHO guidelines and
regulations, the permissible amount of boron in drinking water
shouldn't exceed 0.5 mg/L. The effectiveness of RO process for boron re-
moval has not been enough, mainly because of the nature of the ele-
ment in water. In seawater, at natural pH, boron exists as uncharged
boric acid which can comfortably diffuse through the membrane just
like water (rejection b 80%) [220]. At higher pH, negatively charged bo-
rate ion is formed which shows a rejection up to 99% [221]. Thus, the
ionic strength and pH of the solution plays a very important role in
governing the rejection of boron during desalination. For efcient re-
moval of boron, RO plant consists of two or more passes. In the rst
pass, seawater is passed through high pressure RO membrane without
any pH adjustment. During this stage most of the total dissolved solids
are removed. At second stage, low-pressure brackish water RO mem-
brane is used with elevated pH adjustment [222]. Another technique
used for removal of boron is, rst pass high pressure RO membrane
followed by boron selective ion exchange resin (BSR). The BSR tech-
nique is highly efcient in removing boron, but concerns regarding
the storage of chemicals for regeneration of BSR, their disposal and
high costs are the serious problems still to be resolved. Combining RO
technology with other processes for better removal of boron has also
been proposed [223].
6.3. Brine disposal
The reject from the desalination plant having very high salinity than
the seawater is referred as brine or brine-blowdown. In addition to high
levels of Total dissolved salts (TDS), brine may comprise of other compo-
nents such as halogenated organic compounds, anti-scalants, anti-
foulants, corrosive materials, acid, etc. [224]. In-use brine disposal
methods include direct discharge into sea, discharge to the surface, evap-
oration ponds and well injection. Disposal of such highly concentrated sa-
line solution on land or sea pose a serious environmental threat. Direct
discharge in sea affects the micro-algal population, plant life and results
in sludge formation. Disposal of brine via evaporation ponds is generally
adopted for inland RO desalination plants i.e., in arid and semi-arid re-
gions where oceanic discharge is not possible and there is abundance of
solar energy [225]. However, evaporation ponds consume too much of
space and surface discharge may affect the soil and plant productivity.
Dispersing the brine with seawater or water used up during other
processes at the RO plant, help in reducing the environmental impact
by dilution. The modeling of the discharge in terms of discharge depth
and discharge velocity also affects its dispersion in seawater [226]. A
case study was presented by Ahmed et al., describing SAL-PROC tech-
nology which is an integrated process for sequential extraction of dis-
solved elements from inorganic saline water by multiple evaporation
and/or cooling technique supplemented by mineral and chemical pro-
cessing [227]. Fig. 17 shows the ow diagram of brine conversion two
stage RO seawater desalination system [228].
The components recovered by such process included gypsum, sodium
chloride, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, calcium chloride, and
sodium sulfate which were of high quality and used by various industries.
Removal of scaling agents of feed water result in less brine and higher

Fig. 17. Flow diagram of brine conversion two stage RO seawater desalination system [228].

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 S.S. Shenvi et al. / Desalination xxx (2015) xxxxxx
recovery rate [24]. A two-stage brine conversion seawater RO desalina-
tion system (BCS) is capable of recovery potable water with TDS less
than 200 ppm (Fig. 17) [228]. The system reduced the production cost
by 1520%. In yet another study, brine from an RO plant was used as
feed for electrodialysis cell which resulted in reduced concentration of
salts in the feed and was nally mixed with the RO permeate [229].
7. Conclusion and future opportunities
Tremendous amount of work has been carried out, and is still in prog-
ress in different regions of the world today to simplify RO technology even
further than its current status. Driven by their own needs and require-
ments, such as, scarcity of fresh water in Middle East regions, industrial
waste in developed regions, and scarcity of rains in arid regions, all the
countries have been united and mobilized to revolutionize this technolo-
gy. RO based desalination has witnessed considerable advancement in
past 1015 years. However, if observed closely, one can realize that
research and development activities in this area have laid more stress
on development rather than research. Industries are still using thin lm
composite PA membrane technology which was introduced nearly three
decades back. All the developments seen today are expansions to the PA
membranes, making them more efcient in terms of ux, salt rejection
and fouling. It is about time that we witness another cutting edge technol-
ogy like those developed by Loeb and Sourirajan and Cadotte.
There is no denying of the fact that, the amount of data available today
on modications of RO membranes and elements, is a stepping stone to
upgrading RO technology to new heights. Use of functional materials
such as vertically aligned carbon nanotube, aquaporins, lyotropic liquid
crystals will enable highest permeation rates achieved till date. However,
the cost associated with the synthesis and incorporation of these materials
needs to be addressed at the earliest for their development from laborato-
ry tool to a commercially applicable tool. Developing defect free zeolite
crystal has dampened the utilization of this highly hydrophilic material
to a wide extent. Work by Tsapatsis's group proposed rapid thermal pro-
cessing (RTP) technique to develop defect free zeolite crystal [230]. An-
other interesting technique was recently executed to develop defect free
ZIF-8 membrane by use of ZnO nanorods. These nanorods provided strong
and exible anchorages for the ZIF-8 membranes. Activation of nanorods
initiated uniform nucleation of ZIF-8 nuclei, giving a defect free mem-
brane [231]. This advancement may enable the expansion of zeolite
inorganic membranes to a considerable extent for desalination applica-
tion. The impact of nanoparticles is such that, a single layer of nanoparti-
cles on the surface of TFC membrane is capable of increasing the
permselectivity by nearly 50% compared to virgin TFC membranes [232].
In addition to reformation in the use of membrane materials, mem-
brane conguration also plays a dening role. Large diameter RO ele-
ment is the wave of future technology. Use of larger diameter modules
increases the membrane surface area. This will allow development of
compact and simpler plant thereby reducing the system footprint. The
capital and energy cost is reduced considerably by use of such modules.
It is estimated that, the energy consumption is reduced by nearly 15% by
larger elements than the conventional RO systems. The use of energy re-
covery devices (ERD) such as Pelton wheel, turbo charger and Grundfos
pelton wheel has enabled in reducing the energy consumption by near-
ly 50%, but still this gure stands very tall than the theoretically calculat-
ed minimum energy requirement. Installation of larger ERD may
somewhat simplify this problem. The challenges of RO based desalina-
tion include high capital cost, low recovery of sea water, disposal of con-
centrated brine and removal of boron. Volume reduction and disposal of
the brine (RO concentrate) is the biggest challenge posed today.
Methods and devices to reduce the brine disposal are being taken up se-
riously by the manufacturing companies resulting in higher recovery
ratio [233,234]. More research on concentrate minimization needs to
be focused upon. Integration of the desalination system with other sep-
aration technology such as UF and MF pretreatment may improve the
Please cite this article as: S.S. Shenvi, et al., A review on RO membrane technology: Developments and challenges, Desalination (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.12.042
13
performance and cost reduction. Coupling of renewable energy to desa-
lination projects may lead to green desalination.
Acknowledgments
AMI thank Prof. Swapan Bhattacharya, Director, National Institute of
Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, India for providing the research facil-
ities and encouragement.
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