DONGNAI UNIVERSITY

FOREIGN LANGUAGE FALCULTY

THE AIR POLLUTION OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

V Tin t

Tin c

Nguyn Trung Hiu

V Tun Quang

Research Writing

DHNNA04A

Instructor: Nguyen Van Nam

Date: May , 2017

THESIS STATEMENT: This research paper aim to the air pollution in developing

country, example like China. The air pollution has been increasing day by day . It cause

by many many source.

OUTLINE :

I. CURRENT REALITY OF THE POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES.

1. The reality of the air pollution.

2. China is the typical developing country.

II. CAUSE OF AIR POLLUTION :

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels

2. Human exposure through industrials products:

3. Exhaust from factories and industries

III. SOLUTION:

1. Some suggestions from experts to cope with the air pollutionUsing renewable

energies.

2. Using renewable energies

IV. CONCLUTION
INTRODUCTION

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of substances in air at concentrations,

durations and frequencies that adversely affect human health, human welfare or the

environment. Air pollution is not a recent phenomenon. The remains of early humans

demonstrate that they suffered the detrimental effects of smoke in their dwellings

(Brimblecombe, 1987). Blackening of lung tissues through long exposure to particulate

air pollution in smoky dwellings appears to be common in mummified lung tissue from

ancient humans. Unhealthy air was a suspected cause of disease long before the

relationship could be scientifically confirmed. Indeed, the miasma theory of disease, still

widely held well into the 19th century, blamed a wide range of health problems on bodily

disturbances resulting from bad air.

It was with industrialization that local impacts of air pollution on human health and the

environment began to be documented systematically. However, industrialization also

fostered the idea that air pollution was a necessary product of economic development.

Partly as a result, mounting evidence of serious air pollution problems did not initially

provide the basis for decisive action.

Nowaday air pollution has been a big problem in many developing countries , side by

side the develop of industry which are many problems about air pollution that the

government has to face. Besides polluting household fuels are used in urban areas, they
can also contribute significantly to ambient air pollution, particularly in and around low

income neighborhoods (Krzyzanowski and Schwela, 1999).

There are many studies below and they will make all things clearly and more detail as

well.

(V Tun Quang)
 I. CURRENT REALITY OF THE POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES.

1. The reality of the air pollution.

DEFINITION:

According to Brimblecombe (1987), air pollution be defined as the amount of toxic in

air, durations and frequencies that makes humans health be bad, human welfare or the

environment. Air pollution is the important issue. The remains of early humans show

that they suffered the detrimental effects of smoke in their dwellings.

Kementerian Sumber Asli & Alam Sekitar (2005) also state that air pollution contains

so much or just contains any toxic or radioactive gases and particulate matter as a result

of human activity. And there are 5 major air pollutants such as carbonmonoxide (CO),

sulphur oxides (SO, SO2, SO3),particulates, hydrocarbons, and photochemicaloxidants.

Air containing:

The average percentage of

The composition of air
itscomponents by volume
NITROGEN 78%
OXYGEN 21%
INERT GASES & OTHERS 0.97%
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.03%

Frank R. Spellman author of the book The Science of Environmental Pollution -

Second Edition (2010, p.161) claims that air pollutants can be classified as either
primary or secondary . Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from

a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor

vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not

emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact.

An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone one of the many

secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.

REALITY: The amout of air pollution increase, the number of death increase.

Paul Baucom & David McCarroll (2012) show the chart by the people of developing

countries lives. The population are increasing very fast. So, there normal live will makes

the air polluted.

This chart show the current reality how the air be polluted by peoples normal living.
A number of cities introduced smoke control ordinances around the turn of the 20th

century, and by 1912, 23 of the largest 25 cities in the US had ordinances principally

aimed at visible smoke from commercial establishments (Tarr, 1996)

Based on World Economic Outlook Report (April 2015) Iran also be considered in

developing country.

A comparison chart increase air pollution in the years 2005-2009

The above chart shows the increasing of the Air Pollution and Death Due to

Cardiovascular Diseases in Iran by the team: Masoumeh Rashidi, Mohammad Hossein

Rameshat and Hadi Gharib (2004) in the book: Case Study: Isfahan Province of Iran
 2. China is the typical developing country.

Stevan Harrell (2014) said that Chinas air pollution is a horror story that has

captivated readers and viewers around the world. Many observers have pointed

out that it is a major contributor to pollution in Japan and Korea, and even blows

across the Pacific to affect air quality up and down the coast of North America. A

recent study estimated that on the worst days, Chinese emissions accounted for

12% 24% of the sulfate, 2%5% of the ozone, 4%6% of the carbon monoxide,

and up to 11% of the black carbon particulate over the West Coast of United

States.

Anthony Johnson Hedley (2003) show the chart of Changes of SO2 the main cause of

air pollution in China.

Changes in SO2 following the 1990 fuel regulations

According to https://www.theatlas.com (the trustworthy website of chart from the

internet), they show the chart for the current reality of Top 5 countries deaths due to the

air pollution.

(Nguyn Trung Hiu)

 II. CAUSE OF AIR POLLUTION :

There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for releasing

pollutants into the aatmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major

categories. The first is natural air pollution. The second is unnatural air pollution

1.0 NATURAL AIR POLLUTION

When people think of pollution, they tend to think thats a problem that caused by human

through ignorance or stupidityand that's true, some of the time. However, it's

nessesary to remember that some kinds of air pollution are produced naturally. Example

forest fires, erupting volcanoes, and gases released from radioactive decay of rocks

inside Earth are just some examples of natural air pollution that can make the hugely

effects on people and the planet.

Forest fires (which often start naturally) can produce huge swathes of smoke

thatdrift for miles over neighboring cities, countries, or continents. Giant volcanic

eruptions canspew so much dust into the atmosphere that they block out significant

amounts of sunlight and cause the entire planet to cool down for a year or more.

Radioactive rocks can release a gas called radon when they decay, which can build up

in the basements of buildings with serious effects on people's health. Plants and trees

naturally emit VOCs which are oxidized and form aerosols that can cause a natural blue

haze; and dust storms can create large amounts of particulate matter. Wild animals in
their natural habitat are also considered natural sources of "pollution" (Barker, J.R,

1992).

All these things are examples of serious air pollution that happen without any impact

from humans; although human can adapt to natural air pollution, and try to reduce the

disruption it causes, they never stop it happening completely. So that, the rest of this

paper will consider only the "unnatural" types of pollution: the problems that people

cause.

2.0 UNNATURAL AIR POLLUTION

1. Burning of fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are rock-like, gas, or liquid resources that are burned to generate

power. They include coal, natural gas, and oil, and are used as an energy source in

the electricity and transportation sectors. Theyre also a leading source of the worlds

global warming pollution.

Some of the most significant hidden costs of fossil fuels are from the air emissions

that occur when they are burned. Unlike the extraction and transport stages, in which

coal, oil, and natural gas can have very different types of impacts, all fossil fuels emit

carbon dioxide and other harmful air pollutants when burned. These emissions lead to a

wide variety of public health and environmental costs that are borne at the local, regional,

national, and global levels. In general the types of fuel used become cleaner and more
convenient, efficient and costly as people move up the energy ladder. Animal dung, on

the lowest rung of this ladder, is succeeded by crop residues, wood, charcoal, kerosene,

gas and electricity. People tend to move up the ladder as socioeconomic conditions

improve (Smith, KR et al,1994), the use of kerosene lamps, and industrial and vehicle

emissions. Indoor air pollution in the form of environmental tobacco smoke can be

expected to increase in developing countries.

After the industrial age, transportation has become a key part of our lives. Cars

and heavy duty trucks, trains, shipping vessels and airplanes all burn lots of fossil fuels

to work. Emissions from automobile engines contain both primary and secondary

pollutants. This is a major cause of pollution and one that is very difficult to manage.

This is because humans rely heavily on vehicles and engines for transporting people,

good and services. "The burning of coal and oil have saved inestimable amounts of time

and labor while substantially raising living standards around the world" (Griffin, 1992).

However, as fossil fuels burn, they release more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

They absorb energy, slowing or preventing the loss of heat to space. In this way, they

act like a blanket, making Earth warmer than it would otherwise be.

2. HUMAN EXPOSURE THROUGH INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

To begin with, the earliest soure of pollution has been pesticides and fertilizers.

But today the most dangerous things that make the atmosphere is more polluted is

industrial product.Industrial products that are used in homes, and which have been
produced with heavy metals are sources of human exposure to such heavy metals.

Mercury exposure is through disinfectants (like mercurochrome), antifungal agents,

toiletries, creams and organo-metallics (McCluggage, 1991). Cadmium exposure is

through nickel/cadmium batteries and artist paints; lead exposure is through wine bottle

wraps, mirror coatings, old paints and linolein amongst others. Heavy metal pollution of

surface and underground water sources results in considerable soil pollution and

pollution increases when mined ores are dumped on the ground surface for manual

dressing (Garbarino et al., 1995). Surface dumping exposes the metals to air and rain

thereby generating much AMD. Infants are more susceptible to the endangering effects

of exposure to heavy metals.

3. EXHAUST FROM FACTURIES AND INDUSTRIES

The modernization and industrialization of developing countries has led to the

increased use of fossil fuels and their derivatives. As such, developing countries are

confronted with the great challenge of controlling the atmospheric pollution, especially

in the rapidly growing urban centres. Air pollution is an important problem in industrial

areas which may have an adverse effect on the health of the population. Air pollution is

due to the discharge of toxic fumes, gases, smoke and dusts into the atmosphere (Park

and Park, 1985).

Today, Manufacturing industries release large amount of carbon monoxide,

hydrocarbons, and chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of air.
Manufacturing industries can be found at everywhere in the earth and there is no area

that has not been affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and

various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution. Concern about

air pollution in urban regions is receiving increasingly importance worldwide, especially

pollution by gaseous and particulate trace metals. A great deal of attention has focused

on particulate matter (PM) pollution, due to their severe health effects, especially fine

particles. Several epidemiological studies have indicated a strong association between

elevated concentrations of inhalable particles (PM10 and PM2.5) and increased

mortality and morbidity (Perez and Reyes, 2002; Lin and Lee, 2004; Namdeo and Bell,

2005). So many facturies are being grown in everywhere in the Earth. Human want to

destroy the Earth by build more and more facturies and discharge in to enviroment exotic

and chemical.

In an apparently worst case scenario carried out on the WHO data sets, (Kunzall

et al., 2000) found that 6% of the deaths in Austria, France, and Switzerland might be

associated with exposure of the population to particulate air pollution. Major air

pollution problems are occurring at urban and industrial centers, increasing pollution

levels.Beside facturies motor vehicle traffic also is the main contributor of deterioration

of air quality in the urban centers. The high average of fleet, poor fuel quality,

insufficient car maintenance and high concentration of vehicles in the areas with

inadequate infrastructure all contribute to the high pollutant load. Other important

pollutant sources are industrial activities including cement industry.

Some causes is not enough in the big picture of air pollution but they are main factor

which put the Earth into the dangerous case and make human worry about their

enviroment.

( Tin c)
IV.SOLUTION:

1. Some suggestions from experts to cope with the air pollution

As regard some measures to tackle the problem, it has recently been (Larssen, 2003,

p.108) stated that there are three steps to resolve the problems of air pollution. The first

step is to find out the main factors contributing to the pollution of the atmosphere and

find means and ways to fortify the situation. He sorted these measures into five

categories:

1. Improving fuel quality

2. Technology improvement

3. Fuel switching

4. Traffic management

5. Transport demand management

The second step that Larssen and his companions were really concerned about is to

analyze each measure in term of cost, effectiveness, feasibility and any other factor

concern. In addition, the necessity of improving the basis for the air quality is imperative,

improving the database (monitoring, emission inventory, modelling, etc) and

establishing an operational air quality management system in the city.

The third step is to select the most priority measure that can be suitable with the current

situation. He claimed that these measures must be cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit,

and feasibility to reach the air quality target.

Besides, it is a fact that vehicle transportations are partly contributing to the air pollution

in some developing countries. Therefore, Walsh (2003, p.174) suggested some

strategies to reduce vehicle emissions: Stringent emission standards for new vehicles,

clean fuels, programmes to assure proper maintenance of in-use vehicles, traffic and

demand management.

Above all, there is no deny for the fact that the more efficient the energy is, the higher

peoples demand require and the more increasing the consumption is. As DeGunther

(2009, p.96) states that efficiency is not the main factor in reducing energy consumption.

While it seem only logical that rising efficiency will result in reduction in demand, the

truth seems to be that increasing efficiency actually increases demand. Therefore, the

necessity of strategies for reducing energy consumption is imperative.

First of all, DeGunther offers to deal with peak-demand problems that focus on raising

the price of the energy. For example, if revenue enterprises just pay attention to selling

their products such as air-conditioner, refrigerator, without compelling the saving-

energy policies of the government, consequently people flock into buying these products,

leading to an excessive consumption and waste. Thus, raising the price of energy can

limit the use of energy (p.101).

Second, dealing with the development of urban is also seriously considered. The

increasing number of people owning private cars to travel around in some cities

nowadays is cause of air pollution. Therefore, the government should pass laws to

decline the number of private cars in the city such as raising tax on them or charge more

for drivers, . Besides, the citizen should be encourage to take the advantage of public

transportation so that traffic stress can be released, and public transport station can

definitely reduce the amount of carbon emissions. Lastly, the infrastructure should be

improve so that transportation can deliver services more easily to customers (p. 101).

Third, to reduce energy consumption effectively, promoting green communities is

vital (p.102). It is without doubt that cities should raise awareness among people about

the importance of environment and encourage them to dedicate for the green of the city

by keeping hygiene and leading a healthy lifestyle. Besides, nowadays many cities are

also making large strike in improving the air quality with efforts and people are inspired

to reduce citys greenhouse gas emissions according to the Climate Protection

Agreement. In addition, commuting is a big factor finding an energy-efficient

community. Therefore, a green community should take the advantages of public

transportation so that people can save a lot of energy and air pollution can be slow down.

Most notably, recycling programs is also mentioned in DeGunthers argument.

He concedes that Recycling is possible for any household. But it helps if your

community has set up a formal regimen whereby recycling is centralized and

encouraged. When this is the case, the cost of transportation and processing are

borne equally by all citizens through utility bill. The better community provide

recycling containers that you set out on the street with your regular trash. The

best provide different containers for different types of recycled materials-for

instance, aluminum and metal, plastics, newspapers, and boxes (p. 103).

Finally, a green community must be used and supplied fresh water excellently just

because water is surely limited in some cities, and sometime people use it wastefully.

Therefore, DeGundther makes the following comment that communities are expected to

set water meters which can compute the amount of water used by each family. If they

use water carelessly, they will be charge more (p. 104).

 2. Using renewable energies

It is the fact that a vast majority of the worlds energy demand comes from non-

renewable sources such as coal, natural gas and oil, . However, these sources certainly

have a negative effect on the greenhouse. Therefore, Vandaele and Porter (2015) quotes

Ohler and Fetters (2014) as saying renewable technologies hold important roles in

future energy use and economic prosperity and subsequently lead to a faster transition

toward a developed society. Without doubt about this, developing countries should

utilize the potential and benefits of renewable energies. As Piebalgs (2007, p.21) states

that the developing world presents one of the best windows of opportunity for the

promotion and use of renewable energies. Developing countries can take advantages

of these changes in many aspect and if they do a better job in applying them, they can

reduce the cost of non-renewable energies, avoid the influences of pollution and enjoy

a clean environment.

In term of renewable energies or alternative energies, they are defined as current energy

occurring naturally in the environment (Twidell and Weir, 1986, p.471). DeGunther

(2009, p.127) sorted them into seven types: nuclear energy, solar energy, hydropower,

wind power, geothermal, biomass, hydrogen technology.

Nuclear energy

It is a fact that nuclear energy has existed for thousands of years before. The sun, which

is the source of all energy on the planet earth, is a huge nuclear reactor and the entire
universe is fill with stars, and each is a nuclear reactor(DeGunder, p.129). Therefore,

to take advantages of this energy is quite legitimate simply because it very clean and

eco-friendly with the environment. Thus, developing countries should take nuclear

power in to account in order to make it become practical in the future (Chowdhury,

2012).

Solar energy

It is without dispute that the sun sends over 35,000 times more energy to earth than

human use in all of their energy consumption endeavors (DeGunder, p.151). Most of

all, solar energy is the cleanest one that we have ever known. However, while

humankind has been inventing creative ways to do just that for thousands of years, it is

quite difficult to turn this power in to usable energy. The target of applying this power

is to transform it into usable heat or usable electrical power but how do we harness

sunlight to generate electricity? One appropriate answer for this question is the fact that

solar PV (photovoltaic) systems can convert light energy into electrical energy just

because it is the most practical ways for residential use. Despite many advantages solar

brings us (no need for transportation, available everywhere and eco-friendly with the

environment, ), current solar technologies is still in its infancy and limitations.

Anyhow, scientists are trying to make large strike in developing these technologies and

of course, they will be sooner or later spread through the world.

Hydropower

It is evident that water plays one crucial role in human life. Furthermore, Water

possesses a great power that humankind has just harnessed part of it. Therefore,

scientists have done many researches to employ this power and tried to convert it into

electrical power to meet the energy demand of the regions. In fact, many dams have

been established in most of the major rivers in the world and the demand for electricity

has resulted in the damming of large rivers worldwide (DeGunder, p.177). By mean of

technological advancement, nowadays developing nations are using electrical energy

coming from hydropower generated from dams. Some countries like Brazil, Norway,

Canada have made full use of this power. Undoubtedly, Water power brings a green

energy and does not impact the atmosphere but dams still affect directly on the natural

habitat of some creature. As a result, many projects have been launched to enhance the

use of hydropower. The Commission on Dams (2000) point out, the enormous

investments and widespread impacts of hydropower have made large dams, both those

in place and those on the drawing board, one of the most hotly contested issues in

sustainable development (Twidell and Weir, 1986, p.257).

Wind power

Wind power has long been used by human for 5,000 thousand years ago and the thing

which represents for the use of wind energy in the past is windmills, still being used in

some western countries nowadays. Most notably, electricity was first generated by
wind power in 1890 (DeGunder, p.195), making an important landmark in

technological science. There are a wide variety of benefits that wind power brings back.

As DeGunther states that it only takes a mild breeze to power an entire city with wind

energy, so the potential to harness wind power is immense. Moreover, It is worth to

pointing out that wind energy is clean and eco-friendly, no environmental impact.

Most of all, it is cost-effective and among the alternative energy sources could see the

largest growth due to it wide range of favorable factors and very short list of

disadvantages (p. 194). In reality, according to the figure of DeGunther, there was

more than 65,000 wind turbines cranking out over 39,000 megawatts of power the world

over (p. 195). In general, the prospect of a green world in the future has come true by

the development of wind energy.

Geothermal energy

There are a mixed diversity of renewable energies coming from the earth, geothermal

energy is not exceptional. It is not only used to generate electrical power but it also

employs to heat and cool building. Besides, it is considered as green energy and eco-

friendly with the environment (Shere, 2003). To understand about the meaning of the

term geothermal, DeGunther (p.207) explains that Geo is a Greek word meaning

earth, and therme means heat. This energy forms from deep inside the earth core

and being known as hot molten magma. Moreover, it can be found everywhere in the

world, especially in volcanic regions, where volcanic activities often happen (p. 208).
To apply this energy to practical life, there are two fundamental ways: to produce

electricity or to directly heat or cool individual homes and business (DeGunther, p.209).

In fact, The International Geothermal Association (IGA) has reported that 10,715

megawatts (MW) of geothermal power in 24 countries is available, which was expected

to generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010 (GEA 2010, p.4). However, the actual

production of geothermal is still a very small percentage of its potential (DeGunther,

p.211) and the explanation for this is the fact that the facilities costs are fairly high

compared to fossil fuel.

Biomass

The material of plants and animals, including their wastes and residues is called

biomass. It is organic, carbon-based, material that reacts with oxygen in combustion and

natural metabolic processes to release heat (Twidell and Weir, 1986, p.351). Biomass

has long been played an important role in human life. There is no deny for the fact that

more than half of the world burns forest products, animal dung and other organic matter

as part of their daily ritual of living. In industry, this resource, which is replace for

fossil fuel, is commonly-used for heating and electrical generation. It is asserted that the

appearance of biomass has opened a new era for dealing with the problems of wasting

garbage. Indeed, DeGunther states that agricultural waste like worn tires, plastics, tree,

grass, manure, and landfill (paper, cardboard, discarded food,) can be burned and

converted into usable energy. However, this kind of energy cannot be free from
drawback. The process of burning waste material can cause air pollution and the

pollutants releasing from the process also have a negative effect on the health of

residential areas. Therefore, agricultural waste holds a tremendous potential for

producing large amount of energy without damaging the environment in the process

(DeGunther, p.223).

Hydrogen technology

Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe, it is the main

component of water (H2O), it is also one of the basic energy sources that all life on the

planet earth require to survive (DeGunther, p.249). Because it is available and versatile

in properties, it is expected to become the worlds energy in the future. Without doubt

about that, hydrogen technology brings back many benefits. Facing with the problems

of exhausting fossil fuel and the greenhouse gas emissions, hydrogen technology is

promising many prospect in term of pure electricity, clean energy, non-toxic, more

efficient than other sources of energy. Despite the prohibitive cost, future energy

systems will also include improved conventional energy converters running on hydrogen

(e.g. internal combustion engines, stirling engines, and turbines) as well as other energy

carriers (e.g. direct heat and electricity from renewable energy, and bio-fuels for

transport) (Busquin, 2003).

(V Tin t)
IV. CONCLUSION:

Air pollution is a major public health hazard for large numbers of the developing

countries. It is Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2000, 7 8 (9) 1087 It is

important to extend and strengthen it, particularly for the most common and serious

conditions including acute lower respiratory infections and tuberculosis, to quantify

exposure, and to ensure that confounding is adequately dealt with. A few well-conducted

randomized controlled studies on the health impact of reducing exposure would

markedly strengthen the evidence, and should be feasible at the household level.

Although work on interventions to reduce exposure has given mixed results, there is a

wide range of possibilities and there has been some success in terms of both exposure

reduction and uptake. The development and evaluation of interventions should take

account of the many aspects of household energy supply and utilization, and should

include assessment of pollution and exposure reductions, fuel efficiency and impact on

the local and global environment, safety, capacity to meet household needs, affordability

and sustainability. There is a need for a coordinated set of community studies to develop

and evaluate interventions in a variety of settings, together with policy and

macroeconomic studies on issues at the national level, such as fuel pricing incentives

and other ways of increasing access by the poor to cleaner fuels. Also required is a

systematic, standardized approach to monitoring levels and trends of exposure in a

representative range of poor rural and urban populations.Besides the relationship

between the gorvernment and citizen is also important by coordinating to decrease air
pollution. Finally , it is necessary to keep in mind the close interrelationship between

poverty and dependence on polluting fuels, and consequently the importance of

economic development , which should be at the core of efforts to achieve healthier

household environments.

(V Tun Quang)
 Bibliography

Brice, N. , et al. (2000). Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major

environmental and public health challenge. Indoor Air Pollution in Developing

Countries, 78, 1078-1092.

Busquin, P. (2003). Hydrogen energy and fuel cells. Unpublished paper, European

commission.

Baker, J.R. (1992). Air pollution effects on biodiversity. New York: Van Nostrand

Reinhold.

Chowdhury, N. (2012). Nuclear energy for developing countries. Unpublished paper,

Stanford University.

DeGunther, R. (2009). Alternative energy for dummies. New Jersey: Wisley Publishing.

Flagan, C.R. , & Seinfeld, H.J. (1988). Fundamentals of air pollution engineering.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Frank R. S.(2010). The science of environmental pollution. New York: Taylor & Francis

Group.

GEA. (2010, May). Geothermal energy: International market update. Geothermal

Energy Association, pp. 4-6.

Griffin, R. (1992). Alternative Energy. 2 (2): 573-596.

Garbarino JR, Hayes H, Roth D, Antweider R, Brinton TI, Taylor H. (1995).

Contanminants in the Mississippi River, U. S. Geological Survey Circular 1133,

U. S. A.
Harrell, S. (2014, April). Chinas international air pollution: Is the United States part of

the problem?. The National Bureau of Asian Research. (pp.3-4).

Kunzall, N., Kalser, R., Medina, S., Studnicka, M., Chanel, O. and Filliger, P. (2000).

Public health impact of outdoor and trafficrelateed air pollution: A European

assessment. The Lancet, 356, 795-801.

Larssen, S. , et al. (2003). A systematic approach to air quality management: Example

from the UBAIR cities. In G. McGranahan & F. Murray (Eds.) , Air pollution &

health in rapidly developing countries (pp. 146-172). UK and USA: Earthscan

Publications Ltd.

Lin, J. and Lee, L.C. (2004). Characterization of the concentration and distribution of

urban submicron PM10 aerosol particles. Atmos. Environ, 36, 4555-4561.

McCluggage D. (1991) Heavy Metal Poisoning, NCS Magazine. U.S.A : The Bird

Hospital, CO.

Namdeo,A. and Bell, M.C. (2005). Characteristics and health implications of fine and

coarse particulates at roadside, urban backgroung and rural sites in UK. Environ.

Int., 31, 565-573

Porter, W. , & Vandaele, N. (2015). Renewable energy in developing and developed

nations: Outlooks to 2040. Unpublished paper, University of Florida.

Piebalgs, A. (2007). Renewable energy: Potential and benefits for developing countries.

In S. Gardner, E. Thorpe & C. Vutz (Eds.) , Renewable energy: Potential and

benefits for developing countries (pp. 21-26). Brussels: Konrad-Adenauer-Stifting.

Rosengarten, C. , et al. (2016). Renewable energy and energy efficiency in developing

countries: Contributions to reducing globe emissions. Second report, Job no.

DTI/2061/PA.

Smith, KR, et al. (1994). Air pollution and the energy ladder in Asian cities. Energy,

19, 587-600.

Smith, K.R. (2002). Indoor air pollution in developing countries: Recommendation for

research. Indoor Air, 12, 198-207.

Shere, J. (2003). Renewable: The world-changing power of alternative energy. New

York: S.t Martines Press.

Twidell, J. , & Weir, T. (1986). Renewable energy resources. New York: E & FN Spon.

Vasudevan, T.P. , & Ulrich, D.G. (2007). Predesign for pollution: Prevention and

control. Unpublished paper, University of Newhampshire.

Walsh, M.P. (2003). Vehicle emissions and health in developing countries. In G.

McGranahan & F. Murray (Eds.) , Air pollution & health in rapidly developing

countries (pp. 146-172). UK and USA: Earthscan Publications Ltd.