TROPICAL SOILS AND ROCKS Metamorphic rocks were formed by the modification of vibratory compaction can be helpful in obtaining
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GEOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS
ROCKS cover units of the earths crust formed by certain geological
processes
SOILS are used to describe materials produced by disintegration of rocks
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Most roads are constructed on soils or soft rocks.
In mountainous regions, hard rock may occur in cuttings and
rock fragments may be used as embankment fill.
Hard rocks are usually quarried, crushed and graded to make
aggregate for construction of heavy-duty road pavements.
The stability of cuts and fills is dependent on the properties of
the soils and rocks concerned.
The structural design of the pavement is dependent on the
bearing capacity of the subgrade and the strength of the paving
materials.
ROCKS
Can be classified into:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
This classification indicates the mechanism through which the
rocks were formed.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks were formed by cooling and solidification of hot
molten rock material (magma). It can be classified into either
EXTRUSIVE (formed by rapid cooling of magma
pouring out on the surface of the earth), or
INTRUSIVE (formed when magma solidifies within
the earths crust)
In general, igneous rocks make good road aggregates.
Fine-grained types (extrusive) have better abrasion
and impact values but poorer polished stone values
than coarse grained types (intrusive) of the same
composition.
Dolerite, basalt and granite are the most common
source of road aggregate among igneous rocks.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks were formed by consolidation and
cementation of sediments that have been accumulated in
water or deposited by wind.
A characteristic feature of many sedimentary rocks, particularly
sandstone and shale, is a layered structure (stratification)
which is a result of variation in the depositional process. Hard
sandstone and hard limestone are frequently used as aggregate
in road pavements, but most sedimentary rocks are soft and
only suitable for embankment construction. Hard limestone is
an excellent aggregate for use in cement concrete because of
its low thermal expansion.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
igneous or sedimentary rocks as a result of pressure, heat and
also, occasionally, as a result of chemical action.
Quartzite usually produces road aggregate with good abrasion
and impact values. The polished stone value may be high, but
the affinity for bitumen varies. Marble has properties similar to
those of hard limestone; gneiss has properties similar to those
of granite. The foliated (have a pronounced laminar structure)
metamorphic rocks have very poor crushing strengths parallel
to the banding and can only be used as a fill material.
SOILS
There are three different soil forming processes
Residual soils are formed in place by weathering of
bedrock.
Sediments are formed from parent materials that
have been transported to their location by wind,
water or glacial ice.
Organic soils are formed from decomposed plant
and animal materials.
The most widespread groups of tropical soils are the following:
Laterite
Desert soils
Expansive clays
Volcanic ash soils
Tropical alluvial soils
LATERITES
a group of highly weathered soils formed by the concentration
of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminum
occur in all wet tropical regions, including East, West and
Central Africa, Brazil, Indonesia, Thailand and various islands,
such as Hawaii and Cuba.
mainly occurs as:
surface deposits of unhardened, clayey soils
massive rock-like hardpans
gravel consisting of concretionary nodules in a soil
matrix
In the tropics, where weathering is often intense and the
availability of suitable rock as a source of crushed aggregate is
often limited, lateritic gravel is a traditional source of road
aggregate. When the grading of lateritic gravel is close to a
mechanically stable particle size distribution, the material
performs satisfactorily on lightly trafficked roads, both as sub-
base and base under thin asphalt surfacings, and as natural
gravel surfacings. But, the significant silt and clay content often
renders the material moisture-sensitive.
DESERT SOILS
are normally called arid and semi-arid soils by geologists
occur mainly in the subtropics, although there is also some
occurrence in dry regions of tropical countries
usually occur at low field densities
when constructing roads on loose sand, it is necessary to
compact the sand thoroughly to avoid uneven settlement of
the road; however, it may be difficult to obtain satisfactory
compaction, because water is scarce and dry compaction is not
very effective with the often single-sized soil material
compaction, and this can be followed by static compaction to
settle the top layer
EXPANSIVE CLAYS
most well-known example of expansive clay is black cotton
soil
swell when moistened and shrink when dried and the swelling
properties are due to a high content of the clay mineral
montmorillonite
the colour is black, dark grey or dark grey-brown which is a
result of a small amount of organic matter being mixed with
the clay
clays with a high swelling potential are a persistent problem in
road construction in tropical regions with pronounced dry and
wet seasons
surface evaporation is reduced by the road pavement and,
after the road has been completed, the moisture content of the
subgrade normally rises and causes swelling of the subgrade
and heaving of the pavement which reduces the bearing
capacity of the soil
during the following wet and dry seasons, the surface of the
road will move up and down depending on the moisture
changes
in highly expansive clays, the yearly vertical movements of the
pavement edges may be as high as 50100mm, causing severe
edge failures
VOLCANIC ASH SOILS
residual soils formed in tropical regions with current or recent
volcanic activity
highly sensitive to disturbance, so road engineers should avoid
working in their vicinity
roads can be constructed over them, but heavy compaction of
the soil should be avoided since it can break down the soil
structure and render the soil weaker and more susceptible to
the effect of water
TROPICAL ALLUVIAL SOILS
mineral soils that have been transported and deposited by
flowing water
mainly occur in
river plains and deltas
alluvial fans
former lake bottoms
old irrigated areas
coastal plains
good quality road construction materials and aggregates can
usually be extracted from point bar deposits in flood plains and
from alluvial fans