Approved

Engine
Course

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 INDEX

Section Contents List Page

1.0 Principles of the Diesel Engine and Petrol Engine 5

2.0 Cycle of Operation & Constructional Details 6

2.1 Four-Stroke Engine Cycles 6
2.2 Diesel Engine Power (Naturally Aspirated) 6
2.3 Diesel Engine Power (Turbocharging) 7
2.4 Two-Stroke Engine Cycle 9
2.5 Scavenging 12
2.6 Engine Terminology 13
2.7 Engine Components 15
2.8 Cylinder and Crankcase 15
2.9 V-Form Engines 17
2.10 Crankshafts, Main Bearings and Shaft Alignment 18
2.11 Connecting Rods 19
2.12 Cylinder Liners 21
2.13. Pistons 23
2.14 Cylinder Heads and Inlet and Exhaust Valves 26
2.15 Inlet and Exhaust Valves 26
2.16 Cam and Camshafts 27
2.17 Lubricating Oil System 30
2.18 General Cooling Water System 32
2.19 Fresh Water Cooling (Keel Cooling) 34
2.20 Types of Centrifugal Pumps 38
2.21 The Centrifugal Pump 39
2.22 The Centrifugal Pump Operation & Construction 40
2.23 The Flexible (Rubber) Impeller Pump 42
2.24 Cooling System with Engine Driven Pumps (Caterpillar Diesel) 42
2.25 Fresh Water Treatment 43
2.26 Safety & Protection Devices 44
3.0 Engine Performance Data 45
3.1 Engine Power Curves 45
4.0 Fuel System 46
4.1 Origins of Fuel 46
4.2 Fuel Contamination 46
4.3 Fuel Oil Operating System 47
4.4 Fuel Oil Tanks 48
4.5 Fuel Oil Filters 49
4.6 Fuel Oil Lift Pumps 55
4.7 Fuel Injection Pumps 57
4.8 Fuel Injectors 60
4.9 Fuel System Basic Maintenance 63
5.0 Combustion Air Process 65
5.1 Fuel Oil 65

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 5.2 Air to Fuel Ratio 65
5.3 Air Filters 65
5.4 Turbocharged and Naturally Aspirated Diesels 67
5.5 The Turbocharger Operating Principle 67
5.6 Emergency Operation 72
5.7 Engine Stopping Arrangements 73
5.8 Solenoid Shutdown Operation 76
5.9 Emergency Engine Stop 77
5.10 Engine Cold Starting Aids 77
6.0 Electrical Systems 79

6.1 Batteries 79
6.2 The Lead Acid Cell and Battery 80
6.3 The Chemical Action 81
6.4 The Alkaline Battery 83
6.5 Safety of Alkaline Batteries 85
6.6 Battery Maintenance 85
6.7 Batteries and Their Ratings 87
6.8 The Battery Charging Circuit 88
6.9 Engine Starting Systems 89
6.10 Basic Circuit Diagrams & Engine Instrumentation 94
6.11 Sender Units 94
6.12 Bi-Metallic Strip Thermometers 97
6.13 Pyrometers 98
6.14 Bourdon Tube Gauge 99
6.15 The U-Tube Manometer 100
6.16 Diaphragm Sensing Element 101
6.17 Magnetic Reed Switch Level Indicator 102
7.0 Electrical Distribution Safety Features 103
7.1 Earthing Systems 103
7.2 Earth Faults 104
7.3 Earth Fault on an Insulated System 104
7.4 Earth Fault Indicators 105
7.5 Typical Earth Failure on a 220 V System 106
7.6 Instrument Type Earth Fault Indicator 107
7.2 Bonding Systems 107
7.8 Basic Electrical Circuits 108
7.9 Fuses 109
7.10 Discrimination 109
7.11 Requirements of a Fuse 109
7.12 Fuse Holders 111
7.13 Types of Fuses 111
7.14 Fuse Regulations 112
7.15 The Circuit Breaker 113
8.0 Power Distribution 115
8.1 Reduction/Reverse Gearbox (Multi-Plate Types) 115
8.2 Reduction/Reverse Gearbox Operation 115
8.3 Cone Type Clutches 116
8.4 Gearbox Control Systems 116
8.5 Bowden Calbles 117
8.6 Gearbox Pneumatic/Hydraulic Remote Control 118
8.7 Fluid & Pneumatic/Oil Clutches 126

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 8.8 Fluid Couplings 127
8.9 Radial Type Air Operated Flexible Clutch 129
8.10 Oil Operated Clutches 130
8.11 General Description of Oil Operated Cone Clutch and Gearbox 131
8.12 Trolling Mode 132
8.13 Types of Gearing Arrangement 133
8.14 Reduction/Reverse Gearboxes (Multi-Plate Types) 135
8.15 Gearbox Ahead & Reversing Gear Train 137
8.16 Gear Definitions 138
8.17 Epicyclic Gearing 138
8.18 Propeller Shaft & Coupling Alignment 141
8.19 Rigid Engine Mountings 144
8.20 Flexible Engine Mountings 144
8.21 Stern Tube Seals & Bearing Alignment 146
8.22 Cutless Nitrile Rubber Stern Tubes 146
8.23 White Metal/Gunmetal Lined Stern Tubes 147
8.24 Stern Tube Seals 148
8.25 Deep Sea Seals 148
8.26 Packed Glands 149
8.27 Relationships between Power and Propeller 150
8.28 Basic Function of Propellers 151
9.0 Hull Fittings 154
9.1 Sea Valves & Associated Pipework & Strainers 155
9.2 Cathodic Protection 156
9.3 Corrosion 156
9.4 Cathodic Protection of Ships 157
9.5 Impressed Current Cathodic protection 158
10.0 Fire Protection Systems 160
10.1 Potential Fire Hazards 160
10.2 Basic Fire-fighting Techniques 161
10.3 Fire Extinguishing Appliances & Techniques 163
10.4 Accommodation Fire-fighting 170
10.5 Machinery Space Fire-fighting 172
11.0 Bottle LPG Installations 175
11.1 LPG Safety Requirements 175
12.0 Marine Pollution 178
12.1 Marine Pollution Legislation 178
12.2 Oil Record Book 179
12.3 Pollution Response & Regulations 179
12.4 Equipment Surveys 180
12.5 Prevention of Pollution by Garbage 181

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1.0 Principles of the Diesel Engine and Petrol Engine

Whether the engine is a single cylinder, multi-cylinder, horizontal opposed, V

or in-line four stroke or two stroke, petrol or diesel, it operates on a continually
repeated cycle in which fuel is drawn in, compressed, ignited and discharged.

The two types of engines working on the two or four stroke principle are as
follows:

Compression Ignition Engine (Diesel Engine)

In a diesel engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and compressed to a point
where the fuel is injected at an optimum point in the stroke, the fuel air mixture
vaporises and becomes heated under a high pressure causing the mixture to
ignite. The compression ratio is approx. 15:1 with 40% of its chemical energy
converted to mechanical energy. Because of the compression ratio of the
diesel engine, the components tend to be heavier than the spark ignition
engine.

Spark Ignition Engine (Petrol Engine)

The petrol engine has to mix the fuel and air and become a combustible gas
prior to entry into the cylinder. In order for the fuel and air to mix correctly the
mixture must atomise into fine particles. This operation is achieved in the
carburettor. The compression ratio in a petrol engine is less than the diesel
engines therefore an external ignition is required. This is carried out by a
spark plug, which entails a high voltage electric current to jump between the
electrodes. The compression ratio is approx.10: 1 with 25% of its chemical
energy converted to mechanical energy.

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2.0. Cycle of Operation & Constructional Details

2.1. Four-Stroke Engine Cycle

The essential components of the four-stroke cycle diesel engine are shown in
Fig.2.1.

Fig 2.2. Depicts the events of each of the four strokes.

Induction Stroke

As seen in Fig.2.2, the piston strokes down. During this stroke the inlet valve
remains open (exhaust closed) and a charge of air is drawn into the cylinder.

Compression Stroke

The piston then strokes up returning to the top of the cylinder whilst both the
inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. This action compresses the charge of
air, while raising the temperature of the air, as the piston reaches the end of
its stroke.

A controlled amount of fuel is injected into the cylinder in the form of a fine
spray.

Expansion Stroke

The combination of the hot air and fuel mist causes an ignition creating a
rapid rise in pressure, which drives the piston downwards.

Exhaust Stroke

As the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder for the second time the
exhaust valve is opened and during the upward and forth stroke the hot spent
gases are expelled through it.

2.2. Diesel Engine Power (Naturally Aspirated)

Naturally aspirated are diesels that have unassisted charges of air entering
the cylinder during the induction stroke.

The power of any diesel engine is determined by the amount of fuel that can
be burnt in each cylinder per cycle and the speed at which it can be run.

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The forces arising from the inertia of the moving parts limit the rotational
speed of any diesel.

(Other factors determining the speed of the diesel include the design aspects
of the moving parts of the diesel e.g. Piston design, valve size, design of
manifolds).

In the case of normally aspirated the amount of fuel that can be burnt is
limited by the mass of air drawn into the cylinder during the induction stroke.

Note: Diesel fuel requires about 14.5 times its own mass of air for complete
combustion. The time available for combustion in the diesel cycle is
short.

2.3. Diesel Engine Power (Turbocharging)

The cylinders can be charged with a much greater mass of air by supplying
the air under pressure. The air is pressurised by a compressor, which is
forced to the induction manifold of the engine ready for distribution to their
respective cylinders during the induction stroke.

This means of increasing the mass of air is invariably called turbocharging.

The turbocharger is a free running unit comprising of a turbine directly
coupled to a centrifugal compressor. (Refer Fig. Page 71).

The turbocharger operates by utilising the energy from the exhaust gases to
drive the turbine, therefore causing the compressor to rotate. The pressurised
air (boost pressure) exits the compressor in a hot condition. It may be
beneficial and often necessary to cool the air, this action assists in increasing
the mass of air available to the cylinders during the induction stroke. The
other benefit in cooling the air is to keep the internal parts of the engine cool.

The air exiting the compressor is passed through an intercooler prior to

entering the air manifold. The intercooler can be an air-to-air radiator or a
water-cooled heat exchanger.

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Fig. 2.1. Cutaway of Four-Stroke Diesel

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Fig 2.2

nI du c toi n C om p re ss oi n E xpan s oi n E xhau s t

TH E FOUR S TRO KE C YC LE

8
2.4. Two-Stroke Cycle

The two-stroke cycle diesel engine takes several forms. One type is the single
valve type as indicated by Fig.2.4. This has the valve sited in the cylinder
head through which the exhaust gases leave. The air enters through ports at
the lower part of the cylinder.

The two valve (Exhaust Valves) type indicated in Fig.2.5. will be discussed as
the general form for the two-stroke diesel engine. The cycle operates as
follows:

At Bottom Dead Centre the exhaust valve and the inlet ports are open at the
same time. The pressure of the air in the inlet manifold is designed to be
higher than the pressure of the exhaust gases so that air on entering the
cylinder sweeps out the exhaust gases and fills the cylinder with fresh air.

Note: The process of displacing the used gases in the cylinder by the
incoming air is denoted as Scavenging.

Compression

The piston begins to move up the cylinder first covering the inlet ports, as the
inlet ports are covered, the exhaust valves close. Compression of the air
begins to take place. As the air is compressed and subsequently heats up fuel
is injected in as a fine spray; mixture of the fuel and air causes combustion to
occur.

Expansion

The combination of the hot air and fuel mist causes an ignition creating a rapid
rise in pressure, which drives the piston downwards. Towards the end of the
stroke, the exhaust valves open allowing the exhaust gases to escape and the
pressure in the cylinder to fall below that of the air manifold.

Shortly afterwards, as the inlet ports are opened by the downward moving
piston, the scavenging air enters and displaces the remaining exhaust gas in
preparation for the next cycle.

9
Fig 2.4. Cutaway of 2-stroke diesel.

10
Fig 2.5. Two-Stroke

C om p re ss oi n E xpan s oi n E xhau s t
&
S ca veng ni g

THE TW O S TRO KE CYC LE

11
2.5. Scavenging

As previously mentioned the process of scavenging is the displacement of

used gases in the cylinder by the incoming air.

Scavenging can take a number of forms; the type used on the previously
mentioned two-stroke diesel cycle configuration is the Uniflow type. This
entails the movement of air from one end of the cylinder to the other. Another
type is the Loop scavenge. This type of airflow is depicted in Fig. 2.6.

The flow of air taken by the Loop Scavenge is mechanically simpler than the
other types but one piston controls both the inlet and the exhaust ports. In this
type of two-stroke diesel it is usually, necessary to provide lightly operated
quick closing valves (reed valves) in the inlet ports. These are to prevent
backflow of exhaust gases before the cylinder has blown down to a pressure
lower than that in the scavenge air manifold.

Two-stroke cycle diesel engines can be turbocharged in the same way as the
four-stroke diesels. In some large crosshead type marine diesels, the
undersides of the pistons assist as a turbocharged cycle.

Fig 2.6. Uniflow & Loop Scavenge for Two-Stroke Diesel.

S pa rkP ul g

Loop S ca veng ni g

E xhau s t

A irF/ ue M
l xi
nI el t

R eed V a vl e s

UN FI LOW
LOOP SCAVENGE (USUALLY
SC AVENG NI G FOUND ON SOME OUTBOARD MOTORS)

12
2.6. Engine Terminology

Top Dead Centre (TDC)

This is when the piston is right at the top of the stroke. This position is used as
a basis to define the position of where the exhaust/inlet valves closes &
opens; fuel injection commences and terminates etc.

For an example of inlet and exhaust valves positions on a four-stroke diesel,

refer to Fig 2.7.

Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)

This has similar attributes to the TDC definition, and can be used to determine
accurate valve positions.

Stroke

This indicates the full linear length of piston travel from bottom dead centre to
top dead centre.

Bore

The bore is the linear diameter of the cylinder.

Swept Volume

The swept volume of a cylinder is the displacement of the pistons stroke and
can be expressed as the stroke of the piston times the bore

E.g. l x d4/4.

Engine Capacity

The engine capacity is the volume in each cylinder expressed as cc (cubic

centimetres). Marine diesels capacity can be expressed as a rating of the
engines capacity.

Example. 1000kW @ 750 revs/min.

Clearance Volume

The clearance volume of the cylinder is the volume remaining at the top of the
cylinder on completion of the pistons stroke e.g. swept volume.

13
Compression Ratio

The compression stroke is the upwards movement of the piston in the cylinder
with the valves closed following the intake stroke. This upwards motion
compresses the fuel air mixture inside the combustion chamber raising the
pressure. The difference between the initial volume of the cylinder and the
final volume at the top of the compression stroke is known as the compression
ratio. Typically this is approximately 10:1 in spark ignition engines and 15:1 for
diesel engines. The compression ratio is particularly important in compression
fired engines such as diesel engines. The fuel-air mix and compression ratio
is critical to avoid pre-ignition which is the abnormal ignition of fuel in the
combustion chamber before the combustion stroke. In diesel engines the fuel
is injected under high pressure towards the top of the compression stroke.
The distribution of fuel before combustion is also of interest because it effects
the efficiency of combustion.

Fig 2.7. Valve Timing Diagram (4-Stroke).

Exhau s t
Va lve
C ol ses

Fue l Fue l nI jec toi n End s

nI jec toi n
B eg ni s
tro ke

ke
tS

P ow e r
S tro
au s

Suc

nI le t
E xh

s oi n

toi n S

S tro ke

Va lve
p res

O pen
tro ke
C om

R o ta toi n

nI le tV a lve C ol ses

Exhau s t
Va lve
O pen

14
2.7 Engine Components

The components of the diesel engine include the following:

2.8 Cylinder and Crankcase

The cylinders of medium speed diesels are water-cooled. For example, a Vee
configuration as shown in Fig.7 has eight cylinders known as liners. These
liners can be replaced when the bore becomes worn out. To ensure that the
temperature of each liner is correctly maintained, the cooling water is in direct
contact with the outer surface of the liner. This type of liner configuration is
called a Wet Liner.

The usual arrangement is for a number of cylinder liners to be enclosed in one

cast iron casing to form a single cylinder block.

The cooling water jacket of each cylinder is common, but segregated to

ensure that each cylinder receives the correct amount of cooling water to their
individual spaces.

The top of each cylinder block, which supports the cylinder liner, is enclosed
by a cylinder head. The cylinder head is attached to the engine frame
(crankcase) by studs sometimes known as tie-bolts, these ensure that the
cylinder head forms a gas tight seal between the head and liner. The tie-bolts
ensure that the structure becomes rigid.

To ensure that the cylinder head temperature is maintained, the flow of jacket
cooling water flows from the cylinder liner spaces to each individual head.
This ensures that the spaces surrounding the exhaust and inlet valves as well
as fuel injectors remain cool.
The complete cylinder block is supported above the crankcase by a structure,
which may take one of several forms. A popular design is the vertical in-line
engine shown in Fig 2.8. In this design, the crankshaft is carried in bearings
formed in a bedplate. On the bedplate is mounted a casting termed the
column which forms the crankcase and supports the cylinder block.

In this and other engine designs the forces produced by the reaction of the
cylinder heads to the gas pressure in the cylinders are transmitted from the
top of the cylinder block directly to the crankshaft main bearings through bolts
(tie-bolts). These tie-bolts pass through all the separate components of the
structure, therefore maintaining the components in compression and ensuring
that these steel members carry all the tensile loads.

Smaller engines can be made more rigid than the larger ones and may not
have through bolts. In addition, because the castings are not as big and
heavy, the column and cylinder block may be made in one piece.

15
Fig 2.8. In-line Engine with Through Bolts (Tie-Bolts).

16
2.9. V-Form Engines

The shape of the V-form engine is shaped to give two sloping surfaces on
which the cylinder blocks and cylinder heads are placed at the correct relative
angle to each other. The shape prevents the use of tie-bolts passing through
from the top of the cylinder block to the main bearings. The tie-bolts in the V-
form are secured as depicted in Fig 2.9.

The main bearings of the V-Form engine are constructed as shown in Fig.2.9
or the underslung type shown in Fig 2.10. The advantage of the underslung
bearing is the ability to install bearing tie-bolts therefore reducing bedplate
stress and introducing a lighter sump.

Fig 2.9. V-Form Bedplate Fig 2.10 V-Form Underslung

Construction Construction.

17
2.10 Crankshafts, Main Bearings and Shaft Alignment

The crankshafts are usually forged from a solid single piece of steel. The steel
is chosen for its strength, resistance to fatigue and hardness of bearing
surface. The crankshaft is designed and machined to give a multi-throw
arrangement, with each throw giving a firing order for the engine.

The firing order is designed to establish a mechanical balance, and a smooth

torque. Consideration is also given to bearing loads, exhaust arrangement
and torsional vibration. These considerations may result in the installation of
balance weights to crankshaft throws.

The crankshaft relies on the support of the main bearings to ensure their full
strength. It is essential that the bearings carrying the crankshaft are in good
alignment.

Main Bearings

The main bearing shells are made of steel with a lining of bearing metal,
which may be white metal, copper lead or aluminium tin alloy. In addition, they
usually have a thin lead or indium coating to provide a layer giving protection
against corrosion. They are held in position by the bearing housing.

The pair of bearing shells external circumference are slightly larger than the
bearing housing that receives them. This ensures that an interference fit is
maintained between both the shells and the top and bottom bearing housings.

The importance of the alignment cannot be over stressed. The good

alignment of the crankshaft and corresponding output shaft to the
gearbox/propulsion ensures that stresses are minimised. Frequent crankshaft
alignment checks are carried out in line with manufacturers instructions, and
should be carried out when the engine is warm and the vessel in its usual
floating condition. Alignments should also be carried out whenever a major
component has been changed out e.g. tie-bolt etc.

Alignments are carried out by using a dial gauge to record the deflexion of the
different throws of the crankshaft. Any significant difference in the value
between the reading taken with a crank pin at the bottom and top dead centre
means that either the journal is not round or the crankshaft is permanently
bent. Refer Fig 2.11.

Note: A deflexion guide of 0.006 mm between throws; however, this is

dependent on the engine size and manufactures recommendations.

18
Fig 2.11. Crankshaft Alignment

2.11 Connecting Rods

Generally, medium and high speed diesels have trunk piston engines with the
result that pistons and connecting rods have to be fitted together before being
assembled into the cylinder. The method used for assembly and overhaul
influence the design of the large end. Except for one or two designs of diesels
(articulated type diesels) the piston and connecting rod are removed upwards
through the bore of the respective cylinder liner. This requires the design of
the rod and lower end to be sufficient in size to fit through the bore of the liner.

There are varieties of types of connecting rods, some are designed with a
palm end Fig 2.12, and this is to say that the large end bearing is separated
from the rod. This design of rod may have a distance piece fitted between the
rod palm and the top bearing housing which is known as a compression plate.
This plate thickness is chosen to ensure the correct compression ratio.

The fixed centre type connecting rod depicted in Fig 2.13 does not have a
palm adjustment and relies on the accuracy of manufacturer to ensure correct
clearance.

19
The most common type is the fixed centre design rod which has the large end
split obliquely as shown in Fig 2.14, to accommodate a larger bearing, whilst
presenting a narrow profile to pass through the cylinder bore.

Fig 2.12. Fig 2.13. Fig 2.14.

Connecing Rod with

Oblique Split Large End

Connecting rod main bearings are similar in design to the main bearing. They
are relatively thin walled sectioned bearings, having a lining of bearing metal,
copper lead or tin aluminium, and a thin flashing of lead or indium to provide
an anti-corrosion layer. The shells depend upon the accuracy of the bore to
hold them in the correct circular shape.

The bearing shell has oil grooves set in the section of the shell Fig 2.15. This
design allows oil to flow from the oil port in the journal up to the connecting
rod to lubricate the small end of the rod, and splash cool the underside of the
piston.

The connecting rod large end bolts are a very important component and are
carefully designed to carry the high fatigue loads required. It is essential to
treat them carefully and avoid any damage to their finely machined surfaces.
Correct tightening of the bolts is again essential, and manufacturers
recommendations on torque or stretch must be followed.

20
On V-Form engines, generally the connecting rods for corresponding cylinders
in each bank operate on the same crankpin journal. There are other types of
V-form engines requiring different connecting rod configurations notably the
articulated type. This type of engine has both banks of connecting rods
connected to the same large end Fig 2.16. These type of engines are used
when space restriction is required, due to the design of them being less in
length to the common V-form engines.

Fig 2.16. Articulated Con-Rod Fig 2.15. Bearing Shell

V-Form Engine

2.12. Cylinder Liners

Cylinder liners are made from close grain cast iron. For four-stroke engines,
they are simple cylindrical shaped top flange to provide location and a means
of securing them in the cylinder block or to a water jacket. Below the flange,
there is often a joint ring usually of heat resistant rubber or copper. The lower
end of the liner is fitted with rubber rings to create a seal for the bottom of the
water space. As well as stopping water leaks, they also have the facility to
prevent oil from the crankcase entering the water jackets. A tell tale leak off
hole is fitted between the two lower rings. This indicates to the operator that
one of the rings has failed and a repair should be carried out.

Cylinder liners are designed and manufactured to ensure that oil can readily
adhere to the liner surfaces during operation, therefore allowing a lubrication
barrier to form and thus reduce wear on the liner surface and the piston rings.
The greatest wear area of the cylinder liner is the upper section where the
motion of the piston direction is reversed and therefore an oil film is not
distributed. The area also suffers high gas pressures, heat and the build up of
carbonaceous material which may be abrasive, therefore over a period of time
these conditions may promote an increase of wear.

21
To minimise wear at the top end of the liner, cooling of this section would be
an advantage. Some cylinder liners that are subjected to high loads
demanded from high output diesel engines. The design of these liners require
small bore passages to carry coolant as close to the cylinder bore as practical.
Fig 2.17.

The cylinder liners for two-stroke engines have air admission ports about
midway along their length. The water jacket does not usually extend below
these ports. The sealing rings are situated just above these ports and are
designed to prevent scavenge air entering the water spaces as well as water
escaping from the jackets. An additional sealing ring of similar material is
located below the ports to prevent the pressurised air blowing through to the
crankcase.

Fig 2.17. Cylinder Liner

22
2.13. Pistons

There are variations in piston designs especially with regards to piston cooling
arrangements. Generally, the piston is pot shaped as shown in Fig 2.18. The
piston crown is usually either bowl shaped or toroidal shaped, this design
assists in combustion efficiency by agitating the air and fuel mix. The crown
design also may contain cut out portions to accommodate the valves when
they open.

The cooling of the piston underside is usually carried out by a simple splash
cooling process. Other cooling processes include a cocktail shaker cooling
process, spray, coil (ported channels within the underside of the piston).

Note: Two-stroke pistons are usually longer than the pistons for four-strokes,
this is due to the requirement of a longer piston skirt to allow for the
covering of the ports when the piston is at the top of its stroke.

The construction of the piston is usually made from aluminium alloy in order to
keep the weight down and allow for effective balancing at high speeds. Some
engines where weight is not a factor the piston is constructed of cast iron. The
high output engines the piston is constructed from a two piece section, where
the crown material is a heat resistant steel bolted to the skirt section of the
piston.

The design of the piston includes the facility to carry the gudgeon pin, which is
supported by a strong ribbed structure of sufficient strength to ensure that the
load of the piston is carried.

In order to seal the gases within the top of the cylinder and prevent any
excessive leakage down the sides of the piston. Piston rings are used; the
rings are manufactured from flake graphite cast iron alloyed to manganese
and chromium. The piston rings are situated in grooves machined into the
piston crown. The sealing contact of the piston ring to the cylinder liner bore
and piston crown landing is carried out by the gas pressure acting on top of
the rings and behind the rings as shown on Fig 2.19. Each piston ring is not
fitted butt to butt, this would create damage and severe scuffing to the liner.
The gap between each ring is maintained to the minimum.

There are usually three or four compression piston rings on each piston, this
configuration allows for a continuous pressure drop from the pressurised
gases passing each ring.

The piston has to be well lubricated for it to move effectively in the cylinder
liner while carrying the side loads imposed on it. The lubrication of the piston
and subsequently the liner should be sufficient to effectively lubricate but not
excessive enough to flood the compression rings, become burnt, and oxidise.
This excessive lubrication would result in an increase in carbonaceous
deposits in the piston ring grooves. An oil control ring controls the flow of oil.

23
The oil control rings are situated at the lower section of the piston, unlike the
compression rings they are not subject to a high gas load to force them onto
the cylinder wall. They have to rely on their own strength to force them to
maintain the wall pressure necessary to keep the oil film to the required
thickness.

To effectively control the cylinder oil film the oil control ring has a single
narrow edge, which is in contact with the cylinder wall. When moving up the
cylinder the oil control ring functions by riding over the film of oil on the
cylinder wall. During the downward stroke the wedge of oil that is formed is
scraped down the bore.

Fig 2.18 Piston

24
Fig 2.19 Piston Sealing Action & Oil Control rings

25
2.14 Cylinder Heads

Cylinder heads can be constructed as individual units or in a number of cases

dependant on the size and capacity of the engine in blocks ranging from a unit
containing two or more cylinder heads. However all cylinder heads contain
individual fuel injectors, exhaust and inlet valves, relief valves and in some
cases air start valves. The cylinder heads whether single or multiple units are
all fixed to the cylinder block by studs each with the ability of securing the
head and cylinder liner in tension. The studs should be robust enough to resist
the firing loads, and at the same time provide the forces which hold together
the seal between the head and the liner. To ensure that a gas seal is
maintained between the cylinder head and liner a metallic joint, copper or soft
iron ring is located at the top of the cylinder head and liner. Refer to Fig 2.20.

The studs securing the head to the liner number from four to ten per cylinder
dependant on the size of the engine. To maintain an even tension and prevent
fatigue the studs are secured evenly and at a torque recommended by the
engine manufacturer.

The design of the cylinder head(s) allows for the free flow of cooling water to
pass from the jacket cooling to the cylinder head. The coolant passes through
cooling spaces within the cylinder head with the ability to cool the fuel injector,
exhaust and inlet valve spaces before exiting from the top of the cylinder
head. Cooling water exiting from the top of the head assists in expelling any
entrapped air that may accumulate in the cooling system.

Cylinder heads are fitted with a relief valve, whose principle is that a spring
loaded non-return valve set to lift at a pressure above the normal combustion
firing pressure. On some engines the relief valve is fitted with an indicator
valve whose function is to measure the respective cylinder pressures.

Some engine manufacturers design the engine to start on air by introducing

an air start valve on each cylinder head. The air start valve functions as a non-
return valve allowing compressed air into the cylinder at a specified position
relative to the crank journals angle, forcing the pistons down and thus causing
the crankshaft to rotate. This is an alternative means to starting an engine
rather than using a rotary starting motor. Air start valves are usually found on
larger marine diesels.

2.15 Exhaust & Inlet Valves

The exhaust valves open against the pressure within the cylinder at the end of
the working stroke. This pressure is considerably higher than that against
which the inlet valve has to open. Furthermore, the pressure of the exhaust
gases assists, once the valve is open, in expelling the gases through the open
valve. Due to this consideration, it is not unusual to find that the exhaust
valves are designed to be of a smaller diameter than the inlet valves.

26
The exhaust being a smaller valve assists in maintaining cool. This is
important considering the thermal problems the valves encounter. Due to
these thermal problems and the carbonaceous particles that flow through,
frequent maintenance is required especially for the exhaust valve by grinding
the valve and seat to remove any pitting that may occur. Those engines that
operate on heavy fuel are particularly prone to seat and valve deterioration
due to high operating temperatures. To assist in reducing valve deterioration
some manufacturers install cooling water passages through the valve cage,
and install special valve rotators. This mechanism slowly ratchets the valve
around the seat, during operation.

Fig 2.20. Cylinder Head

27
2.16 Cam and Camshafts

The function of the camshaft is to control the motion of the cams to operate
the fuel pump, inlet and exhaust valve and in some cases the operation of the
starting valve.

The camshaft of a four-stroke engine is designed to operate at half the speed

of the crankshaft, whereupon the two-stroke will rotate at the same speed as
the crankshaft.

In both cases a train of gears or chain drives usually drives the camshaft.

Marine diesels require to operate in a either Ahead or Astern Mode. If the

diesels does not employ a gearbox with a selective Ahead and Astern, then
in order to carry the change of direction the camshaft has to be able to be
adjusted to compensate for this operation.

Changing direction for the two-stroke engine is simplified due to the camshaft
rotating at the same speed as the crankshaft, therefore only a small rotation of
the cams and camshaft is required in order to change direction. This is also
simplified due to the symmetrical shape of the cams allowing their rise and fall
characteristics to remain the same.

Changing direction for the four-stroke engine is less simplified due to the
camshaft running at half the speed of the crankshaft. To obtain the correct
sequence to change directions manufacturers design the camshaft to move
axially bringing into operation a different set of cams so as to allow for the
change of direction.

Cams & Followers

Cams are shaped to open their respective valves and operate the fuel pumps
at the appropriate times in the cycle and to carry out this opening and closing
smoothly.

The motion of the cam follower lever or tappet is transferred to the valve by
push rods and rocker levers Fig 2.21. An adjusting screw is provided at one
end of the rocker lever by means of which the clearance between the rocker
lever and valve can be adjusted.

Clearance is essential for satisfactory operation of the valve to compensate

for any expansion due to the build up of heat. If there was no clearance the
valve could remain open slightly allowing gas to leak through the seat and
cause damage.

28
 Fig 2.21. Valve Operating Gear

V a lve R o c ke r

T a p p e tC el a ra n c e

P u sh
R od

S p r ni g s
V a lve
F o l ol w e r

C am s h a ft
C y l ni d e rH e a d
a n d C o o l ni gW a te r
S pa ce s

29
2.17 Lubricating Oil System

The satisfactory operation of any engine depends on an effective lubricating

oil system (fig 2.22) supplying lubricating oil to all the moving parts.

The system operates by drawing oil from the engine sump from either the
engines integrated Lubricating oil pump or a stand alone pump. The pump
delivers the oil under pressure through a cooler where excess heat is
removed and a duplex oil filter where any particles are removed.

Note: The lubricating oil cooler is fitted between the thermostatic valve and
the oil filter and the piping is so arranged so that cold oil is diverted
past the cooler and passes directly to the filter. When the oil reaches
the working temperature, the thermostatic valve opens to direct the oil
through the cooler before it passes through the filter. As a guide, the
normal operating temperature of the oil is between 74C and 82C.

The oil is delivered under pressure to the main rail/gallery.

From the main rail the oil is fed to:

The crankshaft main bearings.

Big-end bearings, piston cooling jets.
Camshaft bearings.
Drive sprocket/gear train.
Valve gear rocker fulcrums.
Auxiliary drives.
Turbocharger.
Governor drive.
Air distributor (If applicable).

Oil from the main bearings is fed through drilled holes in the crankshaft to the
big-end bearings. The pressurised oil is delivered up through drilled holes in
the connecting rods to the small end bearings and to the end jets which give
under-crown cooling of the pistons.

Cylinder bores and external surfaces of the pistons are lubricated by oil
splash.

Oil is fed to the camshaft bearings along a drilling in the camshaft. From the
camshaft bearings, oil is fed to a main feed rail supplying oil through a non-
return valve to the rocker gear feed rail. After feeding the rocker gear, the feed
rail is piped back to the engine.

External piping is arranged to feed lubricating oil to the gear train or sprocket
and chain assembly (driving the integrated pumps e.g. lubricating oil, fuel
pumps). Feed and drain pipes are connected to the turbocharger.

30
Fig 2.22 LO System

T u rb o ch a rg e r
O i l to
T u rb o ch a rg e r

O i l to R o c ke rs

O i l to G e a r T ra in
O i l to
C am sh a f t
B ea rn i gs

O i l to P is to n
C oo ln i g T ube

G e a rP um p

B yp a ss fo rO i l S um p P a n
F i l te r

B yp a ss fo rO i lC o o e
l r

O i l F i l te r O i lC o o e
l r

F LOW O F O IL FO R C A T E R P IL LA R 3 S E R E
I SD E
I SE L

31
2.18 General Cooling Water System

The system operates by flowing treated fresh water through either the engines
integrated fresh water circulating pump or a stand alone fresh water
circulating pump. The pump delivers the fresh water through a fresh water
heat exchanger whereupon the heat is removed from the water. To maintain a
uniform operating temperature a thermostatic valve is provided to regulate the
fresh water and so control the temperature of the water passing through the
engine.

The cooling water flows under pressure to the engines cylinders jackets where
heat is removed from the cylinders before passing through to the cylinder
heads where additional heat transfer takes place. Additional fresh water
cooling can be branched to the turbocharger jackets. The water flows from the
highest point from the cylinder heads back to the fresh water pump and then
to the cooler where the cycle repeats.

To ensure that the fresh water does not entrap any air and a constant water
pressure is maintained throughout the system, a fresh water header tank is
provided. This tank is maintained with fresh water is located at a certain height
above the engine cooling system.

The flow of fresh water can produce deposits of scale and dissolved salts
within the engines cooling system and as a result corrosion within the cylinder
jackets and other water spaces may develop. To counteract the possibility of
corrosion forming it is usual to provide some form of water treatment.

The types of cooling water systems encountered are discussed in sections

2.19 & 2.20 Keel Cooling systems found on smaller craft.

The Air Cooled Water System

The air-cooled radiator water system is usually confined to the smaller yachts
generator system or more commonly to the emergency generator which
requires its own independent system. Because of the location of the generator
it becomes more practical to fit an air cooled radiator. The system works on
the same principle as the water-cooled system but with the system air-cooled.
The system would be impractical to fit to diesels above say 500kW because of
the size of radiator required.

The Fresh Water Supply System

The supply of seawater and fresh water on modern medium and high-speed
diesel systems is usually supplied by integrated pumps driven by the diesels
engines gear train system. The pump is sized to compensate for the various
speed requirements of the diesel. To compensate for any possible failure or
reduction of performance electric driven standby pumps are installed.

32
 E xpan s oi n T an k T hem o s ta t to C on tro O
l u tel t
Ja cke W t a te rO u tel t from C oo el r to 66 deg ree s C .
A p ro x . 75 - 80 deg ree s C .

F re shW a te rH ea te r

C oo el r

S eaw a te r In el t
to C oo el r (0 -1 ba r)

S eaw a te rD si cha rge

to O ve rboa rd
F re shW a te rF ol w from F re shW a te rC oo lni g
O u ts di e o fC y lni de r L ni e rs P um p
T h rough to the C y lni de rH ead s
to P um p R e tu rn .

B a s ci F ol w o f fre s hW a te rC o o i lni g T h ro u g h a V -F o m
r D ei s e lE n g ni e

33
2.19 Fresh Water Cooling (Keel Cooling)

Keel cooling is a system that uses a group of tubes, pipes or channels in direct contact with
surrounding water to transfer heat from the coolant to the water. Keel cooling is widely used
in river boats and fishing boats, especially in areas of heavy silt, ice or other debris which
may clog raw water inlets or erode heat exchanger tubes.

Keel coolers should be located below the waterline far enough to avoid aerated water. Slow
moving vessels tend to be located close to the propeller to benefit from the movement of
water. The location of the cooler should be positioned so as to avoid the pounding of the
sea and possible damage.

To circulate the fresh water around the component parts of the engine, a fresh water pump
is used, which on smaller and medium diesels is attached to and driven by the engine. The
coolant temperature is usually circulated around the engine at a temperature of between
82C to 88C. Operating the engine with a higher temperature will impair the operating
conditions, result in shorter engine life and possible engine or component failure.

During the circulation of cooling water through the engine it is important to ensure that a
method is used to remove entrapped air and gases within the system. This can be done by
allowing the continuous flow of fresh water through an expansion tank located at a high
point with relation to the engine. As indicated on the drawing a make-up line is located at
the bottom of the expansion tank and plumbed to the engine water inlet line. The purpose of
this make-up line is to provide a means for filling the engine and to feed the water from the
vent lines back to the engine after it has been deaerated during operation.

34
Typical Keel Cooler

35
Heat Exchanger Cooling

Fresh water (lubricating) cooling systems can also employ a heat exchanger to remove heat
from an engine. The engine coolant flows around the outside of the tubes in the heat
exchanger with the raw (seawater) flowing through the tubes. The engine coolant leaves the
heat exchanger and is recirculated through the engine by the engine water pump. The raw
water flows in through the raw water pump, through the heat exchanger and then ejected
overboard.

Typical Heat Exchanger

36
 F ixe d T u b e P al te

S e aW a te r O i lO u t el t
Ou t

B a f f el s
E xp a n s oi n T u b e P al te
A n od e
R ni g D is c

E n d C o ve r

T u be s
S e aW a te r
S he ll
In

Cutaway of a Typical Heat Exchanger showing Components & Flow Path

37
2.20 Types of Centrifugal Pumps

There are two main classes of centrifugal pumps, those using the volute casing and those
using the diffuser. In some uses there is a combination of the two.

As the load on these pumps is a function of the mass flow it is normal to start them with the
discharge valve closed or partly open to minimise the motor starting current.

The Volute Type

This type is common in marine applications, usually consisting of a closed impeller having a
number of vanes which are connected to the drive shaft. The impeller rotates inside a
casing whose sectional area increases as it nears the discharge outlet (volute). This forms a
diverging nozzle which acts as a diffuser around the impeller.

The liquid enters the eye of the impeller axially and is accelerated along the curved vanes in
a radial direction. Due to the increased kinetic energy the velocity is now high as it leaves
the impeller. This high velocity is converted to pressure energy in the volute casing.

The volute type can be used as a simple single stage entry pump, which can be applied to
both fresh and seawater systems where there is normally a positive suction head. This
pump is used for low pressure/high volume applications.

Double entry types are used where greater flow rates are required still with low discharge
pressures.

L qi u di nI el t

R o at toi n D si cha rg e

Fig 2.1
V o ul e
t C as ni g

V o ul et

38
Diffuser Type

With this type (fig 2.2) a static vaned ring is placed around the impeller. The vanes form a
series of diffusers which act to convert the high velocity of the pumped fluid to pressure
energy. The design of the casing may further assist with this conversion.

The diffuser pump is used where higher pressures are required, it is common to use multi-
staging with two or more impellers on the same shaft with suitably designed diffusers and
casings. Each impeller discharge is then used as a feed for the next stage impeller. Two
stages are commonly used for fire pumps where a substantial head of pressure is required
to reach the extremities of the vessel.

F xi ed D ifuf se r
R ni g

D iffu se r

Fig 2.2

39
 2.21 The Centrifugal Pump

S ta t ic S e a l O' R
' ni g S e a l
S h a f tD r ive C o u p l ni g
M e c h a n ic a lS e a l C a rb o n R o ta t ni g
S el e ve S ea l
S e a lH o dl e r
M e c h a n ic a lS e a l
S p r ni g
p p e rW e a rR ni g

m
I p e l el r
L ow e rW e a r
R ni g

S u c t oi n F al n g e m
I p e l el rS e c u r ni g
Nu t S h a f tK e y

W a te rF ol w

C R O S S S EC T O
I N - V ER T C
I A L LY M O U N TED C EN TR IFU G A L PUM P

Fig 2.3

Shown above is a cross section through a vertically mounted centrifugal pump (fig 2.3).

Water is led to the suction eye of the rotating impeller. The water gains energy by the
centrifugal action of the pump and is discharged to the volute outlet casing. The volute is
created by increasing the area of the outlet port and is greatest at outlet from the pump. By
this design the kinetic energy of the water is converted to pressure energy.

Sealing is provided by a mechanical seal (one half of which is shown above and in more
detail below) or by packed gland. For the former cooling water is supplied from the
discharge side of the pump. For the latter cooling is provided by the allowance of slight
leakage, lubrication is by grease filled manual lubricator.

40
2.22 The Centrifugal Pump Operation & Construction

Wear Rings

For efficient operation it is important to ensure that leakage from the high to low pressure
side is kept to a minimum. This is achieved by the use of wear rings. Traditionally these are
fitted to the casing, in order to increase the longevity of the impeller.

Note: The clearance given for wear rings is often a source of contention especially when
dealing with on-ship made rings. A clearance of 1/1000th of the diameter of the bore
is often quoted although this may be very difficult to achieve in practice.

Axial Force

Without careful design an axial force is created by the action of the impeller. This is due to
the low pressure acting on the suction eye whilst the rest of the impeller is subjected to
discharge pressure.

One solution is where radial blades are cast into the back of the impeller. These blades are
commonly called pump-out vanes, and are meant to increase the centrifugal force of the
fluid trapped behind the impeller. This causes the fluid to be "thrown" outwards, reducing
the pressure behind the impeller for the same reason that the impeller causes a reduction of
pressure at the suction eye.

Another method which may be found in conjunction with the pump-out vanes are the
balancing holes. These are holes drilled near the centre of the impeller, connecting the
space in the back of the impeller with the suction eye. This relieves the pressure behind the
impeller by allowing the high-pressure fluid trapped there to flow to the low-pressure region
at the suction eye. In order for this to be effective, there must be a tight clearance between
the impeller and the casing to reduce the flow of fluid into the back of the impeller.

Alternately dual back to back impellers may be fitted in common with a double casing

Cavitation
Disturbances in the water flow causes rapid localised pressure variations. This can lead to
instantaneous vaporisation and bubble formation. When these bubbles collapse there is a
rapid in rush of water. When this occurs near to a surface this slug of water can strike at
speeds of up to 500m/s and lead to destructive erosion and removal of protective oxides
thereby increasing rates of corrosion.

41
2.23 The Flexible (Rubber) Impeller Pump

The Pumps Operation

As the flexible impeller blades leave the cam, the cavities between them increase
in size and create a vacuum which draws in the liquid.

Once the blades clear the inlet port, the liquid is captured in the cavity between
the blades and the housing.

As the blades contact the cam and bend, the cavity between them is reduced
in size and the liquid is forced out the discharge.

Advantages

Self-priming: primes quickly from a dry or wet start /will lift up to 15 feet when wet.
Low Shear: smooth gentle pumping action for liquids of low to high viscosity
Batching: smooth repeatable flow of low to high viscosity liquids

Fig 2.4

R ubbe r mI pe lel r
O u tel t
In el t

A
C

42
2.24. Cooling System with Engine Driven Pumps (Caterpillar Diesel)

The following description is from the Caterpillar 35 series, which incorporates an integrated
expansion tank.

In this system (fig 2.5) the engine is cooled by the heat exchanger system. An auxiliary
seawater pump integrated within the engine is used to constantly pump filtered water from
another seawater source through the heat exchanger.

When the engine reaches a temperature high enough to open the regulators, the water flow
is directed around the heat exchanger core and then back to the expansion tank. The
cooled water in the expansion tank is circulated back through the engine by the engine
water pump.

The fresh water is circulated through the oil heat exchanger.

Item No. Description

1. Water Cooled Turbocharger
2. Aftercooler.
3. Inlet connection for engine water return (either side).
4. Vent Lines.
5. Temperature Regulator (Both Sides).
6. Auxiliary Seawater Pump.
7. Outlet Connection for Engine Water (either side).
8. Engine Fresh Water Pump.
9. Duplex Filter.
10. Heat Exchanger.
11. Oil Cooler Bypass.
12. Engine Oil Cooler.
13. Water Cooled Manifold.

42
Fig 2.5 Caterpillar 35 series Heat Exchanger Cooled System with Integrated Expansion Tank

43
2.25. Fresh Water Treatment

It is very important to ensure that the fresh water cooling water used in engine cooling
systems is distilled or softened water, otherwise scale will form reducing the heat transfer
rate, causing overheating of the piston and cylinder, accelerating wear and in some
instances causing binding of the piston rings.

The water must be kept free from rust, scale and sludge so that the heat can be carried
away from the cooling water. These contaminants can deposit in a non-uniform manner and
create hot spots on cylinder liners and engine blocks resulting in uneven stresses and can
eventually cause material failure.

To ensure that an even heat transfer can function, inhibitors are added to the fresh water
system. The object of the inhibitor is to coat the fresh water systems internal metal surfaces.

To be effective the cooling system treatment must meet four conditions:

1. The cooling system should be clean so that the inhibitor will be able to act on the bare
metal surfaces of the water jacket.

2. The coolant must be checked periodically for alkalinity, chrome and chloride content.
The inhibitor must be maintained at the strength specified by the manufacturer.

3. The coolant must be clean, mineral free, soft, fresh water containing a minimum of
dissolved gases.

4. The cooling system must be mechanically tight to prevent leakage of the water out of the
system or of gases into the system.

Water Tests

To ensure the water is within the correct parameters a test kit is provided. This details the
exact minimum concentration of inhibitor required to effect the optimum cover required. The
engine manufacturer will detail the correct concentration of chromate in the water. This will
be at least 1000 parts per million (ppm) of chrome. A concentration of less than 500 ppm
should not be allowed.

It is also important the correct level of alkalinity is maintained, which should be below a pH
value of 9.8. If the alkalinity value increases above 9.8 the water must be drained and the
system refilled.

Another possibility of contamination is the possible ingress of salt water, in the case of this
happening and the chloride content is detected, the water must be drained and the system
refilled.

The cooling water should be tested frequently to determine the chrome indicator level and
the chloride and alkalinity levels.

43
2.26. Safety & Protection Devices

The safety and protection devices associated with the fresh water cooling
system include:

High Temperature Alarm

The high temperature alarm is a remote alarm set at a pre-determined

temperature below the shutdown temperature, to give the operator sufficient
warning of a malfunction within the cooling system. In some engines their may
be two temperature levels creating an alarm.

High Temperature Shutdown

The high temperature shutdown is usually pre-set at a value prescribed by the

engine manufacturer. On the fresh water temperature reaching the pre-set
temperature the engine will shutdown. The shutdown trip prevents the engine
overheating sufficiently to create a serious component failure of the diesel.

The reasons for a high temperature and a subsequent shutdown of the diesel
may include:

A seawater pump failure.

Blocked seawater suction strainer.
Closed valve.
Fresh water pump failure.

44
3.0 Engine Performance Data

3.1 Engine Power Curves

M a xmi um P ow e rA v a ial b el
nI et m
r itet n U
t s e O n yl

M AR N
I E CO N T N
I UO U S R A T N
IG
280
260
240 1
* 350
OU TPU T

220 300
(kW )

180

OU TPU T
160 2 250

(P)
140
120 200

H
100
80 M ax P ow e r 3 150
60 A fet rC ul tch 2 6 1 kW 100
* 350 H P

4
16

IN
IN

FU E L CON SUM P T O
14
FU E L CON SUM P T O

60 12
/R)

/R)
50 5
10
(L ITR E S H

( S GA L H
40 6 6 4. LPH
30 * 1 7 6. G PH
8
6
20 4

U
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 6 0 0 1 7 0 0 119800 0

ENG N
I E S P E ED - R PM

The total power taken off of the front of the crankshaft cannot exceed the
capacity of the clutch and the total power required of the engine may not
exceed the values published on the Engine Manufacturers Power Curves for
the particular engine rating.

The information on the curves shown above can project the fuel consumption
for a given engine speed and output.

The example given in the engine manufacturers curves shown above

indicates the total power required by the propeller with the clutch limitations
required not to exceed curve #2 on the Engine Manufacturers Power Curves
at any given rpm. If the propeller is engaged, this means that the power
available at the front is equal to the distance between curves #2 and #3.

45
4.0 Fuel System

Fuel supplied to marine diesels can range from heavy fuel oil to blended fuel
oil to marine gas oil. Each oil initially going through a refinery fractional
distillation process prior to being despatched to the ships.

4.1 Origins of Fuel Oils

The fuel used for marine diesel applications is derived from crude oil. Crude
oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon molecules which consist entirely of
hydrogen and carbon. Crude oil is normally found underground in porous
rocks, usually of a sedimentary nature. It is formed when organic matter has
deposited with sediment over a period of time, and where a lack of oxygen
has prevented complete decay. As the depth of burial increases, time,
temperature, pressure and bacterial action convert the organic matter to the
crude petroleum.

Very little crude oil is used in its original state. It requires refining to yield
marketable products, such as liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline, aviation fuels,
gas oils, diesel and fuel oils. Initially the crude oil is separated into its different
fractions by distillation, which is process of boiling off (changing the crude oils
molecular structure) to create the various products, such as gas/diesel oil.

4.2. Fuel Oil Contamination

Fuel contamination is a fact of life. Preventing problems and equipment

damage associated with contaminated fuel is primarily the responsibility of the
end user. These responsibilities include the proper and timely replacement
and servicing of the filters; selection of the fuel source, grade, and blend; and
use of heaters, separators, and additives as required.

Fuel filters capture unwanted contaminants from the fuel. Left unchecked,
these contaminants may cause serious and expensive damage to many
system components including pumps, lines, and injectors. Fuel contaminants
have many sources. Most sources are external to the fuel system itself, that
is, most contaminants come with the fuel that is delivered to the fuel tank. As it
comes from the refinery, diesel fuel is clean. Contaminants in diesel fuel are
generally introduced in fuel storage systems through mixing, transferring, and
storage.

Fuel filters naturally build resistance to the flow of fuel as they go about their
job of removing unwanted contaminants from the fuel system. Fuel systems,
unlike lube systems, do not have the opportunity for bypass flow and
consequently, as flow through the fuel filter decreases, decreased
performance of the fuel system and the engine will result. Fuel filters will
become restricted or plugged over their life -- this is an expected result. A
thorough investigation of the filter and the fuel source should be conducted
anytime a fuel filter is suspected of delivering less than its expected life.

46
Some common contaminants found in today's fuels might include:
Water is the greatest concern because it is the most common form of
contaminant. Water may be introduced into the fuel supply during fueling
when warm, moisture laden air condenses on the cold metal walls of fuel
storage tanks or from poor housekeeping practices. The effects of water in
diesel fuel can be serious. Water can cause a tip to blow off an injector, or
reduce the lubricity of the fuel which can cause seizure of close tolerance
assemblies such as plungers.

Once in the system, water can be removed by using in-line water separating
filters or devices. Long term prevention of problems associated with water in
fuel is best accomplished by obtaining fuel from reputable suppliers capable of
providing high quality fuel. Further, fuel tanks should be kept well filled to
prevent condensation, and fuel should be drawn from the top of a storage tank
if possible, as water is heavier than diesel fuel and tends to settle to the
bottom of storage tanks. Tanks can also be kept free of water with continuous
off-line or "kidney-loop" filtration/separation. Fungus and Bacteria -- These
microorganisms live in water and feed on the hydrocarbons found in fuel.
Called Humbugs for short, these active and multiplying colonies will spread
throughout a fuel system and quickly plug a fuel filter. The fuel filter will have a
slime coating over the surface of the media, dramatically reducing the service
life of the filter. Bacteria may be any colour, but is usually black, green or
brown. Draining the system will reduce microbial activity, but will not eliminate
it. The only way to eliminate microbial growth once it has started is to clean
and treat the system with a biocide.

Most sediment can be removed by settling or filtration. Fuel filters designed for
specific applications will remove these harmful contaminants before they
cause further system wear and damage.
In no case should a more "open" filter be substituted to fix a perceived
problem with premature plugging. Plugged filters will develop as the filter
works to remove unwanted contaminants from the fuel system.

Clean fuel is essential for efficient, full-power engine performance.

Remember, newly refined fuel is clean. Between the time the fuel leaves the
refinery and enters the engine's fuel tanks, it should be handled carefully to
avoid possible contamination that can prematurely plug fuel filters and cause
even further, more serious damage within the engine's fuel system.

4.3. Fuel Oil Operating System

The fuel oil is stored in either double bottom tanks or wing tanks depending on
the vessel type. If the fuel is heavy oil then during periods where the ambient
temperature is low, it may be necessary to ensure that the oil is sufficiently in
a viscous state that it can be pumped. On some ships it may be a requirement
that heating coils are available in the tank to increase the heavy oil to a
temperature that it becomes easier to transfer. Marine diesel oil does not have
this problem in so far that it can resist reasonable low temperatures before it
becomes waxy.

47
The fuel oil is then pumped to a settling tank where any residue of water can
be removed by using the drain valves situated at the bottom of the tank. The
fuel oil is then drawn from the settling tank to a centrifuge where any existing
water and any heavy carbonaceous particles are removed. The purified fuel
oil is then pumped from the centrifuge to the Fuel Oil Service Tank. The oil is
ready to be delivered to the engine.

Note: If the fuel to be transferred from the settling tank to the service tank is
heavy oil. Then in order to effectively remove any carbonaceous
particle and residues of water, it will become necessary to heat the fuel
to the required temperature prior to entering the centrifuge.

The fuel oil then gravitates to the fuel oil booster pumps which then deliver the
fuel oil to the fuel oil gallery and then to the individual engines fuel oil pumps.

Caution

Prior to bunkering fuel oil from a bunkering vessel to the ships

fuel oil tanks, a bunkering procedure must be in place, which
will include;

Tank capacity available for the fuel oil; correct tank filling plan
& isolations in place; agreed fuel oil to take onboard; agreed
fuel oil flow rate; oil pollution equipment available.

Note: Although the preceding description is common on larger vessels,

variations of fuel transfer systems may be encountered. Some systems
do not have a settling tank, and rely on a direct supply from the fuel oil
double bottom or wing tanks to the service fuel oil tanks. These
systems often rely on marine gas oil as the source of fuel.

4.4. Fuel Tanks

The contents of fuel oil tanks require that the tank are continuously vented to
atmosphere by a venting pipe system from the tank to deck to remove any
flammable and toxic gases that are present. The deck mounted vent must
have a flame arrester fitted, as well as a means of manually isolating the vent
(and subsequently the tank). The vent should be positioned to avoid any
ingress of water from the deck area.

Fuel oil tanks should also have available a means of accurately monitoring the
tank. The most accurate is by use of the sounding pipe. The sounding pipe is
means of obtaining information on the contents of the tank by using a
sounding tape. The measurement on the tape indicates the fuel oil contents of
the tank by cross referencing the level on the tape to the calibrated sounding
tables supplied by the ship.

A practical way of finding the contents in the settling and service oil tanks is by
using either a gauge glass or by calibrated gauge.

48
Note: All gauges must be re-calibrated on a periodic basis.
Correct indications of fuel oil gauges will assist in preventing accidents.

Fuel oil service and settling tanks are fitted with drainage cocks. Opening this
valve on a regular basis ensures that any water present in the fuel oil tank is
removed.

All fuel oil tanks are fitted with quick closing valves. These important valves
supply the engine or any other equipment requiring fuel oil. They are remotely
operated from a position located outside the machinery space. They are
usually operated by a wire system or hydraulically.

Caution
The deck filling lines to the fuel oil tanks must always be
capped if not in use. The integrity of the fuel oil tanks is
important, that is to say that water should never be allowed to
enter the fuel oil tanks, therefore any malfunction to the filling
lines, vents, sounding caps must be remedied and secured.

4.5 Fuel Oil Filters

Fuel oil filters are used to remove any micro-particles that maybe present in
the fuel oil. The filters are located after the fuel oil leaves the fuel oil service
tank and prior to entering the engines fuel oil gallery via the fuel oil booster/lift
pump.

The fuel oil filters are often of the dual element type (duplex type); each
renewable element is made from corrugated felt with perforated metal and
gauze stiffeners. The two elements, each in its own bowl can function in
parallel or can function singly whilst the other is being renewed or can allow
the clean side to be primed whilst the other element is carrying full flow. The
change-over is carried out by a lever operated valve at the top of the valve
body casting. Refer Fig 4.1.

Other types of filters available include the water coalescer/separator. This will
remove excess moisture which can be drained at regular periods. Water in the
fuel will decrease the lubrication in the pump and possibly cause a failure of a
pump. Injectors are also fuel lubricated and can also fail as a result of water in
the fuel.

49
 Fue O
l ut Fue l n
I

Wae
t rT ra p & D ra ni

Fuel Oil Filter/Separator

50
Coalescer Type Filter

This is used to remove water and solid particles from the fuel. A two-stage
process takes place in the filter cartridge, which is a single replaceable
element.

The filter (fig 4.1) operates by allowing the fuel to flow radially outwards
through the cartridge, first through a pleated inner element then through the
outer coalescer stage. The inner element removes particles from the fuel and
protects the outer part of the filter from excessive quantities of contaminants.
The outer coalescer element is made from inorganic fibres of pre-determined
density, causing fine water droplets to collect to such a size that they fall by
gravity to the sump.

A irV e n tV a lve

C el a n & D ryO i l

P T FE C o a te d M e ta l
M e s h F i lte r

D iv is oi n P al te

A u tom a t ic D ra ni

D irtyO i l In el t

D ra ni V a lve

C o a le sce r F i l te r

Fig 4.1

51
In addition to the corrugated felt type of filters, fine paper element filters are
widely used, these units are invariably fitted to fuel oil systems, especially
common on smaller diesel engines, or boilers being supplied by marine gas
oil.

Note: Do not attempt to clean these types of filters, they must be replaced.

Fine Filters (Duplex Filter)

These types of filters (fig 4.2) are used in the final stage of the preparation of
fuel oil to remove micro particles before the fuel oil is allowed to enter the
injection system of a diesel engine. The filtering medium may be one of the
following:

Felt (disposable cartridge).

Special paper (disposable cartridge).
Fine gauze (element is removed for cleaning).

The filter elements are housed in a container designed to withstand pressure.

The oil to be filtered is usually past through from the outside towards the
centre. If this type of filter is used for lube oil there may be a magnet included
in the centre to attract particles of ferrous metals. In addition there may be
included a bypass relief valve which opens when the pressure difference
across the filter exceeds a pre-determined value. This prevents the filter
element from collapse and rupture as it becomes increasingly blocked by the
filtered out substances.

Other types of filters available include the water coalescer/separator. This will
remove excess moisture which can be drained at regular periods. Water in the
fuel will decrease the lubrication in the pump and possibly cause a failure of a
pump. Injectors are also fuel lubricated and can also fail as a result of water in
the fuel.

It is common for this type of filter to have a pressure gauge to both the inlet
and outlet connections. A drop in pressure at the outlet will indicate filter
element blockage. There may be more than one element in a housing
depending on the volume of oil required to be filtered.

The housings are usually arranged in pairs with a changeover lever operated
valve at the top of the valve body casting. This design allows one unit to
remain in operation while the other is being serviced. The term Duplex Filter is
common to this arrangement.

52
Fig 4.2 Duplex Filter
O i l nI el t
from S ys etm
O iO l u tel t
ot S ys etm

C hang eo ve rP ul g

O i l nI el t ot
S at ndb yE elm en t

O iO l u tel t
C hanne l ot
S at ndb yE elm en t

O i l nI tel t ot
F i let rE elm en t
O' 'R ni g s

O iO l u tel t from
F i let rE elm en t

C hang eo ve rP ul g
& nI d ci a ot r
A irR e el a se

C a s ni g

E elm en tC a r tr di g e
W a she r
S p r ni g S at ndb y F ilet rA s s y .

53
54
4.6 Fuel Lift Pumps

Fuel lift pumps are usually found on smaller marine diesels. The lift pump is
employed in a fuel oil system as shown. Where the fuel is drawn from the fuel
oil tanks through the filter/coalescer to the lift pump prior to being delivered to
the fuel pump to their respective fuel injectors.

The fuel oil lift pump in some instances can be engine driven via a gear train,
or stand alone, however usually in both cases the pump also has the facility to
be manually operated. This requirement is needed in the event that
maintenance has been carried out on the fuel oil system, and priming of the
system is required. Refer Fig 4.3.

Refer to Fig 4.3.1 explaining the operation of the lift pump in association with
a small engine fuel system.

Fig 4.3 Exploded Drawing of a Lift Pump

Lever

Rocker Arm
Link Diaphragm
Diaphragm Pump Body
Spring

55
FO System Schematic/Description showing Lift Pump.

Fig. 4.3.1

56
4.7 Fuel Injection Pumps

There are two types of fuel injection systems in use:

1. One type is the common rail system in which a single fuel pump supplies
fuel at high pressure to a common manifold feeding the cylinders. Injection
of the fuel to each cylinder takes place through a fuel valve operated from
the camshaft which releases a metered amount of fuel into each cylinder.

2. The second type is the known as the jerk type pump system, in which the
fuel is metered and raised in pressure by a separate fuel pump for each
cylinder. The pump is timed to force fuel through the injector into the
cylinder at the appropriate moment. The jerk pump can operate as a single
unit as in Fig 4.4 or within a complete module.

The jerk pump shown in this particular description is operated by a single fuel
cam for each cylinder mounted on the engine camshaft. The function of the
pump is to provide fuel in correctly metered quantities proportional to the
power developed by the engine, with timed accuracy to the injector nozzle for
the respective cylinder.

The fuel cam drives the pumps through roller followers and tappet assemblies
and are phased to operate each pump in turn, in firing sequence and at the
correct injection point.

The pump plunger stroke is constant but the movement of the control rack
varies the quantity of fuel delivered to the injector. All control racks are linked
to the engine governor by adjustable levers and rods. This action causes the
racks to move in unison, ensuring that equal quantities of fuel, throughout the
range are delivered by each pump once the controls have been set.

The pump delivers fuel through the injector nozzle at high pressure, the
nozzle atomises the fuel as it passes into the combustion chamber, thereby
enabling the fuel to ignite and burn efficiently.

Each pump contains a pumping element comprising a plunger and barrel. The
upper portion of the barrel has two opposite ports which are in communication
with the fuel gallery.

Around the lower end of the barrel is a control sleeve which is locked to the
plunger. Teeth on the upper end of the control sleeve mesh with teeth on the
control rack. This action converts the linear movement of the control rack to a
rotary movement of the control sleeve and plunger. This movement alters the
position of the plunger helical groove in relation to the ports in the barrel. This
action in turn varies the pumps effective stroke, and therefore the quantity of
fuel oil delivered to the injector.

57
To alter the timing of the pump two alternatives are available. In the case of
this type of pump the pump body is shimmed during initial assembly to
equalise the tolerances and so enable all pumps to be pre-set to equal timing.
The other type of adjustment is to alter the tappet follower of the respective
pump which will create the precise relationship to the crank angle.

The upper end pump houses a delivery valve and spring, this ensures that the
delivery of fuel oil to the injector does not return to the pump plunger.

Fig 4.4 Single Fuel Pump

V a lve
S p r in g
S ea t

P is to n

D e l ive ry V a lve A ssem b ly

F ixe d to P um p B o d y

P ul n g e r

C o n tro lR a c k

S p r in g

58
 The Fuel Pump Delivery Process (Refer to drawing below)

The fuel enters the pump barrel cavity during the

commencement of its upward stroke and fills the pump
chamber until the port is covered, this part of the cycle
is called the Spill Cut Off. At the moment at which the
fuel is forced at high pressure (approx. 200
atmospheres) to the injector the injection process
commences.

As the plunger continues upwards, injection continues

until the helical groove in the sides of the plunger is
released and the fuel discharges back through the inlet
port. At the moment this happens the pressure above
the plunger is released. This part of the pump cycle is
called the Fuel Cut Off and injection ceases.

The cam then lowers the plunger to the bottom of its

stroke. The process is repeated on the engines next
cycle.

In te m
r e d ia te T op o f
B o t tom o fS tro ke S tro ke
T h e P lu n g e r S tro ke

P LU NG E R N
I PO S T
I O
I N FO R NO D E L V
I ER Y

B o t tom o fS tro ke S ta r t o fD e l ive ry E n d o fD e l ive ry T o p o fS tro ke

P( o s i t oi n 1 ) P( o s i t oi n 2 ) P( o s i t oi n 3 )

P LU NG E R N
I PO S T
I O
I N FO R NO RM A L D E L V
I ER Y

59
4.8 Fuel Injectors

Fuel Injector Operation

The fuel injector shown in (Fig 4.6) is fitted to each cylinder and its purpose is
to discharge (accurately) a metered quantity of fuel from the injector pump into
the cylinder combustion chamber. The injector is designed to atomise and
distribute the fuel into the hot air and induce rapid and complete combustion.
Each injection has to be precise without any dribble after the termination of
injection. This ideal will promote a clean and efficient running engine.

The injectors design has to be robust as each injector makes several hundred
injections per minute.

Each injector consists of a nozzle holder body housing a fuel inlet connector,
leak off union, pressure adjusting screw and spray nozzle.

The fuel injectors operation (Fig 4.5) is as follows:

Fuel is pumped by the fuel pump down the feed drilling in the inlet connector
and on through the feed drilling in the nozzle holder body to the nozzle. The
fuel then passes through small feed holes drilled in the nozzle body; these
holes terminate in an annular gallery just above the valve seating. When the
fuel pressure reaches a pre-determined figure, set by the adjusting screw, the
nozzle valve lifts off its seating. This action allows the fuel to pass through the
small holes in the tip of the nozzle and enter the combustion chamber in the
form of a fine spray.

Valve Open Pintle Type Nozzle Valve Closed

Fig 4.5

N eed el V a vl e L ift

S p ra yA ng el
60
 Lea k o ff ot S p i l lL ni e &
F ue lT ank

A d uj s tni g S c rew

S p r ni g

S p ni g R od
H gi h P re s su re
F ue Ol il

N eed el V a vl e

N o zz el

Fig 4.6

61
 Types of Injectors

There are two types of injectors, the multi-hole type which

has a number of holes around the injector tip and the
single hole type of injector known as the Pintle. (Shown in
Fig.4.6 )

Requirements for Effective Combustion of Fuel

Apart form the supplied fuel oil being scrupulously clean, the fuel oil must
have the correct characteristics to meet the correct combustion conditions. To
achieve good combustion in an operating diesel the following requirements
ideally have to be met:

Viscosity

Viscosity is the fuels resistance to flow. The fuel viscosity must be low enough
to ensure correct atomisation at the fuel injector. To obtain the correct
viscosity it sometimes becomes necessary to heat the fuel.

Atomisation

Atomisation is the separating of the fuel into very small droplets by the fuel
injector forcing fuel at high pressure through small atomiser holes located at
the injector nozzle tip. The droplet size will depend upon the size of holes and
the pressure difference between the fuel pump discharge and that of the
compressed air in the combustion chamber. Consequently the size of the
droplets may vary over the whole injection period. Atomised droplets have a
high surface to mass ratio giving good heat transfer from the hot compressed
air in the cylinder causing rapid evaporation and mixing.

Penetration

Penetration refers to the distance the oil droplets travel into the combustion
space before mixing with the air and igniting. This will depend upon droplet
size (atomisation), the velocity leaving the injector and the conditions within
the combustion space for good mixing. The droplets should not impinge on
the internal surfaces before burning. The number of atomiser holes and their
position will decide the spray pattern.

62
Turbulence

The turbulence is the movement of compressed air and fuel within the
combustion space before combustion occurs. This may have several causes:

Swirl is imparted to the air during its entry at the scavenge ports or air inlet
valves.
Agitation can occur by the fuel oil spray pattern and the shape and
movement of the piston crown.
The turbulence will improve the mixing of fuel and air for effective and
rapid combustion.

Compression Ignition

The combustion process may be considered as two phases:

1. Atomised oil droplets emitted from the fuel valve nozzle into the
combustion space at the start of injection will evaporate and mix
with hot compressed air resulting in some chemical changes. The
mixture will reach an ignitable condition and spontaneous
combustion will occur. The time elapsed during this phase is termed
the ignition delay or ignition lag.

2. The second phase causes the ignition and start of combustion to

commence, causing a flame front to be set up. The flame front
accelerates through the chamber; enveloping and burning all the
other droplets present causing a very rapid generation of heat with
a corresponding rise in pressure and temperature.

Fuel Oil System Basic Maintenance

The choice and type of fuel for a diesel engine is dictated by the engines
characteristics, such as cylinder diameter, engine speed and combustion wall
temperatures. Fuels used need good ignition compression qualities that it will
allow it to burn satisfactorily in the engines combustion chamber. The
viscosity must be suitable for the engines injection and fuel system over the
range of climatic temperatures likely to be encountered.

In some diesel fuels with a high sulphur content the presence of sulphur may
cause corrosion and engine wear. During combustion, the sulphur compounds
form mainly sulphur dioxides, but also sulphur trioxides which combines with
water vapour to form sulphuric acid. In an effort to reduce the possibility of
engine wear it is important to maintain the jacket water temperature at the
optimum condition above the dew point to help reduce the formation of water
vapour.

63
If any maintenance has been carried out on the fuel system, which results in
any component being removed, may involve removing the entrapped air from
the fuel system. This is of course dependent on the component. On smaller
engines use of the fuel lift pump assists in evacuating the air in the fuel
system. The air is evacuated by disconnecting pipe work to the injector pump
and expelling the air by operating the lift pump. On larger engines this method
is usually not available. The most effective way to evacuate the entrapped air
is by disconnecting pipework to one or more injectors and rotating the engine
until the air has been expelled and fuel is flowing.

Caution

Always ensure during the fuel bleeding operation that the

excess fuel is removed from the maintenance site, as this
may become a hazard. If fuel congregates on the cylinder
heads, fuel dilution of the lubricating system may occur, and a
subsequent reduction in the flash point may possibly result in
a crankcase explosion. Ensure all pipework is secure after
completing any maintenance.

Prior to a voyage always ensure that adequate fuel oil

reserves are available. This will always compensate for any
unseen eventuality, bad weather conditions, change of
voyage plan etc.

Note: With respect to maintenance on fuel injectors and fuel pumps refer to
the maintenance procedures produced by the manufacturer.

Warning

High pressurise fuel systems invariably require protection

from any fuel component failure resulting in the fuel oil
spraying onto a hot surface e.g. exhaust systems. To prevent
this occurring, double skin fuel pipes can be used or
alternatively spray guards are fitted to protect any emission of
fuel onto hot surfaces.

64
5.0 Combustion Air Process

5.1 Fuel Oil

Use of fuel oil whether it is heavy, blended or marine gas oil is an ideal source
of fuel for a ships propulsion. It is relatively safe to store and there is a global
acceptance of its use, therefore it becomes readily available for use as a
means of propelling a ship.

Other sources of hydrocarbon fuels for generation and propulsion that are
sometimes available include LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas). The use of LPG is
extremely limited to ships who transport the gas (LPG Carriers) and vessels
e.g. FPSOs (Floating Production Storage Offshore Vessels) employed in the
oil and gas industry where it is readily available as a consumer source.

5.2 Air to Fuel Ratio

As fuel oil is the excepted means of fuel for ships engines and generators, it
will require a copious amount of air to maintain correct combustion. It is
therefore essential to maintain a correct air to fuel ratio to maintain efficient
combustion. This will ensure the engine is running in its optimum condition
and maintain the correct exhaust gas constituent balance.

To maintain the correct air to fuel ratio, ensure the following is carried out:

Maintain the fuel in a clean condition. Monitor fuel filter condition and
ensure no water is present.
Fuel pump timing is correct.
Engine load is within the design parameters.
Air filters are clean.
Ensure the Turbocharger (if fitted) is running correctly.
Engine exhaust gas temperature outlets are balanced and within their
design temperature parameters. Note: Possibly indicating faulty fuel
injector.

Adequate engine room ventilation.

5.3 Air Filters

The importance of maintaining adequate engine compartment ventilation is to

ensure performance and the durability of the engine and the auxiliary
components (mechanical and electrical).

A lack of air, or high inlet temperature will lead to fuel richness which will
promote cylinder bore washing, and will be indicated by black exhaust
emission. A simple rule is to allow 0.5 square inch of air inlet area per rated
Brake Horse Power (BHP).

65
To ensure trouble free running of both the turbocharger and the engine, the air
must be clean. The air intake may be located inside the engine room
immediately at the turbocharger inlet, or it may be located external to the
engine room and ducted to the turbocharger. In both cases, it is usual to
provide a filter. The filter will to some degree act as a silencer. The design of
the machinery room air ventilation system is usually ducted to the bottom of
the engine room to promote bottom up circulation of the fresh air and to clear
fumes and moisture from the bilge. The exhaust vent should be located near
the top of the engine room to carry away the hot air in the engine room.

Note: The air temperature in an engine room should be maintained below 54

C. Temperatures above may cause deterioration in the hoses and
electrical wiring.

The air filters used externally must be of a variety that can repel water; a
propriety brand name includes Tetrion. The air filter used internally can be a
dry type. However it is important that either type must be maintained and
remain as clean as practical.

Note: Any build up of particles and matter on the filters can impair the
efficiency of the engine combustion process.

66
5.4 Turbocharged and Naturally Aspirated Diesels

The quantity of air provided by turbocharging compared to those diesels which

are naturally aspirated is so great that the amount of fuel that can be burnt in
each cylinder per cycle (and hence the power to weight ratio) is not limited on
this account. Other factors impacting on power to weight ratios include the
temperature, which the exhaust valves, cylinder heads and pistons can
withstand.

Volumetric efficiency is a measurement of how well; the gas is passed through

the engine. This particular component of the combustion process
distinguishes the difference between the lesser ability of the naturally
aspirated diesel to process air to the increased capacity of the turbocharger
diesel to process air for combustion.

Note: However, it must also be noted that the volumetric efficiency is also
effected by the valve timings, un-obstructed ports, shape of the
manifold, and correct radiusing port openings etc.

5.5 The Turbocharger Operating Principle

The turbocharger operates by utilising the energy from the exhaust gases to
drive the turbine, therefore causing the compressor to rotate. The pressurised
air (boost pressure) exits the compressor in a hot condition. It may be
beneficial and often necessary to cool the air by means of an inter or after-
cooler, this action assists in increasing the mass of air available to the
cylinders during the induction stroke. The other benefit in cooling the air is to
keep the internal parts of the engine cool.

The turbocharger consists of an exhaust gas driven axial flow turbine and a
centrifugal air compressor working on a common shaft, which rotates in
bearings located between the impeller and turbine wheel. The bearing set
consists of plain radial bearings in a floating bush and a thrust bearing and
thrust ring. A central lubricating oil passage feeds oil from the engine
lubricating oil system to the bearings.

An air filter silencer is fitted to ensure that all induction air is filtered before it
enters the turbocharger.

The air exiting the compressor is passed through an intercooler prior to

entering the air manifold. The intercooler can be an air-to-air radiator or a
water-cooled heat exchanger.

67
Turbochargers consist of the following components:

Tubine Inlet Casing

The cast iron circular turbine inlet casing supports the nozzle ring. The nozzle
ring deflects the outlet gases to impinge on the rotor turbine blades,
converting the axial flow of gas to a rotating force.

Main Centre Casing

The main centre casing assembly is constructed from high grade cast iron.
The casing supports the impeller seal plate the oil drain chamber and the
bearing housing.

Rotor Assembly

This item consists of a solid shaft. One end of which is a shrink fit on the hub
of the turbine wheel. The other end of the shaft consists of the impeller.

The turbine wheel comprises of separate blades fitted by fir-tree roots to a

steel disc. Each component of the rotor is dynamically balanced.

Compressor Outlet Casing

The compressor outlet casing is a seawater resistant aluminium alloy casting

shaped in the form of a volute casing for the compressor impeller and diffuser.
The principle of operation is as follows:

Air is drawn through the eye of the casing and is discharged to the engine air
manifold through a tangential duct.

Air Filter/Silencer

An air filter/silencer is fitted to the compressor outlet casing. The filter/silencer

consists of wire mesh filter element.

Cooling System

If fitted, the cooling water from the main engine is circulated through the jacket
in the outlet casing surrounding the exhaust gas passage in which the turbine
wheel and nozzle ring is situated.

Note: Jacket cooling is usually utilised on larger output diesel engines.

68
 Gas and Oil Seals

To prevent oil loss past the compressor end, air is bled from the compressor
casing via labyrinths on the rear face of the impeller. An air supply also feeds
through tubular passages in the centre casing, which in turn pressurises the
turbine end preventing exhaust gas and oil leakage, and also serves to cool
the turbine disc.

T u rb ni e
W hee l N o z z el
mI pe lel r R ni g

D ifuf se r

nI et rcoo el r

E xhau s t
V a vl e
nI el tV a vl e

TUR BO CH ARG ER & TUR BO C H ARG ED ENG NI E Air System & Water Cooled Turbocharger

69
 C om p re sso r
C a s ni g
B e a r ni g H o u s ni g
O' R
' ni g A s sem b yl
S n a p R ni g T u rb ni e H o u s ni g
T h ru s t
B e a r ni g B e a r ni g

LO nI

E xhau s tG a sO u t

C om p re sso r
LO O u t
mI p e lel r S n a p R ni g

O ilD e fel c to r
S h a ft& T u rb ni e
A s sem b yl
E xhau s tG a s nI

71
5.6 Emergency Operations

In case of a serious turbocharger failure (Fig 5.1). The engine can be operated for a short
period with the rotor assembly removed and the exposed centre casing assembly apertures
blanked off (as shown in the drawing below) If applicable, the cooling water must continue
to flow during this emergency operation.

For a longer periods during emergency operation, it is possible to by-pass the turbocharger
altogether by fabricating a suitable connection between the engine exhaust and the turbine
exhaust ducting.

With the failure of a turbocharger, the diesel engine becomes a naturally aspirated engine,
and consequently the power to weight ratios and volumetric efficiency change. These
change of operating parameters result in a requirement for the engine power to be reduced
accordingly.

Fig 5.1 Emergency Securing after Turbocharger Failure

72
5.7 Engine Stopping Arrangements

Diesel Engine stopping arrangements (Fig 5.2) usually comprise of three methods, all
operating on the same principle, they include the following:

Manual Operation

The quantity of fuel delivered by the injection pumps (discussed earlier) is controlled by the
fuel racks which are operated by a control shaft fitted with levers to control the movement of
each pump rack. Each pump lever is secured by a cotter pin to the control shaft, and is in
turn connected to its fuel pump rack by a spring loaded coupling rod/connecting link
arrangement and rack pin. Should a fuel pump rack become jammed, the design of the
linkage permits the fuel control shaft to return all other fuel pump racks to the no fuel
position, regardless of the jammed rack, when the shutdown is selected.

An additional longer lever is also secured to the shaft by a cotter pin is connected by an
elastic link to the governor output lever secured by a pinch bolt to the governor output shaft.

A maximum fuel stop is provided and this is set to limit the amount of fuel delivered to a
quantity slightly above that required for maximum engine output.

During engine operation the control lever is placed in the Run position for starting and
normal running. The lever is free to turn on the control shaft and when in the Run position,
leaving the governor in control of the engine. As the control lever is moved towards the
Stop position, a dog on the lever is engaged with a dog on the boss of the maximum fuel
stop lever. Turning the control shaft in the decrease fuel direction over-rides the governor.
When the control lever reaches Stop all the fuel racks are in the no-fuel position and the
engine is brought to a rest.

73
Fig 5.2

74
The Engine Overspeed Trip

Basic Overspeed Operation

It is usual to provide an overspeed trip (Fig 5.3) to safeguard against any accidental running
away of the engine and the resultant possibility of serious damage.

The principle of an overspeed trip is as shown. The centrifugal force exerted on a bolt in a
rotating component is balanced by a spring set so that should the engine speed exceed
about 10% of the rated speed the bolt will fly out.

The arrangement is unstable in the sense that the bolt cannot return even though the speed
should fall somewhat, and this is an added safeguard. The bolt strikes a latch which
releases a plunger which shuts off the fuel supply to the engine. The mechanism has to be
manually reset before the engine can be started.

Fig 5.3

S h u tO f f
Fue l P u l l to R e se t

R o ta t io n ca n b e
e i th e rw a y

CG. . o fB o l t
A ssem b ly

Caution

Whenever an engine is stopped by the overspeed device. It is

essential to investigate and rectify the cause before
attempting to reset and restart the engine.

75
5.8 Solenoid Shutdown Operation

The requirement of a solenoid operation as a means of a engine shutdown, is to enable the

engine to be shutdown remotely. The method used to carry out this operation is to ensure a
24V contact is broken to the solenoid coil, this enables the solenoid to de-energise which
allows movement of the coil to be forced back by the internal spring. The action allows the
pivotal arm which is connected to the governor/fuel rack crank lever which in turn is
connected to the fuel pump(s) control rod. The control rod then travels fully back to the stop
position on the fuel pump(s) allowing the engine to stop. Refer Fig 5.4.

Fuel Injection Pump showing Pivotal Arm/Fuel Rack Crank Lever.

Fig 5.4

76
5.9 Emergency Engine Stop

Another method of stopping a diesel engine other than terminating the fuel to the engine, is
to obstruct the air to the engine via the air intake. Some engine manufacturers use this
method by installing a pivotal damper in the engine air intake. The damper can be operated
by activation of the overspeed trip after the engine reaches a pre-determined speed.

The use of this method of shutting down an engine is common on mobile offshore drilling
units, whereupon any possible gas emission can allow an engine to run even after a signal
has been remotely transmitted to shut the fuel off. The action is to allow the engine to run to
the overspeed rated value, thus tripping the overspeed causing the air intake flap to
activate.

5.10 Engine Cold Starting Aids

The principle starting aid for larger medium speed diesels is to ensure that the engine jacket
cooling water is maintained at a warm temperature (30C) during an engine lay-up period.
By maintaining the engine at this approximate temperature, assists in combustion thus
enabling the engine to start promptly.

Another method employed by engine manufacturers in the engine cold start process is to
allow extra fuel into the cylinders during start up.

Some manufacturers install pre-heating elements in the air intake manifold as explained in
the drawing (Fig.5.5).

77
Fig.5.5 Thermostart System

78
6.0 Electrical Systems

6.1 Batteries

Introduction to the Battery

Batteries are available to supply 12 or 24 Volts. They have many uses e.g. 24 V supply for
emergency lighting, control systems and for diesel engine starting systems on smaller type
engines. Batteries used are either of the lead acid variety, alkaline, chloride or gel type.

Lead acid batteries require constant attention, by ensuring the liquid level in each battery is
at the correct level, and each cell performance is correct. The storage of these batteries is
also critical. Ensure the space is well ventilated as these batteries liberate hazardous
hydrogen gases.

Storage of alkaline, chloride and gel batteries are less hazardous, however observation of
the battery condition has to be maintained as well as the correct monitoring of battery
performance. Charging of batteries is in-line with manufacturers guidelines.

Basic Action of a Cell

E el c trode s

E el c tro yl et

- +
+ -
- +

A
N ega tvi e oI n P o s itvi e oI n

N ega tvi e E el c trode P o s itvi e E el c trode

-
- ++ + +
+ - +
+ -++ + +
+ - +
-+ + + +

E el c tron F ol w

B a s ci A c toi n o fa C h em ci a lV o lat ci C e l l
Fig. 6.1

79
A chemical cell is made up of two electrodes, or plates, in contact with a substance in which
there are many ions (drawing A). A substance that contains many ions is called an
electrolyte. Water solutions made with acids, bases, salts are electrolytes. Salt water for
example is an electrolyte. It is also a good conductor of electricity.

The chemical actions that cause a combination of substances to produce a voltage are
complicated. To understand the operation of a simple cell is as follows:

In the cell, the electrolyte ionises to form positive and negative ions. At the same time
chemical action also causes the atoms within one of the electrodes to ionise. Because of
this, electrons are deposited on the electrode. Positive ions from the electrode pass into the
electrolyte. This creates a negative charge on this electrode. It leaves the area near it
positively charged (drawing B).

Some of the positive ions produced because of the ionisation of the electrolyte are then
repelled to the other electrode. At this electrode, these ions combine with electrons. Since
this removes electrons from the electrode, it becomes positively charged. Because the
chemical action has caused the electrodes to have opposite charges, there is now a voltage
between them.

If a wire is connected between the electrodes of the cell, excess electrons from the negative
electrode will pass through the wire and into the positive electrode (drawing C). This
current will continue until the materials in the cell become chemically inactive.

The electrolyte of a cell may be a liquid or a paste. If it is a liquid, the cell is often called a
wet cell. Cells in which the electrolyte is a paste are called dry cells.

The process of the cell action is shown in the drawing Fig 6.1.

6.2 The Lead Acid Cell and Battery

P ro te c te d C e ll
C o n n e c to r
N e g a tvi e T e m
r ni a l

V e n tP ul g & P al te
V si u a lL e ve lF
/ ill S tra p

P o s itvi e
Tem r ni a l

H a rd R u b b e r
C a se
80
P al te s B rdi g e w ith
S e dmi e n t
C h am b e r
In a fully charged lead acid cell the electrolyte is a solution of water and sulphuric acid.
About 27% of the volume is acid. The active material on the positive plates is lead peroxide.
The active material on the negative plates is pure lead.

The lead acid cell has an open circuit voltage of a little more than 2 volt. In a typical battery,
six cells are connected in series to produce a total voltage of 12 volts.

6.3 The Chemical Action

As a lead acid cell discharges (Fig 6.2) some of the acid within the electrolyte leaves the
electrolyte. The acid combines with the active material on the plates (as shown in the
drawings A & B). This chemical action changes the material on both plates to lead
sulphate. When the cell is being charged, the reverse action takes place. Now the avid that
was absorbed by the plates is returned to the electrolyte. As a result, the active material on
the plates is changed back into the original lead peroxide and lead.

Fig 6.2
Le ad S u pl ha et
C h ang ni g pt
S p ong e Le ad Le ad P e ro x di e .
C h ang ni g ot B a tet ry - +
Le ad S u pl ha et Lo ad C h a rg e r

Le ad S u pl ha et
C h ang ni g ot
- A c di g oe s + S p ong e Le ad .
- A c di el a ve s +
ni ot P al et s P al et s

E el c tro yl et Le ad P e ro x di e C ha ng ni g E el c tro yl et
be com e s ot L ea d S u pl ha et re ut rn s ot
w e a ke r its no m
r al
s tre ng ht

D SI CHARG NI G CHARG NI G
S p ong e Le ad Le ad P e ro x di e Le ad S u pl ha et Le ad S u pl ha et

A B

C h em ci a lA c toi n o fa L ead A c di C e ll.

(A )D si cha rg ni g .
(B )C ha rg ni g .

Caution

The sulphuric acid used in a battery is a highly corrosive

chemical. It can cause severe burns. When using a
hydrometer, do not allow any of the electrolyte to touch your
skin or clothing. In case of contact, immediately wash the
affected area with large quantities of soap and water.

81
Lead acid batteries are fully charged when:

Voltage, while still on charge is approximately 2.5 V.

Plates gassing (bubbling) freely.
Specific gravity approximately 1.25 (manufacturers specifications).
If visible, positive plates chocolate brown, negative plates slate grey with no trace of
whiteness on either plate.

Warning

Hydrogen as it is an explosive gas, is released from a battery

while it is being charged. For this reason, a battery should be
situated in a well ventilated area away from open flames or
sparks.

82
 6.4 The Alkaline Battery

P o s itvi e Te m
r ni a l F ilel rC up

N ega tvi e
Te m
r ni a l

P o s itvi e P al et
F ram e

S et e lA ssem b yl
B o lt

N ega tvi e P al et
F ram e
N ega tvi e A c tvi e
M a et rai l
P o s itvi e A c tvi e
M a et rai l

S et e lS u spen s oi n
B o ss

There are two main types of alkaline cells, namely the nickel iron (NIFE) cell and the nickel
cadmium cell.

Type Positive Plate Electrolyte Negative Plate

Nickel Iron Nickel Hydroxide Potassium Hydroxide Iron Oxide
Nickel Cadmium Nickel Hydroxide Potassium Hydroxide Cadmium

Alkaline Battery Construction

Sealed nickel cadmium batteries (shown above) incorporate specific design features to
prevent the build up of pressure caused by gassing during charging:

Oxygen is consumed at the rate it is generated and the negative plate never reaches
the point where it evolves hydrogen.
A limited or starved electrolyte to facilitate the transfer of oxygen.

The construction of the cells is almost identical to the vented types. A safety vent system is
used to prevent rupture in the event of excessive gas build up due to malfunction, over-
charge or abuse.

The active material is enclosed in finely perforated steel pockets which are then assembled
in nickel steel plates.

83
The electrolyte undergoes no chemical change, thus the quantity of electrolyte can be
reduced to a minimum necessitated by adequate space between the plates.

Plates are separated by insulators and assembled in steel containers. The latter are
mounted in non-metallic crates to insulate the cells from one another. The terminals are
connected together with standard links.

Alkaline batteries are stronger mechanically and can withstand greater abuse and lower
temperatures.

Alkaline batteries are used where reliability is of paramount importance e.g. standby and
emergency batteries are frequently of the alkaline type especially emergency generator
starting motor supplies.

Note: Nickel iron reactions are similar except that iron replaces cadmium.

Advantages of Alkaline Cells over Lead Acid Cells

Lighter in weight for the same energy content.

More robust. Can withstand rapid and high charge and discharge rates.
Longer life.
Easier to store.
Can be left in any state of charge or discharge.

Disadvantages of Alkaline Cells compared with Lead Acid Cells

Do not maintain constant voltage output during discharge.

Much more expensive.
Average discharge voltage 1.2 volts. For a given voltage, the number of cells is about
67% greater than lead acid cells.
Electrolyte can easily be poisoned by absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Ampere hour efficiency is 75 80%. Lead acid 90%. Watt hour efficiency 60- 65%. Lead
acid 75%.

Caution

Short circuits can occur from the formation of debris at the

bottom of the case. Also over-charging causes buckling and
distortion of plates so puncturing the insulating separators.
Moisture and debris accumulating on the external top of the
case and shorting out terminals. A faulty cell is identified by
being discharged and its inability to accept charge.

84
6.5 Safety of Alkaline Batteries

The following are extracts from the Code of Safe Working Practices for Seamen (COWSP
22.18). The general safety precautions with this type of battery are the same as for the lead
acid batteries with the following exceptions:

The electrolyte in these batteries is alkaline but is similarly corrosive. It should not be
allowed to come into contact with the skin or clothing, but in the case of accident the
affected parts should be washed with plenty of clean fresh water. Burns should be
treated with boracic powder or a saturated solution of boracic powder. Eyes should be
washed out thoroughly with water followed immediately with a solution of boracic powder
( at the rate of one teaspoonful to litre or one pint of water). This solution should be
always readily accessible when the electrolyte is handled.

Unlike lead acid batteries, metal cases of alkaline batteries remain live at all times and
care should be taken not to touch them or allow metal tools to come into contact.

6.6 Battery Maintenance

Lead Acid Cells

The following dictates effective lead acid battery maintenance:

Battery cells must be kept properly filled at all times. Regular inspections should be
carried out.
Terminals should be clean and free of corrosion. They should be smeared with
petroleum jelly to prevent oxides forming.
Battery cable clamps should be secure.
The specific gravity should be checked at regular intervals. A good indicator of the state
of charge should range between 1.25 fully charged and 1.16 fully discharged.
A lead acid battery should not be left in a discharged condition.
Heavy charging and discharging of lead acid batteries should be avoided. Overcharging
will weaken the electrolyte and may cause serious damage to the cell.
If a battery has to be stored, it should be first fully charged.
The tops of the cells should be kept clean and all ventilation holes in the plugs kept clear
of dirt etc.
Ensure all ventilation ducts are clear within the battery room.
Correct personal protective equipment (PPE) should be warn when handling batteries
e.g. Goggles; Rubber Gloves etc.
An eye wash facility should always be at hand in the compartment for immediate use in
the event of an accident.
When the electrolyte is being prepared, the concentrated sulphuric acid should be added
slowly to the water. If water is added to the acid the heat generated may cause an
explosion of steam, thus splattering acid.

85
Alkaline Cells

Alkaline batteries have a steel case and therefore care is required not to allow metal
objects to short circuit between cases.
Alkaline cells should have a periodic refresher charge.
The electrolyte in these batteries is alkaline but it is similarly corrosive. It should not be
allowed to come into contact with skin or clothing, but in the case of accident the
affected parts should be washed with plenty of clean fresh water.

The Hydrometer

The hydrometer (Fig 6.3) is a device used to measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte
in a lead acid cell. The specific gravity of a liquid is its weight as compared to that of an
equal volume of pure water. Since sulphuric acid is heavier than water, the specific gravity
of the electrolyte in a lead acid cell decreases as the cell discharges. Therefore, by
measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, the charge condition of lead acid cells can
be determined.

Fig 6.3
R ubbe rB u bl

G al ss T ube

1 .1 0 0

F ol a t
1 .1 5 0

1 .2 0 0

1 .1 0 0
R ead ni g o f
1 1. 30 1 .2 5 0

1 .3 0 0
1 .1 5 0
S pec ifci
1 .2 0 0
G rav ity
S ca el
1 .2 5 0

1 .3 0 0

R ead ni g o f
1 2. 80

E el c tro yl et

R ead ni g o fa H yd rom e et rS ca el w hen

a B a tet ry si uf lyl cha rged and w hen it si
D si cha rged .

86
The Battery Rating

The performance or capacity of a battery is identified either by its ampere hour (AH) rating
or cold start reserve capacity performance. The AH figure for a battery indicates the steady
current that a battery will deliver over a given time, usually 10 hours in a temperature of 25
C. A 129 AH. 10 hour rated battery will deliver a steady 12 amps for 10 hours before it will
discharge.

When there is a larger current drawn e.g. when starting a diesel engine in various ambient
air temperatures, the current level draw may vary between 200 and 600 amps, therefore the
10 hour rating would be reduced.

Cold start and reserve capacity are identified by a combination of numbers and letters that
will be shown on the battery itself:

500A 75RC indicates that the battery is capable of delivering 500 amps for a period of
30 seconds under standard conditions.

Letter Identification:

RC means Reserve Capacity and the number 75 is the time taken in minutes for a 12 Volt
battery to drop to 10.5 Volts when supplying a constant 25 amp load with a battery
temperature of 22C.

Caution

It is important to remember that the recommended battery

size assumes that there will be no additional load on the
engine that will prevent minimum cranking speed being
achieved. Any additional load will draw an increased level of
current from the battery which, if above its designed capacity
will result in over-heating and possible failure of the starting
motor.

Reasons for a Reduction of the Batteries Rated Capacity

The capacity of a battery may fall off in service due to:

Short circuited cell in the battery.

Weak electrolyte.
Loss of active material from plates (accumulates as debris at the bottom of the case).
Loss of electrolyte (or low level).
Extreme temperature.
Old age.

87
 6.8 The Battery Charging Circuit
D C S u p p yl
+ -
C' h a rg e ' In d ci a to r L am p s

N o .1 N o .2

N o .1 B a t te ry N o .2 B a t te ry

N o te : T h e C h a n g e -o v e r sw itc h e s
m u s t h a v e@ o f f ' p o s it oi n s

Load

Fig . Simple circuit for control of two batteries on the charge/discharge principle. The indicator lamps show
that No.1 & No.2 switch is in the Charge position.

Fig shows a typical wiring diagram for two batteries working on a charge-discharge cycle.
One battery is on discharge to the load whilst the other is on charge from the d.c. supply
mains through a series resistance. A blocking rectifier in the charge does not feed back into
the main supply network if the supply should fail. It is essential in this circuit to ensure that
each change-over switch can be operated independently and that each one has an off
position.

The independent operation enables both batteries to be put in parallel to the load during the
period of change-over thus ensuring continuity of supply to the load at all times. The off
positions are essential to avoid excessive overcharging. Each battery should be given and
then left on open circuit until it is required for another discharge. Excessive charging is not
only wasteful of electric power but leads to shortened battery life, and more frequent
topping-up of the cells.

88
6.9. Electrical Engine Starting Systems

There are a number of electrical start systems found on vessels, the type
commonly found on small craft are usually the electrical driven type, although
other types such as the compressed air, hydraulic and inertia type, however
the electrical system will be the system dealt with in this section.

Electric Inertia Starter Motor System

The pinion is mounted on a screwed sleeve. When the motor turns at a

reasonably fast speed the pinion is thrown along the shaft and engages with
the gear teeth on the flywheel ring attached to the crankshaft. This causes the
engine to run until it fires.

When the speed of the engine becomes higher than the motor speed, the
pinion is thrown out of mesh with the flywheel ring.

When the starter switch s released the motor slows down and the pinion
returns to its original position. The starter takes a heavy current
(Approximately up to 60 amps).

R o ot r& W ni d ni g s
w iht S o el no di A s sy .
B e nd xi S c ro ll
B e nd xi

F ylw he e G
l ea r

S p r ni g
Te m
r ni a sl

89
 H e a vyD u ty Sw itch S a
t r et r

S o el no di

gI n itoi n
K e y Sw itch B a tet ry

Fig 6.4 Inertia Starter Switching Circuit

The ignition switch (Fig 6.4) is located in a remote and local position, with all
other components in the engine room. When the ignition switch is turned it
operates a solenoid which is a magnetic switch. The solenoid uses a low
current so that the cable from the battery to the ignition switch to the solenoid
is lighter gauge. When the solenoid operates it connects the heavy duty
cables to the starter motor thus causing the motor to turn.

To protect the engine from starting during maintenance periods, interlocks are
installed which interrupt the electrical supply. These interlocks are interposed
to the circuit from the lubricating oil pressure switch and turning gear system

90
Electric Pre-Engaged Inertia Starter Motor System

The pre-engaged starter motor (Fig 6.5) has a solenoid mounted on the
housing. When the switch is turned current flows to the starter, the solenoid
pulls the pinion into mesh with the flywheel and only when this happens is the
full current allowed to flow to the starter. When the engine starts, the pinion of
the starter motor is withdrawn by the de-energised solenoid from meshing with
the flywheel gear.

The pre-engaged starter (Fig 6.6) is common as it reduces wear because the
pinion is already engaged with the flywheel gear ring before the motor turns.

Fig 6.5
S at r tSw itch
B a tet ry
- +

N eu tra l
S a ef ty
Sw itch

S o el no di

C ran k ni g o r
S at r et rM o ot r

91
 S p r ni g

S o le n o id H o dl o n C o i l

O p e ra t in g L e ve r F ixe d S w i tch C o n ta c ts
a n d P ivo t

Amr a tu re
S h a ft

S e co n d S w i tch
C o n ta c ts

B a t te ry

R o l el r F ie ld S y s tem
C ul tch
F lyw h e e lR in g G e a r

Fig 6.6 Pre-Engaged Electric Motor System

92
The following shows the starting motor sequence:

93
6.10 Basic Circuit Diagrams & Engine Instrumentation
6.11 Sender Units
There are a number of different types of monitoring units associated with a
marine diesel. The measuring units may incorporate a remote monitor as well
as local unit. They may include the following:
Description
Pressure for the lubricating oil system
Temperature for the lubricating oil system
Fresh water system pressure
Fresh water system temperature
Exhaust gas from turbocharger
Exhaust gas from the engine cylinders.
Exhaust gas from the engine cylinders.
Fuel oil pressure.
Seawater pressure
Diesel engine speed (rpm).
Remote engine start and stop.
Emergency engine stop.
Turbocharger air pressure.
Fuel oil tank level.
Fuel oil tank high/low level.
Function Location
Low The pressure switch/transmitter is
usually located at the outlet from the
lubricating oil pump.
High If fitted the sensor/transmitter is
located at the lowest level on the
engine oil sump pan.
Low The pressure switch/transmitter is
usually located at the outlet from the
fresh water pump.
High The sensor is usually located on
the outlet from each cylinder
heads and displayed Local to
engine and/or in a remote
position e.g. ECR/bridge.
Reference Local to engine and/or in a
remote position e.g. ECR/bridge.
Reference Local to engine and/or in a
remote position e.g. ECR/bridge.
High Remote position e.g.
Differential ECR/bridge.
(alarm)
Low filter Dependant on type of engine
differential system. Gauge & pressure
(Reference switch/transmitter fitted on
& alarm) discharge of booster pump (if
fitted)). Reference located and/or
in a remote position e.g.
ECR/bridge.
Low The pressure switch/transmitter is
(Reference usually located at the outlet from the
& alarm) seawater pump
Reference Local to engine and/or in a
remote position e.g. ECR/bridge.
If fitted, located in the engine
control room/bridge.
Fitted at a marked point remote
from the engine.
Reference Local to engine and/or in a
remote position e.g. ECR/bridge.
Reference Reference receiver fitted local to
the fuel oil tank and/or in a
remote position e.g. ECR/bridge.
Alarm Remote position ECR/bridge.
94
Introduction of Control Systems and Instrumentation

Within the environment of Yachts marine plant there are many parameters,
which need to be controlled, or monitored, these may include some of the
following:

Temperature.
Pressure.
Liquid level.
Flow monitoring and control.
Speed monitoring and control.
Voltage.
Current.
Machinery and equipment status.

The introduction of automated monitoring and control systems has been

developed to enable unattended operation of the yachts machinery.

The control and monitoring facilities are usually grouped together in a

centralised control room. These monitoring and alarm groups can be
extended to the Yachts Bridge and operating console.

Whatever the system, most controlled elements can have one or more of the
following points of operation:

Local manual control (refers to the immediate area of the device).

Remote manual control.
Automatic control.

The most common uses of control systems include the following or a

combination of two or more of the following:

Mechanical; using shafts, gears and wires.

Hydraulic systems.
Electrical systems using electric motors and relays.
Electronic systems using computers and logic devices.

The Transducer

A transducer is a device that produces an electrical signal proportional

to a physical stimulus such as a pneumatic signal. Nowadays the
definition of the transducer has been widened which can include
converting a signal in one medium to a signal in another, such as
pneumatic to electrical or pneumatic to hydraulic.

95
Some monitoring units may incorporate an alarm and shutdown setting,
enabling a warning to be issued to the operator, possibly of an impending
engine component failure. The monitoring units that will indicate a 1 st stage
alarm followed by an engine shutdown are as follows:

Low engine lubricating oil pressure.

High fresh water temperature sensor (pyrometer) usually located on the
outlet from the cylinder heads.

The following units are for a reference alarm:

High differential exhaust gas temperature.

Low seawater pressure.
Low fuel oil pressure (filter differential).

Types of Instrumentation found on Vessels

Temperature Measuring Instruments

As most substances expand when heated, the simplest method of measuring

temperature is to measure the expansion of a suitable substance that is
exposed to the temperature to be measured. In the common liquid in glass
thermometer, the expansion of a liquid is measured against a suitably
calibrated scale (degrees Celsius). Mercury is used for temperatures 350C
to +500C and alcohol coloured red is used for 800C to + 700C.

Mercury in a Glass Thermometers

The coefficient of cubical expansion of mercury is approximately eight times

that of glass and therefore, if a glass container is made in the form of a bulb
and capillary tube, then the surface of the mercury in the capillary may be
used to indicate temperature. It is common practice for thermometers stems to
be made of suitable glass tubing shaped in such a way that it acts as a lens
magnifying the width of the mercury column. The bore of the stem is very
small but must be uniform and the thin walled glass bulb at the bottom of the
stem is of a cylindrical or spherical form, having a capacity many times that of
the stem.

During manufacture, the bulb and bore are completely filled with mercury and
sealed off at a high temperature or under a vacuum so that no air can be
present in the system. The thermometer is then calibrated by comparing it
with a standard (NPL) thermometer in a calibration bath.

96
6.12 Bi-Metallic Strip Thermometers

P o ni te r

S tee lT ube S ha f t

S toppe r

BM
i- e ta lC o il S tead ei s

D ai l
Fig 6.7

One method of measuring temperature (Fig 6.7) is the use of the difference of
expansion between two strips of metal bonded together making what is known
as a Bi-metallic Strip This simple strip will curve when heated. If this strip is
already curved in a spiral, it can be made to tend to unwind when heated and
this is the principle used in the clock face type e.g. Rototherm temperature
gauges. The unwinding end of the bi-metal strips attached to a needle that
moves over a scale calibrated in degree Celsius. The choice of the metals
used will depend on the range of the temperature to be measured. The
combination of steel and brass is popular for moderate temperatures.

97
 6.13. Pyrometers

H o t Jun c toi n C e ram icW ire

S uppo r t

B A

C o dl Junc toi n

Fig 6.8

A common type of temperature measurement is the Thermocouple (Fig 6.8)

more commonly called a pyrometer. The thermocouple consists of two
dissimilar metals, which are fused together at one of the ends. A current will
then begin to flow. The voltage of this circuit will be proportional to the
temperature being measured. The cold join will be inside a sensitive voltmeter
that is calibrated in Celsius.

The relationship between temperature and e.m.f produced by a thermocouple

is published as tables in relation to a cold junction temperature which is
usually classified as 0C. The most common thermocouples are set out in the
following table:

Positive Junction Negative Junction Approximate Temp.Range

Iron Constantin > 850C
Chromel Alumel > 1100C
Copper Constantin - 200C to + 400C
87% Platinum/ 13% Rhodium 100% Platinum > 1400C

98
6.14 Bourdon Tube Gauge

S ca le P o in te r

T ube
C ro ss -S e c t io n
S p r in g
R a ck

A d ju s ta b le
L in ka g e

P ivo t
S y s tem P re ssu re

Fig 6.9

The Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge (Fig 6.9) is probably the most commonly
used gauge pressure monitoring instrument. The deflection of the free end of
the tube which is usually of a flat oval section, depends on the radius, the total
tube length, and the wall thickness of the tube.

The operation of the bourdon tube depends on an increase in pressure, which

will attempt to straighten the tube length. The tube increase, forces the linkage
and a sector and pinion to rotate a pointer to provide an indication on a
circular scale. This monitoring device is usually for local indication.

99
6.15 The U-Tube Manometer

S ys tem A mt o sphe r ci
P re ssu re P re ssu re

S ca el
L qi u di
C o ulm n H

Fig 6.10
Fig2.4

The U-Tube Manometer shown (Fig 6.10) has one end connected to the
pressure source with the other open to atmosphere. The liquid in the tube may
be water or mercury. The operation of the manometer is the difference of
pressure exceeding the atmospheric pressure and is indicated by the
difference in fluid levels, read from the scale.

The instrument is often used for low pressure monitoring e.g. turbocharger
differential air pressure, to monitor the turbocharger filters performance

100
Tank Level Measuring Instruments

There are a number of tank level sensing instruments, the majority operating
by a static head method.

The following is a common method used for tank level sensing:

6.16 Diaphragm Sensing Element

The diaphragm unit (Fig 6.11) can be mounted outside or within the tank but
must always be clear of sludge at the base of the tank. The indicator can be
mounted locally or remotely as required. This system is normally applied to
non-pressurised tanks and is self-compensating for changes in barometric
pressure and ambient temperature.

The unit operates by the diaphragm merely moving it to a new position as the
enclosed volume of air expands or contracts. A change in tank temperature
will obviously change the liquid density and this must be allowed for when
reading any level indicator.

Fig 6.11 Sack Diaphragm for Tank Level Indication

S en s itvi e P re ssu re
G auge

D ry A irP re ssu r si ed
b y S at tci H ead o fL qi u di
ni ht e T an k

S at ck
D ai ph ragm

D a utm Le ve l

P pi e abo ve
S ul dge Le ve l

101
6.17 Magnetic Reed Switch Level Indicator

Many tank levels are monitored by a magnetic reed switch (Fig 6.12) to
provide the exact liquid level contained in the tank.

For example:

A fuel tank is monitored to make sure that it does not overflow. The tank is
also monitored to let the engineer officer know the amount of fuel aboard.
Each of the level-monitored tanks contains a level transmitter. A typical
transmitter section contains a voltage divider resistor network that extends the
length of the section. Magnetic reed switches are tapped at 1-inch intervals
along the resistor network. The reed switches are sequentially connected
through series resistors to a common conductor. This network is enclosed in a
stem that is mounted vertically in the tank. A float containing bar magnets
rides up and down the stem as the liquid level changes, flipping the reed
switches. In many tanks, you may have to use more than one transmitter
section to measure the full range. The physical arrangement of some tanks
makes this electrically connected as one continuous divider network.

The reeds switches apart from supplying a remote indication are also able to
indicate the level locally.

Fig 6.12

T em r in a ls
T AN K from
R e e d S w i tch
to R em o te
In d ica to r

F ol a t T u b e

R e e d S w i tch
F ol a t

R e e d s a f fe c te d
b yM a g n e t

M agne t
C om p a rm t en t
o f F lo a t

102
7.0 Electrical Distribution Safety Features

7.1 Earthing Systems

Earth for Personnel Safety

The earth is usually a good conducting point for electrons

when a path exists between it and a live or charged wire.
Because of this, putting any part of your body between the
earth and such a wire presents the danger of severe shock.
Earth wires are designed to reduce this shock e.g. If a bare
wire of an electrical appliance comes into contact with the
bare metal of a cabinet, the cabinet becomes an extension of
the wire.

An insulated system is one that is totally electrically insulated from earth (ship
s hull).

An earth system has one pole, or the neutral point connected to earth. Similar
systems ashore are normally earthed.

The priority requirement on board ship is to maintain continuity of the electrical

supply to equipment in the event of a single earth fault occurring.

The majority of earth faults occur within electrical equipment due to an

insulation failure or loose wire, which allows a live conductor to come into
contact with metal work enclosure of the equipment.

In order to protect against the dangers of electric shock and fire that may
result from earth faults, the metal enclosures and other non-current carrying
metal parts of electrical equipment must be earthed. The earthing conductor
connects the metal enclosure to earth (the ships hull) and prevents such
metal parts from attaining a dangerous voltage with respect of earth in the
event of an earth fault occurring.

The size of fault current depends on the overall impedance left in the circuit
under fault conditions.

103
7.2 Earth Faults

If an earth fault occurs on the insulated pole of an earthed distribution system

it would be equivalent to a short circuit fault across the load via the ships hull.
The resulting large earth fault current would immediately blow the fuse in the
line conductor. The fault on the electrical equipment would be immediately
isolated from the supply and so rendered safe, but the loss of equipment
could create a hazardous situation, especially if the equipment was classed
ESSENTIAL e.g Loss of STEERING GEAR. The large fault current could also
cause arcing damage at the fault condition.

7.3 Earth Fault on an Insulated System

An earth fault occurring on one line of an insulated distribution system will not
cause any protective gear to operate and the system would continue to
function as normal. The single earth fault does not provide a complete circuit
so no earth fault current will exist.

If an earth fault develops on another line, the earth faults together would be
equivalent to a short circuit fault (via the ships hull) and the resulting large
current would operate protection devices and cause disconnection of perhaps
essential services creating a risk to the safety of the ship.

Conclusion

An insulated distribution system requires two earth faults on two different lines
to cause an earth fault current.

An earthed distribution system requires only one earth fault on the line
conductor to create an earth fault current.

An insulated system is, therefore more effective than an earthed system in

maintaining continuity of supply to equipment. Hence its adoption for most
marine systems.

104
7.4 Earth Fault Indicators

Ea rh t alm p s u sua lyl ol ca e

td
on h t e sw itchboa rd , fo r 440 V
o r 240 V sys e tm (380 V o r 220 V Lam p L' a w ' illgo da rk , ni d ci a tni g ea r th
o
f rE u ropean sys e tm s ) . af u lton pha se .Lb & L c alm p sw ill
b rgi h ten .

Lc Lb La

E FR

Fig 7.1 Earth Fault Detection

Regulations require that earth fault indicators are fitted to the main
switchboard to indicate the presence of an earth fault on each isolated section
of a distribution system e.g. on the 440 V and 220 V sections. Earth fault
indicators can be either a set of lamps or an instrument calibrated in k to
show the system IR value to earth.

Earth lamps are arranged as shown in the drawing (Fig 7.1). If the system is
healthy (no earth faults) then the lamps glow with equal brilliance. If an earth
fault occurs on one line, the lamp connected in that line is dim or extinguished
and the other lamps glow brighter. Earth indication lamps have been the most
common method used, being inexpensive and simple in operation. Their
major disadvantage is that they are not very sensitive and will fail to indicate
the presence of a high impedance earth fault. This may require an instrument
type earth fault indicator.

105
7.5 Typical Earth Failure on a 220 V System

A typical failure is shown below (Fig 7.2) with an insulation breakdown

allowing a single phase motor casing becoming live and the fault current
travelling to the ships structure via the safety earth connection on the motor
casing.

The lamp on the fault side (in example the positive) darkens.
The neutral lamp brightens. The lamp brightens because it is connected on
its own across the full 220 V supply, albeit through an earth fault.

Another aspect is that with good insulation the positive bus bar has a potential
of +110 V relative to the ships structure and the negative 110 V, due to the
mid-point earth which must be at the same potential as the hull.

The lamp connected between the fault side and the mid-point earth has very
little or no potential across it and goes out. The lamp connected across the
sound side and earth has the full 220 V and is therefore brighter than before.

The importance of earth lamps is that they give immediate indication of a

current leakage that is potentially dangerous. A number of fires have been the
result of ignition by the spark at an earth fault in the wiring.

B u s B a rs
+
P

220 V o lts

-
N

M o to r

110 V 110 V

Fau lt
E a r th

E a r th

Fig 7.2

106
7.6 Instrument Type Earth Fault Indicator

One such type of earth fault instrument injects a small direct (dc) voltage into
the ac distribution system, the resulting current being measured to indicate the
insulation resistance of the system.

This type of instrument permits a maximum earth monitoring current of only 1

mA (compared with about 60 mA for earth lamps), and indicates insulation
resistance directly in k.

The instrument gives both a visual and audible indication in the event of an
earth fault. The instrument can be set to trigger the alarm at any pre-set value
of insulation resistance or leakage current.

7.7 Bonding System

Marine engine installations require bonding (grounding) of electrical system

components to minimise electrolytic corrosion from stray currents and to
minimise radio interference (Fig 7.3). On metallic constructed ships the hull
may serve as the common bonding conductor (earth) and a separate bonding
system may not be required.
E el c tr ic a lA c c e s s o ry H o u s ni g

B o n d ni g C o n d u c to r

R a d oi E a r th
P al te

C om m o n E a r tP o ni t E el c tr ic P um p
(T h ro u g h H u l l)
F u e lT a n k

L e a d B a t te ry T ra y

E n g ni e

S ta r te rM o to r

Fig 7.3

All individual metallic components (i.e. engine block, fuel tank, electric motor
frames, metallic enclosures of electrical accessories and electrical apparatus,
lead-acid battery tray) are connected to the common bonding conductor by
individual bonding conductors. The common bonding conductor is then
connected to the ships earth terminal. Connected directly to the ships earth
terminal are the negative battery terminal, radio earth plate, main switchboard
earth bus and the auxiliary generator earth lead.

107
7.8 Basic Electrical Circuits

The correct application of an electrical circuit is to prevent danger in the event

of a fault occurring by ensuring that the fault current is no greater than
necessary to operate the protective system (Fig 7.4). For example:

A large three-phase motor must be connected to a single circuit because the

load cannot be subdivided. If, however, a load consisted of three hundred
lamps, each rated at 100 W; it would be undesirable to consider putting all this
load onto a single circuit.

If the lighting load was designed and fitted on one circuit and in the event of a
fault occurring, the whole of the lighting would be lost. An additional hazard
associated with this design would be the requirements of the circuit protection.

Example; The fault current needed to operate the protective device (single-
phase circuit current would be 125 A at 240 V), this loading would be high
enough to cause a fire danger at the outlet where the fault occurred.

The correct approach would be to divide the load into smaller circuits, each
feeding for example, ten lamps. This configuration would enable part of an
installation to be switched off for maintenance or for testing without affecting
the rest of the system. This design would also prevent a fault on one circuit
from resulting in the loss of the complete installation.

The number of final circuits will depend on the types of load supplied, and is
designed to comply with the requirements for overcurrent protection, switching
and the current-carrying capacity of conductors. Every circuit must be
separate from others and must be connected to its own overcurrent protective
fuse or circuit breaker in a switch fuse, distribution board, consumer unit, etc.

Fig 7.4
D is tr bi u t oi n B o a rd s w ith F u s e s

Is o al to rs

S ubm - a ni s Sw itc h
F u s e s o rF u s e Sw itc h e s

B u s ba r

M a ni F u s e S w itc h o r
C irc u itB re a ke r

S e rv ic e F u s e

108
7.9 Fuses

The function of the fuse is to protect electrical devices and components from
over-currents and short circuits that may occur in improperly operating
circuits. A fuse will operate when a fault current reaches a predetermined
value for a fixed period of time, thus the melting of an internal element within
the fuse body causes the current flow to be interrupted.

Important performance ratings to consider when specifying fuses include:

Voltage rating.
Current rating.
Rated braking capacity, and interrupt rating.

Note: The voltage rating of the fuse is the maximum voltage up to which a
safe fault current interruption will occur.

7.10 Discrimination

A circuit fed from a distribution board may be fed through three or even four
fuses or circuit breakers e.g. a heating circuit may be connected to a 15 amp
fuse in a fuse box fed from a section box in turn from a circuit breaker on the
main board.

Discrimination occurs (Fig 7.5) when the fuse nearest to the fault operates
leaving all the other fuses or protective devices intact. Discrimination may be
required between fuse and fuse, or between fuse and under-current device
such as a circuit breaker.

L ow Am p
F u se
E q u pi m e n t
M a ni
B re a ke r H gi h am p
F u se

Fig 7.5 D si tr bi u toi n S at r et r

B o a rd

7.11 Requirements of a Fuse

Have a high cut off speed on a short circuit.

Operate on a sustained overload.
Make a complete break after operation with the insulation resistance
between terminals.
Have a maximum temperature rise on continuous full load rating such that
it will not be injurious to rudder cables connected to its terminals.
Be mechanically robust and capable of withstanding the large magnetic
and gaseous forces exerted during operation under short circuit conditions.

109
A fuse must not;

Operate on continuous full load.

Operate on momentary overload.
Deteriorate under continuous operation at full load.
Burst or emit flame or otherwise damage the fuse carrier and base when it
operates.

Note: Interrupt ratings can be a high interrupt, a medium interrupt, or a low

interrupt. When considering the maximum possible fault current.

An Important performance characteristic of a fuse operation includes fast

acting and time lag. Quick-acting fuses are typically used in circuits with small
inrush currents or where over-current or short circuit must be quickly
interrupted, such as resistive loads. Time-delay fuses are used where high
starting inrush currents will occur and decay gradually, such as inductive or
capacitive loads.

Note: Important environmental parameters to consider when specifying fuse

holders include operating temperature.

General specifications that apply to fuses include mountings, materials of

construction, fuse types, and features. Mounting choices include solderable
or surface mount, solderable with leads, and replaceable with holder or clips.
Common materials of construction include glass, ceramic, and sand. Fuse
types can be miniature, sub-miniature or micro, midget, automotive, blade
type, PC board, and protective.

The types of fuses used in marine applications include; blade-type fuses

which are typically used in low voltage and high current applications. The PC
board fuses are specifically for use on PC boards and protective fuses are
used for protection of secondary circuits.

The type of fuses used include resettable and indicating.

Resettable fuses are unlike traditional fuses that have to be replaced after
a fault condition. The resettable fuse operates by allowing the internal
resistance of the component to increase in response to an overcurrent or a
short-circuit condition. After the fault condition is removed, the device cools
and the internal resistance drops close to its initial value, once at its initial
value normal operation of the equipment is resumed.

The indicating fuse features include visual indication and / or alarm

activation. This type of fuse is generally used for telecommunication,
computer and control circuit applications.

110
7.12 Fuse Holders

Fuse holders are devices for containing, protecting and mounting fuses. Fuse
holders come in two basic types, open or fully enclosed. Open fuse holder
types are fuse clips, fuse blocks, socket and plug-on cap varieties. The fully
enclosed variety may use a fuse carrier that is inserted into a holder or have
other means to fully enclose the fuse.

The choices of mountings for fuse holders include fuse block, fuse clip, panel
mount, PC mount, snap mount, and in-line mount.

Note: Important environmental parameters to consider when specifying fuse

holders include operating temperature.

7.13 Types of Fuses

The Enclosed Cartridge Fuse

These fuses (Fig 7.6) are capable of handling large short circuits. Because of
the standardisation of manufacturing they have very consistent time/current
fusing characteristics making them accurate, dependable and non-
deteriorating whilst in service. Suitable filing powders such as silicon sand are
used in cartridge fuses having the property of quenching the arc of the fused
element.

The element is usually made of silver and is much smaller than the tinned
copper used in semi-enclosed fuses so that the amount of vapourised metal is
less and contributes to better performance characteristics. The enclosed
casing and use of silver ensures no degradation due to oxidation.

After the silver element has fused the indicator wire will heat up sufficiently to
ignite the indicator powder and the fuse will be shown to have blown.

Except in the lowest ratings there are two or more elements in parallel which
increase the contact area in contact with filler, and this increases the breaking
capacity. Larger wires to reduce resistance and therefore heat losses
reinforce the ends of the element.
S ivl e rF u se E elm en t
(so dl e red to ni ne r cap )

O u te rB ra ss
C ap & Lug
S and F ilel d
C e ram ci B od y
nI ne rC ap
Fig 7.6

111
The indicator type shown below (Fig 7.7) should in the construction consist of
an indicator wire which ignites an explosive powder which chars the indicator
paper. On other designs the indicator wire releases a spring and pop up
indicator.
nI d ci a ot rW ire nI d ci a ot r Labe l nI d ci a ot rP ow de r
Fig 7.7

O u te r
C ap

nI ne rC ap
C e ram ci B od y
S ivl e rE elm en W
t ire

Semi-enclosed Fuses

Tinned copper fuse wire exposed to the atmosphere tends to deteriorate and
will vary in performance after long periods in service. Also there is a
temptation to increase the gauge of the wire or the number of wires after the
fuse has blown. However re-wireable fuses are cheap and easily replaceable
and a blown fuse is easily detected.

Note: Tin is fast heating element with a quick failure action, however it is
expensive. Copper is a slow heating element with a slow failure
reaction but is relatively in-expensive.

7.14 Fuse Regulations

I.E.E. and classification society rules specify high breaking capacity fuses on
main switchboards where the total normal generator capacity exceeds 400kW
at 200 V. This is for short circuits or low resistance protection of the very high
currents that can be generated in these conditions.

In additions;

Fuses on ships must be made to approve standards.

Breaking capacity is not less than the protective short circuit current at the
point of installation.
Fuses over 300A are used for overload protection but may be used for
short circuit protection.

To control the extent of a heavy fault current occurring on a large installation

the protective device must have a very high speed performance or High
Rupture Capacity (HRC). HRC fuses will operate quickly before the short
circuit current exceeds 3 times the full load current.

112
7.15 The Circuit Breaker

The Requirements of the Circuit breakers

The following text refers to the main switch board circuit breaker, however
generally the same characteristics apply to the miniature circuit breaker found
on distribution boards.

The circuit breaker must be capable of making and breaking under normal
conditions and also abnormal conditions such as a short circuit. As the circuit
breaker must be able to withstand closing onto a fault condition without
sustaining damage, it is of heavy construction. Fitted with an over current
release and overloads with time lags, a circuit breaker can be used as follows;

To control the output of a generator

As a direct on line starter
Control outgoing feeder circuits

On modern large switchboards 'draw out' circuit breakers may be fitted. In the
open position the whole circuit breaker can be wound clear of the bus bars,
allowing full inspection and maintenance to be carried out without the
necessity of de-energising the bus bars.

The 'plug in' contacts joining the circuit breaker to the bus bars are not
capable of taking the breaking load and it is essential that the circuit breaker is
in the open position before any attempt is made to withdraw it. A mechanical
interlock is fitted and arranged to trip the circuit breaker before the winding
handle can be inserted. The breaker also has a mid-position, in this position
the control circuits are still connected with the bus bar connection isolated.
The electrical operation of the breaker can then be tested.

Circuit breakers are normally fitted with an under voltage protection where by
tripping is accomplished by shorting or open circuiting the no-volt coil which
releases the latching in mechanism. The no-volt coil may also be open
circuited by a reverse power relay and an overload trip fitted with a time delay.

Circuit breakers are switching devices capable of making, carrying and

breaking currents under normal circuit conditions. They are also capable of
breaking current under specified abnormal conditions such as a short circuit.

113
 Miniature Circuit Breakers (M.C.B.)
F xi ed C on tac t
Fig 7.8 M ov ni g C on tac t

A rc ni g H o rns
M ou dl ed Insu al toi n
E nc ol su re

BM i- e ta l Q u ci k B reak
Them r al T rpi -F ree
O ve rol ad M echan sim
T rpi .
D
( oub el fo r
H gi he rR a tni gs )
M agne t ci
S ho r tC
- ircu it
T rpi

C alm p C onnec to r
The term miniature applies to a compact small circuit breaker (Fig 7.8) of
current ratings not exceeding 100A, and with a short circuit capacity of up to
900A. The MCB was originally developed for use in factories and domestic
installations in lieu of fuses, and, as distinct from main switchboard types of
circuit breakers (used on large ships and yachts), it has limited breaking
capacity. This is not necessarily a disadvantage because the MCB will
normally be cabling of appreciable impedance between the point and the main
switchboard.

Single and three-phase types are available but the nominal phase to earth
voltage should not exceed 250 V. They usually employ a thermally operated
bi-metal strip for overload protection, but have in addition an instantaneously
operating electro-magnetic trip to deal with short circuits. Without the latter
there is a risk that the thermal trip, because of its inherently slow action, would
burn out on a substantial overload or fault. There is no provision for
maintenance on MCBs.

Thermal overload protection is provided by a bi-metal strip consisting of two

materials, usually nickel alloys, which have different coefficients of expansion
and which are firmly bonded together along the faces which are in contact.
Change in temperature causes the composite strip to bend. Various methods
of applying heat to the strip are adopted depending on the magnitude of the
current can either pass through the strip itself or through a separate wire coil;
the latter may be either wound around the strip or placed alongside so that it
heats the strip by radiation.

114
8.0 Power Distribution

8.1 Reduction/Reverse Gearboxes (Multi-Plate Types)

There are a many reduction/reverse gearbox systems in use with the majority
having the same features. The type described in the drawing is a gearbox
comprising of a reduction gear, primary stage, a reduction stage and reverse
stage. The gearbox has helical gearing, incorporating multi-plate clutches.
The multi-plate clutches are for engaging or disengaging the propeller shaft.

The gearbox system is made up of the following components:

Housing

The housings are invariably constructed of grey cast iron with extra stiffening
at the bearing points to absorb thrust forces.

Shaft/Gears & Gear Ratios

The gearing reduction depends on the rpm of the diesel engine. The gear ratio
may vary from 2:1 to 6:1.

Usually all the spur gears are of a single helical design, with the tooth flanks
ground and case hardened to allow for better wear characteristics.

The shafts are made from heat treated steel and run in anti-friction bearings.
The output shaft is supported in plain bearings and the propeller thrust taken
by an axial type thrust bearing.

The input shaft is machined to a taper for mounting a highly flexible coupling.

Clutches

The ahead and astern multi-plate clutches are pressure oil operated, with
each clutch individual gear matched for smooth engagement.

115
8.2 Reduction/Reverse Gearbox Operation

A directly driven oil pump supplies pressurised oil for clutch operation. The oil
pump ensures adequate oil flow for the control system for the clutch plate
operation, while also maintaining pressurised oil via nozzles and branch pipes
to all gear meshing points, bearings.

To ensure the oil temperature parameters are maintained the oil is also
circulated through a filter and cooled by a seawater/oil cooler.

8.3 Cone Type Clutches

For many marine applications the gearbox consisted of an input primary shaft
and a secondary output with an idler gear between for reverse, the reduction
incorporated at the same time. The secondary steel gearwheels were hollow
and contained aluminium bronze multi-cone clutches. These clutches were
expanded hydraulically, oil pressure being supplied through passages drilled
in the secondary spline shaft. A control valve and primary driven oil pump
supplied oil through a bush at the free end, three passages in all, one for
ahead gear, one for astern, and one for neutral.

The neutral pressure was always present, ready to disengage the moment oil
supply was cut off to the engagement port. To ensure that the transmission
does not engage by floating into an ahead or astern mode, when the engine
is running and gearbox is in neutral, the gearbox has a small oil pump driven
by the secondary shaft, to provide constant oil pressure and hold the clutches
in neutral.

8.4 Control Systems

Control systems can vary from the basic system using the Bowden Cable to
the Pneumatic Remote Control system.

116
8.5 Bowden Cable

The Bowden Cable is a flexible hand control cable encased in a plastic type
sheath (to prevent corrosion, thus limiting failure) connected to the
transmission operating gear at a 90 position during neutral gear operation.
The Bowden Cable system (fig 8.1) is invariably linked to the fuel pump rack
by a system of rods and levers, therefore giving the system a dual operation
e.g. changing the direction of the transmission from Ahead/Neutral/Astern
and increasing/reducing speed.

Frequent maintenance of the cable and rods is essential. Points to observe:

Check for any cable corrosion. This may lead to cable strand deterioration
and subsequent failure. Especially at the stressed points.
Check for any plastic coating deterioration.
Observe the orientation of the cable ensuring the position is 90 to the
transmission gear when in the neutral position. It is possible that any mis-
aligned position may result in rubbing of the clutch plates, and eventual
slipping resulting in failure of the clutch.
Avoid sharp bends.
Ensure anti-friction rollers are in good condition.
Ensure cable tensions are maintained. If not the neutral position and
subsequently the ahead and astern position for the clutch may not be
properly engaged or disengaged. If this occurs, the friction clutch may
become hot and subject to wear.

Fig 8.1 Typical Bowden Type Cable Configuration for Gearbox Mechanical Remote Operation

117
8.6 Pneumatic/Hydraulic Remote Control

The remote system (fig 8.2) is usually a single control system illustrated by the
schematic, offering a safe operation of the clutch engagement and engine
speed adjustment. The example shows the pneumatic operation consisting of
the diesel engine, reversing gearbox and fixed propeller within the ships drive
system. With the single lever operation of the control valve 6, the desired
value for the engine speed and directional rotation of the propeller will be
given.

The control air supply is from an air reservoir, filter supplying air via a
pressure reducing station 1. The control air passes via control valve 6 to
control unit 27 and then to the pneumatically/mechanically operated multi-way
valve 24, which controls the engine and gearbox rotation as required. The
schematic indicates the operation of the hydraulic control and lubrication
circuit, which corresponds with the air signal by activating the appropriate
ahead or astern clutch.

Item No. Description

1 Pressure Reducer and Air Dryer
2 Air Reservoir
4 Isolation Valve
6 Control Valve
13 Pressure reducing Valve
14 Shuttle Valve (Double Non-return Valve).
15 Shuttle Valve for the Hydraulic Oil Control Valve.
16 Non-return & Flow Control Valve.
17 3-Way Valve
19 Adjustable 3-Way Valve
24 Multi-Valve (Hydraulic/Pneumatic).
27 Control Unit.

118
A head A s et rn

1
6 4
T h e s u p p ly o f c om p re s s e d a ir
from e ith e r a 3 0 b a r re s e rvo ir
re d u c e d to 8 b a r, o r from a d ire c t
8 b a r re s e rvo ir .
13
2 1
17
14

19

16
16 16 27

24

15

D ei se lE ng ni e
G ea rbox

Fig 8.2 Pneumatic Ships Engine & Gearbox Control System

124
8.7 Fluid & Pneumatic/Oil Clutches

A clutching mechanism is integral with the gearbox, so that:

1. The engine can be started without propeller load.

2. The direction of rotation of the shaft can be reversed.

Installation

The most important requirements during installation are:

The attainment of good static gear alignment with the least possible
constraints on the gear case, and the optimum alignment of engines and
their associated shafting.
The thermal effect on gear, engine and shaft alignment should be
controlled and set at its optimum condition for full load running when hot.

Alignment should be as accurate as possible. Misalignment can lead to

premature coupling wear if alignment is excessive
Clutches are generally designed to engage at minimum load and engine
speed. Operation above this load condition can lead to excessive gearbox and
clutch loading and can shorten life or lead to catastrophic failure.

126
 8.8 Fluid Couplings

This type of coupling (fig 8.3) consists of two rotating parts fitted with vane,
shown in the drawing. One of which is the driving unit and the other the driven
unit.

The driving unit is connected to the engine and the driven to the output shaft
or gearbox.

The impeller in the drive unit throws the oil outwards and then into the impeller
of the driven unit where the oil is then circulated back to the drive impeller.

The circulating oil drives the driven impeller at an increasing speed until it is at
the same speed as the driven unit. The fluid coupling therefore provides
smooth take up speed.

By controlling the oil flow through the rotating parts of the fluid coupling, the
slip of the coupling can be changed, resulting in a variable output speed of the
driven shaft.

Oil coolers are incorporated into the system to dissipate the heat generated by
the fluid coupling.

T u rb ni e

m
I pe lel r D ire c toi n o f F ol w

P r ni c pi el s o f ht e
F ul di C oup lni g

S ha f t to E ng ni e
S ha f t to G ea rbo x

F ul di C oup lni g

127
Fig 8.3

128
8.9 Radial Type Air Operated Flexible Clutch

General

Air operated flexible clutch operation (fig 8.4) takes the form of an inflatable
tyre on which is mounted on a ferrodo clutch lining. Air is supplied via a slipper
arrangement to the tyre segments, which inflate forcing the clutch material into
contact with the driven inner circumference.

Emergency drive is via though bolts which pass radially though drive and
driven wheel circumferences
In f al ta b el T u b e

A ir In el t from C o n tro lA i@
r 8 -15 ba

D r ive S h a f t

D r ive n S h a f t

R u b b e rB ol c ks

F el x bi el C ul tch
Fig 8.4

Caution

Some designs of clutches have an emergency control.

This type of emergency clutch control is carried out by the
clutch being secured in the ahead mode using a bolt which
is manually engaged.

The operation of this type of clutch is as follows:

Compressed air is admitted to the clutch and expands an actuating tube

around the outside of the friction pads.
The inward expansion of the tube forces the pads on to the friction drum.
The transmission of torque relies on the air pressure thus loss of air
pressure would allow the clutch to slip.

129
Note: The clutch has open access for air to circulate for cooling purposes.
Wear of the friction pads is compensated for by the friction tube, the
maximum wear on the friction pads is 50%.

Caution

In the event of a reduction in the control air pressure the

clutch is designed to disengage otherwise excessive slip
could cause excessive temperature rises.

8.10 Oil Operated Clutches

With respect to oil operated clutches (fig 8.5.), oil forces the friction plates,
generally made from a suitable steel alloy material or leaded bronze, together.
These loose plates are alternately splined to the drive or driven shaft.
The oil is supplied under a controlled flow via an accumulator so allowing a
gradual engagement over a short period. The oil is generally supplied via a
solenoid valve from the gearbox lubricating oil system.

Note: Emergency drive is allowed by fitting screws which jack the plates
firmly together

Fig 8.5

130
8.11 General Description of Oil Operated Cone Clutch and Gearbox

For many marine applications the gearbox consisted of an input primary shaft
and a secondary output with an idler gear between for reverse, the reduction
incorporated at the same time. The secondary steel gearwheels were hollow
and contained aluminium bronze multi-plate clutches. These clutches were
expanded hydraulically with oil pressure being supplied through passages
drilled in the secondary spline shaft. A control valve and primary driven oil
pump supplied oil through a bush at the free end, three passages in all, one
for ahead gear, one for astern, and one for neutral.

The neutral pressure was always present ready to disengage the moment oil
supply was cut off to the engagement port. To ensure that the transmission
does not engage by floating into an ahead or astern mode, when the engine
is running and gearbox is in neutral, the gearbox has a small oil pump driven
by the secondary shaft, to provide constant oil pressure and hold the clutches
in neutral.

The operation of the clutch is caused by the oil pressure pushing a piston
against the plates, which compresses the plate pack allowing transmission of
torque.

The drawing (fig 8.6) below depicts an air operated cone type clutch.

C ul tc h C a s ni g

E al s t ic R u b b e rE el m e n t

G e a rb o x In p u tS h a ft
A ir ni el t to
C ul tc h

A ir In el tF el x bi el H o s e

F r ic t oi n C ul tc h l ni ni g s
C ul tc h P is to n

Fig 8.6

131
8.12 Trolling Mode

Some vessels have a slipping clutch operation called the Trolling Mode. In
this mode the clutch operating pressure is reduced so that the output speed of
the clutch is below the input. Thus the propeller and vessel speed is reduced.
When operating in this mode the engine must be rotated at minimum
revolutions.

With this type of clutch slippage occurs, therefore the clutch plates become
warm and the heat dissipated into the oil. Therefore close monitoring of the oil
temperature is called for.

132
8.13 Types of Gearing Arrangment

Introduction

The propeller is matched to the vessel in order to overcome the resistance of

the vessels in the water due to its design. The engine is then matched to the
propeller. What power requirements are needed to turn that propeller? At this
stage, reduction gears come into play. The reduction gear allows the naval
architect to have the most efficient propeller operation while having options on
the prime mover.

Reduction gears are rather simple, one small gear, driven by the engine,
driving a large gear which is connected to the propeller shaft. The ratio of
teeth between the smaller and larger gears is the ratio of reduction. Example:
take a small gear with 25 teeth and make it turn a big gear with 100 teeth.
One revolution of the big gear means that the small gear has turned four times
which gives us a 4:1 mechanical advantage, also know in gears as 4:1
reduction.

The larger reduction gears are usually as simple as two gears, with one input
and one output.

With the increase use of controllable pitch propellers, which allows the prime
mover to rotate at a given and steady speed, some features have been added
to the larger marine reduction gears. Taking advantage of the power already
being developed by the main engine. This allows the whole operation of the
ship to be more efficient and perhaps have less equipment to accomplish the
same work as before.

On smaller reduction gears, like those found on yachts etc. they normally
have more features than just two gears. For example many small gears will
feature a built in clutch, they also have reverse and the thrust bearing is built
into the gear.

Gears are generally helical cut gears. This allows for high power to be
transmitted but still maintain low noise levels. Gears are usually trouble free
in their operations as long as their lubricating oil is sufficient, cool and
appropriately suited for the function of the gear. Some problems can arise
when the built in function such as thrust bearing and clutch packs deteriorate
and their waste contaminates the oil. Deterioration of the oil cooler - heat
exchanger - can also be a source of oil contamination. These problems can
be mitigated by scheduled preventive maintenance such as daily checks and
oil sampling. Surveys are generally carried out every four years depending on
Classification society.

133
Fig 8.7 Dual Tandem (Articulated)

Fig 8.8 Tandem (Articulated)

The connection between the rotor and pinion shaft is always via a flexible
coupling. The dual tandem (fig 8.7) arrangement has the advantage over the
Tandem (Articulated) (fig 8.8) that there are two pinion contacts on the
secondary wheel. This arrangement halves the tooth load and allows a much
smaller wheel. To achieve this, however, requires a very accurate setting so
that one pinion does not sit in its backlash whilst the other is loaded. This may
be achieved by setting one pinion so that it gives the correct contact then
slightly rotating the other pinion until it is fully contacted and then 'Locking' the
whole arrangement.

One method of doing this is by taper fit flexible couplings, which can be
moved relative to the shaft by application of hydraulic pressure between the
mating surfaces.

Extensive use of quill shaft and flexible couplings is made to negate effects
from pitch errors creating high dynamic tooth loading. Great care must be
taken with the alignment of the primary pinion and primary wheels as this is a
very highly stressed area.

134
Single Tandem Gearing

Advantage

Simple
Length of shafting provides damping to vibration
Carry very high loads
Capable of accepting minor manufacturing errors
Primary and secondary gear may be dismantled independently

Disadvantage

Heavy
Large

Dual Tandem Gearing

Advantage

Much smaller secondary wheel

Lighter
Small turbine axis / output shaft distance allows reduced height

Disadvantage

Complicated alignment procedure and fault intolerant

Multitude of parts

8.14 Reduction/Reverse Gearboxes (Multi-Plate Types)

There are a many reduction/reverse gearbox systems (fig 8.9) in use with the
majority having the same features. The type described (Refer the drive
direction and cutaway drawings) is a gearbox comprising of a reduction gear,
primary stage, a reduction stage and reverse stage. The gearbox has helical
gearing, incorporating multi-plate clutches. The multi-plate clutches are for
engaging or disengaging the propeller shaft.

The gearbox system is made up of the following components:

Housing

The housings are invariably constructed of grey cast iron with extra stiffening
at the bearing points to absorb thrust forces.

Shaft/Gears & Gear Ratios

The gearing reduction depends on the rpm of the diesel engine. The gear ratio
may vary from 2:1 to 6:1.

135
Usually all the spur gears are of a single helical design, with the tooth flanks
ground and case hardened to allow for better wear characteristics.

The shafts are made from heat treated steel and run in anti-friction bearings.
The output shaft is supported in plain bearings and the propeller thrust taken
by an axial type thrust bearing.

The input shaft is machined to a taper for mounting a highly flexible coupling.

Fig 8.9 Plan of Gearbox & Clutch Giving Rotation (ahead & astern) Refer Fig 7.11 driveline.

Typical Reduction Gearing

136
8.15 Gearbox Ahead & Reversing Gear Train

Fig 8.10

The drawing (fig 8.10) indicates the gear driveline, which operates the ahead
or astern mode.

137
8.16 Gear Definitions

Helical gears, are similar to spur gears except that the teeth are hobbed at an
angle to the axis of rotation. Helical gear sets generally run quieter than spur
gears and can transmit more torque because the teeth are longer and more
teeth are in engagement in comparison to spur gears of the same size.

Pressure angle. For involute teeth the pressure angle is described as the
angle between the line of action and the line tangent to the pitch circle. Some
gearwheels use a 20 degree pressure angle.

Spur toothed bevel gears have the advantage in contrast to helical gear
wheels that there are no lateral power. The transfer of motion of rotation is a
little bit irregular.

In the planetary gear depicted in the drawing (Fig.8.12) the annulus is fixed to
the casing and the planet carrier rotates in the same direction as the sun
wheel. The sun wheel is connected to the high speed shaft and the planet
carrier to the low speed shaft.

8.17 Epicyclic Gearing

Comparison of Epicyclic Gearing to Tandem Gearing

Advantages

The output may be reversed to requirement

Small size and weight for given ratio ( approx. 75% of wheel/pinion)
Output same direction as input for planetary ( ratios of 3-12:1)
Output opposite direction to input for star (2-11:1)
Co-axial input/output
Initial cost may be slightly lower
Slightly improved efficiency
Operating cost lower
Lower plant height

Disadvantages

Requires very accurate alignment

relatively high tooth load
increased number of rotating parts
Inspection and maintenance more difficult

Increased meshing frequency means higher grade materials required

138
Construction

Special or high grade carbon or alloy steels, including proprietry brands, are
widely used in the manufacture of the components.

The Star annulus has teeth on the inner rim. A resilient mount is provided
when the star annulus is fixed. This allows a certain degree of distortion to
occur reducing tooth loading. The planet wheels are located by a planet
carrier ring, one fitted at each end

The system may be constructed in three different ways

Planetary - The star annulus is fixed. Input is via the sun wheel and output
through the plant wheel carrier ring

Star -The planet wheel carrier is fixed. Input is via the sun wheel and output
through the star annulus- This system is often seen as the first stage of
turbine reduction gearing due to the possibility of high centrifugal stresses
distorting the planet carrier ring and causing tooth overloading

Solar - The sun wheel is fixed. This system is seldom used except in back to
back epicyclics.

The fixed member is called the torque reaction member. The number of
wheels is determined by tooth loading

Epicyclic Gearing Alignment

In the normal operation of the epicyclic gear, the planet pins are straddle
mounted on a rigid carrier and are precisely aligned to each other.

If they are not the load distribution across the face is affected, but not the load
sharing.

The sun pinion and flexible annulus are centred by the planet wheels when
under load. Load sharing between the planets is ensured by the radial
flexibility and uniform loading across the teeth and by the high accuracy of the
gearing.

139
Epicyclic Gear Components (Refer to Fig 8.12 and fig 8.13)

Planetary Gearboxes (PL) consist of a sun gear, around which rotate several
planet gears. The planet gears rotate within a larger ring gear. This type of
gear drive is capable of large gear reductions and can transmit large amounts
of torque in a relatively small package.

Planetary ring gear is the gear in which the planet gears rotate.

Sun gear. The sun gear is the centre most gear in a planetary system. It is
usually the input gear for all planetary gearboxes.
Fig 8.13

S unW hee l
A nnu ul s

Fig 8.12

P al ne Wt hee l
(P al ne at ryG ea r)

140
 Epicyclic Gearing Direction Change

By application of either the ahead or astern brake the direction of the output
shaft can be controlled. This system acts as an alternative to a reversing
engine or a controllable pitch (CP) propeller.

A s et rn B ra ke

A head B ra ke

A head

nI pu t

A s et rn

141
8.18 Propeller Shaft & Coupling Alignment

The alignment of the engine and marine transmission with the propeller
shafting is essential to minimise vibration, noise, prevent over-stressing and
power loss in the driveline components.

When an alignment is carried out, the vessel must be in the water. The
following is an example of propeller shaft alignment:

Refer Fig 8.14.

While aligning the engine and gear, check both the propeller shaft flange bore
and face. The shaft and gear flanges should fit together without deflecting
either the engine or the shaft from its operating position. This will allow the
propeller shaft flange and marine gear output flange to mate properly without
over stressing the driveline components.

The face alignments are checked with feeler gauges at the top, bottom and
each side of the flanges. The shaft should be rotated 180 degrees and
checked again.

Note: The alignments should be rechecked after the vessel has been in the
water and loaded to its normal operating condition.

142
 Fa ceG ap
(T o p )
C om p a n oi n S h a ft
(P ro p e lel r F al n g e )

B o re o rP a r ra el l
M si a lgi nm e n t
M a r ni e G e a r
O u pt u tF al n g e P iol ts
Fa ceG ap
(B o tot m )

Fa ceG ap
(T o p )

C om p a n oi n S h a ft
(P ro p e lel r F al n g e )

F a c e o rA n g u al r
M si a lgi nm e n t

M a r ni e G e a r
O u pt u tF al n g e P iol ts

Fa ceG ap
(B o tot m )

F ni g e rG a u g e

M a el
F em a el

S tra gi h t
Edge

Fig 8.14 Propeller Shaft Alignment

143
8.19 Rigid Engine Mountings

On rigid mounted engines, temporary alignment is made with jacking screws

and final alignment is made using stock or chocking compound underneath
the supports (fig 8.15).

When using chocking compound, the alignment of the transmission and

propeller shaft is accomplished using jacking screws between the support
brackets and the engine bed. Mountings are then loosely put into place at this
point. Temporary dams are put on to the engine bed, with the chocking
compound poured into the engine beds. The chocking compound is poured in
to fill the space between the bracket and engine bed. On completion torque
tightening down of the bolts can take place.

Fig 8.15

8.20 Flexible Engine Mountings

Flexible engine mounts use either rubber or spring isolators to absorb

vibration before it is transmitted to the hull. This will reduce noise and vibration
in the vessel. There are a variety of flexible mounts available. Any selected
mounting must be able to align the engine and provide acceptable mount life.

On flexible mounted engines, the engine is aligned by shimming under the

isolator and then the final alignment is accomplished using the adjusting nuts
on the isolator. The mounting brackets should always be located as low as
possible on the isolator stud to prevent overstressing the stud. The alignment
must be re-done each time a flexible mounting system is disconnected from
the propeller shaft, since this system is not rigid!

144
If the engine is not parallel to the engine crankshaft, it may be necessary to
use wedges beneath the isolators to assure the isolator springs or rubber
bushings are properly and evenly compressed, as shown in Fig 8.17.

Fig 8.17

145
8.21 Stern Tube Seals & Bearing Arrangement

Stern tube bearings can vary from the rubber type bearings found on smaller
craft to the white metal type found on the larger vessels, both are built for
durability.

8.22 Cutless Nitrile Rubber stern Tubes

One type of stern tube seal is the Cutless Flanged Water Lubricated Bearing
Fig 8.18. These bearings are centrifugally cast from naval brass with an
integral flange for bolting to the stern tube retaining the bearing and
preventing rotation in the housing. A specially formulated oil and chemical
resistant nitrile rubber is securely bonded to the shell. Shells are heavy walled
providing structural strength. The stern tube bearings are suitable for a shaft
diameter from 50mm to 380mm.

The features of the rubber type is the effective absorption of shaft vibration
preventing it from influencing the ships structure. The rubber nitrile also
prevents electrolytic corrosion on the shaft sleeve.

To prevent fatigue of the bearing from heat cooling is required.

Fig 8.18 Cutless Nitrile Rubber Stern Tube Bearing Channels for Cooling

146
8.23 White Metal/Gunmetal Lined Stern Tubes

Having a low coefficient of friction stern tubes are often lined with white metal
bushes or in some cases gunmetal.

A common option of bearing/tail shaft lubrication is to gravity feed a suitable

lubricating oil from a gravity oil supply tank to the bearing housing which
ensures the stern tube remains full of oil. A return air pipe is fitted from the
stern tube to the gravity oil tank to ensure that any aerated oil is dispersed
therefore preventing the possibility of cavitation occurring. Refer to Fig 8.19

An alternative system of lubrication of the stern tube, is to fill the system with a
suitable grease product. The only difference from using lubricating oil is the
introduction of a lever type pump to ensure grease is adequately dispersed
throughout the stern tube system.

Condition monitoring of the oil/grease can be obtained through the test cock
mounted at the forward bulkhead of the stern tube.

Note: An alternative to the white metal and gunmetal stern tube bearing is the
use of a lignum vitae stern bush. Although rarely seen, this bearing
material is honed from a hard type of wood, and can be lubricated
using oil or seawater.

S e a lB o d y
S h ro u d R ni g S ea t

S e a tB o d y

B u ttB o lts
F a c e In s e rt

F a c e In s e rt

D r ive C al m p R ni g

Fig 8.19 Typical White Metal Bearing with Deep Sea Seals

147
8.24 Stern Tube Seals

8.25 Deep Sea Seals

There are a number of different types of stern tube seals. A common type is
the Deep Sea Seal type. This type of seal requires little maintenance and
ensures that seawater, sand and mud and any other contaminants that might
impair the efficiency and subsequent damage to the stern tube are excluded.
The seal also ensures that oil consumption is kept to a minimum, therefore
preventing shaft corrosion.

The seal (Fig 8.20) is designed to ensure compression is maintained and the
seal remains oil-tight when the shaft expands. The seal ring faces have
sufficient clearance allowing the seal to float from the shaft to allow oil through
to the after-most face, therefore minimising wear. To ensure that the seal
faces temperatures are kept to a minimum thus preventing excessive wear,
cooling water is channelled through the seal body.

Fig 8.20 Deep Sea Seal (inboard)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Number Description
1 Seat
2 Body
3 Sealing Strip
4 Face
5 Clamp Ring

148
Fig 8.21 Seal (Outboard)

8.26 Packed Glands

Packed glands are seldom seen on large diameter tail shafts/stern tubes.

Packed gland can be found on smaller vessels with smaller diameter propeller
tail-shafts. Although the packed gland performs adequately, frequent
maintenance is called for. The maintenance required is to primarily ensure
that a constant (low) flow of seawater is maintained. This allows the shaft and
packing to remain cool and lubricated, while ensuring any excess heat is
dispersed. Failure to maintain adequate cooling will result in excess wear of
both the shaft and packing.

149
 8.27 Relationships between Power and Propeller

The power produced by an engine is the indicated power (ip). This can be
quantified by the power produced by the engine to the actual output from the
engine which is less due to friction losses etc. The indicated power of an
internal combustion engine is given as:

Indicated Power (ip) pmALN where:

Pm = mean effective pressure (m.e.p)

A = area of piston
L = Length of Stroke
N = Number of strokes/minute or rpm

Only a percentage of the ip is transmitted to the propeller shaft. This usually

ranges between 80% and 90%, and is called the mechanical efficiency.
Therefore the brake power delivered from the engine is as follows:

Brake Power (bp) = Indicated Power (ip) x Mechanical Efficiency

The next item to consider is the propeller shaft losses, this is considered to
vary between 3% and 5%. This is quantified as the Delivered Power (dp), and
is calculated as follows:

Delivered Power (dp) = Brake Power (bp) x Transmission Efficiency

To consider the output from the propeller, a propeller efficiency is usually

given as an efficiency between 60% to 70%. This efficiency relates to the
design and consequently cavitation during the propellers motion. The thrust
developed by the propeller is given by:

(Propeller) Thrust Power (tp) = Delivered Power (dp) x Propeller Efficiency

Other factors taken into consideration when calculating the relationship

between propeller and engine power is the Hull Efficiency. This is given as a
ratio of the Effective Power to Thrust Power, which is as follows:

Effective Power (ep) = Thrust Power (tp) x Hull Efficiency

D e l ive re d P ow e r B ra ke P ow e r
(d p ) (b p )

E ffe c t ive P ow e r
(e p )

E n g ni e In d ic a te d P ow e r
T h ru s tP ow e r ( pi )
(tp )

150
8.28 Basic Function of Propellers

The blades of a propeller (fig 8.28) develop a total force in a certain direction
by virtue of being set at a small angle of incidence to the resultant direction of
flow of water passing through the propeller.

The efficiency of the propeller is dependent upon the flow of water over the
blades, which is affected by the shape of the ship immediately forward of the
propeller and the head of water over the propeller tips.

The effect of the flow past the blades is to cause a positive pressure on the
face and a reduced pressure or suction on the back due to the increased
velocities of flow. The increased velocity is due to the shape of the propeller
blade section.

The sum total of these pressure distributions produces the total force whose
axial component gives the propeller thrust force.

It so happens that under normal working conditions of a ships propeller the

suction force on the back of the blade represents about 80% of the total force.

S h pi A d va n c ni g
P ro p e l el rS ta t oi n a ry

S h pi A d a n c ni g
P ro p e l el rR o ta t in g

S h pi S ta t oi n a ry
P ro p e l el r T u rn ni g

Fig 8.28

151
D ynam ci P re s su re (D ifef ren tai l)
D ue ot W a et r F ol w

F o rce

H gi he rV e ol c ity
F ol w C u rves
Low e rP re ssu re
-ve

+ ve

W a et r F ol w

Propeller Materials and Maintenance

Propellers are usually constructed from alloys (based upon brass), these
alloys include manganese bronze and nikalium. The reason for the choice of
these materials is because they give good properties of corrosion resistance
and toughness in the highly aggressive working environment of the propeller.

To ensure that a propeller remains efficient and produces good performance

the propeller is polished to a very smooth finish (6 to 9m). The propellers
condition must be regularly inspected. Any roughness of the propeller would
result in higher fuel usage and cost as well as causing local turbulence which
can accelerate degradation.

Minor damage to the blades may be treated in situ but in most cases and for
more serious damage may require specialist treatment. Regular inspection
and maintenance can assist in preventing minor damages developing into
serious damage which may prove expensive. (Loss in performance, increased
fuel costs, specialist repair, scrapping of the propeller).

Problems associated with propeller degradation include:

Roughening

Roughening may lead to rapid degradation. Very small pits (less than 1mm)
can be ground out and polished. Deeper pits can be repaired by welding,
grinding and polishing. Temporary repairs can be carried out using a resin
filler.

Deformation

Minor edge deformation can be corrected in-situ, using hand straightening

levers and Soft Flame Heating Torch (not oxy-fuel). Major straightening and
pitch checking would be carried out in a shore facility.

152
Edge Cracks

Minor edge cracks can quickly become serious, especially at the leading
edge. If the cracks are less than 10mm in length, they can be ground out and
the edge faired. Larger cracks may need to be repaired by drilling a small
hole at the root of the crack, gouging out, welding and polishing (not on the
inner third of the blade).

Temporary arresting of propagation has been carried out by drilling a small

hole at the root of the crack, plugging the hole, grinding and polishing.

Definition of the Propeller

Propeller, mechanical device that produces a force, or thrust, along the axis of rotation when rotated in a
fluid.

The propeller is essentially a screw that, when turned, pulls itself through the water in the same way that
a bolt pulls itself through a nut. Marine propellers are frequently termed screw. Typical propellers consist
of two, three, or four blades, each of which is a section of a helix, which is the geometric form of a screw
thread.

The Propeller Operation

The distance that a propeller or propeller blade will move forwards when the propeller shaft is given one
complete rotation, if there is no slippage, is called the geometric pitch; this corresponds to the pitch, or the
distance between adjacent threads, of a simple screw. The distance that the propeller actually moves
through the water in one rotation is called the effective pitch, and the difference between effective and
geometric pitch is called slip. In general, an efficient propeller slips little, and the effective pitch, when
operating under design conditions, is almost equal to the geometric pitch; the criterion of propeller
efficiency is not slip, however, but the ratio of propulsive energy produced to energy consumed in rotating
the propeller shaft.

153
9.0 Hull Fittings

9.1 Sea Valves and Associated Pipework and Strainers

Seawater is the principle means of cooling the engine and the auxiliary
systems. Seawater is initially supplied through the sea inlet box and isolation
valve prior to dispersement to the system. Therefore it is important that the
hull mounted equipment is carefully maintained as this ensured the integrity of
the ship.

The seawater to flow from the sea requires a galvanised steel grid mounted
on the outside of the hull, which is attached to the sea inlet box. The sea inlet
valve is connected directly to the box.

It is essential that good maintenance is carried out (usually annually) on the

above equipment to ensure corrosion and erosion is monitored and kept to a
minimum.

When matching the above equipment for seawater use it is necessary to take
into account galvanic compatibility. That is to say that the choice of material
for the seawater system has a lower electro-potential to reduce corrosion
down to a minimum.

Grids

The grids are usually constructed from galvanised steel (although gunmetal is
preferable). The grids should be internally painted with a compatible paint.

Note: The steel grids should be electrically bonded to the ships hull with
phosphor-bronze strips and zinc anodes placed near the grid so it is
cathodically protected.

Sea Inlet Boxes

The inlet boxes should be adequately sized to achieve low turbulence and
water velocities in the box and should be designed to be kept away from any
overboard discharges. This criteria assists in keeping the system free from
any air entrapment. The box should be coated internally with a compatible
paint as well as the fitting of zinc or aluminium anodes

Note: During inspection of the sea inlet box, ensure that debris is removed
from the strainer basket. If allowed to persist the debris will result in
overheating and possible failure of the engine. Inspection of the sea
inlet box should be carried out on a frequent basis.

154
Air Release Vents

An air release unit is essential to the sea inlet box, ensuring any air
entrapment is directed away from the sea inlet box.

Sea Valves

For ships side connections globe valves are used whenever possible. The
following indicates the problems encountered by using these valves and the
materials required to assist in reducing wear etc.

Valves even when open produce some turbulence, the amount varying with
the valve type and whether it is fully open or partially throttled. Globe valves
can produce severe turbulence even when fully open and this is reflected in
the pressure loss across the valve.

The valve materials must be either resistant to seawater and galvanically

compatible with the piping, sea inlet box etc. The valve should also be
protected by a coating which will prevent access of seawater to the metal
parts of the valve.

The key components in a valve are the seat and stem and these must be
made from corrosion resistant material.

The following material list indicates the material recommended for sea inlet
valves (Globe Valves):

Valve Component Material

Body Ni-Al Bronze
Seats and Disc Monel Alloy
Valve Stem Monel Alloy
Securing Pins Monel Alloy

Caution

The problems associated with sea inlet valves, sea inlet

boxes and pipework highlight the fact that regular inspections
(annually) are required to ensure that the system is in the
optimum condition and any failures are minimised.

All valves when being overhauled should be inspected for any body (internal
and external) and valve wastage. The valve and seat should be checked for
correct orientation and wear as well as maintaining good and effective valve to
seat sealing faces. The stem should be checked for any indications of excess
wear or errosion. Flange faces should be inspected for any pitting, erosion, or
corrosion.

155
9.2 Cathodic Protection

9.3 Corrosion

Corrosion on a ship is taken very seriously, and great steps are taken to try to
reduce the effects to acceptable limits. Corrosion or rather the rate of
corrosion depends on the availability of oxygen, therefore in a marine
environment steels must be protected by paint, zinc or some other coating.

Example of Corrosion:

If two differing metals of differing electro potentials are placed in an electrolyte

and connected together electrically the one with the lower potential (greater
tendency to dissolve) will give up its electrons which will flow to the other
metal, in this case as in Fig 9.1 zinc (anode) to copper (cathode). The metal
of the lower potential will continue dissolve as long as the wire electrically
connects them.

Fig 9.1

156
9.4 Cathodic Protection on Ships

Corrosion is a natural process which appears with metals emerged in rivers or

seawater, the corrosion effect causes destruction of metals of which the hull of
the ship is made.

Basic Principle of Cathodic Protection

Corrosion in an electrolyte requires the formation of anodes and cathodes on
one metal or different metals. In systems such as these, a current flows from
the anode through the electrolyte to the cathode. The usual solution is to
introduce a sacrificial anode such that the current flows from the anode to the
corroding system therefore turning the system e.g. generally ships hull to a
cathode. For such an anode to be effective, it must be of a lower potential
(more anodic) than any anodes in the corroding system.

Example of Cathodic Protection:

If iron and copper are connected in seawater corrosion of the iron will be
stimulated by the presence of the copper cathode. If a piece of zinc is
connected to the system then the current will flow from zinc to the iron and
copper, therefore turning the iron into the cathode.

The use of sacrificial zinc anodes around the ship, for example the zinc
anodes located around the stern of the ship prevent the galvanic action
between the steel and the bronze propeller. Other areas of zinc anode use
include sea inlet chests and on the hull around sea connections, where
provision is sort to protect the hull from the effects of non-ferrous metals.
Fig 9.2 Current distribution paths between anode and cathode in a cathodic protection
system.

The current density at point B is insufficient to allow protection due to an un-acceptable

voltage drop caused by the electrical resistance of the electrolyte and the length of path A.
Conversely the points on the protected cathode between points B have a higher current
density and hence give improved protection.

157
9.5 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

An alternative method of cathodic protection for larger ships is the use of an

inert material such as graphite or platinised titanium for an anode and the use
of a DC supply for the voltage. The principle of the active cathodic protection
is based on determining the protecting potential of the metal to be protected.
By determining this potential allows the natural current that causes galvanic
corrosion and the corrosion process (which is extreme while the vessel is
stationary) to be reduced or the level to become as low as possible.

In reality the anode can only service a certain area of cathode because the
electrical resistance to the current flow through the electrolyte increases with
the distance between anode and cathode. This is due to the voltage drop
which in turn will cease to protect the cathode (ships hull). Refer to Fig 9.3.
Increasing the supply voltage will force more current through to the remoter
areas but there are limits to the increases because the current density for the
nearer cathode surfaces is proportionally greater and eventually undesirable
effects associated with gassing occur.

An example of an impressed current system is graphically displayed in Fig 9.3

Caution

The polarity of the electrical connections of the external DC

supply in a non-sacrificial system is vital. Reversed
connections have been known and the result is rapid and
disastrous.

158
 2 5
3

2 4 2

3
1 4

Fig 9.3 Impressed Current System

1. Station of active cathodic protection.

2. Working anodes.
3. Reference electrodes for measuring the potential.
4. Rectifier for antifouling protection.
5. Chlorinator.

To ensure a cathodic protection system performs correctly:

(a) Ensure that there are sufficient anodes available to produce the correct
current density over the entire surface to be protected.
(b) Inspections of the sacrificial anodes, to ensure the anodes are replaced
before they corrode away completely.

159
10.0 Fire Protection Systems

10.1 Potential Fire Hazards

Fire at sea can be a terrifying experience, by the very nature of the ship being
restricted. When at sea it is not possible to summons the Fire Brigade,
therefore all attempts to extinguish a fire have to be carried out by the ships
crew.

The very nature of a ship becomes a fire risk, with its combination of living
quarters, cargo spaces, fuel tanks and machinery which are all enclosed in a
relatively confined space.

The best defence against fire is to reduce the risk of fire breaking out. The
reduction of the risks may require the following actions:

Vigilance Identifying any potential hazards.

Smoking should be restricted to certain areas, with all matches and

cigarettes safely disposed of in the correct receptacles.

Hazardous oily waste should be immediately and correctly disposed of.

Any machinery malfunction which may result in a fire hazard should be

reported and remedied.

All electrical items to be correctly serviced by a competent electrician, with

any malfunctions immediately reported. Ensure all plugs and electrical
leads are correct for the application and have been correctly maintained.

Galley equipment should never be left unsupervised e.g. overheated pans

catching fire.

Correct maintenance to be carried out on Priority 1 equipment. This may

include all fire fighting equipment, fire and gas systems etc.

Ensure all fire ventilation equipment is maintained and operational.

Machinery room housekeeping duties to be maintained, these include the
removal of all combustible material from vulnerable positions, prevention of
oil leaks, cleaning of all save-alls, fuel oil/lubricating oil leaks to be
remedied. When changing filters ensure that all fuel/lubricating pressure
lines have been de-pressurised before proceeding. This activity may
include a Permit To Work along with a Risk Assessment before carrying
out the task.

Carry out realistic fire drills, these may include scene setting exercises as
well as familiarity of equipment exercises.

160
 The importance of de-briefing sessions cannot be overstated. These
sessions allow crew members to become involved with the training
exercises, which in turn improves vigilance and awareness.

Correct procedures to be carried out during the bunkering and transfer of

fuel oil. Refer to company procedures, these will include raising a Permit
to Work and a related Risk Assessment.

10.2 Basic Fire-fighting Techniques

Fire can be best defined as a chemical action, usually the combination of

carbon and hydrogen with oxygen, resulting in the release of heat energy.

To start the action it is necessary either to apply a flame or a spark having a

certain minimum energy value to a substance which has been raised to a
temperature sufficient to release flammable vapours. These conditions are
conducive to the continuation of the action; or else to raise the substance to
its auto-ignition temperature or temperature, where spontaneous combustion
of the liberated gases occur. Once started, the heat energy released is
available to raise a greater amount of the substance to the temperature of
combustion.

Once the fire has started and there is plenty of combustible material to
maintain combustion, fires are only limited by the amount of air available to
the burning material.

Important

There are three requirements in sustaining fires, these are:

Availability of combustible material.

An adequate supply of Oxygen (in the form of air).
Maintaining a source of heat or ignition.

The fire will be extinguished if one or more of the following

steps are taken: the combustible material is removed,
prevention of the supply of Oxygen or use of a cooling
medium to reduce the material temperature significantly that
the fire ceases.

161
The combustible materials commonly found on ships fall into the following
groups:

1. A class - Solid materials; wood, paper and cloth.

2. B class - Liquid materials; fuel and lubricating oils.
3. C class - Gaseous materials; LPG, Acetylene and Aerosols.
4. D class - Metals.
5. F class - Cooking Fats and Oils.

Fire Pumps, Fire Main and Hydrants Relating to Yachts

Dependent on the size of the Yacht it is a requirement to have two

independently powered pumps with one pump, an emergency fire pump being
located outside the engine room.

It is permissible to use pumps which have other functions as the fire pumps
and may include sanitary, ballast, bilge or general service pumps, provided
they are not used to pump oil or fuel.

Fire Mains and Hydrants

The fire main must be of sufficient size to permit the delivery of two jets from
separate hydrants at a pressure of not less than 3 bar at the highest and
remote points. Protection against freezing must be provided with provision to
be made to ensure that hydrants are always available.

An isolation valve is required outside the machinery space so that in case of

fire, that section can be isolated.

Fire Hose and Equipment

At each hydrant a suitable box or locker is provided with a minimum of one

length of hose and a branch. The nozzle is required to be no greater than
12mm in accommodation spaces and a maximum of 19mm in machinery
spaces. Nozzles must be spray/jet and incorporate a shut off.

Hose size varies but it is usual to find 18 metre lengths of 45mm hose in
accommodation spaces with 54mm hose elsewhere.

162
10.3 Fire Extinguishing Appliances and Techniques

Fire fighting techniques applied on ships can be divided into categories which
require a different fire fighting medium for different types of fires. The most
common fire-fighting medium found on ships is water, which is a suitable fire
fighting medium for carbonaceous materials, and with the correct fine spray
application, can be used for oil fires. However this medium should not be used
for electrical fires.

The following relates to larger ships:

All ships have an arrangement of a fire main and a number of fire hydrants
throughout the ships structure. At least two fire pumps and one emergency
fire pump supply the fire main. The emergency fire pump is either diesel
driven or supplied electrically from the emergency generator switchboard. The
fire main is either a ring main or branch configuration with strategically placed
isolation valves, which can be isolated should a section of the ring/branch fire
main become inoperable due to a burst or failure. This facility will enable fire
fighting to continue.

In a number of systems the fire main is usually continuously pressurised by a

small fire main jockey or booster pump. These pumps ensure that should a
fire hydrant become open, the sudden drop in pressure will operate a
pressure switch enabling one of the fire pumps to start.

During periods of time in port the fire main can be connected to a shore
supply or another ship by using the International Shore Connection. This
connector should be marked and available in a designated part of the ship.

Each pump when operated should deliver a line pressure of about 5.5 kg/cm2
with sufficient capacity to supply at least two hoses. Each hose nozzle has the
facility to supply a jet or spray.

163
Portable Extinguishers

There are a number of portable fire extinguishers on board a ship, all having
different applications.

Water Fire Extinguishers

Water fire extinguishers are used on Class A fires, which usually involve freely
burning solid materials such as paper, wood, straw, fabrics and coal. The
extinguisher works by spraying a jet of water onto the fire, which penetrates
the fire and extinguishes the flames by cooling the burning materials and
preventing them re-igniting.

Ordinary water fire extinguishers should not be used on fires with electrical
equipment because water is conductive so could lead to an electric shock if
used on anything electrical. There are several main types of water fire
extinguishers, which are the standard ones, spray mist extinguishers and
water additive extinguishers. Standard models use ordinary tap water which is
sprayed out in a jet under pressure from compressed air.

Water Fire Extinguishers - How They Work

Fire needs three things to exist - a source of ignition, oxygen and fuel. All fire
appliances work by removing at least one of these elements, without which a
fire cannot continue to burn. They apply an agent to the fire that either cools
down the fuel so that it can no longer burn, or removes or displaces the
oxygen supply so that the fuel cannot ignite.

The easiest way to remove heat is to cover a fire with water, which is the
basis of water fire extinguishers. The water cools the fuel to below its point of
ignition, thus interrupting the combustion cycle.

164
The AFFF Fire Extinguisher
The AFFF fire extinguisher (pronounced A triple F) is suitable for use on class
A and B fires, which means combustible organic materials such as paper,
card, wood and textiles, as well as fires involving flammable liquids such as
petrol or oils. They are therefore quite a flexible extinguisher and can be used
in any situation where you would normally use a water extinguisher, so are
good for general all round use.

AFFF stands for Aqueous Film Forming Foam and weight for weight they are
more effective than water extinguishers. An AFFF foam fire extinguisher
works by smothering the fuel and thereby reducing the oxygen supply so that
it cannot continue burning. There is also a cooling effect as the water in the
foam evaporates, which also helps to stop combustion and prevent the fire re-
igniting. Another benefit is that the foam helps to seal in harmful gases
preventing their potentially damaging spread into the area around the fire.
They are usually fitted with dielectrical nozzles which make them safer to use
around electricity, but they are not meant to be used directly on electrical fires.

An AFFF Fire Extinguisher uses what is known as a low expansion foam,

which means is expands its size by less than 20 times. This makes AFFF
foam very mobile and easy to cover substantial areas quickly. The low
viscosity of the foam allows it to spread quickly over the top of most burning
liquids. A film of water forms underneath the foam, which has a cooling effect
and also smothers the fuel preventing combustion and trapping noxious
vapours.

How To Use An AFFF Foam Fire Extinguisher

Operating instructions are very much the same as other extinguishers when it
comes to fires on wood, paper, etc. Pull out the pin and squeeze the lever,
then aim the jet of foam towards the base of the flames, moving it back and
forth across the fire.

If you are using an AFFF extinguisher on a liquid fire, do not aim directly at the
fire or you may disperse and spread it further. Look for a vertical surface that
you can aim the foam at so that it can then drop down onto the fire more
gently. If the fire is contained in a container with walls, aim at the inside edge
of the container and allow the foam to build up and spread across from there.

Water, AFFF and Powder fire extinguishers can be of two main types in terms
of the main mechanism of operation, stored pressure or cartridge operated.
The commonest type of fire extinguisher is the stored pressure type, in which
the extinguisher cylinder itself is pressurised with compressed air. In the
cartridge operated extinguishers, there is a small cartridge of compressed gas
inside the cylinder. Activating the extinguisher releases the gas into the main
container which pushes the extinguishing agent out of the cylinder into the

165
hose from where you commonly have a trigger operated release nozzle for
directing the agent at the fire.

Soda Acid Extinguisher

The soda acid type of extinguisher used for carbonaceous fires, and
commonly found in the accommodation. The extinguisher contains a solution
of an alkali, sodium bicarbonate mixed in water. A small sealed glass vessel
holding sulphuric acid is placed in the container in the air space above the
liquid. The principle of operation is to press the plunger down causing the
sulphuric acid to mix with the alkaline solution, promoting a chemical reaction.
The CO2 formed pressurises the container and ejects the contents.

166
Fig 10.1 Soda Acid Extinguisher

Foam Extinguishers

The foam extinguisher is used for oil fires, and is commonly found in the areas
where oil is used e.g. machinery rooms, galley.

The principle of the foam extinguisher is to cover the oil with a blanket of foam
therefore starving the oil from air thus preventing combustion.

The inner container section of the extinguisher contains a solution of

aluminium sulphate, which is generally a weak acid (usually supplied in
powder form mixed with water). The outer section of the extinguisher contains
sodium bicarbonate.

The extinguisher is operated by releasing the sealing cap and inverting the
extinguisher. This action mixes the contents forming a CO 2 gas, which in turn
creates a pressure which is able to eject the foam mix.

Fig 10.2 Foam Extinguisher

167
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers

The portable CO2 fire extinguisher has a good blanketing effect and is a
suitable means of fighting electrical fires due to the CO 2 gas being a non-
conductor of electricity. The extinguisher can also be used as a fire fighting
medium for other class fires. The properties of CO 2 cause the fire to be
starved of oxygen, and also has a small cooling effect which affords the
operator only limited protection from any heat from the fire.

A common type of portable CO2 fire extinguisher is the valve or trigger type.
The operation of the valve or trigger type when initiated cannot be stopped
and hence a small fire may be quickly extinguished.

The operation of a CO2 extinguisher is activated by the trigger causing the

valve to open and allowing the liquid CO2 to discharge through a short swivel
to a discharge horn, where the CO2 expands allowing the liquid to turn to gas.

Note: The CO2 extinguisher is not allowed in the accommodation spaces

because of the dangers of gas leakage which, if confined might
suffocate crew or passengers.

Caution

As the CO2 extinguisher can be partially used, ensure the

extinguisher is replaced with a full one after use.

Fig 10.3 CO2 Extinguisher Valve/Trigger Type

168
Dry Powder Extinguishers

The dry powder extinguisher is a useful fire fighting medium on chemical fires
and is accepted on a limited basis in the accommodation and machinery
spaces

A common type of dry powder is the type striking the strike knob which in turn
pierces the CO2 cartridge. The compressed gas CO2 is emitted from the gas
cartridge to pressure the container and blow out the powder charge. The type
of powder charge varies dependant on the class of fire, The charges used are
usually:

1. Sodium bicarbonate If the fire is hot enough the powder emission will de-
compose to form sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide.

2. Potassium bicarbonate The powder emission extinguish fires by fusing

on the surface of the hazard such as carbonaceous or metallic fires,
therefore excluding the air.

3. Ammonium phosphate The powder emission extinguish fires by fusing

on the surface of the hazard such as carbonaceous or metallic fires,
therefore excluding the air.

The action of the powder when emitted commences by blanketing the fire in a
cloud thereby excluding the air, and continues to interrupt the chain reaction
of combustion. The discharge of this appliance is rapid approximately 15
seconds so accuracy is important.

Fig 10.4 Dry Powder Extinguisher

169
10.4 Accommodation Fire-fighting

On many ships the accommodation more specifically the cabin areas are
protected by a sprinkler system. This type of system comprises of a
pressurised tank of fresh water maintained to a pressure of 5.5 to 8.5 kg/cm2
by air. The system is piped from the sprinkler tank to supply pressurised fresh
water to each accommodation deck level through an individual flow and test
alarm. Each deck level branch pipe supplies pressurised water to each
individual cabin where the water is prevented from flowing by the individual
sprinkler quartzoid bulb.

The system operates by heat being sufficient to expand the special liquid in
the bulb causing the bulb to fracture. This action will release the fresh water in
a pattern to envelop the cabin area (The amount of sprinklers in the cabin
depends on the area of the room).

Note: The temperature the bulb will fracture is usually set at 70 C, however
there are bulbs that will fracture at higher temperatures such as 79 C
to 93 C.

The flow switch for that particular deck level records the emission of fresh
water to the cabin. The operation of the flow switch will activate with a warning
alarm on the fire panel.

Note: Under normal circumstances the smoke detector in the effected cabin
would have alarmed on the fire panel.

The flow of water will continue until the pressure is reduced to a certain level,
this will then activate the seawater pump which is connected to the
pressurised sprinkler discharge line. The pump will start and begin drawing
water from the sea suction, and pump the water to the deck level supply line
to the effected cabin. This action ensures that water is continuously flowing
into the fire.

Caution

After use always ensure that the sprinkler system has been
flushed through with clean fresh water.

170
Fig 10.5 Sprinkler System

C om p re sed A ir
S p rni k el rH ead s L ni e

R e lei f V a vl e

T an k P re s su re G auge
D e c k Le ve lT e s t V a vl e
P o tab el W a te r L ni e

D e c k Le ve lC on t ro lV a vl e

T an k Le ve lG auge

S eaw a te r S p rni k el r P um p S y s tem D ra ni V a vl e

S ea S u c toi n

Sprinkler Head

171
10.5 Machinery Space Fire-fighting

Fire protection in the machinery space starts with engine room staff vigilance:

The observation of any oily waste

Malfunction of equipment,
Oil spills to be contained etc.

The physical protection of the space comprises of strategically placed smoke

and heat detectors. The detectors are connected to a remote fire panel
usually situated on the bridge. These detectors relate to the space to be
covered e.g. main engine room, generator room, boiler room etc. these areas
are usually interpreted as a specific Zone. Any alarm from a smoke or heat
detector will show up on the specific zone on the fire panel.

In the event of a fire in the engine room and evacuation is required, the
procedure is as follows:

1. Raise the alarm, Notify the Captain

2. Ensure All personnel vacate the engine room.
3. Stop Engines on Captains Authorization.
4. Close down all the area ventilation dampers and stop the supply fans.
5. Stop all oil pumps.
6. Trip the fuel oil quick closing valves.
7. Ensure the emergency fire pump is operational. Engine room fire water
isolation valve closed if necessary.
8. Set up boundary cooling on the affected area.
9. After consultation and the situation deems it necessary activate the Fixed
Appliance system. The Fixed Appliance alarm will activate. This alarm is
distinct from the other alarms e.g. General & Fire alarms.
10. Continue boundary cooling and DO NOT open the engine room space for
24 hours. This is an arbitrary figure. Any premature opening of the space
could re-ignite the fire.

Warning

CO2 is an inert gas and is non flammable, colourless,

odourless and 1-1/2 times heavier than air. The gas will not
sustain life. The gas once released into a closed space is
designed to ensure that the cover is 30% by volume. Ensure
all personnel vacate the engine room prior to injecting
the gas.

172
The CO2System

The CO2 system on a ship is not the only system found, there are others
which may include high-expansion foam, medium foam, Hi Fog, Novec,
FM200, Pyrogen and possibly others. However the CO2 system is the very
common, and this system may vary from ship to ship. The system usually
encountered is the Batch CO2 system, of which there are slight variations
within the delivery system.

The Batch CO2 system consists of cylinders grouped together in banks, the
outlet valve of each cylinder discharges into a common manifold, a non-return
valve being incorporated into the header, for replacement/maintenance
purposes, without incurring loss of pressure.

The CO2 in the header then passes to a sector valve situated in a control
cabinet supplying the machinery space through distribution pipework. The
pipe work may also be connected to a series of 3-way cocks, or double seated
valves supplying the various spaces.

For the delivery of CO2 to the machinery space extinguishing systems, speed
of operation and delivery is essential. That is the reason for the simultaneous
bottle release.

The CO2 Operation

To operate the system unlock the control cabinet (The cabinet is always
locked, with the key located adjacent to the cabinet in a glass fronted box). On
opening the door an alarm sounds in the machinery space, this is to inform all
personnel to vacate the machinery space immediately.

1. Select the fire affected machinery space sector valve if there is more than
one machinery space on the ship.
2. Operate the gang release operating handle, this will open the master
cylinder bottles which allows CO2 under pressure to push the gang release
operating piston down.
3. After the gang release piston has travelled full stroke the main battery CO 2
cylinder head valves (which are all connected) are all opened together
simultaneously releasing the CO2 via the sector valve (if available) and
distributed to the machinery room.

173
Fig 10.6 Typical CO2 System

O p e ra t ni g C a b el
F E

C B

L e ve r ni
P u l lB o x

a). Gang release cylinder containing piston.

b). Master cylinders supplying gas pressure to A.
c). Main battery of CO2 cylinder.
d). Pipe conveying gas pressure to A.
e). Operating cable.
f). CO2 gas main.

Halon Smothering Systems

Halon systems were found extensively on ships until recently. This application
has been withdrawn due to the effects the gases have on the environment
and the its long term effects.

174
11.0 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

When crude oil is initially fractionally distilled, the lightest products that come
off the top of the fractionation column are the gases methane, ethane,
propane and butane. The methane is normally used as a refinery fuel, as can
be ethane. Ethane gas can also be separated and collected for use as a
petrochemical feedstock. The propane and butane may be normally collected
separately and stored as liquids, either under pressure or refrigerated, in
which condition they are referred to as liquefied petroleum gases.

11.1 LPG Safety Requirements

LPG systems are usually found on smaller vessels and due to the hazards of
the gas certain safety requirements have to be implemented according to
(British Standard) BS 5482.

When installing LPG gas systems on ships all the fittings and components
between the cylinder and the input side of the gas regulator (which is there to
reduce the output pressure of the bottled gas) are classed as the 'high
pressure' side of the gas system. Damage here could cause a very rapid and
significant burst of gas to escape. To reduce the chances of this gas reaching
the interior of the ship these high pressure components must be installed in
one of the following locations:

on the open deck

cabin top
outside the cockpit
in a cylinder locker
in a cylinder housing.

Due to the hazard associated with LPG all LPG installations installed on
marine craft have to meet the requirements of BS 5482. These requirements
include:

LPG Cylinders on Open Deck

LPG is heavier than air and will always sink down when free to do so. There
should be no dams or obstructions for the gas to accumulate behind. The
gas should a clear and unobstructed path to allow it to drain overboard. The
Cylinders, regulators and associated equipment shall be at least 1 metre away
from hatches and other openings to prevent the risk of leaking gas finding its
way into the vessels interior. The LPG cylinders should also be at least 1
metre away from potential sources of ignition. They should also be located
where there is no risk of leaking gas being ignited. Possible sources of ignition
could include pilot lights, installed spark inducing electrical equipment and
non-flame proof solenoid shut off valves.

175
LPG Cylinders not on open deck

Cylinders not stored on cabin tops or outside cockpits must be secured in a

cylinder locker. The Cylinder lockers should be LPG tight to the hull interior to
at least the height of the cylinder valve, regulator and other associated
equipment. This means that if any part of the installation develops a leak it will
be contained with the locker and will drain overboard through the drain at the
bottom. LPG will find the smallest defect of a locker including cracks,
corrosion and welding imperfections as well as holes or other damage.

In the case of storage of the cylinders in a secure locker and as LPG is

heavier than air reliance can not be placed on the effectiveness of any door
seal, so lockers should only be accessed from the top with no side openings.

Cylinder lockers need to have a lid to prevent damage caused by things being
dropped into the locker. They are not required to be LPG tight but they should
provide a reasonable amount of protection from the weather. They should be
robustly made particularly if they are used as a seat or step.

Ventilation of the cylinder lockers should be from outside the vessel to a point
above the level of the cylinders. This is to provide warmer air to aid the
vaporisation rate of the cylinder as well as help remove any escaped LPG
through the drain.

An LPG drain should be installed in the lowest point of the locker to a point
outside the hull above the deepest loaded waterline. The drain must fall
continuously to the outside so no gas can accumulate in the drain itself. The
drain point in the hull must be above the waterline in all normal states of trim
other wise water will lie in the bottom of the locker and the drain will be
ineffective

11.2 LPGITA Code of Practice 18.

The LPGITA Code of Practice 18 is the guidance for the safe use of Liquid
Petroleum Gas (LPG) as a propulsion fuel for boats, yachts and other craft.

The most important guidelines set out in the code of practice include the
following:

The valve box on the tank must have its own ventilation to the outside of
the vessel, 50 cm above the water line.

The high pressure LPG supply must be made from fixed pipe work.

Connections in the pipe work with a pressure above 1.2 bar must be made
in a locker if possible.

The extended filler must be on the outside of the vessel, so gasses cannot
enter the vessel when connecting or disconnecting.

176
 The parts of the LPG system must be protected against the marine
environment.

All LPG parts must have a minimal distance to hot engine parts of at least
25 cm.

Right and left above the exhaust is a 45 degrees safety area. All vent
pipes must end at a distance of at least 25 cm in horizontal level of the
safety area.

Gas sensors must be installed in the tank compartment (lockers) and in

the engine bay.

Ventilation blowers must be installed in the tank compartment (lockers)

and in the engine bay.

The LPG tank, fuel pipe and vaporiser must be capable of closing
automatically when the engine stops.

Before starting the engine an automatic safety procedure has to take

place, which vents the engine compartment and the tank compartment
(lockers).

After installing all parts of the LPG system. All components must be
accessible for maintenance.

The LPG system must be tested every 6 months.

177
12.0 Marine Pollution

12.1 Marine Pollution Legislation

Pollution to the environment has become increasingly high profile and the
demands of personnel to assist in the control and reduction of pollution in the
marine environment has never been greater.

The effects of operational or accidental pollution of the marine environment

include the following:

Volatile organic compound (VOCs) emission from oil tankers. VOCs are
regulated during discharge of oil in ports and terminals.
Shipboard waste incineration. This includes the restriction of certain
wastes e.g. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), contaminated packing
materials, garbage containing traces of heavy metals, refined petroleum
products containing halogens.
Products not to be incinerated in port include sewage sludge, sludge oil
and polyvinyl chlorides.
For ozone depleting substances, engine exhaust residue receptacles in
port are required.

Note: For the purposes of candidates for the Approved Engine Course, the
following information is a fundamental interpretation of MARPOL 73/78.

The basic interpretation of the Annex 1 for the requirements for control of
operational pollution under MARPOL 73/78 relates to the following:

The discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixtures from ships shall be prohibited
except when all the following conditions are satisfied:

1. The ship is not in a special area. (Special area means a sea area which
relates for technical reasons to its ocean graphical and ecological
condition).
2. The ship is proceeding en route.
3. The oil content of the effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 parts per
million.
4. Chemicals or other substances which are considered hazardous to the
marine environment should not be discharged into the sea.
5. Any oil residue which cannot be separated and the water content
discharged into the sea is to be retained onboard or discharged to
reception facilities.
6. Ships less than 100 tons gross tonnage are to be equipped as far as
practicable to retain on board oil or oily mixtures or the contents
discharged into reception facilities.
7. Any ship of 10,000 tons gross tonnage and above shall be provided with
oil filtering equipment. The oil filtering equipment is designed such that an
alarm which will automatically stop any discharge of oily mixture when the
oil content in the effluent exceeds 15 parts per million.

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The ship has in operation oil filtering equipment (namely Oily Water
Separator), with arrangements for an alarm for the automatic stopping of any
discharge of oily mixture when the oil content in the effluent exceeds 15 parts
per million. This equipment relates to ships of 100 tons gross but less than
10,000 tons gross.

Note: The above relates to ships of 100 tons gross tonnage and above other
than oil tankers.

12.2 The Oil Record Book

Any discharge of effluent through the oil filtering equipment is to be entered

into the Oil Record Book, outlining the quantity, time, and the area of
discharge. The Oil Record Book is provided on ships exceeding 100 tons
gross tonnage.

Entries found in the oil record book include:

Ballasting or cleaning of oil fuel tanks.

Discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from oil fuel tanks.
Collection and disposal of oily residues (sludge).
Automatic and non-automatic discharge overboard or disposal otherwise
of bilge water which has accumulated in machinery spaces.
Condition of oil discharge monitoring and control system (relating to the
failure of the system).
Accidental or other exceptional discharge of oil.
Bunkering of fuel or bulk lubricating oil.
Additional operational procedures and general remarks.

12.3. Pollution Response & Regulations

The plan on the following page gives a typical Emergency Oil Spill response
Plan, however this may vary considerably dependent on the type and size of
vessel.

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 Ships Oil Spill Emergency Procedure
When an Oil Spill occurs the following procedures are to be followed:

Sound Alarm Intermittent ringing of alarm bells.

Muster Crew Report to the after end of the Bridge Deck.

Response to Emergency O.P.P. Team to take appropriate action as necessary.

Oil Pollution Prevention Team

Master In overall charge on the Bridge. Ensure that contact is made with the
relevant authorities concerning the incident.

Chief Engineer Liaise with the Master on all technical aspects of the incident and carry
out any structural and mechanical damage inspection as necessary.
Responsible for bunkering and fuel oil transfer.
In charge at the scene of the incident. Oversee the Containment and
Cleansing operations.
st nd
1 Officer & 2 Engineer. Assist the Master and Chief Engineer as required.
Responsible for the ships stability and ballast operations.
Stop/Limit the discharge of oil by closing the appropriate valves and
pumps.
Plug the scuppers where practical to prevent oil flowing overboard.

Ratings. Assist the ships officers as required. Initiate procedures and contain the
spill using Hazardous Spill Response Kit.

12.4 Equipment Surveys

Every ship of 100 tons gross tonnage and above is subject to an initial survey
of the structure, equipment (oil filtering) systems, fittings, arrangements and
material. Subsequent surveys will follow at intervals not exceeding 5 years.

Annual surveys will also take place to ensure that the equipment and
associated pump and piping systems, including oil water separating
equipment, oil discharge monitoring and control systems are functioning
correctly and are in good working order.

On successful completion of these surveys an International Oil Pollution

Prevention Certificate (IOPP) will be issued.

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12.5 Prevention of Pollution by Garbage

The basic interpretation of the Annex V for the requirements for control of
operational pollution under MARPOL 73/78 relates to the following:

The interpretation of garbage refers to a wide range of waste which includes,

victual, domestic and operational waste generated during the normal the
operation of the ship were it is liable to be disposed of continuously or
periodically.

The garbage prohibited from disposal outside the special areas includes:

Plastics,synthetic ropes, fishing gear,Plastig garbage bags.

Incinerator ashes, clinkers, cooking oil, floating dunnage.
Lining and packing materials, paper, rags, glass, metal.
Bottles, crockery and similar refuse.

The following garbage may be disposed of as far as practical from land, but is
prohibited if the distance from the nearest land is less than:

1. 3 nautical miles for Food Waste ground or comminuted to less than 25mm.

2. 12 nautical miles for Food Waste not ground or comminuted to less than
25mm.

The above is a general guide, a more definitive overview refer to Fig 12.3
Summary of at Sea Garbage Disposal Regulations and in the Code of Safe
Working Practice for Seaman.

Reception Facilities

Most ports undertake to provide reception facilities for garbage.

Port State Control

A ship entering a port is subject to an inspection by the port authorities. These

inspections are to ensure that the master and crew are familiar with essential
shipboard procedures relating to the prevention of pollution by garbage.
Failure to understand the significance of the regulations may result in the port
authorities refusal to allow the ship to sail.

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Garbage Management Plan

Every ship of 12 metres or more in length overall shall display placards which
notify the crew and passengers of the disposal requirements.

Every ship of 100 tons gross tonnage and above, and every ship which is
certified to carry 15 persons or more must carry a garbage management plan
which the crew must follow. This plan will provide written procedures for
collecting, storing, processing and disposing of garbage, including the
equipment onboard. It will also designate the person authorised in carrying out
the plan. It must be written in the working language of the crew.

A Garbage Record Book must be provided and will give the following
information:

Each discharge or incinerated operation of garbage to be signed by the

officer in charge.
Each entry must give the date and time, position of ship and the
description of the garbage as well as the estimated amount of garbage.
The Garbage Record Book to be kept onboard the ship in such a place as
to be available for inspection.
In the event of a discharge, escape or accidental loss must be made in the
garbage Record Book.

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 SHIPS GARBAGE MANAGEMENT PLAN

Waste Areas Responsibility

Deck. Master.

Galley & Storerooms. Chief Steward.

Engine Room. Chief Engineer.

Type of Waste Receptacles

Food Black Polythene Bags deposited in Green
Receptacle Bins.

Deck Waste. Black Polythene Bags and Cardboard Boxes

deposited in Blue Receptacle Bins.

Engine Room Oil Waste to be contained and sealed in 205

litre Drums. All oil filters/oil rags and diesel
exhaust waste to be deposited in the Red
Receptacle Bins.

Waste Storage Areas

Engine Room.
Galley.
After Deck.
After Starboard Locker.

Removal

All waste to be removed during port visits.

All garbage removed must be recorded. Nothing must be discharged without notification and
permission from the Master.

All waste oil transfers must be entered in the Garbage Record Book.

Fig 12.2 Example of a Shipboard Garbage Management Plan.

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The plan depicted below summarises the garbage that may be disposed of
and the various restrictions relating to the special areas:

Fig 12.3 Summary of at Sea Garbage Disposal Regulations

184