THERMOGRAPHY

THEORY AND APPLICATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.PRINCIPLES OF INFRA-RED RADIATION.. 2

2.EQUIPMENT TYPES. 4
3. IMAGE ANALYSIS .9
4. APPLICATION10
4.1 Electrical Inspections:
4.2 Inspection of Mechanical Systems
5. LIMITATIONS AND SOURCE OF ERROR..13
6. EQUIPMENT SELECTION..16
6.1 Cost
6.2Technical Specification
7. CONCLUSION..19
1. PRINCIPLES OF THERMOGRAPHY

1.1 Infrared Energy

Thermal Imaging or Thermography is the process of converting invisible infrared radiation
into a visible image we can relate to.

Infrared radiation is electromagnetic radiation, as are radio waves and visible light.
Electromagnetic radiation ranges from low frequency, long wavelength emissions such as
the Rugby Radio Clock at 60Khz (5000 meters) to X-rays whose frequency may exceed
1020Hz, a wavelength of 3 x 10-12 meters. All these emissions share the same free space
velocity of 2.99 x 108 m/s.

Infrared radiation is emitted by every object above absolute zero, (-273C). The amount to
which an object will emit infrared radiation is partly governed by the temperature of the
object. This infrared radiation can be detected using a thermal imager, which can then
produce a pictorial representation of the object.

It is important to remember that the thermal imager produces a picture totally made up of
detected heat with no visible light content whatsoever. The colors on the picture or the
image that we see is just color assigned by the system so that it can be easily analyzed.
The set or range of colors with the equivalent temperature range is called palette.

Infrared radiation is emitted by every object in the universe, so long as that object is above
absolute zero, (-273C). The energy emitted is then detected and measured by the thermal
imager .

The distribution of radiation with wavelength, according to the temperature of the body, is
shown in the black body curves below. (A black body being a theoretical perfect radiator
with an emissivity of 1.0)

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 This distribution of radiant energy follows Planck's Law as shown in the figure. From these
curves, we can see that the frequency at which maximum radiation occurs changes
depending upon the actual temperature of the object. This is of use when determining the
wavelength of infrared radiation that should be studied to provide an image of the object.

In practice, the total energy emitted by the object is of interest. This total emission is the
integral of the curve above and is defined by the Stefan-Boltzman Law.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law, also known as Stefan's law, states that the total energy radiated
per unit surface area of a black body in unit time (known variously as the black-body
irradiance, energy flux density, radiant flux, or the emissive power), j is directly proportional
to the fourth power of the black body's thermodynamic temperature T (also called absolute
temperature):

j = 4
The irradiance j has dimensions of power density (energy per time per square distance),
and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square meter, or equivalently, watts
per square meter. The SI unit for absolute temperature T is the kelvin. e is the emissivity of
the blackbody; if it is a perfect blackbody e = 1.

The constant of proportionality , called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant or Stefan's

constant, is non-fundamental in the sense that it derives from other known constants of
nature. Thus at 100 K the energy flux density is 5.67 W/m2, at 1000 K 56.7 kW/m2, etc.

Although in practice, many factors influence the detected signal intensity, we can see that
there are two major factors that must be taken into account when considering thermal
imaging of an object.

The absolute temperature of the object which defines the wavelength at which maximum
(but not all) radiation occurs, in addition to influencing the amount of total radiation.

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1.2 The emissivity
The emmisivity of the object which defines how much radiation will be emitted from the
object. The emissivity of an object can also cause other complications such as non-uniform
emissivity of a single object. An example is a part of a kiln that is painted differently. This
will indicate different temperature reading depending on the color. Another example is a
black tape wrapped on a cable, this too will indicate false hot spots.

Infrared lies past the red end of the visible light spectrum and for imaging purposes can be
regarded as the wavelengths covered between 1m and 20m. (micron = m = 1 x 10-6
meters).Infrared in the 1m region is generally used for non-imaging applications such as
short range remote controls or basic intruder detection systems. There are several areas
across the infrared wavelength spectrum in which the absorption of radiation by the
atmosphere renders these wavelengths unusable for imaging applications. This extreme
atmospheric absorption is caused mainly by carbon dioxide and water vapor present in the
atmosphere.

This leaves us with two bands of Infrared radiation that are transmitted through the
atmosphere well enough to enable imaging to take place. These are the 3 - 5 m and 8 -
14m bands.

By examining black body (Planck) curves, we can see that a radiator at ambient
temperature would radiate most effectively in the 8 - 14m band whereas a hotter object
such as a furnace would emit the greater amount of its radiation in the 3 - 5 m band. When
considering thermal imaging equipment, the anticipated temperature of the object under
examination should be used to give an indication of the most suitable band to use. It should
however, be remembered, that most radiators will be emitting radiation in both bands so
that images may be produced in either band.

2. EQUIPMENT TYPES

2.1 According to Detector Technologies

Direct detection translates the photons directly into electrons. The charge
accumulated, the current flow, or the change in conductivity are proportional to the
radiance of objects in the scenery viewed. This category contains many detectors:
PbSe, HgCdTe, InSb, PtSi, etc. Except for thermal imagers, working in the SWIR
range, all infrared cameras based on the direct detection technology are detectors
cooled to cryogenic temperatures, close to-200C.

Thermal detection uses secondary effects, such as the relation between conductivity,
capacitance, expansion and detector temperature. The following detectors are
included in this category: bolometers, thermocouples, thermopiles, pyroelectric
detectors etc. They do not require cryogenic temperatures (below absolute zero).

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2.2 According Detector size and scanning technology

Four distinct generations of thermal imagers have been designed, based on IR detector
technologies developed during the last 30 years, and classified according to the number of
elements contained in each group.

1st generation thermal imagers contain single element detectors, or detectors with
only a few elements. A two-dimensional mechanical scanner was usually used in
order to generate a two-dimensional image.

Optics Detector

Scanning
Mechanism

2nd generation thermal imagers are vector detectors, usually containing 64 or more
elements. The two-dimensional scanner was somehow simplified in the vertical
direction, to include only the interlace motion.

3rd generation thermal imagers contain two-dimensional arrays with several

columns of elements. These thermal imagers still scan in one direction and perform
a Time Delay Integration (TDI) of the signal in the scanning direction in order to
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

Staring Arrays

As the name implies, consist of a matrix of detector elements. These elements are
often manufactured from Cadmium Mercury Telluride or Platinum Sillicide. The
entire scene is focused on this array, each element cell then provides an output
dependent upon the infra-red radiation falling upon it. These types of imagers have
the advantages of not requiring delicate thermionic devices (such as the vidicon) or
sophisticated scanning optics. However, at the moment, although a number of
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 commercial imagers do use this technology, there are practical limitations in
producing an array with a large enough number of elements to match the
resolution achieved by scanning systems. This is an area of imaging where
significant development is currently taking place, particularly for midrange
commercial applications.

In the simplest form, a single element could be scanned along each line in the
frame (serial scanning). In practice, this would require impossibly high scan speeds
so a series of elements may be used. These may be scanned as a block, along
each line. This cuts down the scan speed from having just a single detector but the
scan speed and channel bandwidth requirements are still high. It does however,
give a good degree of uniformity. The frame movement can be provided by frame
scanning optics or in the case of line scan type imagers, by the movement of the
imager itself. This type of imager is often used in aerial applications where the
detector element(s) are scanned along the same line, whilst the forward movement
of the aircraft provides the relative frame movement. These imagers often provide
a digital or photographic output rather than a CCIR video signal. One example is
the Kiln shell scanner.

Another method is to use a number of elements scanning in parallel (parallel

scanning). These have one element per line but scan several lines simultaneously,
this can give rise to poor uniformity. However, frame scan speeds are lower.

A frequently used compromise is to use a serial/parallel matrix. This provides

acceptable uniformity in conjunction with realizable bandwidths and scanning
speeds.

Each of the above methods has its advantages and disadvantages. They are all in
use in modern thermal imagers.

Optics

Detector

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 4th generation thermal imagers contain two-dimensional array detectors that do not
require any scanning mechanism for acquiring the two-dimensional picture.

Uncooled MicroBolometer Focal Plane Array

Infrared detectors for this application operate typically in the short wave infrared
spectrum (3 - 5), are thermo-electrically cooled and made of Mercury Cadmium
Telluride for optimum sensitivity and performance. Manufactured in single units
these detectors have a unit cost. Infrared imaging cameras incorporating this kind
of detector are expensive because of the high intrinsic component cost and the
additional electro-optical technology required to generate the vertical scan plane.
For hand held imaging cameras that are typically used for predictive maintenance
this has long restricted their prevalence within the cement industry to the larger plant
or corporate group where facilities and resources can be shared.

640x480 PFA Chip

Individual

The new generation of infrared cameras is based upon a different kind of detector
technology, the FPA or Focal Plane Array.

A Focal Plane Array (FPA) detector is one with more than one detector in an array
or matrix located at the point at which the image is focused.

FPA detectors bring high resolution IR imaging capabilities into the Predictive
Maintenance users hands. By having an array of detectors staring at the scene
rather than a single detector being scanned across the scene, IR cameras have
become much smaller, lighter and more power efficient. Since the scanning
technology is no longer required to provide both horizontal and vertical plane
sweeps, the cameras themselves can have inherent improvements in reliability.

Today, there are two types of IR FPAs: Monolithic and Hybrid. Monolithic FPAs
have both the IR sensitive material and the signal transmission paths on the same
layer.

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 Monolithic FPAs have the benefit of typically being easier and less expensive to
manufacture, since fewer steps are required in the process. On the other hand,
Monolithic FPAs are typically considered to have lower performance than their
Hybrid counterparts because they have a significantly lower fill factor (~55%).
Monolithic FPAs have a lower fill factor because both the IR sensitive detector
material and signal pathways are on the same level.

In order to combine the advantages of volume, cost and technical simplicity the IR
50 camera has been developed based on IR FPA technology. This incorporates a
single 120 element FPA that is horizontally scanned to provide a thermal digital still
camera image.

A very compact Thermal Imager using FPA matching the capability of large and expensive
scanners years ago.

2.3 According to Cooling technology

There are two main cooling technologies:

o Cooled thermal imagers technology implemented in cameras based on a detector

cooled to a temperature close to 77 degrees Kelvin (about -200C) or lower. Today
most commercial scanners are uncooled. Because the detectors operate very well
at steady low temperature, very sensitive imagers for space and military application
still use cooled detectors.

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 o Uncooled thermal imagers technology implemented in detectors usually stabilized to
temperatures between -30C to +30C or not stabilized at all.

3. IMAGE ANALYSIS
Most thermal imagers produce a video output in which white indicates areas of maximum
radiated energy while black indicates areas of lower radiation. Most cameras have the
facility to invert this video so that black relates to maximum radiation and vice versa.

The original black/white signal contains the maximum amount of information, certainly more
than the eye can distinguish. However, in order to ease general interpretation and facilitate
subsequent presentation, the thermal image can be artificially colorized. This is achieved by
allocating desired colors to blocks of grey levels to produce the familiar colorized images.
This enables easier image interpretation to the untrained observer. Additionally, by choice
of the correct colorization palette, the image may be enhanced to show particular energy
levels in detail. For example, the operator can choose a palette to highlight cryogenic
temperatures or by selecting another palette, objects at high temperatures.

As mentioned above, the amount of infra-red radiation emitted from a surface depends
partly upon the emissivity of that surface. For this reason, extreme care is needed if using
an infra-red imager to give accurate temperature measurements within an image. By far
and away, the main benefit of thermal imaging is obtained from qualitative rather than
quantitative use. Infra-red non-contact thermometers do exist but they all require accurate
assessment of surface emissivities if the result is to be meaningful.

When interpreting infra-red images, remember that the image is comprised purely of
radiated thermal energy. The effects of the sun, shadows, moisture and subsurface detail
must all be taken into account as described below.

The following factors should also be borne in mind:

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 The effect of solar gain on the thermal structure of a building can lead to confusion. In
general, infra-red surveys are carried out sometime after sunset so that all such effects
have dissipated from the structure. However, this is not always possible and the position of
the sun relative to the building should be considered. In this case, shadows falling on the
building or shadows that have been on the building, can also have an appreciable effect on
the thermal radiation viewed.

When looking at a large area, the emissivity of various surfaces must be considered. Most
materials found on the surface of buildings will have a relatively high emissivity (~ 0.95) but
there will still be noticeable differences in the perceived image due to a change in surface
material. This can be overcome by a detailed knowledge of the building under investigation.

When imaging surfaces such as metal or glass, special care must be taken. Polished metal
surfaces tend to reflect infrared radiation in the same way that they do visible light. Hence,
an apparent 'hot-spot' may be a reflection of a hot object some distance away from the area
under investigation. Such anomalies can be detected by moving the imager around so that
the reflective angles change.

Glass is predominantly opaque to infrared radiation (particularly so at 8 - 14m) and in most

cases, the image will be dominated by reflection. Hence, in ground floor windows, a
reflected image of the survey team will often be noted and in upper floor windows the
reflection of the cold sky temperature will be apparent. Glass is a selective radiator with an
emissivity which fluctuates markedly with wavelength.

4. APPLICATION

4.1 Electrical Inspections:

Most problems in electrical systems are caused by abnormal heating due to high resistance
or excessive current flow. Infrared Thermography is used to quickly locate "hot spots" so
repairs can be made before catastrophic failures. Poor connections, current overload, and
phase imbalance problems can be identified safely using non-contact thermal imaging.
Transformers, switches, fuses, circuit breakers, and panel boards can all be inspected
using infrared Thermography. Motors can have many electrical connections that can
become loose or faulty. Motors are rated by class for their maximum operating temperature.
Temperatures in excess of these maximum ratings will cause damage to insulation on the
windings, greatly shorting the life of the motor. Thermal imaging can detect problems before
costly failures, thereby reducing down time.

The following are some thermal Scans.

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 The Motor not be hot, but the temperatuer distribution is not even. An indication of an
electrical imbalance ( from Holcim Russia)

The image shows not only an unbalance, but loose connection resultiing in tempearture of
163 C ( Disconenct switch, kiln 7 Holcim Russia)

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 Below is a list of the most probable equipment that can be scanned.

Equipment Component Remark

MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUIT BREAKERS, Only if accessible

CENTERS (MCC) Contactor, Connections

TRANSFORMERS Cooling Fins, Insulators,

Connections

SWITCHGEAR Connection Only if accessible

BATTERY BANKS Terminals, Case

MOTORS Bearing, Terminal (by Only if accessible or equipped

convection), slip reing with special window

SUBSTATIONS Disconencts, Insulator,

areal connection,
Bussway

Note that if the equipment is covered such as in MCC and Switchgears, it is difficult and
sometimes impossible to perform thermography. If the equipment is very critical and
Thermography is a necessity, a special infrared transparent window is now currently
available which can be easily installed in the equipment door to facilitate Thermographic
inspection.

4.2 Inspection of Mechanical Systems

Industrial plants contain a wide variety of equipment with moving parts. Excessive friction
found in gears and bearings, defective heat exchangers, blocked or inadequate fluid flow,
and abnormal electrical resistance are a few of the problems that can be documented with
thermal inspections.

Images generated during a thermal inspection provide temperature data that allows for
repairs to be prioritized, depending on how critical a failure may be. Refractory insulation,
pipe insulation, tank levels, steam traps, and hydraulic systems can all be inspected using
infrared Thermography. In principle thermography can be applied to any measurement
done by an ordinary pyrometer . An example of this in cement plant is the measurement of
gears where the heat distribution at the teeth is measured by a spot pyrometer.

Inspections are safe because thermal imaging is non-contact and non-destructive. Because
inspections must be conducted when equipment is in use and under load, there is no costly
down time for the facility.

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 Summary of Mechanical Applications

o VALVES
o PUMPS - BEARINGS
o OIL COOLERS
o INSULATION
o STEAM TRAPS
o STORAGE VESSELS
o PRODUCT LEVELS
o FURNACE & KILN REFRACTORY

Used correctly, infrared thermal imaging is a valuable tool for evaluating the conditions of
buildings, plant & machinery. They are of use in diagnostic, quality control and work
prioritization roles to name but a few.

5. LIMITATIONS AND SOURCE OF ERROR

Thermal Imaging is one of the remarkable invention of the 20th century. It can do things that
in recent years are impossible to do.

The effective use of the technology does not only mean knowing the capability but also the
weakness and limitations. By knowing the limitations, error in measurement can be
avoided or solution can be implemented as workaround for the limitation.

5.1 Effect of Emissivity

A thermal image, cannot accurate measure the temperature on materials with emissivity
below 0.5 even if the emissivity setting is adjustable down to 0.01. because at very low

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 emissivity the material is considered a reflector, external influence and interference is
difficult to avoid.

The black tape apear to be hotter than the aluminum

Workaround : In order to increase the emissivity of an object, the thumb rule is that the
rougher the surface and the darker the color, the higher the emissivity ir. So if a flat black
paint cen ve applied of an object, the emissivity will be higher.

5.2 Transmissivity
A Thermal imager is NOT and X-Ray machine. Almost all of the materials around us,
including clear glass and plastics, blocks or absorbs IR radiation. This means that if an
object is covered by an IR-translucent object, thermal imaging or measurement is not
possible.

A commercially available inspection window that can be installed on critical equipment to

facilitate Thermal imaging.

5.3 Reflection
Like visible light , infrared is also reflected by object with low emissivity. A shiny object (
low emissivity) may appear hot on the camera when a nearby infrared source is reflecting
the energy. Dirct sunlight will also mafe the reading appear hotter.

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 32 C 25 C

The temperature at the point where there is a reflection from the hot cup appears warmer.

5.4 Focus

Unlike modern digital cameras, Thermal imagers had to be focused manually. There maybe
some models that has autofocus but this added feature means higher premium and this is not
a necessity. A badly focused image not only is difficult to analyze and identify but the reading
will appear lower as well. The other consequence of a badly focussed image is that the
ratiometric data cannot be manipulated off-line.

The hottest spot on the focused image (right) is 80 C. The same object with out of focus
image yields only 60 C, (Maintenance training, Holcim Russia)

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6. EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Although the price of a thermal imager has gone down tremendously since the last 10
years, the price is still high enough that it still budgeted under CAPEX. A careful selection
of equipment should be done first . The selection should be according to the need of
requirement not according to how good the sales person is. In many models and brands,
there will be a lot of functions included in the camera that you had paid for but might not be
used at all in your particular application.

6.1 COST
Because of the significant drop in prices of thermal imagers in the last few years, many
plants are considering acquiring their own equipment instead of hiring 3rd party to do the
job. Due to its low price and increased capability, owning a thermal camera has advantage
than hiring third party to do the service.

Current price is about $5000 for a low resolution device, about $10,000 15000 for a
decent model and up to $30,000 for the top-end models

For normal application in Cement Plant maintenance, a modest equipment costing about
$ 10,000 is sufficient.

6.2 Technical Specification

The following are some of the practical things that you should consider when buying a
camera

FPA Resolution.

This is the resolution of the element (FPA) and not the LCD display. In some models with
very low FPA resolution (32 X 32 elements), they will not show this data directly in the
specification sheet. Instead they will hide this data somewhere and will indicate in the front
page the resolution of the display.

In most application, 120X120 resoltion is adequate, 640 x 640 will be an overkill and 32 x
32 is definitely not recommended.

Spatial Resolution

Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV) , or spatial resolution. It is indicated in milliradian or a

ratio of distance and spot size . The lower the ifov, the better.

Examples:

500:1 meter , this means that at 500 meters, the unit can accurately measure the absolute
temperature of a 1 meter diameter object. This is approximately the same specification as
IFOV of 2 milliradians. If the object being measured is less than 1 meter , the temperature
reading will be diluted by the background. The result is a lower absolute temperature

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 reading. On this situation, data can still be used as long as the thermographer knows how
small the object is compared to the minimum spot size.

Imagers with very high resolution is expensive. High resolution is very good for measuring
small distant objects such as connections and insulator of transmission lines.

A low special resolution can still be used for this situation because you can still see the
temperature difference although the absolute temperature maybe wrong. You can still see
the hot spot but the temperature of the object being measured will be diluted by the
surrounding temperature.

Sensitivity

Sensitivity is the ability of the sensor to distinguish area of different temperature. The lower
the number the more sensitive the camera is. A 0.001 C will be an overkill in a typical
maintenance application while a 10C sensitivity may be to insensitive. Sensitivity from 0.1
to 1.0 C is normally sufficient for PdM applications.

Temperature Range

The range where the imager can effectively and accurately measure . Effective and
accurate measurement means that there is not much influence of (thermal) noise when
measuring the low range and saturation of the image at the high end of the range.

If the application requires below zero degrees centigrade measurement (0C), consider the
low range

If the application will also include extremely high temperature , refractories for example,
consider the high range as well. Normal imagers will have a range of 10C to 300 C

Software

The program that comes with the unit, traditionally thermograph are only recorded on photo
paper (silver halide based) or on video tapes. Today, almost all imagers are digital and the
images or data are compatible with the regular Personal Computer

Things to consider:

o Ease of use

o Storage management capability

o Off-line data analysis

o Reporting , OLE to other standard software

o Route or plan capability

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 File Format

Like the format for digital image (Photo) infrared imager manufacturers came up with their
own formats. Although picture file format used by some imagers will show the temperature
using the color scale, off-line enhancement and analysis is not possible with these formats.

Generically, IR image use ratiometric format. These files contains the temperature data on
each pixels. This means that files can be manipulated, enhanced and analyzed off-line.
The only thing that you cannot do with this file is to make the image sharp. An image taken
with wrong range and emissivity setting can be corrected off-line in the computer but an
unfocussed image will remain unfocussed in the computer.

There are about 20 proprietary ratiometric image formats.

Visual picture capability

An imager with an integrated visual camera is a plus for the thermographer. Most of the
times it will be difficult to identify where the thermal image was taken. If the price premium
for this additional feature will be extraordinary high, a separate digital camera can do the
job. Besides, if there is already an existing plan or route, you only need to take a photo
during the start of the campaign. It is not necessary to take visual image everytime you
make a regular thermal measurement.

Annotation

Annotation is an additional information or remarks. For Thermography this is important in

order to identify the thermal image that has been taken. Normally if the thermographer
knows the file number, he can write other data regarding the object that was scanned in his
notes. In many cameras, the file name assigned by the equipment is generated in series.
The user normally cannot change this. On some models, the memory location is fixed but
the remark can be changed in advance to serve as guide to the thermographer.

On some expensive models, the annotation is taken cared of by a digital voice recorder
where the audio data is attached or embedded to the thermal image. A built in photo
camera can also serve as an annotation device but be aware that on some close-up visual
image, identification is also difficult if there are not text (HAC) in the equipment.

In short this feature is useful in tagging, marking or identifying the image

Weight and Portability

very important to the thermographer who will be carrying the unit in the field most of the
time and sometimes on critical and dangerous locations. It may still be important to
consider this today but with the decreasing size of camera, this may not mean anything in
the future.

Battery

o Battery Life - nothing is more frustrating that going to the pre-heater tower
and finding the battery is flat in just a few minutes.

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 o Type and compatibility As much as possible no special battery type should
be used where in few years it will no longer be available in the market

Data Storage

The memory should be enough to accommodate at least 100 images. Connectivity is an

issue since data transfer is one of the things that the user does not like. The less effort the
better. Some cameras have docking station and a few have the wireless link (Bluetooth)

Robustness

The camera shall be subjected to plant environment, therefore the construction should be
IP64 and should be equipped with some protective cover

7. CONCLUSION

A successful implementation of Thermography as a Condition Monitoring tool will depend on

many factors. The following point should be considered:

Proper selection would be Thermographer. This includes preparation and training

Integration to the existing PdM program. It should not only be used by one
department on as need basis but should be done regularly with or without an
equipment failure

Proper selection of equipment. Do not be overwhelmed by the unnecessary features

of the very expensive model nor be fooled by the very low price of others

Proper knowledge of the capability of the method and the equipment used as well as
the weaknesses and limitations. Thermography is not a magic repair tool, things will
not be fixed by simply scanning .

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