Formation

EvaluationEdward J. Lynch
Chapter 1: Introduction
Define Formation Evaluation. How could we classify formation evaluation
methods?
The use and interpretation of a group of methods and tools that is capable of locating and evaluating
commercial significance of sedimentary rock penetrated by the drill bit. An effective formation evaluation
of an oil reservoir can be determined by its real extent, thickness and permeability, fractional porosity. and
the fraction of the porosity that is saturated with oil.
Formation evaluation methods can be classified as follows: -
A. Methods while drilling in progress:
1. Coring & Core analysis: - a fundamental method thats used as a calibration of all other
methods. In this method, a special bit is used in the penetration of the rock to get a sample. On
this sample, measurements of porosity, permeability and saturation of oil, water and gas are
made.
2. Drilling fluid and cuttings analysis logging: - a method that looks for any evidence of
hydrocarbons in the mud and in the rock cuttings. The mud logging company keeps a record of
lithology, porosity, drilling rate, mud properties and the bit changes.
B. Methods after drilling (wireline tools): -
1. Electric logging: - used for estimating porosity, water saturation, in some cases permability
and the angle of dip of the formation.
2. Radioactivity logging: - comprise two surveys. The first is the natural radioactivity of the
subsurface rock that serves as a lithology device. And the second is the response of the rock
and their fluids to bombardment with neutrons used in measuring porosity.
3. Acoustic logging: - The standard wireline tool for estimating velocity. This device measures the
acoustic velocity of a sound wave traveling throught the formation.
4. Drill stem test: - this kind of tests is made if the results of the formation evaluation showed
promising. Its made before casing by running a packer and valve assembly on the end of the
drill pipe. The packer is set so as to isolate the test interval from the mud column and from
other formations. Fluid can then be produced into the empty drill pipe by opening the valve.
This dynamic method of evaluation simulates the conditions that will prevail when the well is
completed, and so it is the deciding factor in determining whether the production will be
adequate to justify the additional cost of completion.

Chapter 2: Drilling Fluids
Define the primary purpose of a drilling fluid. and what are the factors that
determine the effectiveness of such a fluid?
The primary purpose of a drilling fluid is the removal of cuttings from the well. Moreover, it pervents the
hydrocarbons from entering the wellbore while drilling. It also has other purposes, such as cooling the bit,
lubricating the drill string, suspending solids, plastering the walls of the hole to prevent the loss of fluids,
providing medium for many logging tools.
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Factors determing the effectiveness of the mud (drilling fluid): -
A. Density: - the control of the mud weight is critical. The pressure of the mud column at the bottom
of the hole is a direct function of the mud density. Mud controls the flow of the formation fluids
into the wellbore while drilling. Excessive mud weight results in fracturing of the weak formations
with the loss of the drilling fluid (lost circulation). The standard API instrument for measuring
density is mud balance. A fixed volume of mud is put into the cup, and the rider on the balance
arm is then adjusted so that the arm is the level.
B. Viscosity & Gel strength: The viscosity and gel strength of a drilling fluid are critical because they
govern the ability of the mud to lift and suspend cuttings. The mud must have a thixotropic
property so that as soon as circulation stops, gel gets developed to hold cuttings and prevent them
from settling down in the borehole. The API has specified that a rotational type of viscometer
should be the standard of measurement of viscosity of drilling fluids.The apparent viscosity is
measured if the bobbin is rotating @ 600 RPM and plastic viscosity measured @ 300 RPM. Plastic
viscosity is the viscosity of the pseudoplastic (non-newtonian) fluids. Gel strength measured by the
amount of force required starting rotation from stationary position of the same equipment.
C. Filtration rate: The rate of filtration of the drilling fluid is measured by the liquid loss through
porous media (induced mud cake). The control of the filtration rate is necessary because excessive
filtration results in excessive filter cake accumulated on the walls of the hole and increases the
possibility sticking the drillpipe and complicates the problem of well interpretation. Also excessive
filtration rate results in deep invasion because of introducing foreign water into the formation thus
reducing the oil permeability. The standard procedure for testing the filter loss: a sample must be
filtered through a hardened filter paper under a differential pressure 100 psi for a period of 39
minutes. Untreated mud gives filtrate of 8-15 cc. An effort is made to keep the filter loss below 10
cc.
What are the main types of drilling fluids in field use? State the applications of
each type?
Drilling fluids may be classified into two broad types that are single-phase fluid with solid additives in
which water-base and oil-base muds are two important subdivisions, two-phase fluid with solid additives
made up of emulsion muds.
First classification of single-phase drilling fluids is: Water-Base Mud. The following types of water-base
mud are found satisfactory for drilling
A. Natural mud: -
1. Used for surface drilling and drilling under surface pipe
1. Muds are made from drilled-up shale & viscosity controlled by watering back. Sometimes the
mud is enriched with a little bentonite or the viscosity is controlled with caustic and
quebracho.
B. Low PH, Caustic-Quebracho: -
1. Made up by treating natural mud with some bentonite, and 2:1 quebracho caustic solution to
control the viscosity
1. This type is used where there is only a limited amount of mud-making shale
C. High PH, Caustic-Quebracho: -

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 1. Made up by treating natural mud with some bentonite, but using 1:1 quebrach to caustic
solution. This mud has low viscosity and gel strength.
2. Withstand some salt contamination.

D. Phosphate-Treated mud:
1. By using small amounts of phosphates with good soft water. a large amount of phosphates can
have adverse effect. Also, theres danger in trying to convert this type to lime mud because
calcium precipitates the polyphosphates and this causes extreme thickening.
1. Used as thinners when drilling through mud-making shales.
E. Lime Mud:
1. This type of mud is made by adding lime to a natural mud or bentonite mud.
1. Its used to drill through hydratable clay without thickening. It also stands salt
contamination.
F. Gypsum Mud:
1. By adding gypsum and water to clay mud giving a high flat ge strength that can be controlled
through the addition of water.
2. Used in drilingl through anhydrite sections
G. Salt water mud:
1. by adding attapulgite clay. The filter loss is controlled by using gelatinized starch or natural
gums.
1. Used in drilling through high salt concentration formations
Second classification of single-phase drilling fluids is: Oil-Base Mud. This type of drilling fluid showed
disadvantages more than advantages, such as the limited viscosity to the available crudes, the absence of
gel strength, no filter cakes because the mud solids dont hydrate and finally the risk of fire. Another
encoruntered problems while using oil-base mud as a drilling fluid is the difficulity of determining whether
the oil thats covering the core sample is the hydrocarbon formation or the drilling fluid. Wireline tools
for this type of mud is limited as they dont require electrical contact with the formation (induction log
and radioactivity logs).
Emulsion Muds (Two-phase drilling fluids): - Its necessary to maintain a stable emulsion if the desirable
properties of the oil-base mud are to be maintained. The use of oil into the clay mud helps improvement of
lubricating properties of the mud. This results in longer bit life and lessens the chance of stuck drill pipe. A
stable emulsion is formed by using water as a contiuous phase including oil as discontinuities. In this case,
oil can remain in the filter cakes. This kind of mud is used to reduce the cost of oil-base mud.

Chapter 3: Coring and Core Analysis
State the different coring methods, disadvantages of each, and selection
factors?
The selection of the coring method depends on a number of factors that are cost, formation hardness,
core size desired, fractional core recovery required, the drilling depth and the hole conditions.
Different coring methods include:
A. Conventional rotary core drill:
1. Cutters arranged to cut around the hole and pick up the core in the core catcher. A check valve
is installed at the top of the core barrel to allow fluid flow in the upward direction.

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 2. Main disadvantage: a round trip must be made for every 20ft drilled.
B. Diamond coring:
1. Same mechanism of conventional coring, but the conventional bit is replaced by tungsten alloy
set with diamond chips
1. Main disadvantage: Expensive bit used, and proper operating conditions required as high
drilling weights can result in fracturing the diamond.
C. Wireline coring:
1. Inner core barrel retrieved by wireline tool
2. Main disadvantage: require special surface and down hole equipments, in addition to size of
cores is small
D. Reverse circulating coring:
1. Pumping mud down the annulus and forcing core up through the drill pipe
2. Main disadvantage: low penetration rate of drill bit, due to loss of jetting action. It also
requires setting casing to the interval to be cored.
Give a brief about sidewall coring.
The reason behind the development of the sidewall coring is the electric log results. After the log is
interpretated, a sidewall coring is performed just to confirm the interpretation of the log results. The
method uses a gun that penetrate through the side of the wall. The disadvantages of using sidewall
sampling is being quick, easy to run and inexpensive. The disadvantages of using sidewall sampling is that
the sample is small and taken from a region that has been subjected to extensive flushing with mud
filtrate. Moreover, the impact of the bullet tends to compress the formation and thereby distort the
porosity and permeability.
Mention the parameters demonstrated in the core analysis.
Porosity: the porosity of a rock is a measure of the amount of internal space that is capable of holding
fluids.
Permeability: the permeability of a rock is a quantitative measure of the ease with which it will permit the
passage of fluids through it under a potential gradiant.
Saturation: the volume that a certain fluid occupies to the total volume of pore spaces of the rock
Relative permability: is the measure of the ability of a porous medium to permit the passage of fluids
through it under a potential gradiant when there are two or three phases present in the pore space.
Capillary pressure: is the difference in pressure that exists between two phases because of the curvature
of the interface that separates them.
Formation resistivity factor: the ratio of the electrical resistivity of a porous medium saturated with water
to the resistivity of the water in the pores.

Chapter 4: Drilling Fluid and Cuttings Analysis Logging
What are the factors that affect the magnitude of the hydrocarbon fluid show
in mud logging?
A. Physical properties of rock: High-permeability sandstones will have higher show in mud than in
cuttings.

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 B. Type of hydrocarbon: the viscosity of the hydrocarbon is related to the permeability leading to the
mobility of the hydrocarbon, which determines the ease with which the fluid will flow when
flushed with mud.
C. Drilling rate: Higher drilling rate will mean less time of exposure for the formation for the
differential pressure which mean less flushing by mud, and improved logging situation.
D. Density of mud: Higher mud density leads to higher differential pressure and flushing of the
formation fluids. On the other hand, if mud is light, bubble of gas will come out of formation and
make the situation worse for logging.
E. Viscosity of mud: High mud viscosities will inhibit the release of gases hence improves the logging
ability
F. Depth of hole: Deeper holes make the problems of mud logging more difficult becasue of the high
pressures in such formations that lead to gas expansion
G. Circulation rate: High circulation rate causes dilution of mud shows but doesnt affect cuttings

Chapter 5: Electric Logging
What are the major uses of the Electric logs?
A. The correlation of structure on the basis of the log differentiation between shales, dense
carbonates and evaporites, and permeable beds.
B. The determination of water saturation and porosity. This use is of critical importance in
exploratory drilling for evaluating the commercial significance of the formations penetrated by the
bit. The same information is used by the reservoir engineer to determine the reserves.
C. The coordination of other formation evaluating techniques. The electric log serves as the basis for
selecting zones of promise for side wall coring and drill stem testing.
What are the three general classes of conductors?
The three general classes of conductors are electronic, electrolyic and insulators.
A. Electronic conductors are characterized by movement of loosely bound electrons within the
material during transfer of electricity. Most efficient type of conduction for transfer of electric
current. Widely used in everyday electric apparatus. The resistivities of conductors in this
classification are of the order to 10-8 Ohm meter. They are also found in the circuits of logging
equipment. Examples of electronic conductors are metals like iron, copper and aluminum.
B. Electrolytic conductors are limited to solution of salts which are ionized into electrically positive
and negative parts. Both charges and + charges contribute to the conductivity of solution.
Composition of electrolytic solution is affected by direct current passes through the solution. So
alternating current is always used to measure resistivity of electrolytes. Example of that is Salt
water. This type is very important as all porous sedimentary rock contains some water salts and
predominant salt in this formation water is sodium chloride.
C. Insulators conduct current poorly or not at all. Substances in this group have fixed chemical
structure where electrons and atoms have definite and relatively immobile position. Example:
Petroleum hydrocarbon and solid matrix of sedimentary rock, dry shale, fresh water.
What are the advantages of SP curves in formation Evaluation?
A. Determination of lithology: SP curve is primary method to distinguish between shales and
permeable non-shales.

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 B. Determination of the resistivity of formation water.
C. Correlation of structure.
D. Location of boundaries: SP curve is the best method for locating the boundary between a shale
and permeable
E. Sand counting. When there are clear breaks between the sand stone and shale streaks, the points
of inflection on the SP curve may be used to locate the sandstone thickness.



Chapter 6: Radioactivity Logging
Give a brief about Radioactivity Logging.
The sonde contains two radioactivity counters and a source of high-energy neutrons, and the surface is
designed to translate the counting rates into a continuous log.
Two basic curves are recorded:
A. The first curve is the response of radiation counter in the sonde to the natural atomic radiation
that present in all sedimentary rocks. This curve is useful for distinguishing between shales,
sandstones, and limestones.
B. The second curve is the response of the radiation counter to bombardment of the formations by
high-energy neutrons. The neutron curve is very sensitive to the amount of hydrocarbons. Thats
why it mainly measures porosity.
Its undependable in quantitative analysis because of the lack of understanding and information about
the various radioactive processes. Moreover , there are difficulties that arise from the physical
environment in which logging operation must be accomplished. There are two broad types of radioactivity:
Natural Radioactivity and Artificial radioactivity and nuclear reactions.
What are the radiation measuring devices?
A. Gas Ionization Counters: the device efficiency is 100% when the voltage difference between the
two electrods is between 100 - 300 volt
B. Geiger-Muller Counter: the potential between the two electrods 600-1000 volt
C. Proportional counter: very accurate control of voltage is unnecessary
D. Scintillation Counters: requires very high voltages (900 volt)
What are the methods of Radioactivity logging?
A. Gamma ray logging: Consist of natural ray counter used for counting the natural radiations
from the formations. Its also useful for detecting shales and non-shales.
B. Neutron logging: Consists of neutron source and neutron ray counter. (Distance between them
from 12 to 27 inch). There are three types of the neutron logging which are the neutron-Gamma
log, the neutron-thermal neutron log and the neutron-epithermal neutron log.
What are the factors that complicate the application of neutron curve for the
measurement of porosity?
A. Hydrogen may be present in the fluid filling the pore space, it may also be present in chemically
bound water (gypsum) or physically bound water (shales). The gamma ray log is helpful in this
aspect.

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 B. Its usually assumed that the logging sonde is lying against the wall of the hole because the
wellbore represents a condition of a 100 percent porosity through which neutrons must pass
before they reach the formation and this will affect the readings.
C. The counting rate is sensitive to the composition of the drilling mud, but this effect is minor.
D. Gamma radiation from the source may be reflected from the formation to the counter since it has
usually lost most of its energy in transit.
E. If the neutron log is from the -ray type, it may also count natural radiation, but this effect is
minor.
F. The presence of casing and cement causes a shift in the gamma ray and neutron curves. This
affects the quantitative attribute of the neutron curve because the thickness of the cement
sheath around the casing is not known with certaint.
G. Neutron curves from different services companies, which are obtained by different tools cannot be
compared directly because of the differences between them in the source to detector spacing and
in the strength and spectrum of the neutron source.
H. The response of the log to changes in porosity is not linear

Chapter 7: Acoustic Velocity Logging
Give a brief about acoustic velocity log.
A. It has been found so effective in the determination of porosity that it has already become the
standard wireline method of porosity estimation in many areas.
B. The sonic device measures the time of transit of a sonic impulse through a given length of rock,
usually 1 ft. or 3 ft.
C. The rate of propagation of the compression wave through the rock depends on the elastic
properties of the rock matrix and its contained fluids. Specifically depends on the composition of
the matrix (sandstone, limestone, etc.), the pafrticular fluid which it contains (oil, water or gas),
and the relative amounts of each that are present (porosity).
What are the methods of Acoustic Velocity Logging?
A. Single receiver type: in the operation of a single receiver type, a timer starts the measured period
and simultaneously excites the sound generator, causing the bried emission of a sound pulse. The
pulse travels through the mud, the sonde body, and the formation to the receiver. The first
impulse to arrive at the receiver activates it and ends the time period. Sound waves traveling
through either the mud or the sonde body arrive at the receiver at the later time. With the single-
receiver type, the time lapse between the generation of the signal and the first arrival
measurement includes the time for the sound to pass through a section of formation
approximately equal to spacing, and twice the time for the pulse to travel from the sonde to the
formation.
B. Two-receiver type: the mud correction is eliminated. The timing period in this case is started not
with the pulse of the generator, but by the arrival of the first pulse at the first recevier. The first
arrival at the second receiver ends the time period. The path of the second receiver differs from
the path to the first receiver by the length of formation between them. The measured elapsed
time is the length of time for the sound to traverse this section of formation.
Mention what you know about cement bond log.

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Sonic logging technique has been found very useful in determination the quality of cementation of casing
in oil wells.
The method depends on the difference between the energy loss of a sound pulse traveling through casing
that is standing free in the hole, and the energy loss of a pulse traveling through casing that is firmly
bonded to hard material of low sonic velocity. The logging tool contains a sound generator and a single
receiver. The receiver is instrumented so that it measures the amplitude of the pulse, rather than the
transit time. A sound pulse will travel through free casing with very little attenuation. When a cement
sheath is firmly bonded to the outside of the casing, however, the sonic pulse loses energy continously to
the cement sheath and a large attenuation results.

Petrophysics: Reservoir Rock Properties

Porosity & Permeability
Define Porosity and mention the factors governing its magnitude.

Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the bulk volume of the reservoir that is not occupied by the solid
framework of the reservoir. The porosity of most of the sedimentary rocks is lower that 50%.
Factors governing the porosity of a rock:
A. Uniformity (sorting) of Grain Size: if small particles gets mixed with large particles, the effective
porosity gets reduced.
B. Degree of cementation and consolidation: cementation takes place at the times of lithification.
The highly cemented reservoir rocks have low porosities.
C. Amount of compaction during and after deposition: as compaction tends to close voids and
squeeze fluid out to bring minerals particles closer together, thus porosity decreases.
D. Methods of Packing: with the increase of overburden pressure, poorly sorted grains shows change
from random packing to closer packing, thus the porosity decreases. Hold a comparison
between the Engineering & the Geological Classification of Porosity

Engineering Classification of Porosity Geological Classification of Porosity

Because of the cementation and A common method of classifying porosity

compaction, some of the pore spaces of of petroleum reservoirs is based on
the rock gets isolated which lead to two whether pore spaces originated when the
kinds of porosity of the rock: sand beds were laid down (primary or
1) Absolute porosity: its the ratio of matrix porosity), or if they were formed
the total void space in the sample through subsequent diagenesis,
to the bulk volume of the sample catagenesis, earth stresses, and solution by
whether or not those void spaces water flowing through the rock (secondary
are interconnected. or induced porosity)
2) Effective porosity: its the ratio of 1) Primary porosity:
the interconnected pore volume to a) Intercrystalline (micro-porosity)
b) Intergranular or interparticle
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 the bulk volume. Effective porosity c) Bedding planes
is the value used in all reservoir d) Miscellanous sedimentary voids
engineering calculations 2) Secondary porosity:
The difference between the absolute a) Solution porosity
porosity and the effective porosity is the b) Dolomitization:
non-effective porosity c) Fracture porosity
d) Miscellaneous secondary voids

Define Permeability and mention the factors governing its magnitude.

Definition: Permeability is the ability to allow petroleum fluids to flow through its interconnected pores.
This property of the rock depends on the effective porosity. There are two kinds of permeability: Primary
(Matrix) permeability, which is originated at the time of deposition of the sedimentary rock, & Secondary
permeability that is resulted from the alteration of the rock matrix.
Factors governing the permeability of a rock:
A. Shape and size of sand grains: If the rock is composed of large and flat grains uniformly arranged
with the longest dimension horizontal, the horizontal permeability will be very high whereas the
vertical permeability will be medium to large. If the rock is formed of large and uniformly rounded
grains, its permeability will be considerably high and of the same magnitude in both directions.
B. Cementation: both permeability and porosity are affected with the extent of cementation and the
location of the cementation material in the pore spaces.
C. Fracturing and solution: in sand stones, fracturing isnt an important cause of secondary
permeability except if the sandstones contain shales, limestones, and dolomite. In carbonates, the
solution of minerals increases the permeability of the reservoir rock.
Give a brief about the Porosity & Permeability Relationship
The relationship between porosity and permeability is qualitative and not quantitative. Its possible to
have very high porosity values in for example: pumice stone, clays, shales but zero permeability. And its
also possible to have high permeability with low porosity like in microfractured carbonates.

Mention the three main categories of the naturally fractured rocks and the
approaches to detect and analyze this kind of reservoirs.
The three main types of the naturally fractured rocks based on their porosity systems are:
A. Intercrystalline Intergranular
B. Fracture matrix
C. Vugular-solution
Approaches used to detect and analyze naturally fractured reservoirs:
A. Loss in circulating fluids and increase in the rate of penetration of the drilling bit
B. Fractures and solution channels in the core samples. A detailed study must be done to distinguish
between the natural fractures and the induced fractures during the core-handling process
C. The pressure build-up and flow tests; as formation fluids flow from the matrix rock into fractures
under pseudosteady state.
D. Well logging measurements based on sonic wave propagation are used as fracture indicators.

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 E. Downhold direct and indirect viewing systems including downhole photographic and television
cameras can be used to detect fractures and channels on the borehole face
F. A considerable increase in the productivity of the well following an artificial stimulation by acidizing
is a strong indication of fractures as acidizing is meant to increase the width of the fractures.
No method alone used provides a definite proof of the presence of fractures. Fracture detection is
most certain when several independent methods confirm their presence.

Handbook of Well Log Analysis

Classify types of Sediments.
A. Quartzes Sediments: These sediments are relatively clean that is they are free of clays and shale
admixture.
B. Greywacke Sediments: These sediments are generally called dirty sands or salt and pepper
sands because of their content of clay and shale particles and other rock fragments.
C. Arkoses Sediments: These sediments a most typical one of which is granite wash are formed
due to very rapid erosion on their sleep land slope.
Mention the types of limestone and limestone porosity
A. Accretionary limestone: examples: Reefs and biostromes.
B. Clastic limestone: re deposited from weathering limestone landmass.
C. Chemical limestones: formed by direct chemical precipitation
D. Dolomitic limestone: formed by molecular replacement of calcium by magnesium in the original
limestone.
Types of limestone porosity:
A. Matrix porosity: in which the pore size are generally small. Accordingly the permeability is small
but due to its large volume, it contains most of fluid storage.
B. Fracture, fissure, joint and vugs: in which pore size is large and so permeability but the storage
capacity is small.
How can the electrical properties of rocks be used in well log?
Resistivity logs measure the ability of rocks to conduct electrical current and are scaled in units of Ohm-
meters. Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity.
The ability to conduct electric current depends upon:
A. The Volume of formation water Sw.
B. The Temperature of the formation
C. The Salinity of the formation
D. The Volume of hydrocarbon, which influence the total rock resistivity Rt.
Resistivity logs are electric logs, which are used to:
A. Determine Hydrocarbon versus Water-bearing zones
B. Indicate Permeable zones.
How can we differentiate between rocks using natural radioactivity?
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Natural rocks contain some radioactive material. However, compared to that of uranium or radium ore,
even of low grade, the radioactivity of most rocks is very small. The radioactivity of a rock is usually
expressed in terms of equivalent amount of radium per gram of rock required to produce the same gamma
ray intensity. Although there is no fixed rule regarding the amount of radioactivity a given rock may have,
shale, clays and marls are generally several times more radioactive than clean sands, sandstones,
limestone and dolomites.

Describe the well interpretation problem and the factors that affect these
problems?

Hole size: In sand formation hole is size generally the bit size or smaller. Because after the removal of the
bit acertain amount of mud filtration still takes place which reduces the hole size below the bit size. This
problem observed by Caliper logging. In limestone and dolomite, hole size is generally the same as bit size.
Mud-filtrate invasion: the mud filtrate invasion depends on various factors:
A. Time: As a filter cake is proportional to the square root of the time of exposure to the filtration
action.
B. Fluid properties: The permeability and porosity of filter cake depends on the salt content of the
drilling fluid.
C. Differential pressure: permeability and porosity of filter cake depends on the differential pressure
between the well pore and formation.
D. Type of formation: Porosity and permeability of formation affects the filter cake as low Porosity and
permeability formation will observe deep invasion and vice versa.

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