MICHEL FOUCAULT: KNOWLEDGE, POWER, AND IDENTITY Institutions and the Legitimisation of Knowledge

Foucaults analysis of history relies on historical monuments or goals of

Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
institutions that produces discontinuous effects. These effects, despite
Paul-Michel Foucault is a French philosopher historian who was
their intended goal or outcome, often comes out differently because of
concerned with the development of ideas of power through the
variations in how people appropriate them.
history of institutions and their effect on how we understand
For example, the idea of punishment as a mode of deterrence for
identities through knowledge.
would-be-criminals, became more of a spectacle as opposed to a
Foucault pioneered an approach towards understanding historical
fearsome event.
texts in which history is a production of truth, rather than the
Thus, public executions, instead of deterring would be criminals,
conveyance of truth from past events.
became a form of entertainment for the common folk. For some, it
Foucault was raised by a family of wealthy surgeons, who opted him
allowed other practices to take place.
to become a physician.
Moreover, public executions, also allowed individuals to air their
Foucault was a closeted homosexual in his younger years, often
support towards the accused. In some instances, violent protests occur
causing him anxiety and depression.
after public executions.
Foucault was highly critical of the oppressive role of institution in
The prison system is a product of suppressing the populace from
shaping our conception of identity.
creating a spectacle out of public executions.
Foucault was a well-known intellectual throughout Europe and
As a response to deterrence, the form of punishment has evolved into a
America.
rehabilitation of the subject (prisoner) to later integrate them back to
Foucault was an advocate of exploring ones identity by
society.
understanding how institutions shape our daily practices.
Thus, the prison system has become instrumental in spawning various
Moreover, by understanding history, we can understand the success
industries and technological implements to create different identities.
and folly of certain institutions and their respective agendas.
The Panotpicon
Foucault succumbed to complications from AIDS in 1984
The Panotpicon must not be understood as a dream building: it is the
Genealogy of History
diagram of a mechanism of power reduced to its ideal form
Foucault argued that the study of history is ought to be
The panopticon does not simply represent an omni-present form of
disinterested and detached.
observation of prisoners, rather, it represents how the prison system
Rather than offer a grand narrative of explaining monumental
works in and out of the prison.
points in history that influenced present developments, Foucault
The idealised manifestation of the panopticon is the power of
wanted to look at small details such as the practices of insignificant
surveillance that shapes the behavior of individuals with the gaze of the
people to understand the effects of institutions to human activities.
authority.
Foucault for example, observed practices involving executions,
From the use of corporeal punishment, rehabilitation, and finally
punishment, diagnosis of mental illness, medicine, and sexuality as a
surveillance, the idea of the human person in history for Foucault is a
basis for his study.
technology of transforming humanity into docile bodies.
By studying these discontinuous details (i.e. documents involving
Surveillance
everyday practices), Foucault can point out that history is not just a
Surveillance is a form of management wherein subjects learn how
series of events triggered by one successful event in the past.
to manage themselves, by conditioning people to think that they are
being watched, they will behave as if they are watched.
 Foucault was very adamant to discourses on history that points
towards a perceived end or goal.
The telos or direction of history is always subject to the constant
swaying of forces that veers away from projected trajectories
offered by technologies.
While knowledge can give power for those who can control
discourses, the technology that is derived from knowledge can be
used in unpredictable ways.
For example, the internet, despite its focus on disseminating
information can also be used to disseminate false information.
Technologies that save lives were actually realized in events that
were meant to take away lives.
Freedom, when too much is introduced, can also be made as a tool
for oppression.
Homosexuality, for example, in the earlier part of the 20th century,
was treated as a mental disorder.
Foucault argues that in the ancient Greek times, the mad or the
insane lived with the normal people. In fact, their status was
different in as much as they can see what the others could not
see.
In the course of time, the diagnosis of mental illness has become
different.
Medieval psychology, for example, diagnosed mental illness as
demonic possession.
Today, mental illness, varies in treatment and diagnosis.
In the UK and Europe, the treatment of mental illness leans more on
using behavioural conditioning.
In the US, on the other hand, mental illness is treated heavily with
medication.
While ADHD is a common phenomenon in the US; in France, ADHD
is treated as a behavioral problem as opposed to it being a
physiological problem.
In the Philippines, very few people opt-in for treatments and
diagnosis because of the shame involved in being declared
insane.
Foucaults emphasized the fact that over the course of time, people
have begun to isolate the mad from the sane.
Rather than learn from the mad the root cause and effective means
of integrating them back to society, institutions have merely
excluded the insane from the sane.
Technology, thus, became a system of managing the insane.
In Foucaults historical analysis of sexuality, he notes that sexuality
finds means despite repression from society and institutions.
He notes, that despite the suppressed treatment of sexuality in the
Victorian times, sexuality flourished.
While institutions can somewhat dictate certain sexual practices,
individuals will find ways to express their own technology of
sexuality.
This is evinced, for example, in ancient Greece through
homosexuality.
Despite being segregated by roles, men and women found ways to
explore sexual identities. Homosexuality was a common practice,
since both sexes were detached from each because of the roles that
they played.
Repression, as history would show, only furthers the technologies of
caring for ones self.
Foucault advocated the exploration of the self (not only in sexual
terms) as opposed to allowing technologies, knowledge, and power
to dictate our identities.
Foucault wanted to turn these technologies as a way of allowing us
some sense of autonomy in caring for ourselves.
Thus, rather than be merely helpless subjects compelled to follow
the forces that influence us, we have the option to become
selective in becoming who we want ourselves to be.
Thus, Foucault proposes a technology of understanding ourselves. A
technology of caring for oneself. We are to become our own
project rather than become the projects of institutions.
FREEDOM AND PORNOGRAPHY (A case for self-actualization and self-
expression)
I defend pornography as an important aspect of freedom of expression,
which is essential for autonomy, self-development, the growth of
knowledge and human flourishing. I rebut the allegations that pornography
depraves and corrupts, degrades women, is harmful
to children, exposes third parties to risk of offence or assault, and violates
womens civil rights and liberties. I contend that suppressing pornography
would have a range of unintended evil consequences, including loss of
beneficial technology, creeping censorship, black markets, corruption and
extensive social costs.. Danny Frederick
FREDERICK RESPONDS TO FIVE MAJOR CRITICISMS AGAINST
PORNOGRAPHY:
(1) Pornography tends to deprave and corrupt those who produce or
consume it.
Consumers of pornography will tend to have a perverted vision of sexuality,
more so, it exposes those that are involved in its production to health,
crime, and character risks.
(2) It degrades women
Women who are participating in the consumption and production of
pornography are degraded because it portrays them as an object and a
lower kind of person subject to humiliating circumstances.
(3) It is harmful to children if they consume it or are used in its production
(4) It exposes third parties to risk of offence or assault
By objectifying the participants in the production of pornography, one
exposes third parties or other people as an object of sexual offence or
assault.
(5) It violates womens civil rights and freedom of expression
HERE ARE FREDERICKS INITIAL RESPONSES TO THE FIVE POINTS AGAINST
PORNOGRAPHY:
(1) Risks exists in all aspects of life, as an adult, the decision to participate in
the production and consumption of pornography is a free decision which
has had its consequences weighed down by individuals.
Just like participating in a sport is a risk to injury, or participating in
charitable activities can cause harm and even the loss of life, there would be
downsides to any activity.
Yet the reason why people still participate in these activities is that its end
seems worthwhile for its participants.
(2) Following the first response, if pornography has the capacity to degrade
women, then women, as consenting adults should decide for themselves
whether the degradation is worthwhile.
However, should we take the allegations against pornography to be true, we
should take this as an opportunity to respond and explain the ideology
behind pornography.
Despite this, the degradation of women can still be expressed in non-
pornographic means. This means that despite the validity of the argument,
the focus should not only be centered on pornography.
(3) While it is true that pornography is dangerous to children, it is also true
that there are a lot of things that are harmful for children that falls on the
adults to be responsible when it comes to these matters.
Alcohol, tobacco, medicines, sharp things, anti-vaccination pamphlets, are
all present in the environment. The responsibility to keep children from
these possible harm lies with adult supervision.
In the case of pornography, parents should find means of preventing their
children from accessing these forms of media. The responsibility lies with
the parents, not with the existence of pornography.
(4) If pornography exposes third parties to risk of offence or assault, then
even if this did justify controls over the production or consumption of
pornography; it would do so only where less intrusive ways of dealing with
the problems are not available.
(5) If pornography is a danger to all, and to women, this could be an
argument for restricting the freedom of expression.
DANNY FREDERICK ARGUES SOME POINTS FOR PORNOGRAPHY
A free society is a society that safeguards the freedom of expression
Since pornography is a form of expression of human sexuality it should be
allowed to a degree where its benefits can outweigh its possible risks.
Freedom of expression is a prerequisite of personal development
Adults are self-conscious beings who are entitled to manage their own lives
and pursue their own conception of the good life in their own way. This is
made possible by experimentation.
Sex is, for more people, a very important part of life
For many people, sexual relationships, and their integral sexual activities,
are central to lifes meaning.
Despite the benefits of pornography, there are still some considerations
that we need to take.
Criticisms of pornography is well accepted because it is an expression and
are likewise important for its own development.
Criticism can allow changes in the practice, production, and consumption of
pornography.
There are certain circumstances wherein the issue of public safety takes
precedence over the freedom of expression, and that is also applicable to
pornography.
SEXUAL EXPLICITNESS AND SEXUAL AROUSAL
Why it matters?
If pornography can arouse sexuality and lead to violence, why do we allow
sexually explicit and sexually arousing materials?
There are materials that are sexually arousing and sexually explicit, that may
not necessarily be referred to as pornography.
A medical manual or text can have sexually explicit content. A movie can be
sexually arousing without being sexually explicit.
Despite this, since sex is a common activity, regardless of whether it is done
in front of the camera or not, then would it be also right to say that the act
of sex degrades women?
CAN A DISCOURSE ABOUT SEX DEGRADE US?
While it is possible that certain discourse about sex can be degrading, it
does, however, need to be specific about which discourses can be
degrading.
The question of degradation is often addressed by the privacy of sex itself. If
it is made present to those that do not want to see it, then it can be
degrading. Since sex as an act and discourse is both private and personal,
pornography, likewise, should also be private.
Despite this, no reason has been given for thinking that sex is properly
private and should not be open for discourse. In fact, no one questions the
necessity of pornography becoming a public spectacle, meaning to say that
there is a wide agreement that those who do not want to consume or
produce it should not be forced to do so.
Despite this, the freedom of expression is invoked as an issue when it comes
to pornography. There is also a myriad of media that can depict degrading
views on certain individuals, yet they continue to exist because of the
freedom of certain subjects to choose to consume it or produce it.
The fundamental allegation against pornography is that it degrades
womens right and freedom and that it communicates a negative image of
women.
Despite this allegation towards pornography as a media that degrades
women, a broad array of other forms of media exist that are also degrading,
not only for women, but also for different individuals.
There are films and shows that degrade the perspective of women and men.
Opinions such as the claims that the world is flat, or ideas of racism and
bigotry exist. Even the idea of replacing women with men who think that
they can be a better woman exist. These discourses and media exist, mainly
because they have their own right to free expression.
Why then does the depiction of women having sex be a degrading depiction
of women when in fact it is something that both men and women engage
in? Moreover, pornography is not limited to simply portraying women in
sexuality.
Does pornography degrade women?
While pornography has many varieties, it can be said that there are certain
types of pornography that does degrade women.
The point of the matter itself is that pornography is a neutral medium, it
doesnt generally depict women alone. Hence, it would be right to say that
specific types of pornography are degrading to women as opposed to saying
that pornography itself is degrading to women.
Allegations against pornography would say that it leads to sexual offences is
for Frederick, unsubstantiated and does not have a causal connection
between consumption and anti-social behavior. While some sex offenders
use pornography in the commission of crimes, it doesnt necessarily mean a
causal connection exist.
Likewise, certain criminals quote passages from the bible or any other
paraphernalia, it doesnt necessarily mean that the bible itself causes crime.
Banning paraphernalia such as knives, because it can be used in the
commission of crime, is a post-hoc fallacy.
Who can consume it?
Pornography, like sex, is not something that children should participate in.
Given that sex is an everyday pleasurable activity, most children will
eventually and pleasurably engage in it as they mature and become adults.
Children and sex should be separated in terms of the production and
consumption of pornography.
Pornography is for mature and consenting adults. Children should not be
forced, coerced, or allowed to participate in its production and
consumption.
For adults, the consumption of pornography can be liberating since it
provides multiple avenues in exploring human sexuality. Pornography can
also provide avenues for general psychological, anthropological, and
academic research. Pornography is also used in fiction and literary works.
And, of course it can be used as an aid for self-understanding. Frederick
notes that pornography can give rise to our own understanding of sexual
preferences, without the issue of repressing sexuality, which for him is
unhealthy.
Why pornography is an expression of freedom?
Freedom of expression is to be prized as a condition of a free society and of
individual autonomous development.
The suppression of freedom of expression is bad not only because it denies
this good, but also because it inevitably has a range of unintended evil
consequences.
There are some odd benefits to the production and consumption of
pornography, for one it stimulated the growth of consumer media and
electronics, as well as the infrastructures of the internet.
The suppression of pornography can lead to other consequences such as the
curtailment of the freedom of expression. If these were denied at an earlier
point in time, there wouldnt be any acceptance of practices such as
homosexuality and transsexuality. To add to this, the prohibition of
pornography does not necessarily stop its production and consumption, it
only leads to the underground distribution of goods that can be violent and
detrimental to society.
Can suppression stop pornography?
Suppressing pornography would involve a substantial reduction of social
wealth. There would be a significant increase in the criminal justice cost of
detection, apprehension, prosecution, and maintenance of the offenders in
prison.
Suppressing pornography can have serious consequences, its consumption
and production might not be monitored and regulated by the state resulting
into abuses and mistreatment towards women and other participants in its
industry.
In some countries, pornography is regulated by the government to give
opportunities for employment for both men and women. By suppressing
this, these regulations can no longer protect the participants from crime and
abuse.
Also, the issue of public health can be invoked as a problem arising from
suppression, exposing women, men, and even children to the hazards of
unregulated sex trade and the production of pornographic materials.
MARXISM
Karl Marx is a German-Jewish philosopher born on May 5, 1818.
He was born to a well-off family that owned vineyards. His father was a
well-known and established lawyer.
Marx, for the rest of his life, did not work as a manual laborer.
Coincidentally, Marx was also poor.
Marxism as an ideology
Marxism is an off-shoot of Karl Marxs critique of economics.
Initially it was a reaction to the proliferation of Capitalism in the early
phases of industrialization of nations. The inspiration came from his
experience of English and German capitalism.
Marxs critique developed into systems of governance and economics
which we find in the idea of Communism.
Marxs method was to propose a dialectical materialism, wherein the
realization of ones place in capitalistic societies is agonistic.
Capitalism for Marx and his followers is always in the process of
contradicting itself, hence the possibility of a revolution within the
working class is inevitable.
Labour and the Total Man
For Marx, the idea of a human person lies on how humans can realize
itself socially through labor.
Work for man is the expression of his being. Not only should work fulfill
the basic needs of man, it should also allow man to achieve a sense of
self-realisation.
Humanity achieves self-realisation through the social nature of labour.
By producing products that are valued within society, man is affirmed by
his community, which in part, gives meaning to mans existence.
The Rise of Capitalism
With the introduction of Capitalism, as a theory of economics that opts
freedom from government intervention, man has gradually alienated
from the fruits of his own labour.
The alienation from labour is a consequence of the growing need to
produce and to consume goods.
 With the introduction of machines that minimise labour, the social The elimination of progress and recognition in mans work has
aspect of labour was eliminated, the products of machines devaluated destroyed the social nature of work.
the products made by man. The Total Man
Labourers experienced a competition from these machines, which in Man for Marx is ought to be a subject that pursues his own intention
turn made them lose their business. without any control from ideals or social structures.
Capitalism In other words, man should be able to enjoy his life sensuously while at
The alienation of worker lead to the consolidation of work to a bigger the same time, must pursue things that satisfies his need for meaning.
and powerful enterprise owned by the bourgeoisie. Through labour, man should be able to satisfy his nature as a desiring
Like powerful landlords, these elite controlled the economy by entity. Not just through ideas, but also through physical and material
dominating it with the means of production. things.
For example, a weaver or a textile manufacturer in the traditional sense It is through this that humanity achieves harmony in social relations,
of artisanship and craftsmanship, would have to compete against without coming into conflict with his desires through repression.
machinised production which would sell textiles and fabrics for a much Marx further asserts that Capitalism contains within it such
more cheaper and bigger volume. contradictions that would later on disrupt its own function and give rise
Labourers and craftsmen in this sense, had to abandon their work, and to Communism.
be under the capitalist mode of production.
Consequences of Capitalism
Labour has become an alienating activity under the principles of
capitalism. With the emphasis on producing cheap goods in large
volumes, artisans and craftsmen who worked traditionally lost in the
competition because of the monopoly of the means and raw materials
for production.
On the plus side, Capitalism has made more products affordable for the
average consumer.
However, the affordability of the product, meant that one had to be a
part of the system to enjoy its benefits.
The Ford Model T, for example, is a case wherein a consumer product
produced efficiently and cheaply in huge quantities.
The invention of the assembly line system, has mechanized the process
of production in factories.
A labourer, thus, need not know how to build a car, but only perform
the task assigned to him that leads to the production of the car.
Alienation
In his critique of Capitalism, Marx opts that work has been transformed
as an alienating process in which man no longer realizes himself as a
Communism
social being.
 Marxs proposal was to eliminate the domination of production by
transforming production utilities as a state-owned utilities.
Thus, factories, lands, and machineries are no longer owned and
monopolized by private entities. Thus, eliminating unfair practices and
control over economic production.
Communism does not exactly eliminate the idea of private property,
rather, it seeks to dissuade monopolies of production by transforming
the utilities of production into publicly owned properties.
Despite this, communism insists on the possibility of a revolution (be it
armed or peaceful) as a way of overcoming the inequities of capitalism.
The Legacy of Marxism
Communism has been experimented upon by countries such as Russia
and China.
Their reading of Marxs work however, focused on the idea of revolution
and the maintenance of control over the people.
The problem with this however, is that this vulgar form of Marxism is
against the intrinsic freedom of any person to exercise their will.
Capitalism vs. Marxism (Socialism)
Despite the potent critique of Marxism, capitalism is of course prevalent
and pervasive. But can they exist together?
It would be problematic to purely conceive of an entirely socialist or
Marxist perspective of society, moreover, without the balance that
socialism offers, capitalism itself will not progress and adapt.
Both Capitalism and Marxism looks at the interest of freedom for
humans. While Capitalism looks at the freedom of individuals from
government control; Marxism looks at the freedom from economic
control.
Both are complimentary in a sense that they look at both aspects of
enlarging individual freedom.