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Learning and Assessing Mathernatlcs

through Readlng and Writing


Michael J. Boss6
Johna Faulconer
East Carolina University
Students learn mathematics more eflectively and more deeply when reading and writing is directed at learning
mathematics. Although reading and writing in mathematics may necessituie more skills and practice to mastec
the mathematical learning derivedj-om reading and writing mathematics.far outweighs the burden it places on
teachers and students. This paper explores the vital role of purposefid reading and writing in the muthematics
classroom and outlines some techniques to promote successJir1integration of reading and writing in mathemnt-
ics.
Calls for reading and writing across the curriculum Reading and Writing in the Mathematics Classroom
have long been a part of educational reform movement. Beyond word problems and open-ended questions
While many of these calls focus on increasing student concluding exercise sets in the textbook, most students
literacy cart blanche, more specific calls for increasing report that they do not read and write i n mathematics
reading and writing in mathematics curriculum are classrooms and/or only read the smallest amount of
being grounded upon the understanding that students text necessary to accomplish homework (WP-S, 2006).
learn mathematics more effectively and more deeply Others only investigate the examples or the diagrams
when reading and writing is directed at learning math- provided in the text and rarely read any of the text be-
ematics. The National Council of the Teachers of tween such (WP-S, 2007).
Mathematics Principles and Standards for School Research supports these students assertions. Alver-
Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) states, Students who mann & Moore (1 99 I ) describe the common reading in
have opportunities, encouragement, and support for the classroom as primarily textbook focused and
speaking, writing, reading, and listening in mathemat- teacher directed. Unfortunately, textbook focused and
ics classes reap dual benefits: they communicate to teacher controlled classroom reading leads to students
learn mathematics, and they learn to communicate perceiving themselves as passive receivers of knowl-
mathematically. (p. 60) edge (Siege1 & Fonzi, 1995; Lemke, 1990) rather than
In the preliminary preparation for a series of research interactive participants socially involved in negotiating
projects, the authors of this paper presented a number understanding (Ernest, 1991; von Glasserfeld, 1991)
of workshops for K- 12 preservice and inservice math- through communities of practice (Resnick, 1988;
ematics teachers. The purposes of these workshops Schoenfeld, 1992). While many teachers have students
were to provide mathematics educators with informa- inspect diagrams in the text, few ever direct them to
tion regarding learning mathematics through reading read paragraphs in the text (WP-T, 2007). Other teach-
and writing while simultaneously gleaning further un- ers report that their own familiarity with the subject
derstanding from their experiences, opinions, and prac- matter dissuades them from reading the classroom text
tices. Anecdotal evidence offered by workshop (W P-T, 2007).
participants was recorded. In this paper, comments or To fulfill school or district writing requirements,
opinions cited as (WP-S, 2006) or (WP-T, 2007) many mathematics teachers report that they annually
are from anonymous students or teachers participating assign writing biographical reports to their students
in these workshops in the respective year indicated. (WP-T, 2006). Although Sipka (1990) discusses nu-
This anecdotal evidence has contributed greatly to the merous types of formal and informal mathematical
findings and activities outlined in this paper. writing appropriate for the classroom (free writing,
This paper explores the vital role of purposeful read- mathematics autobiography, writing letter to teachers,
ing and writing in the mathematics classroom, the proof writing, and rewriting lecture notes), few ofthese
learning which results from such, and outlines some are regularly observed in the classroom. Baroody and
techniques to promote successful integration of reading Ginsburg ( 1995) have discovered that most classroom
and writing in mathematics. mathematics writing has the goal of reproducing text in

8 I oiume 108 ( I )
Reading and Mkitrng in \larhernatics
the same style as found in the classroom textbook . 1996). Rheem and Long ( 1996) and Fuentes ( 1998) in-
Informal journal writing (Borasi & Rose, 1989), in- sist that reading mathematics is sufficiently different
formal creative writing (Alvermann & Moore, 1991), so to necessitate that students receive direct instruction
formal journal writing (Waywood, 1992; Clarke, Way- in such.
wood, & Stephens, 1993) and expository writing Writing mathematics also requires different and ad-
(Venne, 1989) are the most common forms of writing ditional skills than other typical scholastic writing as-
seen in mathematics classrooms. Rothstein, Rothstein, signments. Writing mathematics often requires a solid
and Lauber (2007) add a significant list of additional understanding of numeric, symbolic, graphical, and
types of writing appropriate for the mathematics class- verbal representations, their uses, and their intercon-
room. As different types of reading connote different nections (Freitag, 1997). Since the language of mathe-
purposes for such, different types of mathematical writ- matics is extremely precise and terse, writing
ing assignments also connote differing purposes for the mathematics requires specific instruction, an in-depth
experiences. Rose (1 989) suggests that writing in math- understanding of the vocabulary, and a great deal of
ematics benefit students as writers, the teachers as practice. Students need to be trained to write mathe-
readers, and student-teacher interactions and Allen matically (Shibli, 1992) and students who do not re-
(1 99 1 ) recommends that writing mathematics can be ceive such training reap no positive benefits from the
effectively used for a student to assess his or her own exercise (Moore, 1993). Generally, in typical class-
work. rooms, there are currently too little and too few types
Today, many state and national standardized tests re- of mathematical writing experiences for students to be-
quire precise reading and complete written recordings come proficient mathematical writers (Marks & Mous-
of heuristics and solutions to many questions. Regret- ley, 1990).
tably, many students are not regularly introduced to
these experiences and many teachers are frustrated Learning through Reading and Writing in
with standardized exam questions which are dissimilar Mathematics
to those posed in the textbooks and in the classroom Bishop (1 988) considers reading as a mode of leam-
(WP-T, 2006). Summarily, much of the reading and ing. Theoretically grounded on Rosenblatts transac-
writing currently occurring in mathematics classrooms tional theory of reading (Rosenblatt, 1978, 1985,
avoids the rigorous experiences which lead to mean- 1994), numerous researchers have come to the belief
ingful mathematics learning. that students learn mathematics through reading math-
ematics (Borasi, Siegel, Fonzi, & Smith, 1998; Borasi
The Skills of Reading and Writing in Mathematics & Brown, 1985; Borasi & Siegel, 1990; Siegel & Bo-
Mathematics texts are more conceptually dense than rasi, 1992; Siegel, Borasi, & Fonzi, 1998).
almost any other type of text (Brennan & Dunlap, Writing is considered by Emig (1 977) as a unique
1985; Culyer, 1988; Thomas, 1988). The reading of and potent form of learning. Writing in mathematics is
mathematics often requires a process of reading text, a learning experience which deepens mathematical un-
inspecting associated diagrams, reading more text, con- derstanding (Rose, 1989)and extends students thinking
sidering some symbolic expressions, more text, more and understanding (Shepard, 1993).Numerous studies
graphs, and etc. (Freitag, 1997; Noonan, 1990). Addi- report that students demonstrate greater mathematical
tionally, reading mathematics often differs from other understanding and learning through writing to learn
types of reading because in addition to reading left to mathematics (Brandau, 1990; Drake & Amspaugh,
right and top to bottom, students must jump around the 1994; Doherty, 1996; Gopen & Smith, 1990; Gross-
page to associate text with tables, graphs, symbols, and man, Smith, & Miller, 1993; Miller, 1992; Nahrgang
vice versa. Thus, the process is not linear and it cannot & Peterson, 1986; Pugalee, 1997; Rose, 1989, 1990;
be assumed that a student who can read other types of Stehney, 1990; Porter & Massingila, 2000). Guckin
text well can read mathematics with the same under- ( 1992) and Youngberg ( 1 989/1990) demonstrate that
standing. Nor can it be assumed that students who can college algebra students scored higher on some exams
read math texts fluently, actually understand or com- through writing to learn mathematics programs. Writ-
prehend the text (Robb, 2003). Mathematics itself is ing mathematics may lead to students increasing in
fraught with linguistic and symbolic nuances which are content knowledge (Borasi & Rose, 1989) and recog-
difficult to navigate (Adams, 2003; Reehm & Long, nizing and generating connections (Bradley, 1990).
School Science and Matheniurics 9
Reading and Ibrrting in .ilu/heniu/rc.s

However, Porter and Masingila (2000), Morgan tional forms of representation to facilitate both
( 1998), and Powell and Lopez (1 989) caution that little their learning of mathematics and their communi-
comparative research verifies the claims of writing to cation with others about mathematical ideas.
learn mathematics. Thus, one must carefully define (NCTM, 2000, p. 67)
learning in this context. Most of the researchers pre- Since writing mathematically necessitates the use of
viously listed who indicate that students learn through verbal expressions, numbers, symbolic expressions,
writing mathematics do not necessarily mean that and graphical representations, mathematical writing
scores on assessments of content knowledge increase can be simultaneously considered a single representa-
for students who are in more writing intensive mathe- tion or the conjoining of all representations. As the lat-
matical experiences. Rather, since the making of con- ter, since conceptual connections are created through
nections among mathematical concepts is inherent reading and writing i n mathematics and simultaneously
within mathematical writing, most researchers equate through the investigation and application of multiple
the creation of, and focus on, these connections as tan- representations (Knuth, 2000a; Romberg, Carpenter, &
tamount to learning. Thus Porter and Masingila (2000) Fennema, 1993), it can be argued, as does Keller and
contend that writing to learn mathematics most benefits Hirsch (1 998), that these connections lead to increase
students by requiring them to investigate and consider in students conceptual understanding.
mathematical concepts and connections and practice The understanding and use of multiple representa-
communicating such to others. tions are innately present in nearly every mathematics
reading and writing task. Intrinsically, all reading and
Reading, Writing, and Multiple Representations writing tasks-arguably the culmination of NCTMs
In the Principles and Standards (NCTM, 2000), communication standard-also necessitate reasoning
mathematical representations are generally recognized skills which interweave mathematical connections
as symbolic (algebraic), verbal, graphical, and tabular among topics and representations. Altogether then, few
(numeric). The term, multiple representations, con- learning experiences more completely encapsulate and
notes using more than one of these representations exemplifj the NCTM process standards and lead to the
within a problem-solving situation. A growing body of potential of learning mathematics.
research advocates the adoption of curricula which uti-
lizes multiple representations. Some researchers em- Reading and Writing about Math versus
phasize the value in multiple representations which Reading and Writing in Math
resides in the connections which are created (Knuth, Although there have been numerous successful edu-
2000a; Romberg, Carpenter, & Fennema, 1993). Each cational reform efforts centered on increasing reading
mathematical representation (verbal, tabular, graphical, and writing across the curriculum, most have insuffi-
or symbolic), carries particular strengths and weak- ciently defined whether the purpose for such in math-
nesses (Dugdale, 1993; Keller & Hirsch, 1998; Knuth, ematics is to increase student literacy or to increase
2000a). Keller and Hirsch state that the connections in- mathematical knowledge. With this ambiguity in place,
herent in multiple representations lead to increases in many have failed to distinguish reading and writing
student conceptual understanding. Dugdale believes about mathematics from reading and writing in math-
that when students are not constrained to one represen- ematics. Therefore, reading and writing biographies of
tation and are allowed to utilize multiple mathematical famous mathematicians has upstaged reading and writ-
representations, problem-solving skills can be strength- ing regarding the nature and uses of the discriminant of
ened. When students lack the mathematical sophistica- a quadratic polynomial. A plethora of entertaining lit-
tion to select among many representations the one erature now purports to develop mathematical interest
which they believe will most likely lead to the solution among elementary, middle grades, and high school stu-
of a problem, some believe that students problem- dents (picture books, comic books, mystery novels).
solving abilities are hindered (Keller & Hirsch, 1998; Unfortunately, most of these again fall into the camp of
Knuth, 2000b; Lloyd & Wilson, 1998). reading about mathematics rather than reading math-
It is important to encourage students to represent ematics itself. Many educators are seduced into using
their ideas in ways that make sense to them, even these attractive materials without truly integrating read-
if their first representations are not conventional ing and writing in the teaching and learning of mathe-
ones. It is also important that they learn conven- matics. This is not to say that these resources should
10 Lblunie 108 ( I )
Reading and Writing I I I .Maarhematics
not be used, rather to suggest that these books be used of Study for English Language Arts (NCDPI, 2004)
as a springboard for initiating deeper conversations demonstrates that reading and writing are constructed
about the underlying principles of mathematics. on the foundation of Purpose, Audience, and Context.
While Borasi et al. (1998) advocate reading in many Barton and Heidema (2002) have created a model
genres of mathematics related literature and more in- which connects reading with mathematics and builds
formal mathematics writing is supported by Borasi and upon the threefold foundation of the Reader, Climate,
Rose ( 1989) and Alvennann and Moore ( 1991 ), herein and Text Features.
we equate these recommendations with reading and Each of these models represents its own respective
writing about mathematics. More consistent with the strengths and weaknesses. The Standards for the Eng-
position taken herein are the types of formal journal lish Language Arts (NCTE/IRA, 1996) appropriately
writing and expository writing investigated by Way- distinguishes context from content, considers the de-
wood (1 992), Clarke et a]. (1 993), and Venne ( 1989). velopment of ideas in the text (reading or writing), and
recognizes the learner as NCELAs audience. Barton
The Goal for Reading and Writing in the and Heidema equate text features with NCTEs dimen-
Mathematics Classroom sion denoted as development. As in other models, al-
Biancarosa and Snow (2006) contend that reading is beit not explicitly stated, Barton and Heidema consider
a central skill associated with life-long learning. NCTE the importance of creating a proper classroom climate
and other professional organizations propound that lit- for supporting and promoting reading in the classroom.
eracy (reading, writi ng. and verbal communication) Unfortunately, their model becomes overly complex
are all necessary skills in the development and contin- for many educators to effectively apply in mathematics
uation of life-long learners. In mathematics, no less so, classes. The initial three dimensions of Reader, Cli-
reading and writing literacy in mathematics are essen- mate, and Text Features become further developed into
tial for the life-long learning of mathematics. There- secondary and tertiary dimensions of Vocabulary, Text
fore, mathematics educators must not falter from Style, Audience Appropriateness, Test Coherence, Text
promoting that the goal for increasing reading and writ- Structure, Text Organization, and Text Presentation.
ing in mathematics classrooms must unequivocally be Thus, altogether, their model becomes convoluted by
increasing mathematical learning. This understanding the introduction of numerous categories.
is instrumental for selecting appropriate classroom This article unites these and a number of additional
tasks and texts. models to create a model for reading and writing which
NCTMs communication standard states that stu- is more useable by mathematics educators (See Figure
dents learn through collaboration, discourse, and read- 1 .). Herein, Purpose (the reason or goal for the reading
ing and writing in mathematics (NCTM, 2000). Since or writing), Context (the situation), Audience (the read-
standardized test questions are increasingly open- ers of the text), and Climate (the classroom Zeitgeist
ended, requiring students to read, understand the ques- encouraging or hindering students willingness and in-
tion, and then compose responses, reading and writing terest in participating in reading and writing in the
are no longer seen as interesting add-ons to mathemat-

-
ics curricula; rather, they are recognized as instrumen-
tal tools to deepen student mathematical understanding.
Unfortunately, all too few resources and techniques Reading & Writing Components

-
have been provided to teachers to employ in their
classes (Marks & Mousley, 1990). Climate j Purpose

A Model for Reading and Writing in Mathematics


A number of models for reading and writing exist for 1I Context Audience
educators to consider. The Standards for the English - - _ y --
Text ,
Language Arts (NCTE/IRA, 1996) describes a model
in which Context leads to define Purpose, Content, and
Development + Content +b ,Features
\

_ . _ _ _ _
Development, and altogether affect the Learner. A sim-
pler model promoted by the North Carolina Depart-
ment of Public Instructions (NCDPI) Standard Course Figure I. Reading and writing components.
School Science and hlarhrmarrcs 11
classroom) all work in tandem. If any component is mathematics teachers the significance of the interplay
missing, students are less apt to willingly participate i n among purpose, audience, context, and climate in the
reading and writing assignments. For instance, if stu- model.
dents are unclear regarding the purpose of a text, mo-
tivating them to read the text is difficult. If the audience Improving the Classroom Climate for Reading
for which a text is to be written is ambiguous, it is dif- and Writing in Mathematics
ficult for students to appropriately write about issues. As denoted in the model, addressing purpose, audi-
In respect to writing (Burton & Morgan, 2000) and ence, and climate are necessary for effective learning
reading (Borasi et al. 1998), students gaining of math- of mathematics through reading and writing. Often, the
ematical understanding from these experiences is cor- climate for learning through these modalities is imme-
related with their understanding of the purpose of the diately enhanced or sullied by the level to which stu-
writing assignment or the authors purpose for the text dents understand the purpose of the experience and the
being read. degree to which the experience was appropriately
In this model, the selection of mathematical content geared to the student audience. Numerous teachers
for any reading or writing assignment is most directly share that increasing reading and writing in the math-
a function of the audience and the context for the as- ematics classroom is virtually impossible unless the
signment. For any audience, context, and content, the groundwork for a positive classroom climate has been
development (organization, sequence, and flow) of established (WP-T, 2006). Among those teachers who
ideas within the content and the text features (vocabu- have been most successful in increasing reading and
lary, sentence structure, paragraph and section length, writing in the learning of mathematics, two recommen-
accompanying diagrams and examples, and number dations have been provided most often.
and type of practice exercises) must be commensurate Expectations
with the readers understanding and ability to learn. Reading the textbook and other textual materials
Denionstruting the model must become a recognized and regular expectation in
In workshops for mathematics teachers, the authors the class (WP-T. 2007). Both in classroom activities
use an activity to further elucidate the model. Teachers and homework assignments, the necessity of reading
are asked to work in pairs and write a definition for mathematical texts must be emphasized. Writing math-
the mathematical term factor. When workshop partic- ematics must also be correlated with clearly defined
ipants complete the task, they are asked leading ques- expectations. Reading and writing must be recognized
tions such as: What did you write for a definition?; Was by teachers and students as a natural and expected
factor a noun or an adjective?; Did you take into ac- means through which mathematics is learned.
count the audience for whom the definition was in- Modeling
tended?; and wouId/should the definition be different Teachers who have found success in integrating lit-
for middle grades students, secondary students, stu- eracy in mathematics teaching and learning predomi-
dents in number theory, or students in algebra?. nantly indicate that student success is born initially
Through this activity, teachers are made aware of the from teachers modeling the importance of reading and
importance of considering the purpose, audience, and writing in the mathematics classroom (Aiken, 1977;
context for a simple example. The activity also high- Blanton, 1991) and that these are desirable skills and
lights the need for a common understanding of terms. techniques through which to learn. Teachers reported
Though factor is a word with which all participants that students were more ready to consider, adopt, and
are familiar, the context (the situation) dictates the def- utilize reading and writing strategies in mathematics
inition and use. after they witnessed teachers utiiizing reading and writ-
Workshop participants are then asked to discuss ing techniques in their lessons and observed teachers
whether a more favorable climate supporting such a discussing mathematical materials that they had read
task could have been created prior to spontaneously or written in order to themselves learn mathematics
asking them to extemporaneously develop a definition. (WP-T, 2007). Student interest in reading and writing
They immediately come to realize that as proper moti- mathematics was further promoted through assign-
vation affect them, their students are also indisputably ments that develop mathematics content (Thompson,
affected by the climate teachers create in their own Austin, & Beckmann, 1999). It is, therefore, imperative
classrooms. The workshop sessions demonstrate to that mathematics teachers assume the responsibility for
I2 I ollilile I08 ( I )
Reading and Writing in Zlurhemalrcs
teaching the necessary reading skills in mathematics questions; and mathematical teaching methodologies.
(Reehm & Long, 1996). The latter is reserved for its own section.
Avoiding Negative Consequences in the Clussroorn While a number of the recommendations in the fol-
Since students experience and witness little focus on lowing discussions are directly generated by a natural
reading and writing in traditional mathematics instruc- application of the newly configured model provided
tion, they often perceive such tasks as laborious and previously, some of the earlier and more generalizable
dislocated from mathematical studies. Acknowledging recommendations evolve from the application of the
that students typically balk against any changes in their models which were employed in the development of
routines, it is important that mathematics teachers in- the new model. Therefore, whether employing the
troduce these novel reading and writing assignments model presented herein or other models, it is important
in ways which will not automatically engender even for teachers and curriculum developers to continually
more antipathy (WP-T, 2006). The following recom- use an effective, workable model as they plan instruc-
mendations are intended to ensure that the inclusion of tion.
reading and writing in the mathematics classroom is General Recornniendutions
accepted positively. Print rich environment. All classrooms should be
Set the purpose for reading and writing print rich environments, balancing textual quality with
When students are directed to read a passage or write quantity (Robb, 2003). In mathematics classes, these
a response and are not provided adequate motivation texts should include textbooks, dictionaries, encyclope-
for such, frustration may arise. It is incumbent for dias, educational journals, maps, science texts, biogra-
mathematics teachers to prepare students for these phies of mathematicians, mathematical posters, and
tasks by clearly delineating their respective purposes various books. Since students are more interested in
(WP-T, 2006). Students must come to value these as- learning when they clearly recognize applicability to
signments and their inherent roles in the learning of their own lives, teachers can maintain an area of mnth-
mathematics. The purpose for the assignment must be ematical connections i n the classroom, containing
clearly understood (Burton & Morgan, 2000; Borasi et mathematical publications connected to students in-
al., 1998). Although this may take some time commit- terests and current events. The internet can also provide
ment on the part of the teacher, the results will be an endless source of reading materials for mathematics
worthwhile. students in nearly all grades. Print materials should also
Appropriate assignments include samples of student and teacher writings on
Since literacy is gained incrementally and mathemat- mathematical topics. Teachers can work with their
ical reading and writing assignments are novel experi- schools media specialists and librarians to create a
ences to most students, it is important for teachers to monthly focus on a particular topic.
carefully plan initial assignments and not make them Highlighting text strzrctures und vocubulary. Re-
overly complex or difficult to successfully complete search supports a strong correlation between students
(WP-T, 2007). Assignments must be grade and age ap- comprehension and their knowledge of text structures
propriate (Armbruster, 1996; Readence, Bean, & Bald- (Robb, 2003, Fielding & Pearson, 1994) and between
win, 2001), be selected in respect to deliberately students mathematical comprehension and their
accomplishing specified mathematical learning goals, knowledge and use of multiple representations (Piez &
and be commensurate with students prior knowledge Voxman, 1907; Romberg et al., 1993). Since narrative
(relevant vocabulary, concepts and connecting ideas) text differs from expository text, knowledge of narra-
(WP-T, 2006). tive text structure is helpful when completing exposi-
tory tasks like reading or writing mathematics.
Techniques for Increasing Reading and Writing in Teachers should offer instruction in understanding the
Mathematics text structures and vocabulary associated with respec-
The recommendations for increasing reading and tive course material (Robb, 2003). For example, math-
writing in mathematics provided herein are separated ematics teachers should demonstrate how the use of
into different types: recommendations which are gen- vocabulary, text structure, ideational sequencing, and
eral to increasing reading and writing in any educa- etc., all work in tandem to create a text appropriate for
tional setting or subject; examples for mathematical the understanding of mathematics.
studies which are generalizable to other topics and Nore iuking. Requiring students to practice clear,
School Science und ,tlutheniutics 13
Reading and Mriring in .Ila/hematics
precise, and organized note taking during instruction Initially, students will find this methodology quite
and reading and jot down questions that may arise may challenging, until they realize that a thorough reading
be the most natural application of reading and writing of the information often leads to an understanding
i n the mathematics classroom and should be encour- which can be applied to various scenarios. Misunder-
aged. standing the reading occasionally leads to students cre-
ating examples which either do not work correctly or
Mathematical Recommendations are overly complex to be solvable. In each case, these
Many successful teachers provide specific tech- misunderstandings lead directly to teachable moments
niques to increase reading comprehension in mathe- and rich classroom discussions. Experiencing this
matics classrooms (Barton & Heidema, 2002; Blanton learning technique, students report gaining far deeper
1991). Most of these techniques can be modified to be understanding of the mathematics than they had previ-
grade appropriate by teachers. Some of these recom- ously experienced under traditional instructional tech-
mendations are directed at ameliorating some of the niques.
negative reading and writing habits more frequently Changing DeJinitions and Theorems. Some mathe-
observed in mathematics classes. matics educators have suggested as classroom experi-
Reorganizing the Text and Exercises ences that teachers purposefully and carefully alter
The natural layout of mathematics textbooks - nu- words in definitions and theorems (WP-T,2006). After
merous pages of discussion, examples, more discus- the teacher has changed a number of words in the text,
sion, and more examples all followed by a few pages students openly discuss the validity of the modified
of compacted homework exercises - may be an inher- statement. Discussions lead to both more careful read-
ent inhibitor to students reading the text. Students typ- ing and an appreciation for the precision by which
ically skip all the explanatory text and focus attention mathematics is written. Numerous mathematics educa-
directly on exercises, only returning to the text when tors and researchers advocate that students understand-
sufficiently stymied by a problem (WP-T, 2006,2007; ing of mathematical vocabulary is significantly
WP-S, 2006,2007). Teachers can have students read a connected to their understanding of mathematics (Earp
textbook selection and immediately attempt the respec- & Tanner, 1980; Helwig, Rozek-Tedesco, Tindal,
tive exercises. This reordering of text and exercises Heath, & Almond, 1999; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986).
helps acculturate students to the notion that the text is This experience of teachers altering definitions/theo-
valuably instructive and not simply meant to be a rems and students being assigned to debate or correct
backup when stumped during homework (Pinne, erroneous statements leads students toward the mastery
1983). This technique for secondary and college stu- of the vocabulary and concepts.
dents is analogous to the techniques discussed by Bo- Comparing Texts. Today, numerous mathematical
rasi et al. ( 1998) in respect to Cloning an Author and discussions on any particular topic are readily accessi-
Using Cards. ble through textbooks and the internet. Students can
Blue Box Techniques. Mathematics textbooks typi- compare and contrast these various texts and discuss
cally share common publishing traits. Important infor- the techniques which authors use to communicate ideas
mation, such as definitions and theorems, are placed in (flow of concepts, use of diagrams and graphics, use
colored text boxes (all too often blue). An effective of vocabulary, and etc.). This develops both their abil-
technique to ensure that students read and digest the ity to read mathematics and helps them begin to under-
information in the blue boxes is, after they have stand how to effectively write mathematically.
claimed to have read and understood the encapsulated Moreover, when students compare different texts on
information, to have them close the book and create a the same concept, they become more familiar with the
problem scenario or example which would necessitate authors conceptualizations of purpose, audience, and
or demonstrate the use of the information in the text context as proposed in the previous model.
box. This technique melds the recommendations and Unpacking mathematical texts. Mathematics texts
findings of in respect to formal mathematical writing are significantly different from texts in other fields. The
(Clarke et al., 1993; Waywood, 1992) and expository terse nature of the language of mathematics, together
writing (Venne, 1989) with more creative writing styles with the need for extensive verbal explanation of com-
(Alvermann & Moore, 1991; Borasi & Rose, 1989; pressed symbolization and numerous diagrams, tables
Sipka, 1990). and graphs, creates a dichotomy which student readers
14 1dume I08 ( I )
Reading and H'ritrng i n Ilurlietnuircs
often feel difficult to navigate. Reading mathematics when students connect verbal concepts with pictures
challenges students to acquire mathematical compre- and diagrams.
hension through reading simultaneously numerals, Altogether, therefore, it is valuable for students to be
symbols, and words (Adams, 2003). Unpacking these able to translate concepts between representations in
texts is necessary for students to gain understanding in their learning of mathematics (Dugdale, 1993; Keller
the mathematics (Armbruster, 1996). & Hirsch, 1998; Knuth, 2000b; Lloyd & Wilson,
1998). The examples in this section exemplify con-
Applying Findings to the Classroom Instruction nections between reading, writing and multiple repre-
The following examples are provided to demonstrate sentations.
some of the many techniques which may be used i n Example 1. Write the theorem depicted by this dia-

-x11
mathematics classroom to increase mathematical leam-
ing through reading and writing. These more specific
techniques are intended to be interwoven with the more gram. -
general examples provided above.
In many of the techniques presented below, students Example 2. Draw a pictorial representation of the
gain understanding and experience in working with the theorem: Given a line and a plane containing it, the
model above. For a given mathematical topic, students points of the plane that do not lie on the line form two
must determine the purpose, audience, and context for sets such that (1 ) Each of the sets is convex and (2) If
their responses and decide which manner of develop- P is in one set and Q is in the other, then segment PQ
ment and what text feutures are most appropriate for intersects the line.
the audience, meet the purpose of the response, and de- Example 3. Explain one of the following theorems
velop the climate which they may wish to generate. using both text and diagrams. "If tangent and secant
Integrating Multiple Representations lines are drawn to a circle from the same point in the
Borasi et al. (1998) have promoted some effective exterior of the circle, the length of the tangent segment
reading strategies to be used in the learning of mathe- is the mean proportional between the length of the ex-
matics. Among these is the Sketch-to-Stretch activity ternal secant segment and the length of the secant."
wherein students are to draw nonlinguistic representa- Example 4. Use text and pictures to explain the con-
tions of what they understand from the text and engage cept, "If (x - t;rk is a factor of a polynomialf(x), but (x
in elaborating on their own thoughts. "When students '
- c ) ~ is not a factor, then c is a zero of multiplicity
elaborate on knowledge, they not only understand it in k."
greater depth, but they recall it much more easily" Example 5. Using both text and diagrams, tell all you
(Maranzo, Pickering, & Pollock, 200 1, p. 74). Through can about the function:
this experience and the subsequent communication of P(x) U(X - @'(x + c)j(x - d)"'(x + ej"(X -Bii(x +
their learning to other students, students reported that @'(x - hj', where a, b, c, d E R, e,f;g,hE C,
they better understood the mathematics being investi- and s, t, u, v, u: y, z E N.
gated. Creating Your Own
Many types of charts and diagrams fall under the Using recommendations from researchers and cur-
mathematical representation commonly denoted as riculum developers (e.g., Alvermann & Moore, I99 l :
graphs. Thus, research in graphical organizers can shed Rothstein, Rothstein, & Lauber, 2007; Barton & Hei-
more light on techniques appropriate for the applica- dema, 2002) the following examples allows a student
tion of reading and writing in the classroom. Numer- to both investigate a mathematical concept and express
ous scholars have noted that students' use of graphic it creatively, thereby deepening hidher understanding
organizers (both reading and creating) have signifi- of the concept.
cantly improved student understanding of concepts Example 1. Create a real world problem/scenario for
(Jones, Palincsar, Ogle, & Carr, 1987; Monroe, 1997; which the use of the following theorem would be part
Monroe & Pendergrass, 1997) and contend that of the solution. "A point is on the perpendicular bisec-
through these representations students are often able to tor of a line segment if and only if it is equidistant from
discover and restructure misconceptions (Fuentes. the endpoints of the segment."
1998). Readence et al. (200 1 ) provide another version VicubuluryBuilding
of this technique, stating that greater learning results Since the language of mathematics is simultaneously
School Science and Muihenlaiics 15
verbal and symbolic, it is important to build mathemat-
ical vocabulary in both representations. Some have \/ \ J
found strong correction between student knowledge of a B
mathematical vocabulary and ability to solve problems
(Earp & Tanner, 1980; Helwig et al., 1999; Stahl & Example 3. For each of the following rules for real
Fairbanks, 1986). The following simple examples numbers, state the conditions which would be required
demonstrate the necessity of being fluent in both math- to ensure the statement is always true.
ematical words and symbols.
Example 1. Fill in the blanks.
When P(x)-+(.x-c)= Q(x)+(W(x-.)) and R = 0,
(x - c ) W); Example 4. The following mathematical argument
C P(x); and possibly requires the insertion o f a number of interme-
x=c P(x) = 0. diate steps i n order for most students to fully under-
Example 2. Fill in each blank with a symbol which stand the logic. Determine what those missing steps
would make the property.of the real numbers true. may be and where they should be inserted.
.. a R, a 0, (a -1)-R, such that *'Let a = cr and h = cs. Then.
ax(a - 1 ) = 1"
Analyze and Explain
The non-linear processes of reading and writing
mathematics require reading text. inspecting associated
diagrams (graphs, tables, charts). considering symbolic
expressions, and fluidly moving in and between each
of these representations (Adams. 2003; Freitag, 1997;
Noonan. 1990). Therefore. learning activities should
begin at different representations and move toward oth-
ers. To always begin at one representation and lead to
others diminishes the students' understanding of the in-
herent strengths and weaknesses of each representation
(Dugdale, 1993; Keller & Hirsch, 1998; Knuth. 2000b;
Lloyd & Wilson, 1998).
Formal writing of mathematics, in addition to neces- Conclusion
sitating some level of command of multiple represen- Reading and writing about math is not the same as
tations, also requires the understanding and skill of a reading and writing in math. Through introducing read-
highly refined and terse grammatical syntax. Thus, for- ing and writing mathematics as learning assignments,
mal writing is only mastered through many experi- students have much to gain. Students who have oppor-
ences. The following examples both interconnect many tunities, encouragement, and support for purposeful
of the previously stated findings among reading. writ- writing and reading in mathematics classes will have a
ing, and mathematics and begin the assignments by fo- more concrete grasp of concepts and be able to apply
cusing on different representations and leading to learning to alternate situations. There are multiple tech-
others. niques to promote successful integration of reading and
Example 1. Explain what this diagram demonstrates. writing i n mathematics and as mathematics teachers,
we should explore these and share our successes. It is
hoped that the discussions and examples provided here
1 will be the springboard for continued exploration
of more techniques through which to instruct mathe-
in at ics.
1

Example 2. Tell all you can about the function which


would produce the accompanying truncated graph of
.fh).
16
Reading and Whfing i n .Iluiheniufics
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