Explain the concepts induction and deduction, and show how these

are used in a modern scientific approach.

Inductive reasoning has its place in the scientific method. Scientists use it to
form hypotheses and theories. Deductive reasoning allows them to apply the theories
to specific situations.
Shortly explain the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative research design,
and describe some of the types of design within both groups.

Positivism and constructionism are two alternative approaches to

research. Discuss the important differences between them.
Positivism can be understood as a philosophical stance that emphasizes that
knowledge should be gained through observable and measurable facts. This is
also referred to as empiricism. Positivists do not rely on subjective experiences. In
this sense, positivism can be viewed as an epistemological stance in which sensory
information counts as true knowledge.

Constructivism or else social constructivism states that reality is socially

constructed. Unlike positivists, who firmly believe in a single truth and reality,
constructivism points out there is no single reality. According to constructivists, the
reality is a subjective creation. As human beings, we all create our view of the world.
This is usually based on our individual perception. Concepts such as
gender, culture, race are all social constructs.

Definitions of Positivism and Constructivism:

Positivism can be understood as a philosophical stance that emphasizes that
knowledge should be gained through observable and measurable facts.

Constructivism states that reality is socially constructed.

Dependence:
Positivists rely on measurable and observable facts.

Constructivism relies on social constructs.

Objectivity and Subjetivity:

Objectivity is a key characteristic of positivism.

Constructivism borders more on subjectivity as individuals create their perception.

Natural Sciences and Social Sciences:

Positivism is more suitable for the natural sciences.

Constructivism is more suitable for the social sciences.

Reality:
According to positivists, there is a single reality.

According to constructivism, there is no single reality.

Describe the four types of scales. Why is ratio-scale
considered to be the most powerful of the four scales?

The Four Major Statistical Scales of Measurement

1. Nominal or categorical
The nominal or categorical statistical scale of measurement is used to measure those
variables that can be broken down into groups. Each group has attributes distinctly
different from the other. The most commonly used nominal or categorical variables
measured using this research scale of measurement are gender, civil status,
nationality, or religion. These variables and their corresponding categories are as
follows:

gender male or female

civil status single or married
nationality Filipino, Chinese, Singaporean, Malaysian, Indonesian, Vietnamese
religion Muslim, Christian, Buddhist, Shinto
Notice that the categories of each nominal variable do not indicate that one is
superior or greater than the other. These are mainly classifications that separate one
group from the other.

The nominal scale of measurement is referred to by statisticians as the crudest

statistical scale of measurement. While this may be the crudest, this is a powerful
statistical scale of measurement when correlating two nominal variables like gender
and reproductive health bill position.

The statistical question in this instance is Is there a correlation between gender and
reproductive health position? Chi-square is the appropriate statistical test for this
question.

2. Ordinal
The ordinal statistical scale of measurement applies to variables that signify, as the
root word suggests, order of the different groups. It is possible to rank order the
different groups because each group shows attributes that are convincingly superior
or greater than the other or vice-versa.

To illustrate this statistical scale simply and clearly, examples of variables that are
measured using this scale of measurement are the following:

order of child in the family eldest, second eldest youngest

socioeconomic status of families upper, middle, lower
 educational attainment elementary, high school, college, graduate
size small, medium, large
Notice that while the different groups follow an order of magnitude, there is no
discernible distance between them or that the distances could vary between each
group. Say, the eldest child may be older by two years to the next eldest child, but
the second eldest child may be three years older than the next child, and so on. No
specific income difference describes the socioeconomic status, and so on. The
number of years spent in the elementary is not the same as the number years in high
school or the graduate school. The size difference between small, medium and large
can vary widely.

3. Interval
The interval scale of measurement measures variables better than the rank order
mode of the ordinal scale of measurement. There is now an equal spacing between
the different groups that composes the variable. Examples of variables that can be
measured using this statistical scale of measurement are the following:

household income in PhP5,000 brackets 1st group: earns up to PhP5,000, 2nd group:
PhP10,000, 3rd group: PhP15,000
temperature in 5 degree intervals 5, 10, 15, 20
number of student absences in one week week 1 absence, week 2 absence, week 3
absence
water volume in 5 milliliter increments 5 ml, 10 ml, 15 ml, 20 ml

4. Ratio
The ratio scale of measurement works similarly with the interval scale. In fact, in
using statistical tests, these two statistical scales of measurement are not treated
differently from the other. The only difference between the ratio and the interval scale
is that the former (i.e., the ratio scale) has an absolute zero point.

Examples of ratio variables are the following:

weight in kilograms or pounds

height in meters or feet
distance of school from home
amount of money spent during vacation

Rigor and parsimony are two important characteristics of scientific

research. Explain each of these using examples
1.What is hypothetico-deductive research? Explain the steps
involved in the hypothetico-deductive method.
What is a variable? Describe the differences between a mediating
and a moderating variable.
A variable is any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured or
counted. A variable may also be called a data item. Age, sex, business income and
expenses, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades, eye colour and vehicle
type are examples of variables

c) What is epistemology, and why is it important to know about

different perspectives on research?
Explain the difference between a theory, a model, and a hypothesis.