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One Hundred Years of Solitude

The village of Macondo is clearly modeled on the cussion of the novel: magic (or magical) realism;
village of his childhood, Aracataca. Indeed, the intertextuality; and metaflction. Knowing some-
name of the banana plantation just outside of Ara- thing about each of these devices is important for
cataca was Macondo. In addition, many of the an understanding of the literary task Garcfa
episodes of the novel are based on events from Gar- Marquez set for himself in One Hundred Years of
cfa Marquez's life with his grandparents. For ex- Solitude.
ample, the opening episode of Jose Arcadio taking
Magic realism is a term first used to describe
his sons to see ice is certainly modeled on a simi-
the surreal images of painters in the 1920s and
lar incident in young Garcfa Marquez's life, when
1930s. Defining the term in literature has caused
his grandfather took him to see ice for the first time.
some controversy among literary scholars. How-
Other critics have noted the ways in which the ever, according to Regina James in her One Hun-
founding of Macondo mirrors Colombian settle- dred Years ofSolitude: Modes ofReading, "In cur-
ment by Europeans. Just as the early residents of rent Anglo-American usage, magic realism is a
Macondo are cut off from the rest of the world, the narrative technique that blurs the distinction be-
early colonists were also extremely isolated. In ad- tween fantasy and reality." Certainly, One Hundred
dition, the institutions of civilization, such as the Years of Solitude offers many examples of magic
government and the church, moved slowly, but in- realism according to this definition, although not
exorably, into Colombia, just as they do into Ma- all critics would agree with the definition. Part of
condo. Apolinar Moscote and Father Nicanor the effect of magic realism is created by the com-
Reyna are recognizable representatives of these pletely neutral tone of the narrator. He reports such
institutions; their appearance in Macondo signals things as gypsies on flying carpets, the insomnia
a shift from the Edenic, Arcadian days of the plague, the ascension of Remedios the Beauty, and
founding. the levitation of Father Nicanor with no indication
The middle part of the novel traces the course that these occurrences are the least bit out of the
of a long civil war, fought between the Liberals and ordinary, just as the inhabitants of Macondo re-
Conservatives. Colonel Aureliano Buendfa is one spond to the events. On the other hand, the resi-
of the leaders of the Liberal cause. The civil war dents of Macondo respond to items such as mag-
in the novel follows closely the long years of civil nets and ice with great wonder, as if these were the
war in Colombia when the Liberals and Conserv- stuff of fantasy. Garcfa Marquez himself argues
atives battled for control of the country. Many crit- that the reality of South America is more fantastic
ics have pointed out the parallels between the fic- than anything "magical" in his writing. Further, as
tional Aureliano Buendfa and the historical General he writes in his Nobel acceptance speech, "The
Rafael Uribe Uribe, the military leader of the Solitude of Latin America,"
Colombian Liberals. Poets and beggars, musicians and prophets, warriors
and scoundrels, all creatures of that unbridled real-
Finally, Garcfa Marquez incorporates into his
ity, we have had to ask but little of imaginations, for
novel the American intervention into Latin Amer- our crucial problem has been a lack of conventional
ica. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth means to render our lives believable. That is the crux
centuries, the United Fruit Company, an American of our solitude.
concern, began operating large scale banana plan- Another important term for the study of One
tations throughout Latin America. In 1928, a strike Hundred Years of Solitude is intertextuality. Julia
by workers over living conditions and contract vi- Kristeva, the French philosopher, created this term
olations led to a massive massacre. Newspapers dif- to describe the way that every text refers to and
fer in their accounts and it is difficult to arrive at changes previous texts. Most obviously, a text can
a final figure for the number killed. Further, the do this through allusion, by directly referring to a
governmental bureaucracy, intent on maintaining previous text through names of characters, inci-
the flow of American dollars into Colombia, cov- dents in the plot, or language, for example. As
ered up the massacre. The fictional account of the Regina Janes points out in her book, One Hundred
slaying of the strikers in One Hundred Years of Years of Solitude: Modes of Reading, the novel
Solitude reads remarkably like the accounts of the "adopts the narrative frame of the Bible and the
historical 1928 Cienaga strike. plot devices of Oedipus Tyrannos and parodies
Finally, One Hundred Years of Solitude is a both." That is, One Hundred Years of Solitude fol-
novel written within a particular literary context. lows the structure of the Bible: it begins with an
Three important literary terms are often used in dis- idyllic creation in a garden-like setting, where all

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One Hundred Years of Solitude

the people are innocent. The movement of the plot novel, reading it as myth, as history, as metafic-
is away from the moment of creation and toward tion, provide a rich and complicated stew, one that
the moment of Apocalypse, when all of Macondo can be savored again and again.
is swept away. Second, in Oedipus the King, the Source: Diane Andrews Henningfeld, in an essay for Nov-
entire tragedy is foretold by the oracle at Delphi, els for Students, Gale, 1999.
which tells Oedipus's parents that their son will
murder his father and marry his mother. While the 1.. Robert Stevens and G. Roland Vela
characters in the play take actions to prevent this, In the following excerpt, Stevens and Vela dis-
each action they take merely ensures that it will cuss how Marque; deals with the problem of "dis-
happen. Likewise, the fate of the Buendia family tinguishing between illusion and reality" by fusing
is sealed with the incestuous marriage between Jose the two instead of treating them as separate enti-
Arcadio and Ursula. What Ursula fears most oc- ties.
curs in the closing pages of the book: the last
Buendfa child is born with the tail of a pig, the re- The technical difficulty of distinguishing be-
sult of the marriage of Aureliano Babilonia (who tween illusion and reality is one of the oldest and
does not know his parentage) to his aunt, Amaranta most important problems faced by the novelist in
Ursula. particular and by mankind in general. In art, phi-
losophy, or politics, western man has traditionally
Finally, One Hundred Years of Solitude is an
made great conscious efforts to keep illusion sep-
excellent example of metafiction, a work of fiction
arated from fact while admiring and longing (at
that takes as its subject the creation and reading of
least superficially) for a transcendental way of life.
texts. From the moment that Melquiades presents
The irony of this longing resides in the fact that
Jose Arcadio with the manuscript, members of the
western man's scientific and technological achieve-
Buendia family attempt to decipher it. These at-
ments are in great part due to his ability to sepa-
tempts parallel the attempts of the reader to deci-
rate fact from fiction, myth from science, and illu-
pher the text of One Hundred Years of Solitude.
sion from reality. It is a paradox of western culture
Further, during the insomnia epidemic, Jose Area-
that it draws its psychological strength from a spir-
dio's labels illustrate the metafictional quality of
itual-mythical well while its muscle is drawn
the novel: "Thus they went on living in a reality
largely from science and technology.
that was slipping away, momentarily captured by
words, but which would escape irremediably when In One Hundred Years of Solitude, Gabriel
they forgot the values of the written letters." As Garcfa Marquez deals with the paradox very suc-
readers, we participate in the creation of a fictional cessfully by not trying to solve it at all. That is to
reality; in this sentence, Garcfa Marquez reminds say, the perceptions of reality which appear in the
us that the "reality" of the Buendias is no more than novel are all prima facie perceptions and, as a con-
"momentarily captured" words. The "reality" of the sequence, become indistinguishable from reality.
Buendfas ends when the reader closes the book. For example, when Meme falls in love with Mauri-
cio Babilonia she finds herself attended ever after
Even more explicitly metafictional is the con- by a swarm of yellow butterflies. The question
clusion. In the last three pages, Aureliano finally whether they are real or imaginary butterflies is the
deciphers the manuscript left by Melqufades, and wrong question. Marquez makes it evident that he
suddenly understands that he is reading the history places little value on such questions and that there
of his family. As he reads, he catches up to the pre- is, in a way, no inherent value in real butterflies as
sent and then reads himself into the future at the opposed to imaginary butterflies in the world which
moment Macondo is destroyed. At the same instant, he describes and, by extension, perhaps in our
readers of One Hundred Years of Solitude realize world as well.
that Melquiades' manuscript is the novel they are
The butterflies are there, prima facie, and the
reading themselves. The wind that wipes out the
distinction between symbol and actuality is broken
"city of mirrors (or mirages)" is the turning of the
down and declared void by the lyrical fiat of his
fmal page. At that moment, the reader participates
style. The technical result of this method and the
in the destruction of Macondo.
value of this view is that the conventional distinc-
As should be obvious, One Hundred Years of tion between figurative and literal language is im-
Solitude is a book that changes with reading; a sec- possible to make and pointless beside. Conven-
ond or third reading will be very different from the tionalliterary terms are inadequate to describe this
first. The multiple paths a reader takes through the fusion of both literal and metaphorical language.

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One Hundred Years of Solitude

We who are trained to compartmentalize our minds love, death, and beatitude were all enacted with the
into fact and fancy, business and God, myth and luxuriant and unending variety that suggests the in-
science, are prone to wonder over the nature of exhaustibility of the individual experience of hu-
these butterflies, their origin, and their significance. man events. Marquez's myth has its own cosmol-
In reality, however, the question is presumptuous ogy, "going back to before original sin." The world
and has validity only in our narrow-minded world began the "day that Sir Francis Drake attacked Ri-
with its forty-hour work week and our constant, en- ohacha," and it is of no consequence that Drake set
ergy-consuming, watchful stand to keep fancy and sail and lived a lifetime prior to this day. In the
reality separated in our minds. golden age of Macondo nobody died, and all men
lived in a sacred and eternal present tense. As time
When we are told that it rained for four years,
passed knowledge accumulated, but wisdom was
eleven months, and two days, we need not ask our-
still the property of the few, and political power be-
selves whether this could be so; rather we soon
longed, even as in our world, to the cheat and the
come to accept it as a given quantity and eventu-
liar. As the world aged, it was overtaken by a great
ally, through the art of Garcia Marquez, we come
insomniac sickness which resulted in a loss of
to accept all things in the novel as they are. This,
memory. In fear that their loss would bring chaos,
we are soon convinced, is also a workable view of
the people of Macondo put up signs to remind
reality. Multiplying such details with profound in-
themselves of the identity of things; "table, chair,
genuity, Marquez gradually brings the reader's
clock, door ...," and on main street they placed the
skeptical biases into harmony with the spiritual and
largest of all the signs against their forgetfulness,
intellectual life of his townsfolk. When Jose Area-
DIOS EXISTE. In giving things names, they also
dio is shot,
gave them reality; in having Jose Arcadio Buendia
A trickle of blood came out under the door, crossed to give things their names, Garcia Marquez gives
the living room, went out into the street, continued him the function of Adam, the first man, and he si-
on in a straight line across the uneven terraces, went multaneously seems to tell us that anything which
down steps and climbed over curbs, passed along the
may be forgotten by man may lose its existence
Street of the Turks, turned a corner to the right and
another to the left, made a right angle at the Buendia and, perhaps, its reality.
house, went in under the closed door, crossed through Marquez gives a sort of sacredness to all ex-
the parlor hugging the walls so as not to stain the perience by breaking down the wall between the
rugs ... and came out in the kitchen, where Ursula
sacred and the profane, as he has broken down the
was getting ready to crack thirty-six eggs to make
bread. wall between fact and fiction, and by refusing to
intellectualize his characters. Remedios the Beauty,
There is no question as to how this episode is for instance, remains utterly chaste-not because
to be taken, only the simple declaration that it hap- she is pious, but because she is simple and does not
pened. This blood which defies the laws of physics know the thoughts of men. But what does it mat-
is neither symbolical, miraculous, nor scientifically ter whether her innocence came by piety or igno-
credible. It is simply a fiat of reality in Macondo. rance? In either case, she ascends into heaven while
Are such events also possible in our own world? hanging sheets in the backyard, and who is to gain-
Perhaps they are more real in the Colombian say her ascension? Marquez, whose point of view
cienega grande, yet, on the other hand, people who in the novel is somewhat like God's, has declared
believe in the day of judgment and the resurrection it so. In short, the writer has created in Remedios
of the dead, except for a certain narrowness of a natural piety which may be thought of as pure
mind, should have little trouble with a stream of without puritanism-simultaneously sacred and
blood that does not coagulate in one minute and profane.
that travels uphill.
Time also has mythopoeic significance in the
One of the elements constituting this poetic vi- novel. Everything ages and moves toward its own
sion of things is the mythopoeic. The village of Ma- end. Life, regardless of its particular reality, is a
condo is a microcosm and the one hundred years transient condition, at best. Marques's point of
recounted in the novel is a compression of the view in the novel is the point of view of God: all
whole history of man. The village begins ex nihilo, time is simultaneous. The story of Macondo is at
rises to a golden age, and falls away into oblivion. once complete from beginning to end, and, at the
Everything that can happen in our world happened same time, it is the story of only one out of an in-
there. A village was founded, children begotten, finite number of worlds each with its own story.
revolutions spawned, technology developed, lust, More than that, it is the story of Jose Arcadio

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Buendfa, one out of an infinite number of men but hearsay, legend, superstition, and religion-all in-
one who is more the father of man than Adam him- discriminately mixed. And yet Marquez builds into
self, for if Adam's sin was to eat the fruit of the the novel a clear sympathy for a certain quality of
tree of knowledge, Jose Arcadio's was to live too knowledge. We might think of this sympathy as an
much and too long. He lived from the beginning of instinct for science. Jose Arcadio Buendfa has it,
time until the world became old. One has the feel- as do each of his descendants who, in successive
ing that if the world had not become old, Jose Ar- generations, lock themselves away in Me1quiades' s
cadio would not have died-but he and his de- room to search for knowledge and truth. This sci-
scendants would never have deciphered the ence itself is a mixture of alchemy and occultism,
parchments of the ancients, never have acquired but in it there is a feature which separates it from
knowledge. "What's happening," Ursula notes, "is the popular wisdom of the town: its profound be-
that the world is slowly coming to an end...." When lief that reality is infinitely more wondrous than the
the great apocalypse does befall Macondo however, most inventive of illusions. It is true that in Jose
it falls not in fire or flood, but rather it creeps in as Arcadio the love of science exists in undisciplined
the rot and decay of antiquity. When Aureliano Ba- comradeship with the folk wisdom....
bilonia deciphers the parchments of Melquiades Jose Arcadio was crude and ignorant in his
which contain all the knowledge and all the secrets methodology, but a true scientist in his heart. His
of the ancients, he finds that "Melquiades had not fascination with magnets, ice, the sextant, and the
put events in the order of man's conventional time, geography of the world make it clear that in spite
but had concentrated a century of daily episodes in of his own inability always to separate superstition
such a way that they co-existed in one instant." The from science, the great yearning of his heart was
simultaneity of all time cannot be achieved liter- to know things. In many ways Garcia Marquez sees
ally by the novelist, and therefore he must create him as the archetype of all scientists, for do they
the illusion of it. This Marquez does by creating a not all share his dilemma? Which scientist could
microcosm of Macondo and giving it a microhis- ever truly separate his own illusions from his em-
tory while the individuals involved are as real as pirical knowledge? Which scientist could ever
we. know that his methodology is pure and perfected?
In the last analysis, "time" is one of the major How much of modern science is old illusion given
themes of the novel, as its title suggests. By setting a new name? The common characteristic shared by
all things in the context of their mortality, by dra- true scientists, however, is their great wonder at the
matizing the apocalyptic nature of antiquity and de- profound mystery of reality. And if this be so, then
cay (some say the world will end in flood, some to the brotherhood of Copernicus, Galileo, and
say in fire, Marquez says it will die of old age), Newton, old Jose-i-with his poor sextant and his
Marquez induces in us a rich reverence for all of undeterred will to find a system for identifying the
his characters and events. There are great depths of exact stroke of noon---eternally belongs.
bitterness in this novel-bitterness for the death of It is this instinctive awe of reality that sepa-
the old woman clubbed to death by the soldiers' ri- rates the first from the second generation of gyp-
fle butts, for the treachery of the government and sies. Melquiades-a combination of Wandering
the North American fruit company, for the train- Jew, picaro, Mephistopheles, and God-is a huck-
load of massacred townsfolk whose corpses ''would ster, true enough, but beyond his slight-of-hand and
be thrown into the sea like rejected bananas." Yet his alchemy he is a man of great wisdom. It is easy
time and decay spread over these bitter incidents from the vantage point of a highly developed tech-
in such a way as to mellow and sanctify them. All nological culture, to think of Melquiades and Jose
of history occurred in Macondo, and it became holy Arcadio as being naive, having too many gaps in
through Melquiades' s recitation of it in the sacred their learning to be true scientists. There are loose
parchments; in like manner Marquez transforms the ends in their knowledge which make them seem
common experience of our world into something provincial. Should we judge them thus, however,
magical by his telling of it in the novel. Time be- we would betray only our own provinciality, for all
stows its blessing; all things are made holy because science has loose ends. There must have been
they have existed. something of the gypsy too in Albert Einstein, for
A second element of Marquez's view of life, his paradox of the clock is really not different from
beyond the mythopoeic, is the concept that man is Buendfa's visualizing the air and hearing the
naturally a scientist. The wisdom of the people who buzzing of sunlight. Garcia Marquez perceives it
live in Macondo is a composite of folk wisdom, all as a vital and organic whole, as though the jun-

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One Hundred Years 0/ Solitude

gle itself [were] a Gothic artifact, creating, nour- and making even spatial relations uncertain. [Mario
ishing, destroying, and regenerating in great, broad Vargas Llosa in Historia de un deicidio, 1971.] The
brush strokes and in infinitely delicate detail. constant intertwining of the real and material with
Marquez's way of seeing things is compatible with the fantastic and spiritual fosters ambiguity and
both myth and science, but it is neither thing in it- permits a myth to be born. (According to Garcfa
self. It has the analytical curiosity of science cou- Marquez, [in "Garcfa Marquez de Aracataca a
pled with the synthetic method of myth. The result Macando," M. Vargas Llosa, 1969] a similar blend
is a technique which puts him in the tradition of was present in the atmosphere in which he grew
Unamuno, Gallego, and Lorca, and it may reveal up: "For lack of something better, Aracataca lived
him as one of the most inventive novelists of our on myths, ghosts, solitude and nostalgia.") Techni-
day-not because others have failed to explore this cally, the use of ellipsis together with chronologi-
artistic fusion of myth and science, symbol and sur- cal leap, both forward and backward, produces a
face, but because of Marques's ingenuity and the seldom-experienced density of statement which in-
profusion of his imaginative details. vites both literal and symbolical readings. [R.
The view of Gabriel Garcfa Marquez is a view Barthes in "Introduction a l'analyse structurale des
of life as it is---complex, changing, indefinite, and recits," Communications, 1966.] (Garcia Marquez
difficult to understand. It is a view of reality richer said once he would have liked to be the author of
and more exciting than any cross-section of any of La peste whose economy of devices he admired. If
its parts could ever reveal. one considers that the density achieved by Camus
represents a chronicle of the human destiny of a
Source: L. Robert Stevens and G. Roland Vela, "Jungle
city during a period of nine months, one may be
Gothic: Science, Myth, and Reality in One Hundred Years
ofSolitude," in Modem Fiction Studies. No. 2, Vol. 26, Sum- even more surprised to find that Garcfa Marquez
mer, 1980, pp. 262-66. compresses into a similar number of pages the hun-
dred-year history of a whole tribe and, figuratively,
Birute Ciplijauskaite a whole continent. The absurd arrived at has the
Ciplijauskaite describes the ways in which same poignancy in both authors; the difference in
Garcta Marquez uses foreshadowing throughout the presentation derives from the rational and civ-
One Hundred Years of Solitude to tie different as- ilized character of the French and the overflowing
pects of the novel together. vitality of the Latin Americans.) Repetitions with
variations are extremely effective in producing this
The constant use of foreshadowing and pre- density: the variants convey essential developments
monition stands out as one of the basic structural and at the same time establish paradigmatic rela-
elements of One Hundred Years of Solitude. All tions within and between the symbolic patterns of
such elements, including cyclical reiteration, para- the text.. ..
dox and parallelism, are tightly interwoven with the Ambiguity in the novel is further intensified
main themes of the book; as a consequence, they by the transposition and confusion of senses and
can be studied as integral parts of the "story" as sensations (Melquiades speaks "lighting up with his
well as of the "discourse," where syntactic and se- deep organ voice the darkest reaches of the imag-
mantic aspects are interrelated. A major portion of ination"; Rebeca "spits hieroglyphics"; Jose Area-
the book obeys the rule of ambiguity ... more gen- dio sees a "route that ... could only lead to the past"
erally referred to as "magic realism" when applied and then perceives the sea colored with disillu-
to the Latin American novel and short story. sionment). Such devices as synesthesia, oxymoron
The realm of the fantastic ... lies between the and the like in most cases allow more than one in-
real-explicable and the supernatural, with a contin- terpretation ....
uous fluctuation of boundaries and an uncertainty Structurally, the fantastic element helps to cre-
intensified by the total absence of the narrator's ate and maintain suspense; its semantic function ...
guiding point of view. Garcia Marquez suggests is its very presence in the work. And what could
that this will also be a characteristic of his book: be more fantastic in the case of One Hundred Years
on the first page, stressing the importance of imag- of Solitude, asks Vargas Llosa, if not the fact that
ination in Jose Arcadio Buendia, the founder of it is a story of a story told in reverse? An unusual
Macondo, he writes, "his imagination always went aspect of it-with a distinctly twentieth-century fla-
beyond the genius of nature and even beyond mir- vor-is that it contains within itself not the account
acles and magic." He causes the whole story to of its writing, but rather one of its reading and in-
"float" by disrupting the natural temporal sequence terpretation. Thus, all events in the novel gain

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One Hundred Years of Solitude

added significance as clues for a fmal deciphering. well, directs to the very end the preparations for
A structuralist can easily discover a careful system her own funeral.
of signs and codes in this never-totally-revealed
universe full of premonitions. It might be noted that the manner of presenta-
tion of each premonition exemplifies the basic tech-
Vargas Llosa took nearly seven hundred pages nique of the novel itself: in rhythmically repeated
to outline a few essential characteristics of Garcia "fore-flashes" of the main characters' deaths is in-
Marquez's work. It would seem vain to attempt cluded a short synopsis of the strongest emotions
here a complete analysis of even one aspect. The and impressions of their lives. The same interrup-
role of foreshadowing is of primary importance in tive technique is used throughout the novel to
the novel, and only a long essay could do it justice. record cardinal stages in the life and death of the
These lines will barely serve as an introduction to tribe and the whole village. The opening sentence
what begins the book as technique and ends it as of the novel renders Aureliano's first distinctly re-
theme. It should be noted that throughout the membered impression as he awaits his last; as the
greater part of the story a single character may em- book closes, the last Aureliano in the family line
body both technique and theme. The very first im- receives the final impression of his life as he reads
age the reader encounters, one periodically reiter- about the first. Life and literature become one, and
ated, provides a glimpse of the future (which then both seem destined to sink into oblivion.
is not fulfilled): Colonel Aureliano Buendia in front
of a firing squad. Aureliano is the first and the The importance of foreshadowing becomes ev-
greatest seer of the Buendia family, and one who ident when we analyze the first chapter more
attains mythical stature. His supernatural qualities closely. In it can be found most of the major themes
are suggested when Ursula hears him cry in her and devices of the novel. Like the entire book, the
womb; his first spoken words are a premonition: introductory chapter forms a perfectly circular
"the boiling pot is going to spill" ([la] olla de caldo structure, a circle that runs counter to the clock.
hirviendo ... "se va a caer.") At this point, with the There is also a complete integration of various tem-
introduction of the husband's and the wife's char- porallevels: what the colonel glimpses of the past
acters the dicotomy in their reactions becomes in the first sentence (which is itself a fore-flash)
clear: what frightens Ursula seems a "natural phe- closes the chapter as a living experience in the pre-
nomenon" to Jose Arcadio. Much later, while sent tense. Fire and ice unite as opposites, forming
awaiting his execution, Aureliano formulates what a paradox, a device constantly used throughout the
could be considered a theory of premonitions, novel. The importance of the word-the Verb, the
which is related to a vital theme of the novel: the Creation-is stressed at both the opening and the
natural versus the artificial. Amazed at the fact that close: Macondo is so new to the world that names
on this occasion he has no premonition of his pend- have to be invented to designate objects, says the
ing execution, he concludes that only a natural narrator in his first description of the town. At the
death warrants a supernatural sign. As it happens end of the chapter we see Jose Arcadio groping for
no one dares carry out the orders leading to his "ar- words when confronted with what for him is a new
tificial" end; thus, the lack of a premonition of phenomenon-ice. The novel itself closes with a
death in his mind becomes in the mind of the reader character reading the last line, which for the first
a foreshadowing of life. time releases the book's full meaning.

Another interesting use of the foreshadowing The circle-and the premonition-can also be
technique is found in the account of Amaranta's found in the symbol of the child with a tail. What
death. In this case, a premonition takes on human appears in the first chapter as superstitious fear
form and visits her personally, leaving exact in- (thereby opening the gates to the realm of the fan-
structions. This fantastic situation is even further tastic) is finally justified in the last. The whole
exploited as it is raised to the level of superstition: novel in some way anticipates the fulfillment of this
knowing she is to die, Amaranta announces pub- oracle. Another use of foreshadowing can be found
licly her willingness to collect and deliver the "mail in the first pages: i.e., the prediction by Melquiades
for the dead" on behalf of the whole village. An that the whole tribe of Buendias will be extin-
even greater degree of complexity is achieved by guished. Me1quiades' s life comes full circle within
the narrator's comment that "it seemed a farce" .... the limits of this chapter: it starts with his first ar-
The paradox is taken further, however: it is Ama- rival in Macondo and ends with the news about his
ranta herself who, looking and feeling perfectly death, just as the book itself develops from the ar-

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One Hundred Years of Solitude

rival of the Buendfas in Macondo to the written lization); parallelism (Jose Arcadio as a symbol of
news of their final extinction. the village and Ursula, of the home); antithesis
It may be worthwhile to note that the first char- (Jose Arcadio embodying imagination, Ursula em-
acter introduced in this book is Melqufades, a fan- bodying common and practical sense; the two sons
tastic figure constantly fluctuating between the real who become archetypes for the entire descendency
and the supernatural: he ''was a gloomy man, en- divided between an emphasis on physical enjoy-
veloped in a sad aura, with an Asiatic look that ment of life and the anguish of imagination); rep-
seemed to know what there was on the other side etition as the essence of the story, summarized by
of things .... But in spite of his immense wisdom Pilar Ternera at the end: ''the history of the family
and his mysterious breadth, he had a human bur- was a machine with unavoidable repetitions." The
den, an earthly condition that kept him involved in repetition may be associated with the symbol of
the small problems of daily life." The physical de- mirrors perceived by Jose Arcadio in the dream
scription of him, in turn, intensifies the temporal which determines the founding of Macondo, trans-
distortion: he wears "a velvet vest across which the posed once we understand that the mirrors do not
patina of centuries had skated." And one of the first reproduce the image an infinite number of times
''wonders'' he brings is called ''fierros,'' not "hier- but instead a mirage which is impossible to re-
ros magicos," an archaic form of the word which peat ....
also suggests his agelessness. While indulging in Many secondary themes are also introduced in
magic, he is able to give the most lucid explana- this chapter and later developed more fully: the first
tions about recent progress in the scientific world. notion of religion is, significantly, mixed with su-
(One of the most delightful examples in his con- perstition; the only reference to the civil govern-
versation with Ursula about his being a demon, ment is especially important for it underscores its
where he explains to her the odor of the devil from inefficiency. Jose Arcadio's desire to invent a
a chemical point of view. His blindness and the in- "memory machine" is a precursor of the long
creased lucidity it brings about foreshadow Ur- episode of the "insomnia plague"; his interest in
sula's last years when the role of intuition is em- developing arms for "solar warfare" hints at the
phasized. It leads, moreover, to another principal future revolution and the mythical exploits of
theme in the novel: that of insanity versus sanity, Colonel Aureliano Buendfa. The principles of self-
which is developed with regard to several members government and equality are established by Jose
of the family. Arcadio's distribution of land and sun, thus, intro-
Melqufades bears within himself the main ducing the important roles nature and climactic
theme of the novel: he returns from the kingdom conditions are to play. Jose Arcadio's expedition
of the dead, renouncing immortality, because he is wrestling with the fierce forces of the jungle pro-
unable to endure solitude. The book closes with the vides one of the earliest glimpses of the jungle's
reading of his scriptures. Only at this point does power and makes convincing its final invasion of
the reader realize that Melquiades was not only a the Buendias' family house in the last chapter.
character but the narrator himself. In one of his first Nature also serves to introduce the eternal di-
appearances in the novel, he even gives a defini- chotomy between the natural state of man and civ-
tion of what the book turns out to be-"fantastic ilized man, illustrated in the first chapter by the two
stories"-suggesting, moreover, that there are al- tribes of gypsies. The first are simple and honest
ways several interpretations to a phenomenon: on and want to share their knowledge. Those that fol-
the same page we see him through four different low, "purveyors of amusement," come to cheat and
pairs of eyes, interpreted four different ways. Thus, loot. The theme of solitude and isolation is opposed
the figure of Melquiades points to everything in this to that of friendship and is brought out by empha-
novel being a language of signs and patterns, a sizing the desire to communicate, which is as strong
"recit indiciel" with intricate metaphorical rela- in individual characters as it is within the village
tionships. [Barthes, 1966.] community as a whole.
The first chapter makes full use of such struc- There is, fmally, in these first pages of the
tural elements as paradox, which is essential in the novel an early intimation of one of the most exu-
presentation of the theme of the absurd (Jose Ar- berant of the later epistles: Aureliano Segundo's
cadio sets out to look for the sea, gets lost in the "papering" the walls of his house with money
jungle and founds Macondo; while seeking to com- clearly echoes Jose Arcadio's announcement in the
municate with the city, he discovers the sea; Ur- first chapter that "we'll have gold enough and more
sula, seeking her son, discovers the road to civi- to pave the floors of the house." (The paradox at-

2 7 8 Novels for Students


The Outsiders

In spite of his original fear and dislike for that Johnny's voice takes over, telling Ponyboy in
Dally, a fear which he understands is motivated by a letter that it was worth it to save those kids, that
his own idealism, Ponyboy comes to realize all that he should "stay gold" and continue to look at the
Dally has done for him. It is Dally who makes sure world through a child's eyes. It is only after read-
that Johnny and Pony are able to run away after ing Johnny's letter to him that Ponyboy begins to
Johnny accidentally kills Bob. Dally saves Pony- accept Johnny's death.
boy from the burning church, and tries to save
Johnny as well. Ponyboy also realizes that in spite Ponyboy's discovery of Johnny's letter is one
of his cold exterior, Dally has been deeply scarred of two reconciliations at the end of the book. Like
by his experiences, and is trying to spare Johnny Dally and Johnny, Soda and Darry are initially rep-
the same trauma: resented as opposites of each other. In his youth-
ful idealism, Pony had believed that Darry was sim-
"Johnny," Dally said in a pleading, high voice, using
a tone I had never heard from him before, "Johnny, ply a hard-headed, and hard-hearted, realist who
I ain't mad at you. I just don't want you to get hurt. did not love him. As Jay Daly writes, "inno-
You don't know what a few months in jail can do to cence/youth/idealism carried to such extremes is
you. Oh, blast it, Johnny"---he pushed his white- not youth/innocence/idealism at all. It is usually a
blond hair back out of his eyes-''you get hardened
more selfish, and sometimes dangerous thing. Look
in jail. I don't want that to happen to you. Like it
happened to me...." at Ponyboy's selfish attitude toward Darry early in
the book. This is an attitude that is innocent of the
I kept staring out the window at the rapidly passing most elementary awareness of another human be-
scenery, but I felt my eyes getting round. Dally never
ing." At the end of the book, Soda is forced to con-
talked like that. Never. Dally didn't give a Yankee
dime about anyone but himself, and he was cold and front the reality of his first love's betrayal at the
hard and mean. He never talked about his past or be- same time his brothers involve him in yet another
ing in jail that way-if he talked about it at all, it argument. Upon witnessing the pain he has been
was to brag. And I suddenly thought of Dally ... in causing both his brothers, Pony finally realizes that
jail at the age of ten ... Dally growing up in the
Darry can feel as scared, hurt, or lost as the rest of
streets ...
them; that he has asked Darry to understand him
Ponyboy realizes that, to Dally, Johnny's in- without trying to do the same; and that Darry has
nocence represents his own lost childhood. When sacrificed for his younger brothers. It is only then
Johnny dies a hero after having saved the kids from that the Curtises finally reach a reconciliation. Soda
the burning church, Dally says bitterly that it is use- and Darry represent different kinds of voices than
less to care about other people, that caring for oth- Johnny and Dally; they have found ways to survive
ers is not worth it, and that Pony is going to need without losing their goodness, their "goldness."
to toughen up too. Yet Dally's own inability to They have done this in part by sacrificing for and
completely turn off his emotions leads him, in his taking care of Ponyboy.
agony over Johnny's death, to rob a liquor store
and then wave an unloaded gun at the police. In In fact, Ponyboy cannot fully honor Johnny's
this final gesture of his life, Dally finds a way both wish that he stay gold. He has seen too much, and
to end the torment of his emotions and to try to his own awareness of both the existence and the
prove, one last time, how tough and violent he is. cost of his innocence makes it impossible for him
Ponyboy tells us that both Johnny and Dally died to continue as he was before the deaths of Bob,
"gallant," but each of them has died gallantly for a Johnny, and Dally. But Ponyboy, like Darry and
different reason: Johnny because he never grew up Soda, begins to stay gold by helping others: he
and remained frozen in his youthful idealism, and writes that suddenly his story "wasn't only a per-
Dally because he grew up too soon and lost his in- sonal thing to me. I could picture hundreds and hun-
nocence in the struggle to survive. dreds of boys living on the wrong sides of cities....
Ponyboy struggles for a long time afterward, There should be some help, someone should tell
trying to make sense of these two deaths. The gang them before it was too late." Thus Ponyboy's nar-
begins to worry about him becoming hardened; rative finds a way to reconcile the stories of Johnny
when Pony pulls a broken bottle on some Socs, and Dally, of Soda and Darry, by pointing out that
Two-Bit and Steve react by telling him not to get they are all outsiders, all caught between never
tough like the rest of them. But Ponyboy tells him- growing up and growing up too soon, all redeemed,
self, as Dally told him, "that if you got tough you even if only in death, by the sacrifices they, and by
didn't get hurt." It is only near the end of the book extension we as readers, have made for others.

296 Novels jor Students


The Outsiders

Source: lane Elizabeth Dougherty, in an essay for Novels book in the public school library or for using it in
for Students, Gale, 1999. the classroom. It does not provide all of the sup-
port that is needed. A book may be attacked for
John S. Simmons reasons that are not included in an essay. For sup-
In the following excerpt, Simmons attempts to port, teachers and librarians should consult with
explain the lasting populatrity ofThe outsdiers, and their educational association or union, their local,
why it sometimes is a candidate for banning. state, and national subject matter organization and
one or more of the anti-censorship coalitions or
Before we can begin to write a book rationale
committees mentioned earlier. Most state profes-
for our classroom or school library, two conditions sional organizations have such committees. A num-
should apply: (1) we know the book extremely ber of states also have intellectual freedom coali-
well, and (2) we believe that this book makes a sig- tions made up of union representatives, subject
nificant contribution to our curriculum and to stu- matter organizations, librarians, and school admin-
dents. Writing a rationale for why a book ought to istrators.
be in the curriculum requires a knowledge of the
goals and objectives of the curriculum, the skills, The titles that are discussed in this book were
abilities and interests of students, a knowledge of chosen on the basis of frequency of challenge. Lee
students' literary and popular culture backgrounds, Burress listed over 800 titles that were challenged
and a knowledge of the broader area of study in between 1950 and 1985, in The Battle ofthe Books.
which the book is to be used. It is also helpful to That list came from 17 surveys of censorship pres-
know how frequently the title is used in similar sit- sures carried out by various scholars. In addition,
uations, what reviewers have had to say about it in several titles were added to the list of frequently
professional journals and in the popular press, and challenged books from more recent reports, espe-
what awards the title has won, if any. Much of this cially from the ALA Newsletter on Intellectual
material should be available locally; for example, Freedom. One person who was asked to write an
in the school's curriculum guides. Much of the in- essay complained because his favorite censored
formation, however, must be culled from a variety book was not on the list. The reason is fairly clear;
of sources such as textbooks, monographs andjour- that book is very rarely assigned in the schools, so
it is almost never challenged. We could not prac-
nals related to teaching or educational materials.
tically provide essays on 800 or 900 titles, so we
The Book Review Index, published by Gale Re-
chose the books that are most often reported by
search Company since 1965, provides an index of
teachers or librarians as objects of attack. Indi-
reviews appearing in more than 200 periodicals.
rectly, therefore, this list of titles is an index of
Readers who are particularly concerned about chil-
books that are used in the schools.
dren's and young adult literature should consult the
annotated list of reference and bibliographical re- If we examine the list of challenged titles, it is
sources described in "Familiarity with Reference" clear that most are twentieth century books, that
(Kenney 48-54). All of these sources add to the ra- most are by American authors, and that a dispro-
tionale writer's own justifications for using a spe- portionate number are by non-Caucasian writers
cific title. And since rationales frequently don't get and deal with non-Anglo Saxon characters (dis-
written until a work has been challenged, the ra- proportionate, that is, in comparison with the total
tionale writer should also be familiar with the con- number of books published in the D.S.). There is a
cerns that have been expressed about the work in strong suggestion here that racism lies behind the
the local community. This information should be challenges. It is frequently disguised under charges
available in a written complaint filed by a local that the books contain obscene or pornographic lan-
community member but may also need to be ac- guage. So far as the present writers know, no book
quired through an interview. The local newspapers used in the public schools has been found by a court
are another obvious source for community view- to be obscene.
points on the controversial material. At the state Another reasonable conclusion that maybe
and national level, the rationale writer should con- drawn from the list is that good books are more
sult the Newsletter on Intellectual Freedom which likely to be challenged than are books of little
keeps track of what titles have been challenged and value. Every library, bookstore and supermarket
why they have been challenged. contains many books with the same kind of lan-
A rationale explains why a title is valued in guage as may be found in the challenged list of
the curriculum. It provides reasons for having a books. The great majority of those books are

Volume 5 Z 9 7
The Outsiders

ephemeral or superficial. There is little in them, that is, not publishing-works by African-Ameri-
therefore, to question the values of this society, to can authors. The nature and force of censorship at-
challenge readers to question their own values or tacks and their impact on authors is revealed by
way of life. The essays in this collection provide Norma Fox Mazer. She introduces censorship by
specific support for a rather select list of titles commission, that is, the act of self-censorship, en-
which are frequently challenged. They also serve couraged by publishers so as not to offend the pub-
as models for the development of rationales for use lic. Similarly, Rudolfo Anaya reflects on cultural
in the public schools. discrimination that proscribes Hispanic-American
The present volume is different from our ear- writers and the effect of self-censorship on the ex-
lier collection, Celebrating Censored Books, in two pression of their life experiences. The last two es-
significant ways. It is expanded. The earlier vol- says in this section, by Mary Stolz and Lee Ben-
ume focused on the so-called "dirty thirty." This nett Hopkins, encourage broad understanding of
volume doubles the number of works discussed and censorship challenges. They illustrate their insights
includes a selection from the earlier volume. In ad- with a wide selection of diverse fiction and poetry
that has been challenged, from picture-story books
dition to essays written by teachers and professors
of literature, Censored Books: Critical Viewpoints to mature adolescent novels.
includes essays by poets, novelists and dramatists- The second section, "Challenging Books," pro-
authors of adult and adolescent literature. vides responses and defenses of individual books.
The central charge to these reviewers was di- Arranged alphabetically by the title of the text, they
rect and simple: Why should anyone read this provide a varied perspective. Some are oriented to
book? Why should it be recommended? They were social issues, others to personal transactions with
asked to express their impressions of the text, of the text, and others to teaching concerns. They pro-
the concepts and emotions that readers might ex- vide diverse, thoughtful approaches, suggesting
perience, of the personal and social understandings that there is no one best way to prepare a rationale
that might be achieved. A second concern ad- for a book or a particular situation. The array is en-
dressed the question, Why is this book under at- lightening.
tack? The reviewers were asked to consider the cen- But as these essays enlighten, we hope that
sorial challenges to the text in relation to its they will stir the reader to take a deeper look at the
perceived merits. Another consideration suggested whole question of intellectual freedom for our
to reviewers was pedagogic, that is, classroom ap- youth. We, as educators and parents, must con-
plication. stantly remind ourselves and our students that the
The essays included in Censored Books: Crit- constitutional guarantees of separation of church
ical Viewpoints provide, in effect, a defense of and state, freedom of speech and of the press, even
these frequently challenged books, a rationale for the right to congregate to exchange ideas are not
ensuring access to them for readers and support for given by God but must be won anew with each gen-
teaching them. This collection does not, however, eration. With the ever escalating calls for account-
propose a curriculum for the English language arts ability in public education, the growing diversity
classroom nor is it a cultural literacy list. The edi- in the school population and the concomitant rise
tors are not arguing that everyone must read all of in controversial materials designed to address the
these books. Rather, we strongly advocate the right needs of all of our youth, (and let's not forget the
of readers to select literary materials in an open increasingly organized religious right) we cannot
marketplace of ideas and of teachers to select class- expect or even hope that the number of censorship
room materials in keeping with appropriate teach- attempts directed to our public schools will dimin-
ing objectives. ish anytime soon. Our future depends upon our
youth having the opportunity to grapple with ideas
The collection is organized in two sections.
in their reading, their viewing and their interactions
The first, "Perspectives: Censorship by Omission
with each other and their adult mentors. We can
and Commission," offers six author's views. Arthur
opt for no less if we are to have an educated pub-
Miller considers historical attempts to "revise"
lic capable of dealing with the culturally pluralis-
Shakespeare's King Lear in conjunction with cur-
tic and diverse nature of our world.
rent omissions of segments of his plays from school
texts. He reflects on current censorship practices A glance at the young adult section of almost
against an international backdrop. John Williams any mall bookstore these days will reveal a gener-
focuses on acts of omission-publishers censoring, ous number of novels by the widely heralded writ-

298 Novels for Students


The Outsiders

ers of the moment: Robert Cormier, Judy Blume, ued to include substantial doses of action, suspense,
Norma Fox Mazer, Lois Duncan, and Richard Peck, and adventure in their novels, but they also at-
to name but a few. Standing right there beside them, tempted to portray the world of the adolescent in a
almost assuredly, will be S.E. Hinton's The Out- more realistic, self conscious manner. As Stephen
siders-which is quite remarkable when one stops Dunning said of this young adult novel, "It pre-
to consider the fact that the life spans of most young tends to treat life truthfully." As the more credible
adult novels, even the initially popular ones are young adult novel appeared on bookshelves every-
brief indeed. Most of the highly popular works of where, teachers, especially those in the junior high
the mid to late 60s-The Outsiders, appeared in schools, began to consider their teachable aspects,
1967-are now long forgotten. But The Outsiders, as did the growing number of university faculty
written when its author was 17 years old and mak- members who called themselves English Educa-
ing her maiden voyage on the publication waters, tors ....
continues to hold the attention of the teenage read- Since the young adult novel has developed
ing audience as well as the English Education gen- more recently as a serious literary endeavor, it
try. It would be hard to imagine a college or uni- comes as no surprise that the representation of os-
versity instructor of a Literature for Adolescents tensibly unsavory characters and settings should
course not calling attention to this novel some- emerge only after other types had been featured.
where along the line. Main and supporting characters in the novels of Tu-
The question, then, is why this relatively short, nis, Annixter, Daly, et. al. were from suburban,
rather simply written novel about a fourteen year rural, or historical backgrounds. Thus one of Su-
old boy from the other side of the tracks in a mod- san Hinton's significant achievements in The Out-
erately large, unnamed town has remained on the siders is to hold up for scrutiny young people from
high interest list for so long-25 years. What fol- economically, culturally, and socially deprived cir-
lows is an attempt to answer that question.... cumstances. In Ponyboy Curtis, his brothers So-
dapop and Darry, and his "Greaser" companions,
Briefly stated, the American young adult long Hinton has introduced readers, most of whom have
fiction genre has gone through three discernible probably been from white, middle class origins, to
evolutionary stages during this century. For the first the desires, the priorities, the frustrations, the pre-
40 or so years, it provided little more than escape occupations, and above all, the anger of those
and recreational reading matter for the children and young people who may live in the seedier parts of
teenagers of that period. The Hardy Boys novels, town but who have established a code of behavior
along with the adventurous, picaresque, contrived, which reflects (to the dismay of some) their sense
melodramatic works ofZane Grey, Edgar Rice Bur- of dignity and self-worth. As developed by their
roughs, and William Heyliger held the interest of author, there is little which has been considered
boys, especially those who fantasized about their contemptible, callous, or even objectionable about
exploits on the gridiron, the diamond, the jungle, the Curtis brothers and most of their friends. Faced
or the battlefield. For girls, the career and love with poverty and limited opportunity, they main-
sagas (although not necessarily in that order) of tain a certain determined optimism and aspiration
Emily Loring, (Sue Barton, girl nurse), Daphne du for a better life. Most important, they believe in,
Maurier, Grace Livingston Hill, and Carolyn Keene trust, and support each other, all sentiments which
(the Nancy Drew series) provided a wealth of en- can be universally admired despite the circum-
tertaining books. In that pre-television era, such stances in which they are displayed. Hinton's novel
"light" reading preoccupied millions of young peo- is not "rigidly wholesome" nor "insistently didac-
ple in their search for escape from the world of tic" as were many young adult works of preceding
homework and tedium. Escape yes, literary study decades. It offers a number of complex human be-
no, in the eyes of classroom teachers, librarians, ings whose strengths and limitations are left to the
and teacher educators alike. For just about all of readers themselves to infer and judge.
those professionals, a loosely defined set of "clas-
Breaking from the pattern of third person om-
sics," largely written by Victorian era novelists and
niscient narrators which characterized the majority
poets, served as objects of serious classroom study.
of earlier young adult novels, Hinton has presented
During the next three decades, however, a her story from her protagonist's angle of vision. As
"new" kind of young adult novel began to emerge. with Salinger's Catcher in the Rye (1951), wherein
Writers such as John R. Tunis, Paul Annixter, Fred we view the world from the perspective of the dis-
Gipson, Esther Forbes, and Maureen Daly contin- turbed, vulnerable teenage Holden Caulfield. Hin-

Volume 5 299
The Outsiders

ton establishes the 14-year-old Ponyboy as both parents lead most of the Greasers to the conclusion
protagonist and narrator. It is through his eyes that that they must pretty well fend for themselves.
readers view the events and analyze the individu- Death and serious, sometimes disabling, injury are
als who make up this novel. His naivete, lack of possibilities which the latter group faces as a mat-
sophistication and commitment to an established ter of course. During an interlude in which Pony-
lifestyle give the novel its tone. Amazingly, the au- boy is hiding out with his friend Johnny, a fugitive
thor, a teenage female, has created a credible from the recent murder of a Soc, he recites Frost's
teenage male protagonist/narrator. In doing so, she poem "Nothing Gold Can Stay" to his distracted
has contributed significantly to the new realism of friend. The poem has a profound impact on Johnny,
the contemporary young adult novel mentioned ear- who relates it to his own imperiled youth. Later, as
lier. he is on his deathbed, Johnny's last words are,
"Stay gold, Ponyboy. Stay gold...." In an environ-
In his 1958 study, Dunning pointed out that
ment, where the concern with survival is om-
one of the major weaknesses of the young adult
nipresent, the joy and promise of youth are both
novels of that era was the authors'; unrealistic de-
perceived with irony by Ponyboy and his Greaser
piction of adults and their relationships with ado-
cohorts, a far cry from the idyllic teenage days de-
lescents, especially their sons and daughters. Hin-
scribed in so many novels written in the decades
ton has dealt with this problem quite decisively; she
before Susan Hinton's first literary effort. As teach-
virtually excluded adults from the narrative. This
ers attempt to introduce their classes to a mean-
is truly a novel of the teenager, by the teenager,
ingful example of the ironic in literature, they may
and for the teenager. It is devoid of significant adult
well look to The Outsiders.
characters, and the few that are included serve the
most perfunctory of purposes. Thus the focus here The dour tone of The Outsiders prevails
is on the young people, particularly the two rival throughout although the novel is punctuated with
gangs: the Greasers (ponyboy's) and the Socs (a examples of humor, selflessness, courage, and hu-
group of upper middle class individuals whose manitarian acts. Despite their heroic quest for dig-
main goals in life seems to be to embrace hedo- nity and self-determination, both Darry and Pony-
nism and to wreak havoc on the Greasers, although boy reflect an alienation from conventional middle
not necessarily in that order. In The Outsiders, class values largely through no fault or their own.
adults would only serve as a nuisance, and the au- Their contempt for the Socs and their lives of lux-
thor does not allow that to happen. ury, as well as their distrust of public institutions,
particularly the law, may stamp them as undesir-
Hinton does provide an element of mature in- ables in the eyes of some witnesses. It is an aspect
fluence, however, in the person of Ponyboy's older of Susan Hinton's creative acumen that most
brother, Darry. A reluctant school dropout, Darry thoughtful readers, both secondary school students
has assumed the responsibility of parenting his two and contributors to AIAN Review, do not demean
younger brothers in the face of the untimely, acci- these two young people for their attitudes toward
dental death of their mother and father. At age 20, middle class mores nor their stubborn adherence to
Darry has taken on an adult role and, given his lim- the Greaser code of street-wise self reliance. Their
ited education and financial resources, does the best alienation does not result in anti-social, self-
he can. It is through his character that readers per- destructive behavior and their restrained
ceive the fight for survival in an underclass situa- optimismlhope for better days is made believable
tion. But Darry, perhaps more than the other by the author's subtle portraiture. While there
Greasers, accepts his lot stoically and with dignity. seems to be little hope for a privileged but emo-
He asks for neither material aid nor sympathy. To tionally disoriented Holden Caulfield at the end of
provide what is needed for family survival, he Catcher in the Rye, Ponyboy and Darry exit the
works longer hours and enforces house rules. In book with their heads held high and their eyes on
Darry, Hinton has added a note of prophecy to her the future. In establishing, most convincingly, her
story. As have countless young single parents of characters' ability to cope, Hinton has led her read-
America's 1990s, he has become an adult before ers to accept that positive outlook.
his time.
In one further stratagem Hinton has assisted
The theme of human fragility is given eloquent the opening of new doors to her young adult nov-
voice in The Outsiders. Violent confrontations with elist successors. The "life goes on" spirit reflected
their rivals place the well-being of both gangs in in the ending of The Outsiders stands in sharp con-
constant jeopardy. The absence and indifference of trast with the young adult novels of earlier decades.

300 Novels for Students


The Outsiders

All of the Horatio Alger-style books of the era be- by books like Maureen Daly's Seventeenth Sum-
fore the 1940s included the Hollywood boy-gets- mer, dreamy-eyed stories of carefree youth where
girl endings, which remain with us through endless the major problem was whether so-and-so would
TV dramatic offerings. Many of the well-written ask our heroine to the prom in sufficient time for
novels of the second phase described earlier were her to locate a prom gown. Or there were caution-
mixed, with the protagonist suffering some losses, ary tales to warn us that, if we were not good, and
usually minor, and some gains, usually crucial. As we all know what "good" meant, we would never
he leaves his readers, Ponyboy gives a few hints get to the prom at all.
that he'll be okay, but there is no evidence that the Into this sterile chiffon-and-orchids environ-
quality of life, for either him or those around him, ment then came The Outsiders. Nobody worries
will improve to any degree, any time soon. "That's about the prom in The Outsiders; they're more con-
life" is what Susan Hinton seems to be saying in cerned with just staying alive till June. They're also
providing this ending to her book. Clearly, this per- concerned with peer pressures, social status,
spective is consistent with the rest of the tale. abusive parents, and the ever-present threat of
Undoubtedly, The Outsiders is, to a degree, a violence. What in the world was this? It certainly
period piece, as indeed are the overwhelming ma- wasn't the same picture of the teenage wonder
jority of today's young adult novels. Paul Newman years that the ''young adult" genre projected (and
is probably a sex symbol only to the over-50 the- no one ever lived). Welcome to real life.
ater patrons. Other cigarette brands have replaced
There is a perception now that The Outsiders
Kools among those widely smoked and advertised
was published to immediate teenage accolades, but
in this country. Affluent youngsters stopped wear-
such was not the case. In fact, because the book
ing madras shirts long ago, and few, if any, 1990s
was so different from what the publishers consid-
teenagers are impressed by the Beatles or their hair
ered "young adult" material, it was at first sent out
style. Moreover, such words as "rumble,"
with the general trade, or adult, releases, where it
"chicken," "punkout," and "greasers" are terms
disappeared into the murk. It was only gradually,
long absent from teenage patois. The themes de-
as the word from the hinterlands drifted in, that the
scribed above, however, are with us now and prob-
publishers realized the book was finding its word-
ably forever, and Susan Hinton has treated them
of-mouth fame among the very teenagers whose
with sensitivity. Thus, at least in this precinct, The
lives it depicted. The rest, as they say, is history.
Outsiders possesses a considerable dollop of liter-
ary merit. Yes, the book is still being read, taught, The grass-roots success of The Outsiders
and discussed a quarter century after its publica- paved the way for writers like Paul Zindel, Richard
tion. This is a solid reflection of its merit. Peck, M. E. Kerr, Paula Danziger, and Robert
Cormier. It set off a wail of controversy from those
Source: John S. Simmons, "A Look Inside A Landmark:
The Outsiders" in Censored Books: Critical Viewpoints,
who thought that there was enough real life in real
edited by Nicholas J. Karolides, Lee Burress, and John M. life without also putting it into books. It caused
Kean, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1993. many lesser writers to make the mistake of wan-
dering off in search of the ''formula'' for her suc-
Jay Daly cess, and it sent publishers scurrying off in search
In this excerpt, Daly argues that The Outsiders of other teenaged writer-oracles; everyone wanted
is a revolutionary piece of young adult fiction a piece of "the next S. E. Hinton." In truth, of
which focuses on idealism rather than realism. course, there is no formula, and it is not likely that
there will be "another" S. E. Hinton.
In April 1967 the Viking Press brought out a There are now perhaps ten million copies of
book called The Outsiders, by S. E. Hinton, and the Hinton books in print. The Outsiders, itself now
world of young adult writing and publishing would twenty years old, no longer a teenager, continues
never be the same. This is not an exaggeration. In to be the best selling of all Hinton's books. Clearly
more ways than one, The Outsiders has become the there is more to this than the novelty of its publi-
most successful, and the most emulated, young cation in those pre-Hinton, Mary-Jane-Goes-to-the-
adult book of all time. Prom years. In fact there is something in The Out-
The situation was ripe, in the mid-sixties, for siders, as there is in the other Hinton books, that
the arrival of something like The Outsiders, al- transcends the restrictions of time and place, that
though no one knew it at the time. There had been speaks to the reader directly. It has nothing to do
a "young adult" genre for many years, dominated with the age of the author, and little to do with the

Volume 5 3 0 1
The Outsiders

so-called "realism" of the setting. It does, however, ism of that time of life. Of all the young adult nov-
have very much to do with the characters she cre- els of that period, The Outsiders is by far the most
ates, their humanity, and it has everything to do idealistic, the least concerned with the strictly re-
with her honesty. Her characters are orphans and alistic. In its search for innocence, for heroes, for
outlaws and, as the song says, ''to live outside the that Garden of Eden that seems to slip further away
law you must be honest." If there is a formula to as youth fades into adulthood, The Outsiders is a
S. E. Hinton books it is only this: to tell the truth. book for dreamers, not realists. And youth is the
There is also something that is quintessentially time of dreamers.
American about S. E. Hinton. Her books are all set On its surface at least, The Outsiders is indeed
in the real American heartland, the urban frontier, a novel about the friction between social classes,
and her characters are American pilgrim-orphans, in this case between the greasers and the Socs. It
believers in the dream of perfection, of an Ameri- is also about the hunger for status, for a place in
can paradise on earth. Francis Ford Coppola, who the pecking order, both inside and outside these
filmed and cowrote, with Hinton, the screen ver- groups. And it is about the violence that is so much
sions of The Outsiders and Rumble Fish, called her a part of that particular place and time of life. These
"a real American novelist," straight out of the tra- concerns are not, however, what make the book
dition that runs from Herman Melville right up come alive. The book comes to life through its char-
through J. D. Salinger, and beyond. The myth of acters and situations, their almost painful yearnings
the American hero, of the outlaw-individualist, of and loyalties, their honesty.. .. With all the talk of
the "gallant," lives on in the eyes of Ponyboy Cur- cliches and melodrama, why does this book con-
tis and Johnny Cade. tinue to speak to new generations of young read-
None of this would matter, though, if it were ers? Idealism alone, after all, is not enough. Nor is
not based on real characters. None of this would sincerity. Think of all the sincere, idealistic books
count if we did not believe that her books tell the in dustbins and yard sales around the country. The
truth, not so much about beer parties and gang continuing popularity, the continuing interest de-
fights, but about what it feels like to be a teenager, rives, I think, from the fortunate combination of
caught between childhood and adulthood, always achievements by the young Susie Hinton in three
on the outside looking in at a world that is very far essential categories: the hand of the storyteller.... ;
from being a paradise on earth. the continuing credibility of the characters; and the
honesty, the sincerity... embodied in the themes of
[Most of the controversy about The Outsiders the book, each of which reduces, fmally, to the
came about because it] grew to be identified with yearning to "stay gold."
something called "The New Realism" in young
adult writing. The term-New Realism-was The orphans of The Outsiders are outlaws and
added later, but the fear-that books for teenagers dreamers. They're like "that tragic boy," Peter Pan,
were getting a little too realistic for their own in J. M. Barrie's turn-of-the-century play. The Boy
good-was beginning to be heard more and more Who Would Not Grow Up. Peter Pan, and his group
frequently during the time after the publication of of orphans, the lost boys, rejected by their parents,
The Outsiders. Indeed there are many who fix the make their own world of heroics and adventure.
point at which young adult writing changed, and They have their own Never Land, where they be-
changed utterly-from the cautionary Mary-Jane- long. Wendy, like Cherry with her busy-ness, can-
Goes-to-the-Prom book to the attempt at serious not prevent herself from changing, until she sud-
and authentic portrayal of life as it is-with the denly turns around to discover that she is "old,
publication of The Outsiders. Such a radical change Peter. I am ever so much more than twenty." Peter
could not be expected to go unchallenged.... Pan, on the other hand, stays pure; he never grows
up. He stays gold.
The irony is that, while the debate team fo-
cused on the gangs and the violence, the smoking Likewise do the lost boys in The Outsiders
and the beer drinking-all dreaded evidence of the form their own, more perfect world in the world of
New Realism-the major thrust of The Outsiders the gang. They dream of the perfection they know
had nothing to do with realism at all. The real mes- must exist, their Never Land, that perhaps they even
sage of the book is its uncompromising idealism. once had and lost, where things are gold, where
The real reason the book struck such a responsive Johnny Cade can find his "ordinary people," where
chord in its young readers (and continues to strike Ponyboy's parents remain golden and young. The
that chord) was that it captured so well the ideal- striking thing about these orphans is that they use

3 0 2 Novels for Students


The Outsiders

it to their advantage; they are dreamers and they Think of Me1ville's Billy Budd, or Lennie in Stein-
use their abandonment to feed their dreams. Life beck's Of Mice and Men. Their very innocence
intervenes, of course, and their dreams will never tends to lead them always toward, in Lennie's
come true, but that's only because they have such words, "another bad thing." It's as if they can't help
high standards. They want perfection. Like Peter but hurt people in the end. J. M. Barrie, once again,
Pan, they want to stay gold forever. at the end of Peter and Wendy, describes his cre-
Ponyboy recites [the Robert Frost poem ation Peter, who would not grow up, as forever
"Nothing Gold Can Stay"] for Johnny.... The poem "young and innocent," but then he also adds, "And
captures a feeling that is important to Ponyboy, heartless."
though he's not sure of all of it. "He meant more The Frost poem is in fact not so much about
to it than I'm gettin," he says, "I always remem- the fleeting nature of youth, or even life, as it is
bered it because I never quite got what he meant about the Fall. Notice those repeating verbs, "sub-
by it." Ponyboy, who has the capacity to be a lit- side ... sank ... goes down." The loss of Eden, of
tle slow when it serves to advance the story, needs that state of perfection of which the "gold" of the
Johnny to validate the poem for him, in his letter poem is but a cruel reminder, this is the real knowl-
at the end of the book. "[H]e meant you're gold edge in the poem, as it is in The Outsiders. When
when you're a kid, like green. When you're a kid Ponyboy remembers his parents, it is always in a
everything's new, dawn. It's just when you get used kind of misty Garden of Eden setting ... It's been
to everything that it's day." The only way to stay only eight months since they died, but already they
gold, then, is to stay a kid, or at least to retain that seem to have entered into a golden mythology. The
childlike wonder, that innocence, which continues book's idealism invents that place "in the country"
to make the world new. The key to staying gold of sunsets and ordinary people, but in fact-after
then, in Johnny's view, is to stay, like Peter Pan, a the Fall-such a place cannot exist, not in this life.
child.
Which brings us to the one way of staying gold
If this is indeed the case, then it creates prob-
that works. It is the only way of achieving the per-
lems. To stay at a Peter Pan level of innocence is
fection that was promised. It involves memory, and
to be retarded (in all senses of the word). All of us
the shifting of emphasis in Frost's last line from
are in fact more like Wendy than like Peter; we lose
"gold" to "stay." Nothing gold can stay. Rather than
gradually that limber quality of youth, the idealism
agree that Ponyboy's image of perfection cannot
and innocence, the ability, so to speak, to fly. To
exist in this world, the book agrees only that it can-
the extent that we retain some of this capacity we
not stay here. By dying Johnny stays gold in a way
are blessed, but to retain it fully is impossible. Not
he could never have achieved in life. Even Dally
just because "nothing gold can stay," but also be-
becomes a gallant in death, frozen in time forever
cause it would be unnatural to do so. Innocence
under the streetlights of the park like a carved fig-
cannot escape coming to terms with life, which
ure from Keats's "Ode on a Grecian Urn."
does not necessarily mean being corrupted. The op-
posite of innocence is-not corruption, of course- Most of all, Ponyboy's parents stay perfect
but knowledge. parents in a world sadly lacking in parental per-
Worse yet, innocence/youth/idealism carried fection. They will be young and golden and love
to such extremes is not innocence/youth/idealism him always. His mother in particular remains
at all. It is usually a more selfish, and sometimes "beautiful and golden," perfect in a way she could
dangerous, thing. Look at Ponyboy's selfish atti- not have remained in life. It is an irony that only
tude toward Darry early in the book. This is an at- by abandoning him could she become for him that
titude that is innocent of the most elementary symbol of perfection that Ponyboy, and all the oth-
awareness of another human being. When he sees ers, so desperately need. In the words of the Keats
Darry cry, and feels his hurting inside, it is sud- poem: "She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy
denly a loss of innocence, a falling into knowledge bliss, / For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair!"
of the real world, but it's a far better condition he In the pages of The Outsiders, and in Pony-
falls into than that he left behind. boy's memory, she remains, as the song goes, for-
It is no accident that those literary heroes who ever young. She stays gold. It's a cruel sort of per-
stay gold, who retain their innocence unnaturally, fection, but for the idealistic heroes of all the
lead lives whose effect upon others is often far from Hinton books (up until Tex), who prize perfection
innocent. There is something inhuman about them. so highly, it's the only kind of Paradise they know.

Volume 5 303
The Sun Also Rises

to go through that hell again." Likewise, when Brett Pedro, the creator of the art, as the character clos-
tells Jake that she is "so miserable," he immedi- est to perfection.
ately gets the feeling that he is about to go through Robert Cohn, by contrast, is rarely included in
a nightmare that he has been through before and discussions about models of behavior. On the con-
must now go through again. trary, Cohn's behavior continually sets him apart
from the rest of the group. The recipient of insults
The mutually destructive nature of Jake and
and abuse from several characters in the novel,
Brett's relationship has led several critics to point
Cohn is also frequently mistreated by critics.
to the scene in which Jake acknowledges that all
Josephs, for instance, has accused Cohn of being a
he really wants is to know "how to live in it"-it
"moral bankrupt who is completely out of place at
referring to the world, to the new and ever-chang-
the fiesta." It is important to remember, however,
ing post-war reality and, as Kathleen Nichols sug-
that Jake may not be providing an accurate picture
gests, to the world of emotional relationships. Con-
of the man who spent a week in Spain with Brett.
sequently, critics have also identified characters in
Jake even acknowledges this possibility, noting that
the novel who might provide Jake with a model of
he may not have "shown Robert Cohn clearly." He
behavior. Robert Fleming, for example, suggests
tries, briefly, to improve his incomplete portrait but
that Count Mippipopolous is an early prototype of
continues to highlight moments and events that cast
the character type known as the "code hero" or "tu-
Cohn in a negative light. From the very beginning
tor"-a type whose minor flaws "are outweighed
of the novel, Jake's depiction of Cohn seems par-
by his strict observation of a code." The Count il-
tial. He mentions that Cohn was once middleweight
lustrates courage and grace under pressure, main-
boxing champion of Princeton, but then strips the
tains his self-respect in relation to Brett and, Flem-
achievement of any value by noting that he is not
ing argues, imparts to Jake lessons "that will help
"very much impressed" by this title. Similarly, on
[him] toward a philosophy of life." Another critic,
the first day of the fiesta, Jake notes that, while
Scott Donaldson, proposes that it is Bill Gorton,
everyone else is drinking and having a good time,
through humor directed at ideas and institutions,
Cohn is passed out alone in a back room, sleeping
not human beings, who provides a model of be-
on wine casks. Jake also pokes fun at Cohn's lack
havior that can be emulated. Jane E. Wilson looks
of acumen when the latter fails to understand a ban-
to yet another character, discussing the significance
ner bearing the slogan "Hurray for the Foreigners!"
of the Englishman, Wilson-Harris, in association
As a result, when Mike verbally attacks Cohn, ac-
with the regenerative fishing trip to Burguete. She
cusing him of following Brett around like a steer
believes that Jake's relationship with Harris is "one
and of not knowing when he is not wanted, the ac-
of the keys to the meaning of the fishing episode
cusations seem justified.
and its beneficial aspects."
Sibbie 0'Sullivan has described Cohn as a
The character most often identified as a model character who "lives in the waste land but does not
of behavior is the young bullfighter, Pedro Romero. adhere to its values." Jake's portrayal of Cohn ap-
Early in the novel, Jake tells Cohn that "nobody pears to suggest that Cohn's values are out of date
ever lives their life all the way up except bull- and out of place. However, Cohn's negative de-
fighters." The appearance of an actual bullfighter piction is complicated by the frequent references to
later in the novel thus commands attention. Pedro the fact that he is Jewish. Comments such as
is described as a "real one"-a bullfighter who does Mike's, who tells Jake that "Brett has gone off with
always "smoothly, calmly, and beautifully" what men, but they weren't ever Jews," have led several
others could do only sometimes. AlIen Josephs, critics to address the issue of anti-Semitism in the
who has explored how the art of toreo (the bull- novel. Michael Reynolds believes that the depic-
fight) lies at the heart of The Sun Also Rises, cites tion of Cohn does betray Hemingway's anti-
the work of HR Stoneback who is himself citing Semitism but argues that to fault him ''for his
Hemingway's Death in the Afternoon, to show that prejudice is to read the novel anachronistically."
"the bullfight is meant to convey an emblem of He believes that the novel's anti-Semitism ''tells us
moral behaviour." To be moral, conduct must be little about its author but a good deal about Amer-
"rooted in courage, honour, passion, and it must ex- ica in 1926." Barry Gross, on the other hand, dis-
hibit grace under pressure ...." Josephs believes that misses critics who dismiss Cohn's treatment in the
all of the characters who make the pilgrimage to novel as commonplace and wonders whether we
Pamplona "are measured-morally or spiritually- should not expect our great writers ''to rise above
around the axis of the art of toreo." He identifies the regrettably commonplace of their society, es-

Volume 5 3 3 7
The Sun Also Rises

pecially writers who made careers out of being crit- Ira Elliott
ics of ... all that they considered regrettably com- This excerpt explores lake's fractured male
monplace in American society." identity and the ways in which he relates to homo-
sexual men in the novel.
Like other characters in the novel, Brett Ash-
ley has also been identified as a model of behav- My project is to consider the ways in which
ior-but not for lake. Instead, Brett's daring and lake Barnes's male identity is called into question
unconventional lifestyle has led several critics to by the genital wound he suffered during the First
identify her as a new kind of woman. Although she World War, and the ways in which his fractured
is not, as lames Nagel has pointed out, the first rep- sense of self functions in relation to homosexual-
resentation of "a sexually liberated, free-thinking ity and the homosexual men he observes at a bal
woman in American literature," she is, Reynolds musette in the company of Brett Ashley. lake's at-
explains, "on the leading edge of the sexual revo- titude toward the homosexuals-the way he de-
grades them and casts them as his rivals-will, I
lution that produced two types of the 'new woman':
believe, reveal the extent to which sexual categories
the educated professional woman who was active
and gender roles are cultural constructions. Close
in formerly all male areas and the stylish, uninhib-
readings of several key passages in the novel will
ited young woman who drank and smoked [and]
at the same time uncover the reasons behind lake's
devalued sexual innocence...". But more than a own inability to openly accept, if not fully endorse,
model of behavior or a representation of something the potentialities of gender/sexual mutability.
new, she is, like lake, an individual trying to learn
I take as my starting point the recent work of
how to live her life. She is, like lake, trying to get
theorist Judith Butler, whose influential book Gen-
over what could have been.
der Trouble maintains that ''the heterosexualization
Whether or not lake and Brett do successfully of desire requires and institutes the production of
overcome their attachment to the past they could discrete and asymmetrical oppositions between
'feminine' and 'masculine,' where these are un-
have shared remains a topic of debate. The fact that
derstood as expressive of 'male' and 'female."
lake travels to Madrid to meet Brett is, for some,
[Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of
a sign that their relationship has not changed. lames
Identity, 1990.] This process suggests that "the gen-
Nagel argues that the journey is evidence of lake's
dered body is performative," and, in fact, "has no
continued love for Brett and that he "is resigned to ontological status apart from the various acts which
the pain that continued association with her is likely constitute reality." Insofar as ''the inner truth of
to bring." But the continuation of their relationship, gender is a fabrication," "genders can be neither
or at least, the continuation of their relationship as true nor false, but are only produced as the truth
it has existed until now, becomes questionable in effects of a discourse of primary and stable iden-
light of lake's response to Brett's lament about the tity." The notion of a "primary and interior gen-
good time they could have had together: "Isn't it dered self' is, therefore, a cultural construction
pretty to think so?" The novel's famous last words which creates the "illusion" of such a disguised
can be read as signaling a change in lake's outlook. self. That gender is itself a kind of "performance
Donald Daiker reads them as the "coup de grace of drag .... reveals the imitative structure ofgender
which effectively and permanently destroys all pos- itself-as well as its contingency" (Butler's em-
sibilities for the continuation of a romantic liaison phasis). [Butler, 1990.]
between them." To Kathleen Nichols, the response With respect to the "crowd of young men,
shows that, instead of lamenting what could have some in jerseys and some in their shirt-sleeves" that
been, lake can now "calmly and ironically com- lake encounters at the bal musette, external signs-
ment on how 'pretty' it is to think [his relationship that is, behavioral or performative acts-lead lake
with Brett] would have been so good." By no means to "read" the men as homosexual. The various signs
a happy or even compensatory ending, lake's re- by which their homosexuality is made known are
sponse does suggest the possibility of a relation- these: their "jerseys" and "shirt-sleeves," their
ship with Brett that is not burdened by unrealistic "newly washed, wavy hair," their "white hands"
ideas about an imaginary past. and "white faces," their "grimacing, gesturing, talk-
ing." While it may be argued that the idea of per-
Source: Jeffrey M. Lilburn, in an essay for Novels for Stu- formativity ("grimacing, gesturing, talking") is
dents, Gale, 1999. here conflated with the notion of the homosexual

338 Novels for Students


The Sun Also Rises

as a morphological ''type'' ("newly washed, wavy culturally-determined signifter (the male body) and
hair"; "white hands" and "white faces") created by signified (the female gender) disrupts the male/fe-
a congenital condition, 1 maintain that what may at male binary. But what if the young men had not
first seem to be morphological is in fact performa- crossed the gender line, if their behavior were "in
tive: these men are "types" not owing to natural accord" with their sex, if they, in short, acted the
physical features, but rather because they have cre- way Jake expects men to act? He would then have
ated themselves as a "type" in order to enact (per- no "signs" of their homosexuality.
form) the role of homosexual.
The perception that the young men are enact-
Their casual dress and careful grooming sug- ing the "wrong" gender leads to the conclusion that
gest a ''feminine'' preoccupation with physical ap- they are inauthentic, that the projection of a "fem-
pearance. Their hair appears to be styled ("wavy"), inine" persona is a parody, a send-up of the fe-
like a woman's, while their "white hands" suggest male's "proper" role. Just as their presumed sexual
delicacy, their "white faces," makeup or powder. deviation is a "deviation from the truth," a behav-
Just as the feminized Jew of the novel, Robert ioral "error," so the way they act in public is a de-
Cohn, is mocked for his excessive barbering, the liberate "deviation" from the "truth" of their gen-
homosexuals are scorned for their obvious concern der. Although one could argue that the men are
with appearance. Rather than exhibiting the reti- "camping" in order to destabilize the notion of
cence and rigidity associated with masculinity, they fixed (naturalized) gender characteristics-that
are overly and overtly expressive, uninhibited in theirs is a conscious deployment of gender for
the use of their bodies and voices. Jake's "diagno- strategic political ends-Jake cannot allow for the
sis" is conftrmed, his own masculinity momentar- possibility that they might truly be the way they
ily consolidated, by the policeman near the door of act. He cannot believe that these men are really like
the bar, who, in a gesture that bonds the two "real" that ("feminine") because they are male ....
men and marginalizes the homosexuals as "other,"
Jake's inability to perform sexually corre-
looks at Jake and smiles.
sponds to the homosexual's inability to perform his
But what is it, really, that Jake "reads"? It is "correct" gender. Jake's sexual inadequacy and the
not the sexual orientation of the men but rather a homosexual's gender transgression are therefore
set of signs, a visual (and aural) fteld-the body- conjoined: neither can properly signify "masculin-
upon which is inscribed, and through which is en- ity." ...
acted, their otherwise concealed sexuality. The
It is also notable that "it is not Brett who elic-
young men have their homosexuality "written" on
its Jake's obvious and immediate attraction"
their faces and on their bodies. They "perform"
[Davidson and Davidson, 1987] when she enters
their sexuality through facial expressions and phys-
the bar, but rather her homosexual companions: "I
ical gestures. Just as Jake's wound remains un-
was very angry. Somehow they always made me
named, so, too, homosexuality is never mentioned;
angry. 1 know they are supposed to be amusing,
both are instead disclosed through, in the words of
and you should be tolerant, but 1 wanted to swing
Arnold and Cathy Davidson, "sexual and textual
on one, anyone, anything to shatter that superior,
absences." The reader, like Jake, "must read the os-
simpering composure." The urge to physically as-
tensible sexual preference of the young men from
sault the homosexual man-what we now call "gay
the various signs provided and thereby decode
bashing," which many theorists argue constitutes
covert private sexuality from overt public sociabil-
an attack on the "feminine" rooted in misogyny-
ity." ["Decoding the Hemingway Hero in The Sun
quite clearly derives from Jake's anger; but what,
Also Rises" in New Essays on The Sun Also Rises,
precisely, is he so angry about? The source of his
edited by Arnold E. and Cathy N. Davidson, 1987.]
rage is in part his frustration at being unable to cat-
Homosexuality is therefore not simply a matter of
egorize the homosexual within the male/female bi-
erotic object choice and same-gender sex. It is also
nary. That these men represent and enact gender
a way of being, for the performativity of the young
nonconformity violates the cultural boundaries es-
men indicates-is, in fact, predictive of-their bed-
tablished to demarcate appropriate social and sex-
room behavior....
ual behavior. Any attempted remapping of these
Jake objects not so much to homosexual be- culturally agreed upon borders exposes the arbi-
havior (which is unseen) but to "femininity" ex- trariness of their frontiers, which in turn calls for a
pressed through the "wrong" body. Gender-cross- rethinking of the ontological groundwork of
ing is what troubles Jake; the rupture between a sex/gender itself. At the same time, his anger is

Volume 5 339
The Sun Also Rises

self-hatred displaced onto the homosexual, for Jake when he regards himself what he sees is the body
has lost (physically and psychologically) his signi- of a male that lacks the sign of "manliness." This
fying phallus. What's more, the tolerance he knows tends to support Jonathan Dollimore's observation
he should have for the homosexuals may also be [in his Sexual Dissidence: Augustine to Wilde,
the same tolerance he hopes Brett will have for him Freud to Foucault, 1991] that "the most extreme
and his sexual failing. threat to the true form of something comes not so
much from its absolute opposite or its direct nega-
In a cultural system that authorizes a single
tion, but in the form of its perversion.... [which is]
mode of self-presentation for each gender, trans-
very often perceived as at once utterly alien to what
gressing the binary law of male/female constitutes
it threatens, and yet, mysteriously inherent within
a crime. Just as homosexuality is often constructed
it." ...
as "a crime against nature," so, too, this crime, or
sin, against naturalized gender performance must In the following chapter (4), Jake's affiliation
be punished: Jake wishes "to shatter that superior, with the homosexual and with gender reversal is
simpering composure" which he sees as a homo- even more pronounced. While undressing for bed,
sexual or "feminine" trait. Robert Cohn's manner he sees himself in the mirror: "Undressing, I looked
is also described as "superior." To whom or what at myself in the mirror of the big armoire beside
the homosexual is "superior" is not expressed, but the bed. That was a typically French way to fur-
Jake apparently believes that they are, or think that nish a room. Practical, too, I suppose. Of all the
they are, "superior" to him. He is also disturbed by ways to be wounded. I suppose it was funny. I put
their "simpering composure," though one may my pajamas on and got into bed." While the di-
wonder whether it is their composure itself which gression concerning the armoire might at first ap-
troubles Jake, or its simpering nature. In either case, pear to be an attempt to avoid seeing himself or
the ostensibly heterosexual man here feels threat- talking about what he sees, it is actually a symbolic
ened by the homosexual's acceptance and assertion corollary of Jake's wound. Just as the armoire rep-
of his presumably "incorrect" gender behavior. If resents "a typically French way to furnish a room,"
he is superior to Jake, then it is axiomatic that Jake so the penis is "typical" of the male body. Whereas
is inferior to him, for Jake himself hopes that he the armoire is "practical," however, Jake's mem-
signifies what he is not, namely, the potent and ber is not (at least in relation to his sex life); rather,
powerful heterosexual male. it is all ''furnishing.'' In relation to the female, the
homosexual's sex is similarly ''furnishing.'' That
What Jake is unable or unwilling to acknowl- Jake regards his wound as "funny" recalls his ear-
edge (disclose) is that his relationship to women lier observation that homosexual men "are sup-
resembles that of the homosexual. Though for dif- posed to be amusing," though clearly neither are a
ferent reasons, both Jake and the homosexual man source of much humor. Both are instead ironic ob-
do not relate to women in accordance with the de- jects of derision.. .. That which is present signifies
mands of a heterosexuallheterosexist culture. What absence-not of desire but of ability. The mirror
Jake desires but cannot do is to perform sexually reflects appearance; it does not reveal essence. At
with women, the same performance rejected by the the same time, the "external signs" which it pre-
homosexual. While the homosexual rejects hetero- sents can, if "read" correctly, provide the clues nec-
sexual performance, he does so in favor of an al- essary to apprehend "inner truth." In Jake's case,
ternative. Jake, on the other hand, is bound by a that "truth" is his fractured sense of masculine iden-
"masculine" signification and desire which is "un- tity. In holding the mirror up to himself, what Jake
true"-he cannot do what his appearance suggests discovers is his close affiliation with the homo-
he can. The homosexual signifies differently, Jake sexual men.
not at all, and so the homosexual is seen as "supe-
Inasmuch as Jake considers himself to be het-
rior."
erosexual, the novel posits the site of sexuality in
Jake's body stands, as it were, between him- gendered desire rather than sexual behavior. What
self and his desires; the homosexual's "perverse" distinguishes Jake from the homosexual men is
desire, however, circumvents the "natural" physi- gender performance and erotic object choice. By
cal act. It is therefore not the homosexual's denial this logic, it follows that sexuality is determined by
or disinterest in women which offends Jake but the gender identification rather than sexual activity.
renunciation of naturalized male desire. When he Jake's sex can no longer penetrate a woman (and
looks at the homosexual man, what Jake sees is the so all sexual relations are apparently ruled out), but
body of a male that does not perform as a "man"; he remains heterosexual by virtue of his desire. If

340 Novels for Students


The Sun Also Rises

the men from the bar discontinued same-gender soil" suggests that Jake is estranged from enduring
sex, they would presumably remain homosexual. values, for "the earth abideth forever." Jake has be-
Sexual identity issues not from the sex act but from come "precious," "ruined" by "fake European stan-
covert desire or overt social behavior.... dards," so that his very identity has been compro-
mised, if not corrupted, by foreign influences.
It remains unclear, however, whether Jake's
Similarly, Jake's body has been corrupted by a for-
masculinity is in question because of the lost body
eign object, perhaps a mortar shell. This has in turn
part (morphology) or because of his inability to ex-
transformed his corporeal existence into something
press what is regarded as masculine-that is, het-
foreign or other-not quite a "whole" man but cer-
erosexual performativity. This loss is later seen in
tainly not a woman. Jake has come to inhabit the
relation to homosexuality itself, when Jake's
demi-monde, the world of the outcast, the lost, the
wound is directly linked to homosexual identity.
homosexual-the decadent other par excellence.
This linkage occurs about midway through the What's more, like Lawrence's, Hemingway's "anx-
novel, during the fishing trip Jake takes with his ieties about homosexuality were conjoined with
friend Bill Gorton before the fiesta. The fishing class antagonism" [Dollimore, 1991]-his antipa-
episode is one of what Wendy Martin calls Hem- thy for the rich, the "mincing gentry."
ingway's "pastoral interludes, in which his male
characters seek relief from social tensions," part of Jake, like the homosexual, is a habitue of cafes,
a tradition in American fiction "that begins with where one "does" very little except talk, and the
Cooper and Brackenridge and extends through homosexual, the female, and the Jew are con-
Hawthome, Melville, and Twain." ["Brett Ashley structed as overly discursive. (Another of Heming-
as New Woman in The Sun Also Rises"] This "pas- way's fears was that writing-talking-was un-
toral interlude" is also a "set piece" profoundly col- manly, for it is not "doing.") The gay man,
ored by the homoerotic element. ... In The Sun Also however, is like a woman in that he "hangs around"
Rises the physical battle between male rivals is and doesn't work much. His only "work" is night-
most overtly expressed in the bullfight, where two work related to sex, just as the "proper" work for
such signifiers are the man and the bull. And just a woman is to serve her man. Even Brett, the in-
as Jake is a spectator at the bullfight rather than a dependent Modem Woman, exists only in relation
participant, so, too, he can only look on as other to men-Jake, Mike, Robert, Pedro, Count Mip-
men (Robert Cohn, Mike Campbell, Pedro pipopolous, the homosexuals.
Romero) compete for the affections of Brett Ash-
Bill goes on to say that Jake doesn't work, af-
ley. The arena where "real" men compete-
ter all, and that while some claim he is supported
whether the bullring or the bedroom-is for Jake a
by women, others insist that he's impotent. A man
foreclosed area of emotional and psychic involve-
who is supported by women is of course not a "real"
ment.
man, but what Bill means by "impotent" is am-
Whether "greenwood," bullring, or battlefield, biguous. He may believe that Jake is sexually im-
these episodes are intense moments of male bond- potent or that as a decadent American who has
ing, which for Mario Mieli (and I concur) is always adopted "fake" European standards he is psychi-
an expression of a "paralysed and unspoken ho- cally impotent. In either case, the link between non-
mosexuality, which can be grasped, in the negative, normative sexuality and decadence is clear. Jake
in the denial of women." [Homosexuality and Lib- responds to Bill by saying, "I just had an accident."
eration: Elements of a Gay Critique, 1980.] While But Bill tells Jake, "Never mention that.. .. That's
alone and apart from the world, Bill teases Jake by the sort of thing that can't be spoken of. That's
asking him if he knows what his real "trouble" is: what you ought to work up into a mystery. Like
"You're an expatriate [Bill explains]. One of the Henry's bicycle." Once again, just as homosexual-
worst type.... You've lost touch with the soil. You ity is the love that dare not speak its name, so Jake' s
get precious. Fake European standards have ruined "accident" should not be discussed. "Henry's bi-
you. You drink yourself to death. You become ob- cycle" is a reference to Henry James and the "ob-
sessed by sex. You spend all your time talking, not scure hurt" he suffered while a teenager---either a
working. You are an expatriate, see? You hang physical wound which rendered him incapable of
around cafes." Jake' s association with the old world sexual performance or a psychic "hurt," the real-
places him within the shadow of European deca- ization of his homosexuality. [R. W. B. Lewis, The
dence, which is seen as a performance, a role un- Jameses: A Family Narrative, 1991.] The failure to
becoming to him. That he has "lost touch with the perform in the culturally prescribed way (hetero-

Volume 5 341
The Sun Also Rises

sexually) is therefore figured as "de-masculiniz- policeman in khaki directing traffic. He raised his
ing." baton. The car slowed suddenly pressing Brett
Jake and Bill then banter about whether against me. 'Yes,' I said. 'Isn't it pretty to think
Henry's wound was suffered while riding a bicy- so?''' Earlier in the novel, Georgette pressed
cle or a horse, with attendant puns on "joy-stick" against Jake while in a cab, and now Brett is thrown
and "pedal." When Jake "stands up" for the tricy- against the body of a man who desires more than
cle, Bill replies, "I think he's a good writer, too." he can do; he wants not just "pressing" but pene-
He adds that Jake is "a hell of a good guy": tration. Once again the symbolic policeman is pre-
sent, but this time he isn't smiling; he and Jake are
Listen you're a hell of a good guy, and I'm fonder no longer members of the same "club." This time
of you than anybody on earth. I couldn't tell you that
in New York. It'd mean I was a faggot. That was
his raised baton is a rebuke. The policeman, a
what the Civil War was about. Abraham Lincoln was "manly" authority figure, is not only "mounted"
a faggot. He was in love with General Grant. So was (and perhaps ''well-mounted'') on a horse (sug-
Jefferson Davis. Lincoln just freed the slaves on a gesting a "stud" or "stallion" while recalling
bet. The Dred Scott case was framed by the Anti-Sa- Henry's "accident"), but also a uniformed presence
loon League. Sex explains it all. The Colonel's Lady
whose "raised" baton is suggestive not only of an
and Judy O'Grady are Lesbians under the skin.
erect phallus but also of the baton of a conductor
That Jake opts for the tricycle over the horse or military officer, two whose role is to orchestrate
as the instrument of Henry's ''unmanning'' implies the performance of others, though Jake can no
that the modem world of the machine has had a longer perform.
negative, disruptive effect on traditional male/fe-
The sun, almost always figured as "male" (and
male roles. When Bill acknowledges that Henry, in
in most Indo-European languages grammatically of
spite of his wound, was "a good writer" (could still
the "male gender"), "ariseth" and "goeth down," as
perform as an artist), he is also reassuring Jake that
does a male. The earth, a female/maternal signifier,
he can still perform as a good friend and "proper"
"abideth forever," and "the soil," it will be recalled,
man-fishing, eating, drinking. Jake will not be
is what Jake has "lost touch" with. As Amold and
banished from the homosocial realm where all
Cathy Davidson note, "Jake's last words readily de-
"good guys" go to escape from the debilitating in-
volve into an endless series of counter-statements
fluence of women.
that continue the same discourse: 'Isn't it pretty to
While Jake may now occupy an uncertain think so?' I 'Isn't it pretty to think isn't it pretty to
place between the genders, Bill continues to be think so?''' This "negation," as the Davidsons call
"fender" of him than anybody. Defending himself it, closes the novel and returns us to its title, for
from any potential "charge" of homosexuality, Bill "only the earth-not heroes, not their successes or
quickly adds that had they been in New York, he their failures-abideth forever." [Davidson and
wouldn't be able to voice his affection for Jake Davidson, 1993.] The use of so ''feminine'' a word
without being a "faggot"; European decadence as "pretty" further underscores Jake's mixed gen-
makes it possible to speak the unspeakable. With- der identification as well as the "feminine" quali-
out belaboring Bill's mock history of the Civil War, ties of life which abide forever.
we should remark that "sex explains it all." The
Source: Ira Elliott, "Performance Art: Jake Bames and
"truth" of the self is revealed, after all, in sex; and
'Masculine' Signification in The Sun Also Rises," in Amer-
homosexuality (in this instance, lesbianism) is in- ican Literature, Vol. 67, No. I, March, 1995, pp. 77-91.
scribed in the body, concealed ''under the skin." If
we recall that male homosexuality may be "read" Robert lv. Cochran
in external signs, it appears here that lesbian sexu-
In this excerpt, Cochran disagrees with the
ality is not similarly marked by gender nonconfor-
body of criticism which finds The Sun Also Rises
mity, that concealed lesbian identity cannot be dis-
overtly cynical, focusing instead on the circularity
cerned through observing performance but only by
of the human condition.
unmasking what is hidden in the body, under the
skin. This seems to suggest that lesbianism is con- Emphasis in the considerable body of criticism
genital, while male homosexuality is performative. in print on The Sun Also Rises rests with the cyn-
The novel concludes with the justly famous icism and world-weariness to be found in the novel.
scene of Jake and Brett together in a cab: "'Oh, Although Lionel Trilling in 1939 afforded his read-
Jake,' Brett said, 'we could have had such a ers a salutary, corrective view, most commentators
damned good time together.' Ahead was a mounted have found the meaning inherent in the pattern of

342 Novels for Students


The Sun Also Rises

the work despairing. Perhaps most outspoken is omissions as ironically absent, as evidence, that is,
E. M. Halliday, who sees Jake Barnes as adopting of Hemingway' s application of his celebrated "ice-
"a kind of desperate caution" as his modus vivendi. berg" principle-in this instance of a knowledge
Halliday concludes that the movement of the novel shared between the author and reader of the bulk
is a movement of progressive "emotional insular- of the iceberg which floats beneath the surface. But
ity" and that the novel's theme is one of "moral at- is it not just as likely that the omissions are made
rophy." ["Hemingway's Narrative Perspective," in not in the service of irony, but quite simply in the
Sewanee Review, 1952.] In his "The Death of Love service of exclusion? The so-called "Hemingway
in The Sun Also Rises," Mark Spilka fmds a simi- Code" is designed, I suggest, not to provide a
larly negative meaning in the novel. Thus Spilka means of survival in a life which is a vain endeavor
arrives at the position that in naming "the abiding to discover meaning, but rather to provide a means
earth" as the hero of the novel, Hemingway was of survival which itself is meaning. This I take to
"perhaps wrong ... or at least misleading." [Twelve be the import of that passage in the novel, so read-
Original Essays on Great American Novels, 1958.] ily identified as important, but so potentially "mis-
But if Hemingway was misleading in so iden- leading," in which Jake thinks,
tifying the novel's hero, he was misleading in a You paid some way for everything that was any good.
fashion consistent with his "misleading" choice of I paid my way into enough things that I like, so that
epigraph from Ecclesiastes and consistent with the I had a good time. Either you paid by learning about
"misleading" pattern he incorporated in the text of them, or by experience, or by taking chances, or by
his novel. Far from indicating insularity and moral money. Enjoying living was learning to get your
money's worth and knowing when you had it. You
atrophy, the novel evidences circularity and moral
could get your money's worth. The world was a good
retrenching. Much Hemingway criticism-always place to buy in. It seemed like a fine philosophy. In
excepting Trilling's-demonstrates the reaction of five years, I thought, it will seem just as silly as all
conventional wisdom to healthy subversion of that the other fine philosophies I've had.
brand of wisdom. Hence the often truly sad gulf
Perhaps that wasn't true, though. Perhaps as you went
which Trilling laments between the pronounce-
along you did learn something. I did not care what it
ments of Hemingway "the man" and the artistically was all about. All I wanted to know was how to live
indirect achievement of Hemingway "the artist." in it. Maybe if you found out how to live in it you
["Hemingway and His Critics," Partisan Review, learned from that what it was all about.
1939.] Jake Barnes, to deal with the central char-
acter of but one of Hemingway' s novels, is far more Certainly Jake is not rejecting life, any more
than the "desperately cautious" mover through life than Count Mippipopolous (" 'one of us,' " Brett in-
which Halliday calls him. Like the Biblical sists) is "dead." Nor is love dead in The Sun Also
Preacher, Jake is a worldly wise accepter of the na- Rises; it is, rather, unattainable--or better, never to
ture of the human condition. That condition is, to be consummated. All of which is to say that The
be sure, a predicament, for as Hemingway more Sun Also Rises is a far less bitter and a far more
than once baldly stated, life is tragic. But recogni- mature book than is A Farewell to Arms.
tion of the tragic nature of life is by no means nec- In any event, nothing in the passage actually
essarily a cause for despair. If any readers of The chosen and printed as the second of the two
Sun Also Rises become misdirected, they are cer- epigraphs for The Sun Also Rises is in contradic-
tainly not misled by Hemingway. tion to Hemingway's assertion that the abiding
The opening verses of the Book of Ecclesiastes earth is the hero of his novel. There can be no deny-
are ambiguous, and the individual reader's re- ing, however, that circularity such as that contained
sponses to these and subsequent verses are varied. in the epigraph may be employed by an author to
One must assume that Hemingway found the dom- suggest meaninglessness. Perhaps it may even be
inant tone of Ecclesiastes right for his artistic pur- said that our usual response to circularity is that it
poses, but one hastens to recognize the distinct pos- suggests meaninglessness.... But when in a liter-
sibility that that overall tone is not one of ary work circularity is demonstrated to be the pat-
world-weariness (although the temptation to think tern of life, the response of the reader is to be gov-
so is great at many junctures) but of worldly wis- erned by the artist's presentation; whether the
dom. In reading the epigraph from Ecclesiastes author is complaining about what he regards as an
which Hemingway provides, one is struck by the inescapable fact of life or whether he is stating what
omission of all occurrences of "Vanity of vanities." he regards as an unalterable fact must emerge from
Most Hemingway critics appear to regard these the work itself.

Volume 5 343
The Sun Also Rises

And so to the text of The Sun Also Rises. To may once more enjoy such a sobering experience
begin with, let us not forget that, as John Rouch as being "kicked in the head early in the game"?
says, "Jake Barnes is telling the story in retrospect. Jake's thoughts after he has sent the telegram
Because Jake has lived through these events, he is to Brett at the Hotel Montana do not support
well aware of what is going to happen." And let us Rouch's contention that Jake undergoes a change.
further agree with Rouch that " ... Jake knows that Indeed, Jake's advice to Cohn to give up the ro-
the essential story is contained between the two cab mantic notion that he can further his experience of
drives of Jake and Brett." ["Jake Barnes as Narra- "life" by taking a trip to South America is placed
tor," Modern Fiction Studies, 1965-66] Let us add very early in the novel precisely to establish that
to these observations of Rouch, the second of which Jake the character, like Jake the narrator, has long
so clearly intimates a coming full circle, Jake's since learned in a broad and fundamental way "how
thoughts after he has framed his telegram to Brett, to be": "'Listen, Robert, going to another country
who awaits his aid in the Hotel Montana in Madrid: doesn't make any difference. I've tried all that. You
"That seemed to handle it. That was it. Send a girl can't get away from yourself by moving from one
off with one man. Introduce her to another to go place to another. There's nothing to that. '" ...
off with him. Now go and bring her back. And sign Jake Barnes is especially privileged, both as
the wire with love. That was it all right. I went in narrator and as character: even before the events
to lunch." Echoing Rouch, I would point out that reported in the novel took place, he understood
here Jake is not only "well aware" but perfectly what was acceptable and supportable in life in the
aware of the position he is in. The ironic tone of post-World War I era.
Jake's words is equal to the irony of his situation,
As Trilling so admirably explained in his cor-
and his going in to lunch is a simple demonstration
rective essay of 1939,
of his ability to function rather than to dwell mor-
bidly on the cruelty of Fate's dealings with him. Everyone in that time had feelings, as they called
them; just as everyone has "feelings" now. And it
Rouch speaks further of a change in Jake, but seems to me that what Hemingway wanted first to do
was to get rid of the "feelings," the comfortable lib-
what can that change be? Not only does Jake tell
eral humanitarian feelings: and to replace them with
the story in retrospect, knowing all along "what is the truth.
going to happen," but at no point in the novel does
Not cynicism, I think, not despair, as so often is said,
Jake announce that he has undergone a change. One
but this admirable desire shaped his famous style and
must concede, however, that after he has been hit his notorious set of admirations and contempts. The
by Cohn, Jake does experience a change in per- trick of understatement or tangential statement sprang
spective, a change which provides emotional prepa- from this desire. Men had made so many utterances
ration, since it falls between the passage "The fi- in such fine language that it had become time to shut
up. Hemingway's people, as everyone knows, are
esta was really started .... The things that happened
afraid of words and ashamed of them and the line
could only have happened during a fiesta. Every- from his stories which has become famous is the one
thing became quite unreal finally and it seemed as that begins "Won't you please," goes on through its
though nothing could have any consequences. It innumerable "pleases," and ends, "stop talking." Not
seemed out of place to think of consequences dur- only slain men but slain words made up the mortal-
ity of the war. ["Hemingway and His Critics."]
ing the fiesta" and the sentence early in Book Ill,
"The fiesta was over." This change in perspective, The Sun Also Rises serves a corrective func-
this new light of unfamiliarity and objectivity, is tion, then, or better, several corrective functions,
explained by reference to a "phantom suitcase." among them that articulated by Trilling and that
Mark Spilka has seriously battered that suitcase in implicit in Bill Gorton's parody of editorials of the
a totally unconvincing attempt to equate Jake and 'Twenties on the nature of American expatriates in
his suitcase with Robert Cohn and his Princeton Paris. But, as Malcolm Cowley has stated, "In 1926
polo-shirt; in an attempt to make Jake, like Cohn, one felt that he was making exactly the right re-
"a case of arrested development." But Jake is em- joinder to dozens of newspaper editorials then fresh
phatically not a case of arrested development; as in the public mind; in the 1960' s these have been
he says in another connection, he " 'just had an ac- forgotten." [Introduction to The Sun Also Rises,
cident. '" Cohn wishes he could "'play football 1954.]
again with what I know about handling myself, In addition to the corrective functions under-
now.''' Can it be seriously proposed that Jake too lined by Trilling and Cowley, The Sun Also Rises
wishes to play another football game, so that he contains a positive and timeless message with re-

344 Novels for Students


The Sun Also Rises

spect to the value of some kind of religious obser- The Spanish waiter who is so contemptuous of
vance. If traditional religion no longer seems to ap- the "sport" of running before the bulls is not un-
ply to human problems, within the world of the like the American editorial writers who fail to un-
novel the values of fishing and of bull-fighting re- derstand expatriates. The waiter may be said to be
main. Such a statement smacks of the hysterically Hemingway's spokesman for the uninitiated
obvious in a discussion of Hemingway's work, of reader, the reader who views bull-fighting as a
course, and unquestionably no further discussion of bloody, inhumane, pagan slaughter of a brute vic-
the experience of lake, Bill, and the Englishman tim in service of a brutal, "inhuman" human desire.
Harris on the Irati is required. Nor need one pur- And lake's nearly complete lack of interest in the
sue the general value of the bull-ring as the place Tour de France is another telling instruction by in-
of experiencing the moment of truth. But what direction that in Hemingway fishing and bull-fight-
seem to me the most important uses of circularity ing are to be regarded as far more than the mere
in the novel revolve about the symbolic distinction "outdoor sports" which Spilka wishes to dismiss
drawn between France and Spain, first in the open- them as.
ing three paragraphs of Chapter X, and finally in
Therefore, like the monastery at Roncevalles,
the last chapter of the novel:
which Bill and Harris agree is "remarkable" but not
The waiter seemed a little offended about the flow- "the same as" the fishing on the Irati, traditional
ers of the Pyrenees, so I overtipped him. That made religious values are "nice" but no longer viable as
him happy. It felt comfortable to be in a country the values inherent in bull-fighting are viable-for
where it is so simple to make people happy. You can spectator as well as participant. With respect to the
never tell whether a Spanish waiter will thank you. observance of religious practices within a church,
Everything is on such a clear financial basis in
lake and Brett are in the position of Matthew
France. It is the simplest country to live in. No one
makes things complicated by becoming your friend Amold in his poem ''The Grande Chartreuse," a po-
for any obscure reason. If you want people to like sition of respectful alienation.
you you have only to spend a little money. I spent a
little money and the waiter liked me. He would be
With respect to bull-fighting, Brett has had no
glad to see me back. I would dine there again some initiation prior to the Pamplona festival of the
time and he would be glad to see me, and would want novel. It is she, then, and not the aficionado lake
me at his table. It would be a sincere liking because who must represent the in-group in being put to the
it would have a sound basis. I was back in France. test. Desperately in need of some meaning for her
life, Brett reaches a kind of nadir of promiscuity in
Next morning I tipped every one a little too much at
the hotel to make more friends, and left on the morn-
going off to San Sebastian with Robert Cohn. La-
ing train for San Sebastian. At the station I did not belled a "Circe" by Cohn, Brett is, within one page
tip the porter more than I should because I did not of text of the novel, first debarred from a church
think I would ever see him again. I only wanted a during the San Fermin religious procession and
few good French friends in Bayonne to make me wel- then kept from participating in a dance, so that she
come in case I should come back there again. I knew may serve as "an image to dance around." Wish-
that if they remembered me their friendship would
be loyal.
ing to enter the church and wishing to dance, Brett
is denied the privilege of entering into either ritu-
At Iron we had to change trains and show passports. alistic activity. In concert with her wearing her hair
I hated to leave France. Life was so simple in France. in a mannish bob, these details symbolize Brett's
I felt I was a fool to be going back into Spain. In lack of spiritual fulfillment.
Spain you could not tell about anything.
Because she is unfulfilled, when the handsome
In Spain, one of course "could not tell about young Romero captures her fancy Brett is in grave
anything" because in Spain one encounters a Mon- danger of becoming the bitch she feels herself to
toya. But, important as Montoya is to Hemingway's be, but more significantly she may destroy for a
establishing that lake has aficion and that Pedro time the entire meaningful cycle of life and death
Romero's greatness must be nourished and pro- which is bull-fighting in Spain. In the novel, par-
tected for the rare phenomenon it is, the fiesta at ticular definition of this cycle begins not with an-
Pamplona and the total religious realm of bull- nouncement of the death of an as yet unnamed run-
fighting is described in such a way as to stress its ner before the bulls and not with the waiter's
elemental force in providing the integrity, the unity, contemptuous judgment following the runner's
the never-ending cyclical pattern at the heart of death, but rather with that remarkable paragraph
Spanish life. immediately following the conversation between

Volume 5 345
The Sun Also Rises

lake and the waiter. A notable example of the bare dom are therefore neither extravagant, nor, in the
Hemingway style, the paragraph is not, as it may total context of the novel, small compensation for
at first blush appear to be, ironic in tone. Rather, what the Lost Generation has lost. Brett indeed is
the style complements the ritualistic activities it re- not" 'one of these bitches who ruins children,'''
ports, investing the death of Vicente Girones with and the capacity for moral discrimination required
a dignity which this simple farmer could not pos- to make such a decision indeed is "'sort of what
sibly have achieved through some other manner of we have instead of God.''' At this point of devel-
dying. opment in Hemingway's novel one is reminded of
And the succeeding paragraph provides the the brilliant insight provided by William Styron's
tension which builds the basic conflict of the novel, Peyton Loftis: "'Those people back in the Lost
for in this paragraph we are immediately informed Generation ... They thought they were lost. They
that the bull "who [not "which"] killed Vicente were crazy. They weren't lost. What they were do-
Girones ... was killed by Pedro Romero as the third ing was losing us.' "[ Lie Down in Darkness, 1957.]
bull of that same afternoon." We are also told that Still, in the flush of her considerable moral vic-
Pedro presented the ear of Bocanegra to Brett, and tory, Brett is swept on to her final-s-and this is ex-
that Brett "left both ear and handkerchief, along travagant-lamentation: '''Oh, lake,' Brett said,
with a number of Muratti cigarette-stubs, shoved 'we could have had such a damned good time to-
far back in the drawer of the bed-table that stood gether.'" Giving ''them'' "irony," if not "pity," lake
beside her bed in the Hotel Montoya, in Pamplona." responds, "'Yes. Isn't it pretty to think so?'" In
By her callous indifference to the cycle of life and this truly concluding line, Hemingway cuts the
death into which Romero has permitted her to in- sweetness of self-pity and avoids the curse of an
trude, Brett has broken the circle, has momentarily up-beat ending (a curse very clearly drawn down
robbed Vicente Girones of the significance of his upon Tyrone Power and Ava Gardner in the fmal
death. The Hotel Montoya is, for the moment at scene of the movie version of the novel) by having
least, corrupted. lake remain steady in his realistic, anti-romantic
Hemingway's having lake identify the bull and conception of life as it is.
report what became of the bull's ear before he has Life can be made worse by human beings who
him describe the bull-fight in which the ear is taken "behave badly." Robert Cohn characteristically be-
is a master stroke. When the moment of the kill is haves badly: he wonders if one might bet on the
described, the classic moment of perfection-that bull-fights; he falls asleep in the midst of gaiety;
of the tableau on the Grecian Urn or of the scene his tennis game falls apart when he is a moonsick
at the death of Old Ben in Faulkner's The Bear- calf in a world of bulls and matadors; he does not
is conveyed as a moment of supernal, eternal fight when he is insulted, then later hits lake, his
beauty. The viewing of that divine spectacle is an "best friend." And Brett begins to behave badly,
utterly spiritual, a fully religious experience. for the integrity of bull-fighting as a religious rit-
What remains, then, is for Brett to prove her- ual is dependent upon a valuing of the bull' s ear as
self sensitive to this religious meaning. By thought- a symbol of significant victory in a direct con-
lessly discarding the bull' s ear in a drawer full of frontation of life with death.
cigarette butts, Brett has profaned a religious struc- Phillip Young writes of the novel's ending,
ture; she has been guilty of sacrilege. To be wor- "Soon it is all gone, he is returned to Brett as be-
thy of lake, to provide the measure of the moral fore, and we discover that we have come full cir-
worth of the group, she must atone for the sin of cle, like all the rivers, the winds, and the sun, to
sacrilege. Her promiscuity is not her sin; it is her the place where we began. This is motion which
search. And her affair with Romero is not her sin: goes no place." [Ernes! Hemingway, 1952.] But
so long as the encounter is brief, Brett has been, as Geoffrey Moore is surely correct in speaking of the
lake suggests, "'probably damn good for him.'" "queer, twisted but nonetheless real sense of stan-
By giving Romero back to bull-fighting, his seri- dards in Brett." [Review of English Literature,
ousness and discipline intact, Brett in effect re- 1963.] Life and the bull-fight go on, and lake will
moves the bull's ear from the bed-table drawer and be welcome at the Hotel Montoya, as before, for
restores it to its rightful place in the religious rit- Brett's release ofPedro Romero guarantees that Vi-
ual of which it is a part. cente Girones will not have died in vain.
Brett's famous words describing her satisfac- Explicitly termed "values" in The Sun Also
tion in being strong enough to give Pedro his free- Rises are understated, but they are not undermined.

346 Novels for Students


A Tale of Two Cities

Heaven, we were all going direct the other way-in


short, the period was so far like the present period,
that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its be-
ing received, for good or for evil, in the superlative
degree of comparison only.

The key note struck is contradiction, but the


passage also points to the similarity between the
age of the French Revolution and Dickens's own.
His story insists that all ages are one in the call of
duty and the threat to civility and virtue. His most
virtuous characters in the book-Lucie, Darnay,
Carton, Manette, Lorry-are self-sacrificing, but,
unlike the Revolutionaries, who insist on self-
sacrifice for the sake of Revolution, Dickens's vir-
tuous ones give of themselves for another individ-
ual. For Dickens the grand sweep of historical
events is still dwarfed by the power of personal re-
lationships in which life, death, and renewal are
less ambiguous, as the Revolution disappears be-
fore Carton's final words: "It is a far, far better
thing I do than any I have ever done; it is a far, far
better rest I go to than any I have ever known."
Dickens's apparent solution to the problem of a
world so troubled that it spawns vengeful revolu-
tion is a call to a moral renewal in our personal re-
lationships which would make such revolutions un-
necessary.
Source: George V. Griffith, in an essay for Novels for Stu-
dents. Gale, 1999.

Leonard Manheim
In the following excerpt, Manheim uses Lucy
and Dr. Manette as examples of roles female and
male characters play in A Tale of Two Cities.

364 Novels for Students


A Tale of Two C es

Volume 5 365
A Tale of Two C es

366 Novels for Students


A Tale of Two Cities

came to him. The bracelet he sent to Ellen Lawless


Ternan had fallen into the hands of his wife Kate;
and he was determined to end his marriage and to
seduce Ellen. But he was in the midst of the re-
hearsals which had finally brought himself and
Ellen together; and he could not pause to think.
Amid Kate's tears, Forster's disapproval and a gen-
erally unnerving situation, he carried on in his fu-
rious possessed fashion, determined to have his
own way and yet to keep his hold on the public;
and in the midst of this spiritually and physically
racked condition, as he was holding back his agony
of mind by acting and producing The Frozen Deep,
the central idea of the novel burst upon him.

So much we know from his own statement. It


is clear then that we should be able to fmd the im-
print of his ordeal, his tormented choice, in the
novel. One would expect writers on his work to
concentrate on this problem; but so abysmally low
is the standard of Dickens criticism that no one has
even seriously raised the question at all.

Where then is the imprint of the situation to be


traced? By solving this point we can begin to un-
derstand what the novel itself is about, and the part
it plays in Dickens' development. One general as-
pect of the selection of theme is at once obvious.
The deep nature of the breach he is making with
all customary acceptances is driving him to make
a comprehensive effort to grasp history in a new
way. So far (except for Barnaby Rudge) he has been
content to use certain symbols to defme his sense
of basic historical conflict and movement. Yet all
the while the influence of Carlyle, both in his
French Revolution and his prophetic works like
Past and Present, has been stirring him with the
need for a direct statement of the historical issue
as well as a symbolic one; and now, as he is com-
ing close to a full confrontation of his opposition
to all ruling Victorian values, he feels the need to
set his story of conflicting wills in a manifestly rev-
olutionary situation: that on which he had so long
pondered as holding the clue to the crisis of his own
world.
Source: Leonard Manheim, "A Tale of Two Characters: A
Study in Multiple Projection," in Dickens Studies Annual, He had read and re-read Carlyle's history, till
1970, pp. 225-37.
its theme and material were richly present in his
mind; and now he wrote to the master asking for a
Jack lindsay loan of the cited authorities. The story goes that
In the following excerpt, Lindsay shows how Carlyle jokingly sent him all his reference-books,
events in Dickens' personal life strongly influenced 'about two cartloads.' And in the novel's preface
the plot and characters of A Tale of Two Cities. Dickens wrote:
Charles Dickens was in a driven demoniac It has been one of my hopes to add something to the
state of mind when the idea for A Tale ofTwo Cities popular and picturesque means of understanding that

Volume 5 367
A Tale of Two Cities

terribletime,thoughno one can hopeto add anything experience. Dorrit is haunted by fear of social ex-
to the philosophy of Mr. Carlyle's wonderful book. posure, which comes fmally in the collapse of Mer-
But though this need to make a general re- dle (the exposure of the theft basic in the economic
consideration of the nature of historical movement system). Dorrit thus from one angle embodies
and change was certainly central in the impulse that Dickens's deep fears of the past, fears of being ex-
Dickens felt, he had to fuse the overt theme with a posed, fears of being driven back on the terrible
more immediately personal nexus of emotion and moment of loss which therefore threatens to return
imagery before it could take full grip of him. In the in exacerbated form. He also embodies the bad con-
midst of his domestic misery and frenzied play-act- science of a whole society which dares not con-
ing he did not feel simply an intellectual need to template truly its origins. But in Manette the sym-
revalue history. The desire to break through ob- bolism goes much deeper. The experience of
structions and to mate with Ellen could turn into oppressive misery has not merely twisted him, as
the desire to write about the French Revolution only it twisted Dorrit; it has broken down the whole sys-
if some image or symbol made him feel a basic co- tem of memory in his psyche. The problem then is:
incidence between his own experience and the Rev- What can restore consciousness? what can connect
olution. What then was this image? the upper and the hidden levels of the mind again?
Manette is kept going by a blind exercise of the
It was that of the Imprisoned Man in the craft learned in the cell of oppression, and only the
Bastille. The Lost Man who has been jailed so long intrusion of events from the Revolution can bring
that he has become an automaton of oppressed mis- him back to an active consciousness and release
ery; who has forgotten even the source of his him from his obsession. But the drama of objecti-
wrong, the cause of his dehumanizing misery; who fying in action the pattern of memory, the repeti-
needs to break out of the deadly darkness of stone tion-compulsion which must be broken, inevitably
in order to become human again, to learn the truth brings its shocks, its apparent evocation of forces
and regain love. as destructive as those working from the traumatic
Here then is the core of the novel. The origi- level. The test lies in the way that evocation is
nally-intended title was Recalled to Life. Though faced, the way it works out. So Manette fmds that
Dickens dropped this for the whole novel, he kept the bitterness engendered by his sufferings as an
it for the first part, and it expressed the originating innocent wronged man has tangled him up in a net
emotion of the story. A Tale of Two Cities is built (inside a larger reference of social action and re-
up from the episode of Dr. Manette's unjust im- action, guilt and innocence) from which escape is
prisonment; and its whole working-out is con- possible only after a great sacrifice has been made.
cerned with the effects of that unjust deprivation of The old must die for the new to be born; man can-
light and joy: effects which entangle everyone not attain regeneration without accepting its sacri-
round the Doctor and recoil back on his own head ficial aspect. In the story this appears in the strug-
in unpredictable ways. The Doctor's fate is thus for gle between Darnay and Carton for Manette's
Dickens both a symbol of the Revolution, its deeds, daughter, and the solution that mates Darnay and
causes, and consequences, and of himself, immured the girl, yet sends Carton to a regeneration in death.
in a maddening cell of lies and cruelties, and seek- In this dire tangle of moral consequences we
ing to break through into the truth, into a full and see Dickens confronting his own confused situa-
happy relationship with his fellows. It was the de- tion and trying to equate his own moment of painful
mented sense of environing pressures, of an unjust compelled choice with the revolutionary moment
inescapable mechanism, which caught Dickens up in which a defmite break is made with the old, amid
in the midst of his wild mummery and gave him a violent birthpangs, and makes possible the rebirth
sense of release when he determined to write the of life, the renewal of love and innocence.
novel.
The lacerated and divided state of Dickens's
It has been pointed out (by T. A. Jackson) that emotions at this moment of choice is revealed by
there is a close underlying similarity between the the device of having two heroes who are practically
plot of A Tale and that of Little Dorrit (the pre- twins in appearance and who love the same girl.
ceding novel in which Dickens had at last fully Both Carton and Darnay are generous fellows, but
marshalled his condemnation of Victorian society). one is morally well-organized, the other is feck-
Both Dorrit and Manette are imprisoned for a score lessly a misfit. The latter, however, by his devoted
of years; both are released by forces outside their death reaches the same level of heroic generosity
control and then continue tormented by their jail- as his rival; indeed goes higher. His gesture of re-

368 Novels for Students


A Tale of Two Cities

nunciation completes the ravages of the Revolution sis and defining its tensions in the depths of the
with its ruthless justice, and transforms them into spirit, makes a serious effort to work out the process
acts of purification and redemption, without which of change, the rhythms of give-and-take, the in-
the life of renewed love would not be possible. volved struggles with their many inversions and op-
Thus, in the story, Dickens gets the satisfac- posed refractions, the ultimate resolution in death
tion of nobly giving up the girl and yet mating with and love, in the renewal of life.
her. He splits himself in the moment of choice, dies,
The working-out of the clash of forces is in
and yet lives to marry the beloved, from whom the
fact more thoroughly done than in any previous
curse born out of a tainted and divided society is
work of Dickens. The weakness lies in the com-
at last removed. And at the same time he is Manette,
parative thinness of characterization. The strain of
the man breaking out of a long prison-misery, who
grasping and holding intact the complex skein of
seeks only truth and justice, and whose submerged
the story is too much for Dickens at this difficult
memory-drama projects itself as both the Carton-
moment of growth. But his instinct is, as always,
Damay conflict and the socially-impinging
right. He needed this strenuous effort to get outside
dilemma that disrupts and yet solves that conflict.
himself: no other way could he master the difficult
There are thus a number of ambivalences in moment and rebuild his foundations. After it he
the story; and Dickens shows himself divided in his could return to the attack on the contemporary
attitude to the Revolution itself. His petty-bour- world with a new sureness, with new thews of
geois fear of mass-movements is still alive; but the drama, with new breadths of comprehension. The
fascination of such movements, which stirred so great works, Great Expectations and Our Mutual
strongly in Bamaby, is even keener than the fear. Friend, were made possible. (I am not here deal-
On the one hand he clings to the moral thesis to ing with those works; but it is interesting to note
defend the Revolution: the Old Regime was vilely that the imprisonment-theme fmds its completion
cruel and bestialized people, it could not but pro- in the contrasted and entangled themes of Miss
voke excesses in return as the bonds slipped. But Havisham and the old convict, the self-imposed
this thesis, to which Carlyle had sought to give a prison of the traumatic moment and the socially-
grandiose religious tang, now merges for Dickens imposed prison of the criminal impulse, both merg-
with a deeper acceptance: ing to express the compulsions of an acquisitive so-
Crush humanity out of shape once more under sim- ciety.)
ilar hammers and it will twist itself into the same tor-
tured forms. Sow the same seed of rapacious license A Tale is not a successful work like the two
and oppression over again and it will surely yield the novels that followed it, but they would never have
same fruit according to its kind. been written without it. An inner strain appears in
Six tumbrils roll along the streets. Change these back the rigidity of tension between the thematic struc-
again to what they were, thou powerful enchanter ture and the release of character-fantasy. Such per-
Time, and they shall be seen to be the carriages of sons as Manette, however, show a new persistence
absolute monarchs, the equipages of feudal nobles,
of psychological analysis, and the Defarges show
the toilets of flaring Jezebels, the churches that are
not my Father's house but dens of thieves, the huts what untapped sources of dramatic force Dickens
of millions of starving peasants. could yet draw on. The final falsification of the
book's meaning came about through the melo-
This passage begins with the simple moral
drama based on its material, in which the empha-
statement; but the tumbrils, conjured up as mere
sis put on Carton sentimentalized away all the pro-
counterpoises to the feudal carriages, become em-
fundities.
blems of a great purification sweeping away the
reign of the old iniquity. They express a ruthless Lucie is meant to represent Ellen Teman; but
transformation of society and are far more than an at this stage Dickens knows very little about the
allegory of cruel tit-for-tat. Rather, they appear as real Ellen, and Lucie is therefore a stock-heroine.
forces of triumphant righteousness. Charles Damay, the winning lover, has the reveal-
Throughout the book there runs this ambiva- ing initials Charles D. Dickens with his love of
lent attitude to the Revolution, shuddering, yet in- name-meanings can seldom resist leaving at least
clining to a deep and thorough acceptance. Not a one or two such daydream-admissions among the
blank-cheque acceptance, but one based on the sub- names of a novel. Ellen was acting as Lucy in The
tle dialectics of conflict revealed by the story of Frozen Deep at the time when the novel's idea
Manette. For that story, symbolizing the whole cri- came.

Volume 5 369
Cumulative
Author/Title Index
A Bradbury, Ray
Fahrenheit 451: VI
D
Achebe, Chinua Bronte, Charlotte Democracy (Didion): V3
Things Fall Apart: V2 Dick, Philip K.
Jane Eyre: V4
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Bronte, Emily
Do Androids Dream of Electric
(Twain): VI Sheep?: V5
Wuthering Heights: V2
All Quiet on the Western Front Dickens, Charles
(Remarque): V4 Great Expectations: V4
Alvarez, Julia
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their c A Tale of Two Cities: V5
Didion, loan
Accents: V5 Card, Orson Scott Democracy: V3
Anderson, Sherwood Ender's Game: V5 Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant
Winesburg, Ohio: V4 Catch-22 (Heller): VI (Tyler): V2
Angelou, Maya The Catcher in the Rye Do Androids Dream of Electric
I Know Why the Caged Bird (Salinger): VI Sheep? (Dick): V5
Sings: V2 Cather, Willa Dorris, Michael
Animal Farm (Orwell): V3 My Antonia: V2 A Yellow Raft in Blue Water: V3
Annie John (Kincaid): V3 Ceremony (Marmon Silko): V4 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor
Atwood, Margaret The Chocolate War (Connier): V2 Crime and Punishment: V3
The Handmaid's Tale: V4 Chopin, Kate
Austen, lane The Awakening: V3
Pride and Prejudice: VI
The Autobiography of Miss Jane
The Chosen (Potok): V4
Cisneros, Sandra
E
Ellen Foster (Gibbons): V3
Pittman (Gaines): V5 The House on Mango Street: V2
Ellison, Ralph
The Awakening (Chopin): V3 Clemens, Samuel
Invisible Man: V2
The Adventures of Huckleberry
Ender's Game (Card): V5
Finn: VI
B The Color Purple (Walker): V5
Erdrich, Louise
Love Medicine: V5
Baldwin, lames Conrad, Joseph
Esquivel, Laura
Go Tell It on the Mountain: V4 Heart of Darkness: V2 Like Water for Chocolate: V5
The Bean Trees (Kingsolver): V5 Connier, Robert
Ethan Frome (Wharton): V5
The Bell Jar (Plath): VI The Chocolate War: V2
Bellow, Saul Crane, Stephen
Seize the Day: V4 The Red Badge of Courage: V4
Black Boy (Wright): VI Crime and Punishment F
Blair, Eric Arthur (Dostoyevsky): V3 Fahrenheit 451 (Bradbury): VI
Animal Farm: V3 Cry, the Beloved Country A Farewell to Arms
The Bluest Eye (Morrison): VI (Paton): V3 (Hemingway): VI

Volume 5 383
Faulkner

Faulkner, William
The Sound and the Fury: V4
I o
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Obasan (Kogawa): V3
Fitzgerald, F. Scott
(Angelou): V2 O'Connor,Flannery
The Great Gatsby: V2
In Country (Mason): V4 Wise Blood: V3
Flowers for Algernon (Keyes): V2
Invisible Man (Ellison): V2 Of Mice and Men (Steinbeck): VI
Forster, E. M. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
A Passage to India: V3 (Kesey): V2
Frankenstein (Shelley): VI
J One Hundred Years of Solitude
(Garcia Marquez): VS
Jane Eyre (Bronte): V4
Ordinary People (Guest): VI
G The Joy Luck Club (Tan): VI
July's People (Gordimer): V4
Orwell, George
Gaines, Ernest J. Animal Farm: V3
The Autobiography of Miss Jane The Outsiders (Hinton): VS
Pittman: VS
K
Giants in the Earth (Rolvaag): VS
Garcia Marquez, Gabriel Kesey, Ken p
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's A Passage to India (Forster): V3
Love in the Time of Cholera: VI
Nest: V2 Paton, Alan
One Hundred Years of Solitude:
Keyes, Daniel
vs Flowers for Algernon: V2
Cry, the Beloved Country: V3
Gardner, John The Pearl (Steinbeck): VS
Kincaid, Jamaica Plath, Sylvia
Grendel: V3 Annie John: V3
Gibbons, Kaye The Bell Jar. VI
Kingsolver, Barbara Potok, Chaim
Ellen Foster: V3 The Bean Trees: VS The Chosen: V4
The Giver (Lowry): V3 Knowles, John Pride and Prejudice (Austen): VI
Go Tell It on the Mountain A Separate Peace: V2
(Baldwin): V4 Kogawa, Joy
Gelding, William Obasan: V3 R
Lord of the Flies: V2
The Red Badge of Courage (Crane):
Gordimer, Nadine
V4
July's People: V4 L Remarque, Erich Maria
Great Expectations (Dickens): V4 Lee, Harper All Quiet on the Western Front: V4
The Great Gatsby (Fitzgerald): V2 To Kill a Mockingbird: V2 Rolvaag, O. E.
Grendel (Gardner): V3 Les Miserables (Hugo): VS Giants in the Earth: VS
Guest, Judith Like Water for Chocolate
(Esquivel): VS
Ordinary People: VI
Lord of the Flies (Golding): V2
Love in the Time of Cholera (Garcfa
s
Salinger, J. D.
H Marquez): VI
Love Medicine (ErOOch): VS
The Catcher in the Rye: VI
The Handmaid's Tale (Atwood): V4 The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne): VI
Lowry, Lois Seize the Day (Bellow): V4
Hardy, Thomas
The Giver: V3 Separate Peace (Knowles): V2
Tess of the d'Urbervilles: V3
Hawthorne, Nathaniel Shelley,Mary
Frankenstein: VI
The Scarlet Letter: VI
Heart of Darkness (Conrad): V2
M Slaughterhouse-Five (Vonnegut): V3
Malamud, Bernard The Sound and the Fury (Faulkner):
Heller, Joseph
The Natural: V4 V4
Catch-22: VI Marmon Silko, Leslie Steinbeck, John
Hemingway, Ernest Ceremony: V4 OfMice and Men: VI
A Farewell to Arms: VI Mason, Bobbie Ann The Pearl: VS
The Sun Also Rises: VS In Country: V4 The Sun Also Rises (Hemingway): VS
Hinton, S.E. Morrison, Toui
The Outsiders: VS The Bluest Eye: VI
The House on Mango Street My Antonia (Cather): V2 T
(Cisneros): V2 A Tale of Two Cities (Dickens): VS
How the Garcfa Girls Lost Their Tan, Amy
Accents (Alvarez): VS N The Joy Luck Club: VI
Hugo, Victor The Natural (Malamud): V4 Tess of the d'Urbervilles (Hardy): V3
Les Miserables: VS Naylor, Gloria Their Eyes Were Watching God
Hurston, Zora Neale The Women of Brewster Place: (Hurston): V3
Their Eyes Were Watching V4 Things Fall Apart (Achebe): V2
God:V3 Night (Wiesel): V4 To Kill a Mockingbird (Lee): V2

3 8 4 Novels for Students


A Yellow Raft in Blue Water

Twain, Mark
The Adventures of Huckleberry
w Wise Blood (O'Connor): V3
Wright, Richard
Finn: VI Walker, Alice Black Boy: VI
Tyler, Anne The Color Purple: V5 Wuthering Heights (Bronte): V2
Dinner at the Homesick Wharton, Edith
Ethan Frome: V5
Restaurant: V2
WieseI, Eliezer y
v
Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr.
Night: V4
Winesburg, Ohio (Anderson): V4
The Women of Brewster Place
A Yellow Raft in Blue Water
(Dorris): V3

Slaughterhouse-Five: V3 (NayIor): V4

Volume 5 385
Cumulative
Nationality/Ethnicity Index
Card, Orson Scott
African American Ender's Game: VS
Guest, Judith
Ordinary People: VI
Angelou, Maya Cather, Willa Hawthome, Nathaniel
I Know Why the Caged Bird My Antonia: V2 The Scarlet Letter: VI
Sings: V2 Chopin, Kate HelIer, Joseph
Baldwin, James The Awakening: V3 Catch-22: VI
Go Tell It on the Mountain: V4 Cisneros, Sandra
Ellison, Ralph Hemingway, Ernest
The House on Mango Street: V2
Invisible Man: V2 A Farewell to Anns: VI
Clemens, Mark
Gaines, Ernest J. The Sun Also Rises: VS
The Adventures of Huckleberry
The Autobiography of Miss Jane Hinton, S. E.
Finn: VI
Pittman: VS The Outsiders: VS
Cormier, Robert
Hurston, Zora Neale Hurston, Zora Neale
The Chocolate War: V2
Their Eyes Were Watching Their Eyes Were Watching God: V3
Crane, Stephen
God:V3 The Red Badge of Courage: V4 Kesey, Ken
Kincaid, Jamaica Dick, Philip K. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's
Annie John: V3 Do Androids Dream of Electric Nest: V2
Morrison, Toni Sheep?: VS Keyes, Daniel
The Bluest Eye: VI Didion, Joan Flowers for Algernon: V2
Naylor, Gloria Democracy: V3 Kincaid, Jamaica
The Women of Brewster Place: V4 Dorris, Michael Annie John: V3
Walker, Alice A Yellow Raft in Blue Water: V3 Kingsolver, Barbara
The Color Purple: VS Ellison, Ralph The Bean Trees: VS
Wright, Richard Invisible Man: V2 Knowles, John
Black Boy: VI Erdrich, Louise A Separate Peace: V2
Love Medicine: VS Lee, Harper
American Faulkner, William To Kill a Mockingbird: V2
AIvarez, JuIia The Sound and the Fury: V4 Lowry, Lois
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Fitzgerald, F. Scott The Giver: V3
Accents: VS The Great Gatsby: V2 Mason, Bobbie Ann
Anderson, Sherwood Gaines, Ernest J. In Country: V4
Winesburg, Ohio: V4 The Autobiography of Miss Jane Morrison, Toni
AngeIou, Maya Pittman: VS The Bluest Eye: VI
I Know Why the Caged Bird Gardner, John O'Connor, Flannery
Sings: V2 Grendel: V3 Wise Blood: V3
Bradbury, Ray Gibbons, Kaye Plath, Sylvia
Fahrenheit 451: VI Ellen Foster: V3 The Bell Jar: VI

Volume 5 387
Potok, Chaim

Potok, Chaim Forster, E. M. Malamud, Bernard


The Chosen: V4 A Passage to India: V3 The Natural: V4
Rolvaag, O. E. Golding, William Wiesel, Eliezer
Giants in the Earth: VS Lord of the Flies: V2 Night: V4
Salinger, 1. D. Hardy, Thomas
The Catcher in the Rye: VI Tess of the d'Urbervilles: V3
Steinbeck, John Marmon Silko, Leslie Mexican
Of Mice and Men: VI Ceremony: V4 EsquiveI, Laura
The Pearl: VS Orwell, George Like Water for Chocolate: VS
Tan, Amy Animal Farm: V3
The Joy Luck Club: VI Shelley, Mary
Twain, Mark Frankenstein: VI
The Adventures of Huckleberry Native American
Finn: VI Dorris, Michael
Tyler, Anne Canadian A Yellow Raft in Blue Water: V3
Dinner at the Homesick Atwood, Margaret Erdrich, Louise
Restaurant: V2 The Handmaid's Tale: V4 Love Medicine: VS
Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr. Kogawa, Joy Marmon Silko, Leslie
Slaughterhouse-Five: V3 Obasan: V3 Ceremany: V4
Walker, Alice
The Color Purple: VS
Wharton, Edith Colombian Nigerian
Ethan Frome: VS Garcia Mlirquez, Gabriel Achebe, Chinua
Wright, Richard Love in the Time of Cholera: VI Things Fall Apart: V3
Black Boy: VI One Hundred Years of Solitude:
vs
Norwegian
Asian American Dominican Rolvaag, O. E.
Tan, Amy Giants in the Earth: VS
The Joy Luck Club: VI
Alvarez, Julia
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
Accents: VS
Romanian
Asian Canadian WieseI, Eliezer
Kogawa, Joy French Night: V4
Obasan: V3 Hugo, Victor
Les Miserables: VS
Russian
British Dostoyevsky, Fyodor
Austen, Jane German Crime and Punishment: V3
Pride and Prejudice: VI Remarque, Erich Maria
Blair, Eric Arthur All Quiet on the Western Front: V4
Animal Farm: V3 South African
Bronte, Charlotte Gordimer, Nadine
Jane Eyre: V4 Hispanic American July's People: V4
Bronte, Emily Cisneros, Sandra Paton, Alan
Wuthering Heights: V2 The House on Mango Street: V2 Cry, the Beloved Country: V3
Conrad, Joseph
Heart of Darkness: V2
Dickens, Charles Jewish West Indian
Great Expectations: V4 Bellow, Saul Kincaid, Jamaica
A Tale of Two Cities: VS Seize the Day: V4 Annie John: V3

388 Novels for Students


Subject/Theme Index
*Boldface denotes discussion in Ambition Asia
Themes section. Giants in the Earth: 158-161 Do Androids Dream of Electric
American Dream Sheep?: 84-85
Do Androids Dream of Electric Atonement
A Sheep?: 82 The Color Purple: 55, 59, 68-69
Abandonment How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Les Miserables: 231, 233, 239, 241
Les Miserables: 233, 239, 244, Accents: 175 A Tale of Two Cities: 353-354,
American Midwest 357-358
Abuse
The Autobiography ofMiss lane Australia
The Bean Trees: 33, 35-36, 44, 46
Pittman: 3 A Tale of Two Cities: 360
The Color Purple: 62-64, 68
Love Medicine: 217-219 Autobiography
Adulthood
American Northeast The Autobiography of Miss lane
Do Androids Dream of Electric
Ethan Frame: 122, 123, 129-130, Pittman: 17, 19
Sheep?: 96
Ender's Game: 106-109, 132,134
111-112,114-115 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
Accents: 169, 171-172, 175,
B
The Outsiders: 291, 293-294, Beauty
298,300,302 177
The Color Purple: 65, 67
Africa American South
Les Miserables: 251-252
The Color Purple: 48, 50--51, 56, The Autobiography ofMiss lane
Black Arts Movement
58-59 Pittman: 1-3, 12-16,21,23
The Color Purple: 48, 55, 57-59
Alcoholism, Drugs, and Drug The Bean Trees: 27-29, 34-35
American Southwest
Addiction
Do Androids Dream of Electric
Sheep?: 73
The Bean Trees: 27, 29, 33-35
American West
c
Canada
One Hundred Years of Solitude: Giants in the Earth: 147, 154, Love Medicine: 212, 217,
267-268 156 Censorship
The Sun Also Rises: 326, 333 Love Medicine: 210, 217-219 The Outsiders: 297-298
Alienation and Loneliness Anger Change and Transfonnation
Ender's Game: 106 The Autobiography of Miss lane Les Miserables: 239
Allegory Pittman: 3, 13-14, 16 Childhood
The Autobiography of Miss lane Ender's Game: 101, 106, Ender's Game: 112-115
Pittman: 24-25 119-120 Les Miserables: 241-243
The Pearl: 311-312, 314-315, Ethan Frome: 122, 128 The Outsiders: 295-297, 302-303
317-318, 320--322 Les Miserables: 233, 241 Choices and Consequences
Ambiguity Like Water for Chocolate: 192, The Autobiography of Miss lane
One Hundred Years of Solitude: 196, 198, 201 Pittman: 10
276 The Sun Also Rises: 339-340 The Bean Trees: 33

Volume 5 389
Christianity

Christianity Culture Accents: 169-170, 172-178,


Giants in the Earth: 149, 154, The Color Purple: 56 180-184, 186-187
166-167 Culture Clash Drama
Civil Rights How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Giants in the Earth: 161, 163
The Autobiography of Miss Jane Accents: 175 Dreams and Visions
Piuman:2,4,13-15 Love Medicine: 216 Do Androids Dream of Electric
The Bean Trees: 33-34, 37 Custom and Tradition Sheep?: 82-83, 87-88
Class Conflict The Autobiography of Miss Jane Ethan Frome: 123-124, 129-130,
Les Miserables: 239 Pittman: 10 133-138
The Outsiders: 288 Cynicism Giants in the Earth: 159-163
Cold War The Sun Also Rises: 331-332, 334 The Outsiders: 301-303
The Pearl: 313-314 The Pearl: 305, 312-313
Colombia D Duty and Responsibility
Ethan Frome: 122, 128-129
One Hundred Years of Solitude: Death
254-256, 263, 266-268, 270, Like Water for Chocolate:
One Hundred Years of Solitude:
272 195-196, 198
264
Coming of Age The Autobiography of Miss Jane
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Putman: 3-4,12,21,23-24
Accen~: 176-177, 179 The Color Purple: 49-51, 55, E
The Outsiders: 282, 290 63-67 Emotions
Communism Do Androids Dream of Electric The Bean Trees: 29
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?: 80, 83, 85-86, 88, The Color Purple: 65, 68--69
Sheep?: 84 95-97 Do Androids Dream of Electric
Courage Ender's Game: 101-102, 109 Sheep?: 74-75, 89,92-93
The Bean Trees: 35 Ethan Frome: 123, 129-130, 132, Ender's Game: 105-106,
Giants in the Earth: 154 135, 141-144 114-115, 119-120
Les Miserables: 234, 241-242 Giants in the Earth: 148-149, Ethan Frome: 122, 137-138,
The Outsiders: 289 153-154, 157 140-142, 144
The Sun Also Rises: 331 Les Miserables: 233-234, Giants in the Earth: 158-160, 163
Creativity 239-242,244 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
Like Water for Chocolate: Like Water for Chocolate: Accents: 183
197-203 190-192, 196-197 Les Miserables: 241, 243
Creativity and Imagination Love Medicine: 210-212, Like Water for Chocolate:
Like Water for Chocolate: 197 215-216, 226-227, 229 197-198, 200--201, 204,
Crime and Criminals One Hundred Years of Solitude: 207-208
The Color Purple: 50, 55 256-257,262,264-265, Love Medicine: 216, 228
Do Androids Dream of Electric 267-269, 274-275, 277-279 The Outsiders: 281, 288,
Sheep?: 73-75,83, 86 The Outsiders: 282-284, 289, 293 294-295,296,298,300
Ender's Game: 102, 107 The Sun Also Rises: 343-346 The Pearl: 315, 318
Les Miserables: 231, 233, 236, A Tale of Two Cities: 351-353, The Sun Also Rises: 326,
239-241,243-247 357-358, 361 331-332, 336-337, 341,
The Outsiders: 284, 288, 291, 293 Death and Resurrection 343-344
The Pearl: 307, 311-314, 316 A Tale of Two Cities: 357 A Tale of Two Cities: 361, 364,
A Tale of Two Cities: 352, Depression and Melancholy 368
357-358 Do Androids Dream of Electric England
Cruelty Sheep?: 75, 82, 86 Giants in the Earth: 165
The Autobiography of Miss Jane A Tale of Two Cities: 368-369 The Sun Also Rises: 328
PiUman: 3, 13-14,22-23 Description A Tale of Two Cities: 350-351,
The Bean Trees: 29, 34-36 The Pearl: 318-319 357-358, 359-361
The Color Purple: 55-56, 58-59, Devil Eternity
63, 66-68 Love Medicine: 211, 216 The Sun Also Rises: 341-342
Ender~Game: 101-102, 106, 112 Dialect Ethics
Ethan Frome: 132, 135 The Autobiography ofMiss Jane Ender's Game: 108
LesM~erables:239, 243-244 Pittman: 11-12 Europe
Like Water for Chocolate: 196, Dialogue The Color Purple: 50, 51,56,58
198 Ender's Game: 109 Do Androids Dream of Electric
Love Medicine: 228-229 The Outsiders: 293 Sheep?: 85-86
One Hundred Years of Solitude: The Sun Also Rises: 331, 334 Ender's Game: 108, 110
263,267-268 Difference Ethan Frome: 123
The Outsiders: 281-282, How the Garcfa Girls Lost Their Giants in the Earth: 147, 165
289-294, 301-304 Accents: 176 Les Miserables: 232, 241-242,
Cruelty and Violence Dominican Republic 244,245-246
Like Water for Chocolate: 196 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their The Pearl: 312-314

3 9 0 Novels for Students


Humanism

The Sun Also Rises: 324-325, Folklore Hatred


332-334 Do Androids Dream of Electric The Autobiography of Miss lane
Everyman Sheep?: 92 Pittman: 3, 13-15
The Pearl: 321-322 Ethan Frome: 137-141 The Color Purple: 65
Evil Giants in the Earth: 153-154, Do Androids Dream of Electric
The Color Purple: 49, 55 158-159 Sheep?: 75, 84, 86-87
Ender's Game: 101, 106, The Pearl: 315 Ender's Game: 101-102 106-107,
109-110, 112 Foreshadowing 112, 119-120
Giants in the Earth: 148-149, One Hundred Years of Solitude: Les Miserables: 231, 233, 240
154, 166-167 264-265, 276-278 Like Water for Chocolate: 200
Les Miserables: 233, 240-241, Forgiveness The Outsiders: 288, 290, 293-294
244 The Color Purple: 49, 55-56 The Sun Also Rises: 326, 329-330
Love Medicine: 225 Love Medicine: 224-225 A Tale of Two Cities: 351,
The Pearl: 307, 309-311, 314, France 357-359, 361, 365
318-319 Les Miserables: 231-232,237, Heritage and Ancestry
The Sun Also Rises: 340 239, 243-246, 252 The Autobiography of Miss lane
A Tale of Two Cities: 352, 359 The Sun Also Rises: 325, Pittman: 10-12, 15-16
Execution 332-333, 345 Ender's Game: 108
One Hundred Years of Solitude: A Tale of Two Cities: 351-352, How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
256-257, 264-266 354--359, 361 Accen~: 170-171, 176-179
A Tale of Two Cities: 352, Freedom Love Medicine: 215,-216, 218,
357-359 The Autobiography of Miss lane 220-221
Exile Pittman: 3, 10-11, 14, 16, Heroism
Ender's Game: 101, 119 22-24 The Bean Trees: 28, 37
Les Miserables: 244-245 French Revolution Do Androids Dream of Electric
Les Miserables: 233-234, 241, Sheep?: 83
244 Giants in the Earth: 154, 158
F A Tale of Two Cities: 349, 352, 1s Miserables: 241-242, 244--245
Family Ties 356, 359-360 The Outsiders: 281, 283,
Love Medicine: 215 Friendship 289-290,293,296,301-304
Farm and Rural Life The Bean Trees: 27, 33, 34, 36 The Pearl: 305, 314--315
The Autobiography of Miss lane Frustration The Sun Also Rises: 330-331,
Pittman: 1-2, 11-13, 16,23-24 Ethan Frome: 128 334--335, 343
The Bean Trees: 29, 34--35, 37 History
The Color Purple: 50, 55-57
Ethan Frome: 122-125,128-130, G The Autobiography of Miss lane
Pittman: 1-2, 11-13, 16-21,
132-135, 138, 140-143 Gender Roles
23-25
Giants in the Earth: 146-149, The Sun Also Rises: 338
The Color Purple: 58
152-166 Ghost
Ender's Game: 102, 109, 112
Love Medicine: 226-227, 229 Like Water for Chocolate: 197-198
Giants in the Earth: 157-158
One Hundred Years of Solitude: One Hundred Years of Solitude:
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
257, 264, 267-268 257, 264-265
Accents: 179
Fate and Chance Gilded Age
Les Miserables: 241, 245
The Autobiography of Miss lane Giants in the Earth: 156
One Hundred Years of Solitude:
Pittman: 3, 11-13, 16-17 God
255,264-269
Ethan Frome: 135-138 The Color Purple: 49-51, 55-56,
The Pearl: 315
Giants in the Earth: 161-162, 58,60-64,66-67
A Tale of Two Cities: 361
164, 166-167 Giants in the Earth: 152-154,
Homosexuality
One Hundred Years of Solitude: 166-167
The Sun Also Rises: 338-342
262-265 God and Religion
Fear and Loneliness Honor
Love Medicine: 216
Ender's Game: 119
Giants in the Earth: 152 Good and Evil
Fear and Terror Ender's Game: 106 Hope
Ethan Frome: 124, 129, 138-141 The Pearl: 309 The Outsiders: 298-300
Giants in the Earth: 146, 148, Greed Human Condition
153, 158 The Pearl: 318-320 The Bean Trees: 34
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Guilt and Innocence Do Androids Dream of Electric
Accen~: 171-172, 178 Ender's Game: 106 Sheep?: 81
Film Human Rights
Do Androids Dream of Electric The Bean Trees: 33
Sheep?: 72,86-91,94--96 H 1s Miserables: 239
The Outsiders: 281, 283-284, Happiness and Gaiety Humanism
290-292 A Tale of Two Cities: 350-351 Giants in the Earth: 165-167

Volume 5 3 9 1
Hum 0 r

Humor The Color Purple: 49-50, 57 Loneliness


The Bean Trees: 27,34,37 Do Androids Dream of Electric The Color Purple: 51, 57, 60-61
Love Medicine: 226-227 Sheep?: 73, 75, 81, 83~6, 95, Ender's Game: 101, 106, 108,
97 117, 119-120
Ender's Game: 101,106-107, Ethan Frome: 122, 123, 128-130,
1 109,111-112 137, 140-141
Idealism One Hundred Years of Solitude: Giants in the Earth: 146, 148,
The Outsiders: 295-296, 302-304 256-257,263-264,268 153
Identity The Outsiders: 283-284, 289, 294 One Hundred Years ofSolitude:
Love Medicine: 216 A Tale of Two Cities: 357 256, 262
Imagery and Symbolism Knowledge Lost Generation
The Autobiography of Miss lane Do Androids Dream of Electric The Sun Also Rises: 324-325,
Pittman: 12, 16, 18-19,22-23 Sheep?: 87,92-94,96 330-332, 334
The Bean Trees: 38, 40, 42 Ender's Game: 101, 107-108, Love and Passion
Ethan Frome: 130, 135, 141, 110,116-117 The Autobiography ofMiss lane
143-144 One Hundred Years of Solitude: Pittman: 4, 10, 16
Giants in the Earth: 155, 157 274-275 The Color Purple: 49-51, 59, 62,
Les Miserables: 241, 245 The Pearl: 310, 315 64-69
Like Water for Chocolate: A Tale of Two Cities: 352 Ethan Frome: 122, 124-125, 128,
197-198, 205-206, 208 Knowledge and Ignorance 130, 135-140
One Hundred Years of Solitude: One Hundred Years ofSolitude: 264 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
276, 278-279 The Pearl: 310 Accents: 170, 171, 175-176
The Pearl: 311-313, 317-319, Les Miserables: 233-234,
321-322 239-240,242,245
A Tale of Two Cities: 367-369 L Like Water for Chocolate: 189,
191-193, 196-198, 200-207
Imagination Landscape
One Hundred Years of Solitude: The Autobiography of Miss lane Love Medicine: 211-212,
276, 278-279 Pittman: 3, 12-13 216-217,220-221,227-229
Immigrants and Immigration The Bean Trees: 38, 40 One Hundred Years of Solitude:
Giants in the Earth: 146-147, Do Androids Dream of Electric 256-257, 262-263, 265
152-153, 156-158 Sheep?: 74-75, 81, 82, 86-87 The Outsiders: 282-283, 289, 294
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Ethan Frome: 122, 125, 129-130, The Sun Also Rises: 324-326,
Accents: 169, 171, 175, 132, 141-142 329, 331, 334-338
177-181 Giants in the Earth: 147-149, A Tale of Two Cities: 350-352,
Immigration and the Westward 153-156, 158-161 357-359, 364-366, 368-369
Movement Love Medicine: 211-212, 217, Lower Class
Giants in the Earth: 151 227-228 A Tale of Two Cities: 352, 359,
Individual Responsibility Law and Order 361
Ethan Frome: 128 The Autobiography ofMiss lane Loyalty
Individual vs. Society Pittman: 3-4, 10, 13-15, The Bean Trees: 27, 33, 37
Love Medicine: 216 The Color Purple: 57-58 The Color Purple: 59
The Pearl: 311 Do Androids Dream of Electric Ender's Game: 120
Insanity Sheep?: 74-75, 81-83, 85-86 The Outsiders: 289
Giants in the Earth: 149, 154-155 Ender's Game: 101, 107-109
One Hundred Years of Solitude: How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
262,264 Accen~: 171-172, 178-179 M
Intelligence Les Miserables: 233-234, Magic
Ender's Game: 107 239-240,244-245 One Hundred Years of Solitude:
Irony Love Medicine: 211-212, 216-220 276,278-279
Ender's Game: 116-118 The Outsiders: 283-284, The Pearl: 306, 310, 312, 315
Ethan Frome: 132-133, 135 288-289,291,293 Magic Realism
The Pearl: 312, 315-316 The Pearl: 313-314 Like Water for Chocolate: 189,
The Sun Also Rises: 343-344, 346 A Tale of Two Cities: 351-352, 198-200, 203
357-360 One Hundred Years of Solitude:
J Limitations and Opportunities
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
255,265,272
Marriage
Justice and Injustice
Les Miserables: 240 Accents: 175 Ethan Frome: 123, 128-129, 130,
Literary Criticism 134, 141, 143-144
Giants in the Earth: 154 Like Water for Chocolate:
K Les Miserables: 245 190-192, 195-196, 198,
Killers and Killing Literary Terms 200-201
The Autobiography of Miss lane One Hundred Years of Solitude: Masculinity
Pittman:3, 10-11, 14-15 273 The Sun Also Rises: 339-341

392 NOl'els for Students


Par t s

Materialism Murder Do Androids Dream of Electric


The Pearl: 315-316, 318 The Autobiography of Miss lane Sheep?: 80
Meaning of Life Pittman: 3, 11, 14 Ethan Frome: 139
Les Misirables: 240 The Calor Purple: 50, 57 Giants in the Earth: 146, 155,
The Sun Also Rises: 330 Music 158, 160, 164-167
Memory and Reminiscence The Calor Purple: 49-51, 57-58 Love Medicine: 220
A Tale of Two Cities: 357-358, One Hundred Years of Solitude: The Pearl: 314, 319, 321
366 257, 264, 266 1920s
One Hundred Years of Solitude: The Outsiders: 291-292 Giants in the Earth: 156-157
256-257, 265-266 The Pearl: 307, 310-311, 313, The Sun Also Rises: 325,
Mexico 318-320 332-333, 335
One Hundred Years of Solitude: Mystery and Intrigue 19505
254, 263, 267 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their The Outsiders: 291, 293
Middle Class Accents: 172, 175, 178-179 1960s
Les Miserables: 239, 241, Myth The Autobiography of Miss lane
243-244 Giants in the Earth: 152 Pittman: 2,4, 11-14, 16
Middle East Myths and Legends Do Androids Dream of Electric
Do Androids Dream of Electric The Autobiography ofMiss lane Sheep?: 84-86
Sheep?: 81-82 Pittman: 22, 23, 25 The Outsiders: 281, 291-293
The Pearl: 314 The Calor Purple: 51, 59 1980s
Monarchy Do Androids Dream of Electric The Bean Trees: 35-36
Ender's Game: 102 Sheep?: 92, 94 Ender's Game: 110-111
Giants in the Earth: 152-153, 158 Ethan Frame: 138-140 North America
Les Misirables: 234, 243-244 Giants in the Earth: 146, The Calor Purple: 58
Money and Economics 153-154, 159-161, 164, 166 Do Androids Dream of Electric
The Calor Purple: 56-58 One Hundred Years of Solitude: Sheep?: 84-86
Do Androids Dream of Electric 264-266, 269-270, 273-278 Ethan Frame: 132-134
Sheep?: 82, 88 The Pearl: 305, 311-312, 315 Giants in the Earth: 156-157
Ethan Frame: 124, 129, 132-133, How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
135 Accents: 171, 175-182,
Giants in the Earth: 152, 156-157 N 186-187
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Naivete Like Water for Chocolate:
Accen~: 170, 172, 178-179 The Outsiders: 302-303 189-190, 197-199, 205-206
Les Misirables: 233, 240, Narration Love Medicine: 217-218
243-244 The Autobiography of Miss lane One Hundred Years of Solitude:
The Outsiders: 283, 288,291, Pittman: 1, 11-12, 16-25 266-269
293-294 The Bean Trees: 27, 34 The Pearl: 306, 313-314
The Pearl: 305, 307, 310-311, Do Androids Dream of Electric Norway
313,315-316 Sheep?: 82-83, 87-88 Giants in the Earth: 146-147, 151
The Sun Also Rises: 330, 333-334 Ender's Game: 108-109 Nuclear War
A Tale of Two Cities: 359 Ethan Frame: 124-125, 127-130, Do Androids Dream of Electric
Mood 132-133, 135-138, 140-142, Sheep?: 72,82-84, 86
Do Androids Dream of Electric 144 The Outsiders: 292
Sheep?: 74, 82 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their The Pearl: 305, 313-314
Moralsand Morality Accents: 177, 179-181, Nurturance
The Calor Purple: 55, 59 185-186 Like Water for Chocolate:
Do Androids Dream of Electric Les Misirables: 240-241, 244, 204-205
Sheep?: 82-83, 85,94-98 248
Ender's Game: 99-100, 108-112
Ethan Frame: 122, 128-130, 132,
135-137
Like Water for Chocolate: 190,
192,197-200,205-206
Love Medicine: 217, 220-221,
o
Obedience
Giants in the Earth: 152, 224-227 Like Water for Chocolate: 196
157-158, 161-165, 167 One Hundred Years of Solitude: Old Age
Les Misirables: 231, 234, 265,270,272,276-278 The Autobiography of Miss lane
239-240, 242-245, 252-253 The Outsiders: 281-282, Pittman: 11-12, 16
Love Medicine: 226, 228-229 289-290,294,300 Order and Disorder
The Pearl: 315-318 The Pearl: 311, 316 A Tale of Two Cities: 356
The Sun Also Rises: 324, The Sun Also Rises: 325,
329-335, 343, 345-347 330-331, 334-335, 343-344
A Tale of Two Cities: 359-361, Nature p
367-369 The Autobiography of Miss lane Paris
Monnon Pittman: 12 Les Miserables: 231-234,
Ender's Game: 108, 111 The Bean Trees: 40 239-241,243-245

Volume 5 393
Par 0 d y

The Sun Also Rises: 332 Politics Realism


A Tale of Two Cities: 352, The Autobiography of Miss Jane The Outsiders: 282, 290,
356--357 Pittman: 11, 13-16 293-294, 302
Parody The Bean Trees: 34-38 The Pearl: 315, 320-321
Like Water for Chocolate: The Color Purple: 48, 57-59 Religion
203-206 Do Androids Dream of Electric Giants in the Earth: 153
Passivity Sheep?: 84-88 Religion and Religious Thought
The Color Purple: 55, 59, 63--64, Ender's Game: 100-102, 110-111 The Autobiography of Miss Jane
66,68 Ethan Frome: 132-133 Pittman: 24
Permanence Giants in the Earth: 156--157 The Color Purple: 56, 58, 64
Giants in the Earth: 157 How the Garcfa Girls Lost Their Do Androids Dream of Electric
Persecution Accents: 178-179 Sheep?: 73-75, 87
The Color Purple: 62--66 us Miserables: 232, 234, 239, Ender's Game: 102, 108, 111
Ender's Game: 101, 111 241, 243-248 Giants in the Earth: 146, 148-149,
Ethan Frome: 138-139, 141 Love Medicine: 218-220 154, 158, 160, 164, 167
Like Water for Chocolate: 196 One Hundred Years of Solitude: us Miserables: 251-252
Perseverance 255-257,266--268 Love Medicine: 220
The Bean Trees: 34-35, 37 The Pearl: 313-314 One Hundred Years of Solitude:
Personal Identity A Tale of Two Cities: 359-361 275
The Bean Trees: 42-43 Postmodernism The Pearl: 310-311
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Like Water for Chocolate: 203-204 The Sun Also Rises: 345-346
Accents: 180-182 Poverty Revenge
The Sun Also Rises: 338, 340-342 us Miserables: 231-233, 239, Like Water for Chocolate: 200-202
Personality Traits 244 Romanticism
Love Medicine: 215 The Outsiders: 282, 288, 293-294 us Miserables: 241-242
Personification Prophecy Russia
The Autobiography of Miss Jane One Hundred Years of Solitude: Ender's Game: 110
Pittman: 19-21 276--277, 279
Giants in the Earth: 158-159,
164-165, 167
Psychology and the Human Mind
The Bean Trees: 42-43
s
Salvation
One Hundred Years of Solitude: Do Androids Dream of Electric
277-278 The Pearl: 322
Sheep?: 72, 81, 87
Philosophical Ideas Sanity and Insanity
Giants in the Earth: 154, 158
Giants in the Earth: 164, 166--167 Like Water for Chocolate: 197
The Pearl: 317-318
Plants Science and Technology
The Sun Also Rises: 340
The Bean Trees: 33, 35 Do Androids Dream of Electric
A Tale of Two Cities: 358, 361,
Plot Sheep?: 72, 74-75, 80-83,
366--367
Ender's Game: 99, 111 87-88,92-94,96--98
Punishment
us Miserables: 240, 245 Ender's Game: 101, 102, 106,
Ender's Game: 106--108
One Hundred Years of Solitude: 109-110, 115-117
us Miserables: 239-240, 243
270, 272-273 One Hundred Years of Solitude:
A Tale of Two Cities: 349, 358, 264, 273-276
361 A Tale of Two Cities: 360
Poetry R Science Fiction
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Race Do Androids Dream of Electric
Accents: 182-183 The Autobiography of Miss Jane Sheep?: 72, 83, 86,91-92, 94
The Outsiders: 283, 289-290, Pittman: 1,3-4,10-16 Ender's Game: 99, 108-109,
292, 303 The Color Purple: 48, 51, 56--59 111-112
Point of View How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Sea and Sea Adventures
The Bean Trees: 34 Accents: 178-179 Giants in the Earth: 153, 155, 157
Ender's Game: 108-109 Love Medicine: 209, 217, Love Medicine: 226--229
One Hundred Years of Solitude: 219-221 The Pearl: 307, 313, 315
274 The Outsiders: 288, 292-293 A Tale of Two Cities: 356, 360
Politicians Race and Racism Search for Knowledge
The Color Purple: 50, 57, 69 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their The Autobiography of Miss Jane
Do Androids Dream of Electric Accents: 176 Pittman: 21, 24
Sheep?: 74, 85-86 Love Medicine: 216 Search for Self
Ender's Game: 100-102, 110 Racism and Prejudice How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
Ethan Frome: 132-134 The Autobiography ofMiss Jane Accents: 176
How the Garcfa Girls Lost Their Pittman: 3, 10, 12-15 The Outsiders: 289
Accents: 176, 178 The Color Purple: 48, 55, 57-59 Setting
One Hundred Years of Solitude: How the Garcia Girls Lost Their The Autobiography of Miss Jane
257, 266, 268, Accents: 176, 179 Pittman: 12

39" Novels for Students


World War 11

Ender's Game: 109


Ethan Frame: 130, 132, 135,
The Sun Also Rises: 333, 345
Spiritual Leaders
u
140--142, 144 Giants in the Earth: 149, 152, Ugliness
How the Garcia Girls Lost Their 154, 158 The Calor Purple: 65--67
Accents: 177 The Pearl: 307, 310-311 How the Garc{a Girls Lost Their
Accen~: 171, 175-176, 179
Sex and Sexuality Spirituality
The Calor Purple: 50, 55, 62--65 The Pearl: 305, 314 Upper Class
Ethan Frame: 141, 143-144 Sports and the Sporting Life A Tale of Two Cities: 351-352,
The Sun Also Rises: 338-342 The Pearl: 314 358-359, 361
Sex Roles The Sun Also Rises: 325-326, Utopianism
Huw the Garcia Girls Lost Their 332-334,337,341,344-346 The Bean Trees: 41-43
Accents: 176 Storms and Weather Conditions The Outsiders: 302-304
Like Water for Chocolate: 196
Sexism
The Calor Purple: 55
Ethan Frame: 124, 130, 134
Giants in the Earth: 148-149,
153-157, 159-160
v
Victim and Victimization
Sexual Abuse Structure Like Water for Chocolate: 196
The Calor Purple: 49-50, 55 The Calor Purple: 56
Sin
Giants in the Earth: 148-149
Ender's Game: 109
Ethan Frame: 129, 135
w
Les Miserables: 240--241, 244 Giants in the Earth: 148, 154 War, the Military, and Soldier Life
The Sun Also Rises: 346 Like Water for Chocolate: 197, Do Androids Dream of Electric
A Tale of Two Cities: 359 199-200 Sheep?: 83-85
Slavery Love Medicine: 224-226 Ender's Game: 99-102, 106-111,
The Autobiography of Miss Jane The Pearl: 318 115-120
Pittman: 2-3, 10-15, 21-24 Supernatural Ethan Frame: 132-134
The Calor Purple: 50, 57-58 Like Water for Chocolate: 197 How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
Social Order Accents: 178
Les Miserables: 241 Les Miserables: 238
Solitude T One Hundred Years of Solitude:
257-258, 265, 267-269, 272,
One Hundred Years of Solitude: Time
256-257,262,264-266,276, 279
One Hundred Years of Solitude:
278 The Outsiders: 291-293'
263
Soul The Pearl: 305, 313-314
Time and Change
Les Misirables: 233-234 The Sun Also Rises: 324-325,
The Calor Purple: 62--63, 66--67
The Pearl: 317, 321-322 332-334,338
Do Androids Dream of Electric
South America Wildlife
Sheep?: 80, 82-83, 87-88
One Hundred Years of Solitude: Do Androids Dream of Electric
Giants in the Earth: 156-157
255,266-267,270,272 Sheep?: 74, 85,87, 89,91-93
Les Miserables: 239, 242
Soviet Union Love Medicine: 211-212, 219,
One Hundred Years of Solitude:
Ender's Game: 110 226-227
264,267,269
Space Exploration and Study The Pearl: 321
Tone
Do Androids Dream of Electric Wisdom
The Outsiders: 293-294
Sheep?: 73-74,82, 85 One Hundred Years of Solitude:
The Sun Also Rises: 343-344, 346
Ender~Game:99, 101-102, 109
274-275
Tragedy
Spain Witch
Giants in the Earth: 161-164
One Hundred Years of Solitude: Ethan Frame: 137-141
Transformation
256,266 World War IT
The Calor Purple: 55
Ender's Game: 110, 112

Volume 5 3 9 5

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