A Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Training Manual For Historians and Historical Social Scientists

A Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Training Manual
for Historians and Historical Social Scientists
This work is provided as part of the project

J.B. Owens Understanding Social Networks within Complex,
Nonlinear Systems: Geographically-Integrated History
Anderson Sandes and Dynamics GIS [SOCNET], which is supported
Barbara Stephenson by the U.S. National Science Foundation under Grants
No.
0941371
and
No.
0941501.
Any
opinions,
ndings,
and
David Dixon conclusions or recommendations expressed in this training
Catherine Zajanc manual are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reect
the
views
of
the
National
Science
Foundation.
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A!Geographic!Information!Systems!(GIS)!
Training!Manual!
for!Historians!and!Historical!Social!Scientists!
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J.B.!Owens!
Anderson!Sandes!
Barbara!Stephenson!
David!Dixon!
Catherine!Zajanc!
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Copyright!Information!
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A"Geographic"Information"Systems"(GIS)"Training"Manual"for"Historians"and"Historical"
Social"Scientists!by!J.!B.!Owens,!Anderson!Sandes!et"al!is!licensed!under!a!Creative!
Commons!Attribution@NonCommercial@NoDerivs!3.0!Unported!License.!To!view!a!
copy!of!this!license,!visit!http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by@nc@sa/3.0/!or!send!a!
letter!to!Creative!Commons,!171!Second!Street,!Suite!300,!San!Francisco,!California,!
94105,!USA.!
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Based!on!a!work!at!http://idahostate.academia.edu/JBJackOwens/Books.!
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Permissions!beyond!the!scope!of!this!license!may!be!available!at!
http://geographicallyintegratedhistory.com!
or!http://www.isu.edu/history/!
or!from!J.!B.!Owens!(owenjack@isu.edu).!
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Dedicated!to!the!memory!of!Gary!L.!Watry!(1953@2008),!!
Center!for!Ocean@Atmospheric!Prediction!Studies!(COAPS),!!
Florida!State!University!(FSU)!
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Software!Requirements!
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The!software!used!in!this!training!manual!is!designed!to!run!on!a!Microsoft!Windows!
operating!system.!!
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Notes!on!Units!
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This!training!manual!uses!a!mixture!of!both!international!(SI)!units!and!English!units!
to! demonstrate! the! fact! that! both! are! supported! in! the! GIS! environment,! and! that! a!
user! can! move! between! unit! types! within! GIS.! It! is! expected! that! the! users! of! this!
material!will!come!from!both!types!of!backgrounds.!!
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Table!of!Contents!!
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.!INTRODUCTION! !!!1""
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!CHAPTER!1:!Geographically.Integrated!History! !!!5"!
! What!is!GIS?! !!!7!
! Advantages!of!GIS!for!Historians! !!!8!
!!!!!!!GIS!Software!Packages! !!!9!
! MapWindow!GIS?! !!!10!
! Things!to!know!about!using!a!GIS!program! !!!11!
! EXERCISE!1! !!!13!
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.CHAPTER!2:!Getting!Started!with!MapWindow!GIS! !!!22"!
! A!Few!Definitions! !!!22!
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.CHAPTER!3:!Datum!and!Map!Projection! !!!40"!
! Basics!of!Map!Projection! !!!41!
! Cylindrical,!Conical,!and!Azimuthal!Projections! !!!42!
!!!!!!!Other!Types!of!Datums! !!!45!
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.CHAPTER!4:!Cartography! !!!58"!
! Elements!of!a!Map! !!!58!
! Layout!and!Planning! !!!60!
!!!!!!!Lettering! !!!62!
! Color! !!!63!
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.CHAPTER!5:!Symbology!and!Data!Management! !!!76"!
! Symbology! !!!76!
! Adding!Data!to!a!GIS! !!!83!
!!!!!!!Creating!a!New!Shapefile! !!!84!
! Editing!a!Shapefile! !!!87!
! Attribute!Tables! !!!89!
!!!!!!!Adding!a!Field! !!!92!
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.CHAPTER!6:!Basic!Spatial!Analysis!!!!!!hjjj!..!!! ...105"!
! Geocoding! !!!105!
! How!to!Find!X,!Y!Coordinates! !!!109!
!!!!!!!Clipping! !!!110!
! Adding!and!Moving!Vertices! !!!112!
! Buffering,!Querying,!and!Intersecting! !!!112!
!!!!!!!Conclusion! !!!117!
! EXERCISE!6! !!!118!
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.CHAPTER!7:!Data!Normalization! ..!135"!
! Classification!Breaks! !!!142!
! Conclusion! !!!143!
! EXERCISE!7! !!!144!
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.CHAPTER!8:!From!a!Paper!Historical!Map!to!a!Digital!One! .!!151"!
! Scanning! !!!152!
! Georeferencing!with!MapWindow! !!!152!
!!!!!!!Challenges!and!Limitations! !!!153!
! EXERCISE!8! !!!156!
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.CHAPTER!9:!Digitizing!!..!!! ...174"!
! How!Historians!Use!Digitizing!in!Their!Research! !!!176!
! Additional!Tools!Related!to!Digitizing! !!!177!
! EXERCISE!9! !!!178!
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.CHAPTER!10:!Raster!Data! !!!196"!
! How!is!Raster!Data!Used!by!Historians!and!Historical!Social!Scientists?! !!!197!
! Digital!Elevation!Models! !!!198!
!!!!!!!Aerial!Photography! !!!199!
! Raster!Data!vs.!Vector!Data:!A!Comparison! !!!200!
! EXERCISE!10! !!!202!
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.CHAPTER!11:!ArcGIS!Tutorials! !!!213"!
! Introduction! !!!213!
! TUTORIAL!I! !!!219!
!!!!!!!TUTORIAL!II! !!!242!
!!!!!!!TUTORIAL!III! !!!260!
!!!!!!!TUTORIAL!IV! !!!289!
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.REFERENCES!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.312.!
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.GLOSSARY:!Commonly!Used!Terms! !!!316!
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INTRODUCTION)
The" idea" for" this" geographic" information" systems" (GIS)" training" manual" for" historians"
and"historical"social"scientists"emerged"during"the"creation"of"the"innovative,"GIS=based"
masters"program"in"history"at"Idaho"State"University"(ISU).1"Many"historians"who"were"
interested" in" the" application" of" GIS" to" their" research" and" teaching" were" nonetheless"
intimidated" by" the" steep" learning" curve" they" faced" to" master" the" software" and" by" the"
potential" costs." We" have" prepared" the" following" chapters" and" exercises" to" provide" an"
accessible" introduction" to" GIS" for" novices." Moreover," until" readers" reach" some" more"
advanced" chapters" at" the" end," all" of" the" exercises" use" MapWindow" GIS"
(http://www.MapWindow.org/)," which" is" a" free," open" source" product" available" for"
download" without" cost" by" anyone." The" direct" inspiration" for" creating" this" book" came"
from" the" use" of" an" earlier" MapWindow" tutorial," G." L." Watry," and" D." P." Ames," D." P."
(2007)," A" practical" look" at" MapWindow" GIS" (US," UK" &" CA:" lulu.com)." Gary" Watry" died"
shortly"after"the"publication"of"this"guide,"and"we"dedicate"this"training"manual"to"his"
memory."
)
We" have" based" the" final" four" tutorials" of" the" book" on" the" use" of" ArcGIS," the" major"
product"of"ESRI"(www.esri.com),"one"of"the"pioneering"companies"in"the"development"
of"GIS."For"many"of"the"things"that"historians"and"historical"social"scientists"will"want"to"
do"with"GIS,"MapWindow"is"too"limited."For"example,"the"MapWindow"software"does"
not" support" professional" quality" cartographic" visualizations." Therefore," once"
researchers"and"teachers"have"mastered"the"basics"of"GIS,"they"will"want"to"transition"to"
ArcGIS." When" they" become" part" of" the" ArcGIS" community," this" group" of" users" will"
have"access"to"a"variety"of"resources."It"is"true"that"ArcGIS"is"quite"expensive,"but"many"
institutions" already" have" site" licenses" for" the" software," which" make" its" use" free" for"
individuals."Also,"ESRI"has"available"several"programs"that"support"the"educational"use"
of" the" software." ESRI" provides" a" rich" learning" environment" for" ArcGIS" users," both"
online" and" during" the" huge" users" convention," which" is" held" every" year" in" July."
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1 "J."B."Owens"and"Laura"Woodworth=Ney,"Envisioning"a"masters"degree"program"in"geographically=
integrated"history,"Journal"of"the"Association"for"History"and"Computing"8/2"(September"2005)"
[http://mcel.pacificu.edu/jahc/2005/issue2/articles/owenswoodworth.php];"Idaho"State"University"
Creates"Innovative"Program"in"History"and"GIS,"ArcNews"(Fall"2005)"
[http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/fall05articles/idaho=state=univ.html,"accessed"19"August"2013]."J."B."
Owens,"Graduate"Education"in"Geographically=Integrated"History:"A"Personal"Account,"Journal"of"the"
Association"for"History"and"Computing"13/1"(May"2010)"[http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.3310410.0013.105;"
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text=idx?c=jahc;view=text;rgn=main;idno=3310410.0013.105,"accessed"
2"May"2014]."
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! 1"
Although"this"convention"is"also"expensive"in"terms"of"individual"registration,"there"is"a"
research"segment"that"permits"the"presentation"of"papers"about"historical"research"using"
ArcGIS," which" may" encourage" institutions" to" subsidize" the" cost" of" attending" the"
meetings."
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Note" that" we" have" tied" the" exercises" in" the" first" ten" chapters" to" a" stable" version" of"
MapWindow" GIS." However," we" could" not" design" the" final" four" exercises" to" include" a"
stable"version"of"ArcGIS"10.x,"which"means"that"users"of"this"training"manual"may"note"
some"slight"differences"in"the"exercise"procedures."
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The" creation" of" this" training" manual" was" proposed" as" part" of" the" collaborative" project"
Understanding"Social"Networks"within"Complex,"Nonlinear"Systems:"Geographically=
Integrated" History" and" Dynamics" GIS" [SOCNET]," which" is" supported" by" the" U.S."
National" Science" Foundation" under" Grants" No." 0941371" ($1,290.704;" lead" project"
Principal" Investigator" Dr." J." B." Owens," Idaho" State" University)" and" No." 0941501"
($471,193;" Principal" Investigator" Dr." May" Yuan," University" of" Oklahoma)," for" a" total"
award" of" $1,761,897." The" project" was" funded" through" an" NSF" program" called" Cyber=
Enabled" Discovery" and" Innovation" (CDI)." CDI" had" three" themes," all" of" which" are"
relevant"to"the"SOCNET"project:"Data"to"Knowledge,"Understanding"Complex"Systems,"
and"Virtual"Organizations."For"us,"GIS"is"a"key,"integrative"tool"for"moving"from"data"to"
knowledge"and"for"understanding"dynamic"complexity.""
"
However,"the"available"commercial"GIS"software"products"do"not"serve"historians"well"
because"they"do"not"lend"themselves"easily"to"dealing"with"time.2"We"are"historians"who"
assert" that" narrative" is" a" distinct" and" valuable" source" of" knowledge." To" achieve"
narrative" knowledge," we" wanted" a" GIS" that" would" allow" us" to" produce" more"
complicated" narratives" than" historians" have" been" capable" of" creating:" narratives" that"
pay"attention"simultaneously"to"activities,"events,"and"processes"while"coupling"natural"
and" human" systems." In" order" to" create" narratives" that" help" us" understand" complex"
systems," potentially" at" a" global" scale," we" needed" to" encourage" more" historians" and"
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2 "J."B."Owens,"What"historians"want"from"GIS,"ArcNews"29/2"(summer"2007):"4=6,"and"
http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/summer07articles/what=historians=want.html,"accessed"on"19"August"
2013;"J."B."Owens,"Historical"Studies,"GIS"for."In"Karen"Kemp"(ed.),"Encyclopedia"of"Geographic"Information"
Science"(Thousand"Oaks,"California:"Sage,"2008),"pp."220=21;"May"Yuan,"Dynamics"GIS:"recognizing"the"
dynamic"nature"of"reality,"ArcNews"30/1"(spring"2008):"1,"4=5,"and"
http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/spring08articles/dynamics=gis.html,"accessed"on"19"August"2013."
"
! 2"
historical" social" scientists" to" organize" their" information" within" a" GIS" software"
environment.3"What"did"we"want"to"do?"
"
There" is" a" long" tradition," especially" in" the" disciplines" of" geography" and" history," of"
research" done" by" those" who" wish" to" combine" somehow" historical" developments" and"
geography," but" the" results" present" a" confusing" picture.4" In" order" to" provide" a" more"
coherent" framework" for" the" practitioners" in" this" area," Owens" followed" a" suggestion"
attributed"to"Albert"Einstein:"Problems"cannot"be"solved"by"the"same"level"of"thinking"
that"created"them."He"created"an"integrative"paradigm,"which"he"calls"Geographically6
Integrated) History," to" get" to" a" higher" level" of" thought" about" the" relationships" of"
geography" and" history." As" an" interdisciplinary" research" and" teaching" strategy,"
Geographically=Integrated" History" is" founded" on" the" idea" that" the" understanding" of"
historical" processes" requires" an" integration" of" the" natural," social," and" cultural"
environments"on"the"basis"of"place,"space,"and"time,"and"accomplishing"this"integration"
poses"a"challenge"that"can"be"met"with"modern"computational"tools,"especially"dynamic"
forms" of" GIS" and" social" network" analysis," and" visualization" techniques." Three"
components" define" the" Geographically=Integrated" History" integrative" paradigm:" (1)"
Historical"periods"are"complex,"dynamic,"nonlinear"systems"that"are"spatially"large,"and"
in" more" recent" centuries," global" in" extension," and" these" systems" sometimes" become"
unstable," leading" to" a" phase" transition," bifurcation," and" the" organization" of" new"
systems." (2)" Within" such" systems," people" and" places" are" connected" by" self=organizing"
networks,"which"are"the"sources"of"innovation"and"the"emergence"of"new"forms."And"(3)"
the"history"of"any"place"is"shaped"in"significant"ways"by"the"way"the"place"is"connected"
to"other"places"and"by"the"changes"in"these"connections"over"time.""
"
This" paradigm" has" important" implications" for" the" way" that" historians" frame" their"
research"questions,"for"the"methodologies"they"use"in"their"work,"and"for"the"way"that"
historical" processes" and" periods" are" defined." For" example," the" nonlinear" dynamics" of"
complex" systems" permits" only" limited" predictability," which" means" that" attempts" to"
string" together" long" causal" chains" probably" do" a" poor" job" of" representing" historical"
processes."The"SOCNET"project"focuses"on"the"First"Global"Age,"roughly"1400=1800,"as"a"
system"because"there"was"a"phase"transition"at"the"end"of"this"period,"which"means"that"
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3"J."B."Owens,"nToward"a"geographically=integrated,"connected"world"history:"Employing"geographic"
information"systems"(GIS),n"History"Compass"5/6"(October"2007):"2014=2040;"doi:"10.1111/j.1478=
0542.2007.00476.x."
4"Alan"R."H."Baker"is"particularly"good"at"surveying"this"variety."See,"A.R.H"Baker,"Reflections"on"the"
relations"of"historical"geography"and"the"Annales"School"of"history."In"S."Clark"(ed.),"The"Annales"School:"
critical"assessments;"vol.II"(London:"Routledge,"1999),"96=129;"A."R.H."Baker,"On"the"Relations"of"History"
and"Geography,"Historically"Speaking"5/6"(July/August"2004):"27=29;"A."R."H."Baker,"Geography"and"History:"
Bridging"the"Divide"(Cambridge:"Cambridge"University"Press,"2003).
! 3"
historians"can"say"something"important"about"aspects"of"this"human"system"that"cannot"
be"dealt"with"well"by"research"on"contemporary"scenarios."But"we"are"products"of"the"
cultural"and"social"environments"of"a"different"system"and,"therefore,"we"have"difficulty"
understanding" the" ideas" and" actions" of" people" who" lived" in" an" earlier" historic" period,"
even" when" they" used" our" language" and" employed" conceptual" terms" that" appear"
familiar."
"
In"order"to"explore"these"themes,"we"must"have"a"lot"more"qualitative"and"quantitative"
information" organized" for" analysis" using" GIS." Therefore," one" of" the" main" goals" of" this"
GIS" training" manual" for" historians" and" historical" social" scientists" is" to" encourage" you,"
the"researchers,"to"produce"such"data."It"will"also"be"important"that"you"volunteer"your"
data"sets"to"major"repositories"for"such"resources."
"
Of" course," it" will" not" be" sufficient" to" have" a" bunch" of" user=generated" information" in"
central" repositories." We" will" need" some" way" to" integrate" this" information." This"
integration"will"not"be"an"easy"task"because"the"data"sets"will"have"been"created"on"the"
basis" of" different" organizational" schemes" and" ontologies." Therefore," a" portion" of" our"
future" research" will" concentrate" on" how" user=generated" content" can" be" evaluated" and"
integrated"efficiently."
"
My" coauthor" Anderson" Sandes" is" unusual" among" researchers" in" the" discipline" this"
training" manual" promotes" because" he" holds" graduate" degrees" in" both" geographic"
information" science" and" history" (M.A." in" Historical" Resources" Management;" M.S." in"
Geographic"Information"Science)."He"is"the"author"of"all"of"the"exercises,"and"he"used"his"
considerable" skill" as" a" technical" writer" to" create" an" attractive" and" clear" final" product."
Until"she"left"the"project"in"the"summer"of"2013,"much"of"the"manuals"organization"was"
done" by" Dr." Barbara" Stephenson," who" served" as" the" postdoctoral" researcher" for" the"
SOCNET"project"at"Idaho"State"University."She"was"ably"assisted"by"David"Dixon"(M.A."
in" Historical" Resources" Management)" and" Catherine" Zajanc" (M.S." in" Geographic"
Information" Science)," who" worked" as" research" assistants" for" the" project" and" wrote"
important"sections"of"several"chapters."Dr."Daniel"P."Ames,"director"of"MapWindow"GIS"
and" now" at" Brigham" Young" University," provided" us" with" important" advice." We" also"
learned"much"from"Dr."Sarah"Hinman,"now"of"the"social"sciences"department"of"Leiden"
University" College," The" Hague," and" Keith" T." Weber," founding" director" of" the" Idaho"
State"University"GIS"Training"and"Research"Center."I"express"my"personal"appreciation"
for"all"of"this"assistance."
"
J."B."Owens,"Ph.D."
Research"Professor"of"Geographically=Integrated"History"
Idaho"State"University"
! 4"
CHAPTER(1:(Geographically!Integrated)History"
With" this" training" manual" we" will" show" how" using" GIS" (geographic" information"
systems)" can" contribute" to" historical" studies," and" we" will" provide" novice" users" with" a"
structured"tutorial"that"will"allow"them"to"learn"GIS."To"make"learning"GIS"as"accessible"
as" possible" for" historians" and" historical" social" scientists," the" first" ten" chapters" of" this"
book"are"based"on"MapWindow"GIS,"a"free,"openCsource"program."This"instruction"will"
teach"the"basic"techniques."However,"once"historians"have"gotten"this"far"in"their"use"of"
GIS," they" will" need" to" make" a" transition" to" a" more" advanced" software" package,"
especially" for" the" production" of" sophisticated" cartographic" visualizations." Therefore,"
this" training" manual" will" close" with" four" exercises" based" on" the" use" of" ArcGIS" 10.x,"
produced"by"the"company"ESRI.""
"
The"use"of"GIS"for"historical"research"has"often"been"referred"to"as"historical"GIS"(HGIS)."
We" prefer" the" term" geographicallyCintegrated" history" to" avoid" narrowing" the" list" of"
subjects"that"can"be"treated"in"this"fashion,"as"HGIS"has"sometimes"done."For"us,"GIS"is"
the" major" tool" for" a" necessary" integration" of" place," space," and" time." GeographicallyC
integrated"history"has"developed"over"the"past"few"decades"in"order"to"incorporate"the"
spatial"and"temporal"elements"of"history"in"a"more"sophisticated"manner."By"providing"
a" spatioCtemporal" component" to" historical" research," geographicallyCintegrated" history"
can"do"much"to"further"research"and"analysis."The"leader"of"the"project"to"produce"this"
manual,"J."B."Owens,"has"explained"elsewhere"how"he"came"to"use"GIS.1"While"Owens"
was" not" the" first" to" incorporate" GIS" into" historical" research," his" story" is" illustrative" of"
how"doing"so"contributes"to"historical"studies"by"providing"a"visual"means"of"analyzing"
complicated"information."Owens"also"recognized"that"GIS"could"play"an"important"role"
in"changing"how"the"discipline"of"history"incorporates"new"technology,"leading"him"to"
focus"on"projects"of"a"much"broader"scale."GIS"allows"scholars"to"work"with"much"larger"
quantities" of" data" than" in" preCsoftware" days," which" in" turn" permits" one" to" ask," and"
answer," much" broader" questions." Historians" and" historical" social" scientists" studying"
many" different" regions" and" topics" have" found" using" GIS" helpful" with" their"
methodology.""
"
1"J."B."Owens,"What"historians"want"from"GIS,"ArcNews"29/2"(summer"2007):"4C6,"and""
http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/summer07articles/whatChistoriansCwant.html,"accessed"on"19"August"
2013,"and"J."B."Owens,"What"Historians"Want"from"GIS,"in"GIS+Best+Practices:+Essays+on+Geography+and+
GIS+(Redlands,"California:"ESRI,"2008),"35C46,"and"http://www.esri.com/library/bestpractices/essaysConC
geographyCgis.pdf,"accessed"on"24"September"2013;"J."B."Owens,"Toward"a"GeographicallyCIntegrated,"
Connected"World"History:"Employing"Geographic"Information"Systems"(GIS),"History+Compass"5/6"
(2007):"2014C2040.""
5"
All" human" interactions," with" others" or" with" their" environment," have" inherent" spatial"
characteristics," although" this" is" often" implicit" in" historical" work" rather" than" explicitly"
addressed."But"understanding"the"geographical"space"in"which"human"history"occurred"
is"an"important"part"of"understanding"that"history,"and"GIS"allows"historians"to"fill"in"
that" gap." Historian" Loren" Siebert" pointed" out" why" the" geographic" component" of"
historical"studies"is"so"important."
"
There"is"a"simple,"twoCpart"answer."First,"humans"are"spatial"beings."Individuals,"
groups," and" institutions" exist" and" interact" in" natural" and" human" environments"
that" occupy" space" over" time." Human" history" necessarily" includes" a" spatial"
dimension," which" historians" often" overlook." Second," geographic" information"
systems"are"designed"to"record"spatial"features"and"related"information,"display"
them," and" analyze" their" conditions" and" spatial" relationships." These" capacities"
enable"spatial"historical"research"and"extend"its"analytical"reach.2"
"
For"these"reasons,"Siebert"used"GIS"as"part"of"his"methodology"in"his"spatial"history"of"
Tokyo."He"selected"which"sources"to"use"based"on"interest,"availability,"and"how"well"a"
GIS" program" handled" the" data," among" other" factors." The" resulting" sources" came" from"
topographic" maps," census" maps," census" information," corporate" histories," planning"
reports"and"maps,"and"agency"records."These"data"were"harvested"to"obtain"information"
regarding" transportation," land" ownership," land" use," commercial" and" industrial"
activities,"governmental"boundaries,"economic"conditions,"and"other"features.3""He"then"
used"this"data"to"create"an"electronic"historical"atlas"that"can"be"queried"and"used"for"
analysis. 4 "Although" entering" all" the" data" into" a" GIS" was" timeCintensive," Siebert"
described" the" advantages" of" GIS" for" an" historian:" By" linking" historical" spatial"
information" to" corresponding" geographic" features" in" a" computerized" cartographic"
database," geographic" information" systems" make" it" possible" to" record," display," and"
evaluate" relationships" between" types" of" information" that" were" in" hardCtoCcompare"
formats"or"spread"over"many"sequential"historical"maps.5"The"resulting"map"provides"a"
visual"reference"that"can"more"easily"convey"the"complicated"relationships"between"the"
data."
"
2"Loren"Siebert,"Using"GIS"to"Document,"Visualize,"and"Interpret"Tokyos"Spatial"History,"Social+Science+
History"24/"3"(2000):""538."
3"Ibid.,"552C553."
4"Ibid.,"541."
5"Ibid.,"538."
6
What"is"GIS?"
In" her" introduction" to" an" issue" of" Social+ Science+ History" devoted" to" Historical" GIS,"
geographer"Anne"Kelly"Knowles"defined"GIS"as"a"spatial"database"that"integrates"mapC
based" information" about" the" historical" location" of" certain" entities" (such" as" census"
districts," industrial" firms," or" rivers)" with" quantitative" or" qualitative" information" about"
those"entities"(such"as"population,"product,"or"level"of"pollution).6"Delineating"between"
GIS"and"Historical"GIS,"Knowles"maintained"that"the"key"difference"between"historical"
GIS"and"the"vast"majority"of"GIS"practiced"today"is"that"its"source"data"typically"include"
archival"material"that"must"be"converted"from"analog"to"digital"form.7"Perhaps"because"
of" these" reasons," Ian" Gregory," a" Senior" Lecturer" in" Digital" Humanities" at" Lancaster"
University,"and"Richard"Healey,"a"Geography"professor"at"the"University"of"Portsmouth,"
defined" GIS" as" a" database" technology" rather" than" a" software" primarily" concerned"
with"mapping:"
"
" A"GIS"is"a"specialized"form"of"database"because"each"item"of"data,"be"it"a"row"of"
statistics," a" string" of" text," an" image," or" a" movie," is" linked" to" a" coordinateCbased"
representation" of" the" location" that" the" data" refer" to." Thus," GIS" combines" spatial+
data" in" the" form" of" points," lines," polygons," or" grid" cells," with" the" attribute+ data"
held" in" conventional" database" form." This" provides" a" structure" that" is" able" to"
answer" queries" not" only" about" what+features" are" in" the" database," but" also" where"
they"are"located."This"is"what"makes"a"GIS"unique."8"
"
More" recently," Gregory" and" Paul" Ell," Director" of" the" Centre" for" Data" Digitisation" and"
Analysis" in" the" School" of" Geography," Archeology" and" Palaeoecology" at" Queens"
University"in"Belfast,"stated"that"in"simplest"terms,"GIS"is"a"type"of"software,"but"argued"
that" historians" should" think" of" it" not" as" a" type" of" software" but" as" tools" that" software"
offers. 9 "In" this" context," they" defined" GIS" using" Englands" Department" of" the"
Environment" definition:" [a]" system" for" capturing," storing," checking," integrating,"
manipulating," analysing" and" displaying" data" which" are" spatially" referenced" to" the"
Earth.10"There" are" now" many" examples" of" how" geographicallyCintegrated" history" has"
6"Anne"Kelly"Knowles,"Introduction,"Social+Science+History"24/3"(Fall"2000):"452."
7"Ibid."
8"Ian"N."Gregory"and"Richard"G."Healey,"Historical"GIS:"Structuring,"Mapping,"and"Analysing"
Geographies"of"the"Past,"Progress+in+Human+Geography"31/5"(2007):"638C9."
9"Ian"N."Gregory"and"Paul"S."Ell,"Historical+GIS:+Technologies,+Methodologies+and+Scholarship"(Cambridge:"
Cambridge"University"Press,"2007):"3."
10"Department"of"the"Environment,"Handling+Geographic+Information:+Report+of+the+Committee+of+Enquiry+
Chaired+by+Lord+Chorley+HMSO"(London,"1987),"quoted"in"Gregory"and"Ell,"Historical+GIS,"3C4.""
7"
been" used" to" enhance" historical" research" and" visualize" historical" information" in" new"
ways.11""
"
Advantages"of"GIS"for"Historians"
With" these" definitions" in" mind," what" can" GIS" do" for" historians?" Fiona" Black," Bertrum"
MacDonald,"and"J."Malcom"Black"emphasized"the"context"a"GIS"project"can"provide"by"
collecting"various"types"of"data"into"an"appropriate"location"in"time"and"space.12"Some"
of" these" data" include" numerical," textual," and" visual" sources." Highlighting" the" specific"
areas"in"which"GIS"can"assist"book"historians,"the"authors"noted"that"
"
GIS" technology" offers" book" historians" the" opportunity" to" visualize," synthesize,"
and"analyze"a"wide"array"of"relevant"demographic,"economic,"and"bibliographic"
variables" from" disparate" source" databases." Numerous" possibilities" exist" for"
creating"new"knowledge"or"at"least"examining"more"broadly"some"of"the"issues"
that" concern" us:" for" example," literacy" rates" affecting" the" numbers" of" readers;"
numbers" of" readers" affecting" the" markets" perceived" by" booksellers" and"
publishers;"and"national"or"ethnic"background"of"settlers"affecting"the"perception"
of"the"importance"of"education"and"print"culture"generally."Data"relating"to"all"of"
these"factors"have"been"or"will"be"put"into"database"format"by"scholars,"whether"
or"not"they"are"yet"thinking"of"GIS"as"an"analytical"tool.13"
"
Gregory"and"Ell"pointed"out"that"another"advantage"of"GIS"for"historians"is"that"it"can"
challenge" existing" theories" or" orthodoxies. 14 "Geoff" Cunfers" On+ the+ Great+ Plains:+
Agriculture+ and+ Environment" provides" a" good" example" of" how" this" can" be" done. 15"
Discussing"the"recent"historiography"on"the"interactions"between"people"and"the"land"in"
the"Great"Plains"area,"Cunfer"explained"that"most"historians"have"been"fairly"pessimistic"
about" how" humans" have" treated" nature," citing" the" work" of" Donald" Worster" in"
particular. 16 "In" Dust+ Bowl:+ The+ Southern+ Plains+ in+ the+ 1930s, 17 "Worster" argued" that"
capitalist" forces" drove" farmers" beyond" ecological" sustainability." Cunfers" analysis"
11"For"a"robust"list"of"historical"studies"which"incorporate"GIS,"see"
http://www.hgis.org.uk/bibliography.htm,"accessed"on"24"September"2013."
12"Fiona"A."Black,"Bertrum"H."MacDonald,"and"J."Malcom"W."Black,"Geographic"Information"Systems:"A"
New"Research"method"for"Book"History,"Book+History"1/1"(1998):11.""
13"Ibid.,"18.""
14"Gregory"and"Ell,"Historical+GIS,"16."
15"Geoff"Cunfer,"On+the+Great+Plains:+Agriculture+and+Environment"(College"Station:"Texas"A&M"University"
Press,"2005),"9."
16"Ibid."
17"Donald"Worster,"Dust+Bowl:+The+Southern+Plains+in+the+1930s"(New"York:"Oxford"University"Press,"2004"
[1979])."
8
provided" a" much" more" complicated" explanation," however." His" book" propose[d]" that"
the" interaction" between" people" and" the" rest" of" nature" is" much" more" complex" and"
ambiguous"than"either"a"progressive"or"a"declensionist"narrative"allows.18"Cunfer"wove"
together" data" from" several" decades" and" sources," interpolating" them" in" a" GIS." In"
particular,"he"used"population"data,"soil"data,"climate"data,"agricultural"data,"and"map"
data" in" his" analysis" of" the" Dust" Bowl.19"On+ the+ Great+ Plains" also" demonstrates" the" vast"
amount"of"data"a"GIS"can"handle,"which"makes"possible"projects"that"are"much"larger"in"
scope"than"would"be"feasible"without"this"software."
"
Any"historian"can"benefit"from"using"GIS,"regardless"of"field"or"sources,"because"of"its"
incorporation"of"both"quantitative"and"qualitative"data,"which"reintroduces"the"spatial"
component" of" the" human" past." For" example," the" jurisdictional" territory" of" a" sixteenthC
century" French" court" can" be" roughly" determined" by" using" the" town" names" given" in"
court"records"over"the"span"of"one"monarchs"reign."Or"the"migration"of"population"in"
the"late"twentiethCcentury"United"States"can"be"plotted"by"using"federal"and"state"census"
records." The" rise" and" fall" of" the" Atlantic" slave" trade" can" be" mapped" from" the" African"
ports"that"were"sources"for"slaves,"through"the"various"ports"of"call"across"the"Caribbean,"
to"the"important"slavery"depots"of"North"America."Church"records"can"be"used"to"track"
the" spread" of" Protestantism" across" communities" or" of" Christianity" across" the" New"
World."These"are"just"a"few"of"the"many"types"of"project"for"which"GIS"can"be"used"to"
help"visualize"and"answer"common"historical"research"questions."
"
GIS"Software"Packages"
Now"that"we"have"provided"a"little"background"on"how"historians"can"and"have"used"
GIS,"we"will"consider"some"of"the"GIS"programs"available."There"are"many"openCsource"
and" commercial" GIS" programs,20"which" have" different" strengths" and" weaknesses." The"
most"popular"commercial"GIS"software"is"ArcGIS"from"ESRI,"a"company"that"develops"
GIS" products" and" services" and" which" has" played" a" crucial" role" in" setting" industry"
standards."This"software"not"only"allows"for"data"management"and"analysis"regarding"
geographic" places," but" has" the" potential" for" map" visualization" in" 2D" as" well" as" 3D."
Model"Builder"within"ArcGIS"allows"a"user"to"run"a"series"of"tools"on"an"area"of"a"map"
and"then"apply"those"same"tools"to"other"geographic"locations"on"the"map."ArcGIS"also"
provides" products" such" as" developer" tools," mobile" GIS," and" servers" for" GIS." Many"
government" agencies" and" private" corporations" employ" ArcGIS" for" uses" such" as"
18"Cunfer"2005,"10."
19"Ibid.,"241C262."
20"OpenCsource"programs"are"ones"that"are"not"only"free,"but"allow"the"user"to"access"the"actual"program"
source"code."This"means"that"computerCsavvy"users"can"write"their"own"functions"to"customize"the"
program"to"better"suit"their"needs."
9"
conservation,"land"development,"and"education."However,"there"are"several"drawbacks"
to" ArcGIS," including" its" steep" learning" curve," high" price" (around" $3,000.00)," and" the"
copyright"issues"inherent"in"nonCopen"source"software."
"
Google" Earth" is" a" free" program" that" depicts" a" virtual" globe," with" geographical" and"
mapping" information," although" it" is" not" a" complete" GIS" program." The" free" version"
provides" limited" functionality," although" Google" Earth" Pro" can" be" purchased" and" does"
provide" more" functions." Google" Earth" uses" satellite" images" to" offer" impeccable" 3D"
images"of"the"Earth,"but"it"is"difficult"to"add"data"to"those"images."Therefore,"its"biggest"
drawback"is"the"inability"to"use"it"to"generate"customized"maps"for"data"analysis."
"
Wikimapia"is"similar"to"Google"Maps"in"that"it"is"an"online"map"and"satellite"imagery"
site."However,"it"also"allows"users"to"add"information,"such"as"notes"or"pictures,"to"any"
location."Users"can"also"add"features"such"as"roads"and"rivers."Thus,"Wikimapia"offers"a"
bit" more" functionality" than" Google" Earth." Both" of" these" programs" allow" one" to" locate"
specific" points" on" the" globe," but" do" not" allow" for" the" user" to" enter" qualitative" data" or"
create" a" map" using" that" data," making" them" unsuitable" for" any" sort" of" geographicallyC
integrated" history." There" are" many" other" commercial" and" openCsource" GIS" programs"
available." However," they" tend" to" fall" into" the" same" categories:" too" expensive" for"
educational"use,"or"too"limited"for"historical"data"analysis.""
"
MapWindow" GIS" is" an" open" source" program" that" offers" great" potential" for" historical"
geographic" data" analysis," and" it" is" free" for" all" users." However," due" to" the" complicated"
nature" of" fullyCfunctional" geographic" information" systems," which" is" their" greatest"
benefit," there" is" a" steep" learning" curve" a" user" must" overcome" to" employ" any" of" these"
programs." Our" goal" with" this" training" manual" is" to" help" users" manage" this" curve" by"
presenting" the" essential" concepts" and" techniques" of" MapWindow" GIS" in" ten" short"
chapters" with" handsCon" exercises." We" have" also" focused" only" on" those" aspects" of" GIS"
that"are"useful"for"historians"and"other"social"science"and"humanities"scholars,"omitting"
the" tools" designed" more" for" researchers" in" the" natural" sciences." We" hope" that" even" a"
busy" educator" or" a" class" of" interested" students" can" master" the" basics" of" GIS" in" one"
semester" by" completing" a" chapter" each" week," allowing" the" user" to" apply" GIS" to"
historical"source"materials."
"
What"is"MapWindow"GIS?"
MapWindow"GIS"is"an"openCsource"GIS"program"used"by"GIS"analysts,"technicians,"and"
programmers" worldwide." MapWindow" is" free" to" both" users" and" developers," and" the"
source"code"for"the"program"can"be"acquired"by"anyone"and"added"to"or"altered"to"suit"
their"purposes.""It"is"the"most"widely"used"openCsource"GIS"for"the"Windows"operating"
10
system," with" over" 6000" downloads" per" month" from" the" MapWindow" website,"
www.mapwindow.org." MapWindow" can" perform" many" of" the" same" tasks" as" a"
commercial" GIS" program," such" as" ArcGIS." Thus," MapWindow" provides" an" excellent"
opportunity"for"those"interested"in"learning"about"GIS"without"having"to"spend"money"
on"a"commercial"GIS"suite."The"exercise"for"this"chapter"will"be"to"download"and"install"
this"program."
"
Currently" there" are" two" versions" of" MapWindow." MapWindow" 4" is" a" highly" stable"
program"that"has"been"around"in"one"form"or"another"since"2005.""It"is"currently"in"stage"
4.8"of"development"and,"by"all"estimations,"will"continue"to"be"used"and"improved"upon"
for"years"to"come."MapWindow"6"was"released"in"its"later"testing"stages"in"the"spring"of"
2011." While" MapWindow" 6" represents" the" future" of" the" MapWindow" project,"
MapWindow" 4" was" chosen" for" this" manual" because" it" is" a" more" stable" version," and"
version" 6" is" still" being" debugged" and" developed." In" this" manual," we" will" be" using" the"
MapWindow" 4.8.6" release," which" we" will" make" available" along" with" the" training"
manual"itself."
"
Things"to"know"about"using"a"GIS"program"
File" organization" is" a" key" component" of" any" GIS" project." A" GIS" project" is" made" up" of"
several"files"of"different"types,"all"of"which"must"be"found"easily"by"the"software;"these"
files"are"automatically"generated"when"a"GIS"project"is"created"and"saved."Because"each"
GIS"project"is"made"up"of"many"files,"we"strongly+recommend"that"you"designate"a"folder"
on" your" computer" desktop" for" all" files" associated" with" MapWindow." This" will" ensure"
that"all"the"necessary"files"are"in"the"same"location"and"that"MapWindow"can"find"the"
necessary" files" as" you" work" on" a" project." As" you" work" through" the" exercises" in" this"
manual," you" should" create" a" new" subfolder" within" your" MapWindow" folder" for" each"
GIS"project"created"by"the"exercises."As"historians"are"well"aware,"managing"files"in"an"
organized" fashion" can" save" a" great" deal" of" time" on" a" project." This" organization" is"
particularly"important"because"of"the"timeCintensive"nature"of"a"GIS"project."Much"of"the"
time" that" goes" into" a" GIS" study" is" devoted" to" the" preparation" of" the" data" needed" for"
results.21"Many"scholars"estimate"that"as"much"as"80%"of"the"time"spent"on"a"project"will"
be" spent" on" data" preparation." If" data" must" be" processed" from" analog" to" digital" form,"
preparation"time"could"be"even"more"intensive."Moreover,"no"GIS"program"can"open"a"
project"unless"it"can"locate"all"of"the"affiliated"files,"which"must"be"in"the"same"location."
Therefore,"organization"in"GIS"is"vital"for"saving"time"and"for"overall"efficiency."
"
21 "Anne"Kelly"Knowles,"Introduction,"Social+Science+History"24/"3"(Fall"2000),"463.""
"
11"
Incorporating" historical" research" into" a" GIS" has" distinct" advantages." Converting,"
plugging"in,"and"analyzing"historical"data"can"lead"to"new"types"of"research"questions"
and" discoveries." MapWindow" GIS" provides" an" opportunity" for" historians" to" include" a"
powerful" geospatial" component" in" their" research" at" no" cost," unlike" commercial" GIS"
suites."Thus,"MapWindow"GIS"offers"much"to"historians"seeking"to"incorporate"a"better"
sense" of" time" and" space" in" their" research." In" this" first" exercise," you" will" learn" to"
download"MapWindow"GIS"to"your"personal"computer."The"next"chapter"will"focus"on"
some"of"the"nuts"and"bolts"of"GIS"and"will"show"you"one"of"the"ways"in"which"GIS"can"
deal"with"population"data.""
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12
EXERCISE!1"
Our"first"exercise"will"show"you"how"to"download"and"install"MapWindow"GIS"version"
4.8.6," so" that" you" can" become" familiarized" with" the" software" interface" before" learning"
how"to"use"the"program."
"
Task:""
Our" task" for" this" exercise" is" to" download" and" install" MapWindow," and" to" become"
familiarized"with"its"layout."
Step"1:""
Before"downloading"the"software,"you"should"close"any"other"programs"you"may"have"
running"on"your"computer,"such"as"MSWord."Open"your"browser"(Explorer,"Firefox,"
etc.),"and"go"to"http://www.mapwindow.org/downloads/MapWindowx86FullCv48FinalC
installer.exe."
Note:"
Rather"than"copying"and"pasting"the"URL"into"your"browser,"type"the"URL"described"in"
step" 1" into" your" browser," and" press" Enter." This" will" enable" you" to" download"
MapWindow"4.8.6."
"
We" caution" our" users" that" copying" any" URL" from" a" PDF" document" and" pasting" it"
directly"into"a"web"browser"might"lead"them"to"downloading"inaccurate"data.""
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13"
Step"2:"
When" the" download" is" finished," click" on" the" button" Run" to" install" MapWindow"
[Figure"1.1]."
"
"
Figure"1.1:"Download"Complete"message."
"
Note:""
If"you"are"running"Windows"7,"you"will"need"to"close"your"browser"once"the"download"
is"finished."There"will"now"be"a"MapWindow"icon"on"your"desktop"for"the"installation"
program."Click"on"this"icon"to"run"the"installation.""
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14
Step"3:""
Depending"on"your"version"of"Windows,"you"may"see"a"Security"Warning"stating"that"
it"might"not"be"safe"to"install"the"software"[Figure"1.2]."Disregard"this"warning"and"click"
on"the"Run"button.""
"
"
Figure"1.2:"Security"Warning."
Step"4:""
You"will"be"asked"to"select"the"setup"language"[Figure"1.3]."Select"the"language"of"your"
choice"and"then"click"on"OK."
"
"
Figure"1.3:"Select"Setup"Language."
"
15"
Step"5:""
The"final"step"is"the"MapWindow"GIS"Setup"Wizard"[Figure"1.4]."Click"on"Next."It"
may"take"a"few"seconds"for"the"following"screen"to"appear:"
"
"
Figure"1.4:"MapWindow"GIS"Setup"Wizard."
Step"6:""
The"MapWindows"License"Agreement"window"will"open"[Figure"1.5]."Choose"the"
option"I"accept"the"agreement"and"then"click"on"Next."
"
"
Figure"1.5:"License"Agreement."
"
16
Step"7:""
The"next"screen"will"show"some"information"describing"what"is"new"in"this"version"of"
MapWindow."Click"on"Next."
"
"
Figure"1.6:"What"is"new"in"MapWindow."
"
Step"8:""
Next," you" will" be" asked" if" you" would" like" to" donate" some" money" to" the" MapWindow"
project"[Figure"1.7]."Please"consider"helping"to"fund"the"MapWindow"project,"although"
you"are"under"no"obligation"to"do"so,"and"then"click"on"Next."
"
"
Figure"1.7:"Donate"to"MapWindow."
"
17"
Step"9:"
The"next"screen"will"ask"where"you"would"like"MapWindow"to"be"installed"[Figure"1.8]."
Click"on"Next"to"install"the"program"in"its"own"folder."
"
"
Figure"1.8:"Select"Destination"Location."
"
Step"10:""
You"will"now"be"asked"to"Select"components"to"be"installed"[Figure"1.9]."Choose"Full"
installation"and"click"on"Next."
"
"
Figure"1.9:"Select"Components"screen."
"
"
18
Step"11:"
After"the"selection"is"done,"you"will"be"asked"if"you"would"like"MapWindow"to"be"listed"
as"a"program"in"your"Start"Menu"[Figure"1.10]."If"you"would"like"MapWindow"to"be"
in"your"Start"Menu,"click"on"Next."If"you"do"not"want"a"shortcut"in"the"Start"Menu,"
select" the" box" in" the" bottom" left" marked" Dont" create" a" Start" Menu" folder" and" then"
click"on"Next."""
"
"
Figure"1.10:"Select"Start"Menu"Folder."
"
Step"12:"
Now" that" you" have" chosen" your" installation" options," you" are" ready" to" install"
MapWindow."Click"on"Install"to"begin"[Figure"1.11]:"
"
"
Figure"1.11:"Ready"to"Install"window."
19"
Step"13:""
You"will"see"the"Completing"the"MapWindow"GIS"Setup"Wizard"screen"[Figure"1.12]."
You"can"leave"all"three"options"selected,"or"just"choose"Start"MapWindow"GIS.""When""
you"have"chosen"your"options,"click"on"Finish."
"
"
Figure"1.12:"Completing"the"Setup"Wizard."
"
Step"14:""
MapWindow" will" open" and" you" should" see" the" MapWindow" main" page," with" the"
Welcome"to"MapWindow"screen"[Figure"1.13]."Close"the"Welcome"screen"and"take"
some"time"to"examine"the"software.""
"
"
Figure"1.13:"MapWindow"home"screen."
20
Step"15:""
After"you"close"the"Welcome"screen,"you"will"see"the"basic"MapWindow"screen."There"
are"some"aspects"of"this"screen"that"you"should"be"familiar"with."The"first"thing"to"know"
is"that"the"large"window"that"takes"up"most"of"the"screen"is"called"the"Map"pane."The"
smaller"window"on"the"upper"left"is"the"Legend"pane."This"pane"is"used"for"many"of"
the"basic"operations"in"MapWindow,"and"you"will"become"very"used"to"using"it."Below"
the" Legend" pane" is" the" Preview" pane." This" pane" is" not" used" very" often" for" our"
purposes,"although"it"is"good"for"you"to"recognize"what"and"where"it"is."
"
Step"16:""
You"should"feel"free"to"play"with"the"buttons"across"the"top"of"the"screen,"and"to"open"
the"dropCdown"menus."MapWindow"includes"some"sample"data"you"can"play"with,"if"
you"would"like."
"
"
Figure"1.14:"The"MapWindow"main"screen,"containing"the"Map,"Legend,"and"
Preview"panes."
"
Congratulations!" You" have" successfully" downloaded" and" installed" MapWindow" GIS."
You"are"now"ready"to"move"onto"Chapter"2,"which"will"teach"you"how"to"(1)"add"layers,"
(2)"change"layer"colors,"and"(3)"create"a"choropleth"map"of"the"United"States."
21"
CHAPTER(2:(Getting(Started(with(MapWindow(GIS(
Now"that"we"have"discussed"how"one"can"incorporate"GIS"into"historical"research,"we"
can" begin" to" explore" how" MapWindow" GIS" allows" the" user" to" synthesize" visual" and"
spatial" data" for" analysis." First," however," we" will" explain" a" few" basic" terms" in" order" to"
help"you"understand"how"GIS"programs"function."This"explanation"will"make"it"easier"
for"you"to"understand"how"the"software"is"used"and"to"complete"the"exercises"at"the"end"
of"each"chapter."
"
A(Few(Definitions(
It"is"important"to"understand"certain"terms"related"to"geographic"information"and"GIS"
before"starting"to"use"MapWindow."For"much"of"this"manual,"we"will"be"working"in"a"
vector( data( model." ( A" vector" data" model" uses" geographical" coordinates" to" represent"
spatial"data."The"spatial"data"are"represented"as"geometric"points,"lines,"and"polygons."
Points(in" GIS" have" no" size," area," or" width," though" a" symbol" for" a" point" does." A" point"
symbol"shows"a"vertex"at"which"the"lines"of"longitude((x)"and"latitude((y)"cross."Points"
allow"a"user"to"assign"a"precise"geographical"location"to"the"map"[Figure"2.1]."They"can"
represent"anything"from"cities"to"fire"hydrants,"to"deaths"caused"by"yellow"fever.""
"
Figure(2.1:(Port(Louis,(the(capital(of(Mauritius,(is(represented(as(a(point.(
(
Lines( are" made" up" of" a" series" of" vertices," or" connected" points," that" may" be"
representative"of"length,"but"typically"not"width"[Figure"2.2]."Lines"may"represent"rivers"
or"streets,"though"they"are"not"limited"to"these"things."(
! 22"
"
Figure(2.2:(The(Nile(River(is(depicted(by(a(line(composed(of(several(vertices(of(
coordinates,(represented(as(points.(
(
Polygons" are" a" group" of" connected" lines" and" are," therefore," shapes" that" represent" an"
area,"whether"that"area"is"geographical"or"political"in"nature"[Figure"2.3].""Examples"of"
polygons"are"states,"countries,"continents,"geographical"regions,"etc."A"complete"map"in"
GIS"is"composed"of"some"combination"of"points,"lines,"and"polygons,"all"of"which"can"be"
userMdefined"or"downloaded"from"various"online"libraries."
(
"
Figure(2.3:(Australia(is(an(example(of(a(polygon.(
"
These"various"types"of"geographic"data"are"portrayed"in"MapWindow"GIS"as"layers."A"
layer" in" GIS" represents" one" type" of" geographic" datum." In" other" words," using" layers" is"
similar"to"placing"several"overhead"projector"transparencies"over"each"other,"and"each"
layer"can"only"contain"one"type"of"information"(points,"lines,"or"polygons)."To"move"a"
! 23"
layer"on"top"of"another"layer,"the"user"can"click"and"drag"the"layer"name"to"the"desired"
location"in"the"Data"Layers"area"of"the"Legend(pane."The"Map(pane"is"where"the"data"
layers" are" drawn." Figure" 2.4" shows" a" map" of" the" United" States" made" up" of" a" polygon"
layer"containing"the"states,"a"line"layer"of"the"rivers,"and"a"point"layer"with"city"data."
(
(
Figure(2.4:(A(map(of(the(U.S.(with(layers(stacked(on(top(of(one(another.(
"
Along" with" points," lines," and" polygons," vector" data" can" store" attributes" that" are"
associated" with" specific" coordinates." Attributes" in" a" GIS" could" be" names," population"
information," homes," crops," or" any" number" of" things." An" example" of" attribute" data" is"
seen"in"Figure"2.5."In"this"example,"we"can"see"the"attributes"listed"for"various"countries,"
including" cities," country" name," geographical" subMregion," geographical" region," and"
capital"cities."
"
! 24"
(
Figure(2.5:(An(attribute(table(in(MapWindow(GIS.(
"
The" process" of" viewing," creating," and" using" various" kinds" of" symbols" in" GIS" is" called"
symbology."At"the"end"of"the"chapter,"the"exercise"will"teach"you"how"to"use"symbology"
tools"to"create"a"choropleth(map."A"choropleth"map"is"a"thematic"map"in"which"areas"
are" shaded" in" proportion" to" the" measurement" of" the" data" variable" being" depicted"
[Figure"2.6]."
"
"
Figure(2.6:(This(choropleth(map(shades(each(state(based(on(its(foreignUborn(
population(according(to(the(1900(U.S.(Census."
! 25"
A" vector" data" model" project" is" saved" in" a" unique" file" format" known" as" a" shapefile." A"
project"can"be"saved"at"any"stage,"without"being"an"end"result."It"is"important"to"note"the"
distinction" between" a" layer" and" a" shapefile." While" layer" files" are" used" to" visualize"
shapefiles," a" layer" is" not" a" data" format." A" shapefile" is" comprised" of" several" different"
files," including" layer" files." Required" files" contained" within" a" shapefile" include" the" .dbf"
file"(database"file),"and"a".shx"file"(shape"index"format)."Any"given"shapefile"may"have"
many"other"file"extensions"associated"with"it."Some"of"these"files"in"MapWindow"may"
include" .mwsr" (rendering" file)," .prj" (project" file)," .sbn" (spatial" index" of" features)," .sbx"
(also" a" spatial" index" of" features)," and" a" .shp.xml" file" (provides" metadata" in" an" .xml"
format)."A"shapefile"will"only"open"in"a"GIS"program"if"all"of"these"associated"files"are"
loaded"properly."You"can"guarantee"that"all"of"the"required"files"will"be"loaded"together."
For"instance,"if"you"are"working"with"a"roads"shapefile,"a"country"shapefile,"and"a"cities"
shapefile" in" MapWindow," and" you" would" like" to" save" all" of" these" shapefiles" together,"
this" can" be" done" by" saving" everything" together" as" a" project" [Figure" 2.7]." A" project" in"
MapWindow"is"saved"as"a".mwprj"file."Saving"an"entire"project"permits"users"to"pick"up"
a"project"where"they"left"it"during"the"previous"work"session,"and"it"allows"the"program"
to"do"the"file"management.""
"
"
Figure(2.7:(Saving(a(project.(
"
Once" created" or" loaded" into" MapWindow," the" layers" can" be" assigned" a" projection." A"
projection"takes"a"spherical"portion"of"the"Earths"surface,"large"or"small,"and"attempts"
to"place"that"area"on"a"flat"surface,"such"as"a"computer"screen"or"a"piece"of"paper,"while"
keeping" the" features" of" that" area" as" intact" as" possible.( We" will" discuss" projection" in"
greater" detail" in" chapter" 3." There" are" many" other" geographic" and" GIS" concepts" and"
terms"that"will"need"to"be"defined"as"you"become"proficient"in"MapWindow."These"will"
be"defined"as"they"arise"in"future"chapters,"and"when"you"find"it"necessary"to"remember"
any"of"the"concepts"and"terms,"you"may"consult"the"glossary."
! 26"
EXERCISE(2(
Often"historians"are"interested"not"only"in"the"size"of"a"population,"but"in"its"makeup:"
for"instance,"the"percentage"of"immigrants"in"the"population."GIS"can"allow"us"to"convey"
such"data"in"a"visual"way"with"a"choropleth"map.""
"
Task:"
For" this" exercise," we" will" create" a" choropleth" map" that" displays" the" percentage" of" the"
population"that"was"foreignMborn"for"each"state"in"the"United"States"in"1900."
(
Step(1:(
Remember"that"for"good"file"management,"each"project"(thus,"each"exercise)"should"be"
saved"to"its"own"subfolder."Therefore,"the"first"thing"to"do"is"to"create"a"folder"on"your"
desktop" to" store" your" MapWindow" files;" we" recommend" that" you" name" this" folder"
Exercises.""
(
For"each"exercise,"you"should"create"a"subfolder"for"the"data"used"in"that"exercise"and"
for" the" results" of" the" exercise." For" this" exercise," that" subfolder" should" be" labeled"
Exercise"2."
"
Note:"
If" you" are" using" Windows" 7," this" subfolder" will" be" created" when" you" unzip" the"
shapefiles"folder."
"
Step(2:(
Next,"we"are"going"to"download"a"folder"containing"three"shapefiles:"the"United"States"
with" the" percentage" of" the" foreignMborn" population" in" 1900," the" major" rivers" of" the"
United" States," and" the" major" cities" of" the" United" States." We" will" be" loading" these" files"
into"MapWindow"so"that"we"can"see"and"modify"the"map."
"
Go"to"http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wpM
content/uploads/exercises/exercise2.zip"
"
You"will"be"asked"if"you"want"to"save"the"folder"containing"the"shapefiles."Click"Save"
to"start"the"download"of"the"folder.""
"
Note:(
This" link" will" not" open" a" web" page." It" will" open" a" window" asking" you" if" you" want" to"
save"the"folder."The"files"for"this"exercise"are"zipped."If"you"are"running"Windows"7,"you"
! 27"
can" extract" the" files" from" this" folder" by" rightMclicking" on" the" folder" and" choosing"
Extract" all." If" you" are" not" using" Windows" 7," and" you" do" not" have" a" program" that"
will"open"zipped"files,"please"go"to"http://www.winzip.com"to"get"WinZip,"and"follow"
the"instructions"to"extract"the"files.""
"
Once" you" have" unzipped" the" shapefile," the" following" files" should" appear" in" your"
Exercise" 2" subfolder:" USrivers.shp," UScities.shp," UnitedStates1900.shp." You" may" see"
other"files"with"different"extensions"in"the"folder,"depending"on"which"operating"system"
you"used."Now"you"are"ready"to"use"the"new"data"in"MapWindow."
"
Step(3:(
Open" the" MapWindow" application." MapWindow" is" a" large" program," so" it" may" take"
several"seconds"for"it"to"open."
"
Step(4:(
"Click"the" "button."
"
Navigate"to"the"folder"where"you"saved"the"UnitedStates1900"shapefile."This"should"
be"your"gExercise"2"folder.""
"
Select" the" shapefile" UnitedStates1900.shp" and" open" it;" this" opens" the" layer" in"
MapWindow." You" should" be" able" to" see" a" map" depicting" the" United" States" on" your"
screen."
"
Step(5:(
Use" the" Pan" button" "" to" move" your" map," and" the" In" "" and" Out" ""
buttons"to"zoom"in"and"zoom"out.""
(
Note:((
Do" not" worry" if" the" colors" of" the" United" States" are" not" the" same" colors" that" you" see"
depicted" in" this" exercise." GIS" software" randomly" assigns" colors" when" a" layer" is" first"
opened.""
"
"
"
! 28"
Step(6:(
Now" that" the" United" States" layer" has" been" loaded," we" will" add" the" major" cities" and"
rivers"as"additional"layers."
"
Click"the"Add"button" ".""Go"to"the"folder"where"the"USrivers"and"UScities"
shapefiles"are"saved."This"should"be"your"Exercise"2"subfolder.""
"
Open"the"UScities"and"USrivers"shapefiles"by"repeating"the"procedure"used"to"open"
the"UnitedStates1900"shapefile.""
"
Your"screen"should"look"like"[Figure"2.1]:"
"
"
Figure(2.1:(Map(of(the(United(States."
"
Step(7:(
Now"we"will"turn"off"the"rivers"and"cities"layers."Go"to"the"Legend"pane"in"the"leftM
hand"corner"of"your"screen"and"locate"the"Data"Layers"list"[Figure"2.2]."Uncheck"the"
Usrivers"and"Uscities"layers"to"turn"them"off.""
"
! 29"
"
Figure(2.2:(Shapefile(layers,(with(icons(indicating(the(point,(line,(and(polygon(layers.(
"
Notice"that"the"icons"shown"below"the"layer"titles"in"Figure"2.2"represent"point,"line,"and"
polygon"layers,"and"that"both"UScities"and"USrivers"are"unchecked,"indicating"that"
they"are"turned"off.""
"
After" you" have" turned" off" the" UScities" and" USrivers" layers," look" at" your" map" [Figure"
2.3]." You" should" see" a" map" of" the" United" States" with" each" state" outlined," but" with" no"
other"details."
"
"
Figure(2.3:(Map(of(the(United(States(with(the(rivers(and(cities(layers(turned(off.(
(
Step(8:(
Now"that"we"have"learned"to"load"layers"and"to"turn"them"on"and"off,"we"will"learn"how"
to"store"and"manipulate"the"data"associated"with"a"layer."To"do"this,"we"will"examine"the"
attribute"information"stored"in"the"UnitedStates1900"shapefile."
"
"
! 30"
Go"to"Data"Layers"in"the"Legend"pane."
"
RightMclick"the"UnitedStates1900"layer.""
"
Select"Attribute"Table"Editor."
"
This"will"open"the"Attribute"Table"Editor"window"[Figure"2.4]."Notice"that"there"are"
horizontal" and" vertical" scroll" bars" you" can" use" to" see" more" of" the" file." Locate" the" field"
column" labeled" FB1900." This" column" contains" the" percentage" of" the" population" that"
was"foreign"born"for"each"state"in"the"year"1900.""
"
"
Figure(2.4:(Attribute(Table(Editor.(The(field(FB1900(shows(the(percentage(of(
foreignUborn(citizens(in(each(state.(
"
Step(9:((
To" depict" the" percentages" of" foreignMborn" individuals" in" the" U.S." in" 1900," we" need" to"
apply"colors"to"depict"the"various"percentages."We"can"do"this"by"using"a"color"ramp,"
which"assigns"a"color"value"based"on"the"percentage"value"of"the"chosen"attribute."
"
Close"the"Attribute"Table"Editor.""
"
Go"to"the"Layers"tab"in"the"Legend"pane."
! 31"
RightMclick"the"UnitedStates1900"layer."
"
Choose" gPropertiesg" from" the" dropMdown" menu." You" will" see" the" Layer" properties"
window"[Figure"2.5]:"
"
"
Figure(2.5:(Layer(properties(window.(
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
! 32"
Go"to"the"gCategoriesg"tab,"as"seen"in"Figure"2.6."This"tab"lets"us"select"which"data"field"
we"want"to"break"into"categories,"and"to"assign"a"color"scheme"to"those"categories."
"
"
Figure(2.6:(Categories(option(under(Properties.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 33"
Step(10:((
In" gNumeric" Fields,g" choose" FB1900" from" the" dropMdown" menu." This" tells"
MapWindow" to" use" this" data" in" the" coloring" scheme." In" Color" scheme," click" the" "
button."The"Color"schemes"list"window"will"appear"[Figure"2.7].""
"
"
Figure(2.7:(Color(schemes(list.(
(
Click"Edit."The"color"scheme"editing"window"will"appear."Choose"white"for"Color"
1"and"blue"for"Color"2,"as"shown"in"Figure"2.8,"and"click"Ok."
"
(
Figure(2.8:(Color(scheme(editing(window.(
"
"
! 34"
You"will"see"your"chosen"coloring"scheme"in"the"Color"schemes"list."Click"Ok."The"
window"will"close"and"you"will"be"back"at"the"Categories"window."
"
"
Figure(2.9:(Color(schemes(list.(
(
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
! 35"
Step(11:(
In"the"Categories"window,"go"to"Color"scheme."In"Color"scheme,"choose"the"blue"
and" white" coloring" scheme" that" you" created," as" Figure" 2.10" shows." In" Categories,"
under"Classification,"select"the"value"5."Make"sure"that"FB1900"is"selected"in"the"
Numeric" Fields" column." Finally," click" Generate" in" the" upperMright" corner," and" then"
click"Ok."
"
"
Figure(2.10:(Layer(Properties(window.(
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
! 36"
Now"your"map"should"look"like"[Figure"2.11]."
"
"
Figure(2.11:(Choropleth(map(with(coloring(scheme(applied(to(it.(
(
Step(12:(
Now,"to"view"the"percentage"of"foreignMborn"population"in"any"state,"click"the""
" ""button"on"MapWindowis"menu"bar,"and"then"click"the"state."" "

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 37"
Step(13:((
To"save"your"project,"go"to"Project,"and"in"Project,"choose"Save"As"[Figure"2.12]"
"
(
Figure(2.12:(Save(As(option(in(the(Project(menu.(
"
Name"your"project"Exercise"2"and"click"Save"[Figure"2.13]."
"
(
Figure(2.13:(Save(As(window.(
! 38"
If"you"would"like"to"check"and"make"sure"that"your"project"has"saved"properly,"close"
MapWindow"and"then"reopen"it."On"the"entry"screen,"you"should"now"see"Exercise"
2.mpwprj"under"the"Open"a"project"icon"[Figure"2.14]."
"
"
Figure(2.14:(Exercise(2(now(shows(under(Open(a(project.(
Congratulations!" You" have" generated" a" choropleth" map" and" used" a" color" ramp" to"
highlight"aspects"of"the"data"associated"with"the"map."You"should"now"feel"comfortable"
with" the" MapWindow" interface." Feel" free" to" repeat" any" portion" of" this" exercise" with"
which" you" would" like" more" practice," including" changing" the" colors" used" to" represent"
the"foreignMborn"population"percentages."
"
You" are" now" ready" to" move" to" Chapter" 3." In" that" chapter," you" will" learn" some" of" the"
basics"of"cartography,"including"the"importance"of"selecting"the"correct"projection,"and"
you"will"apply"this"knowledge"to"a"map"of"France."
"
(
! 39"
CHAPTER(3:(Datum(and(Map(Projection(
All# maps,# whether# of# your# hometown# or# of# the# universe,# are# two7dimensional#
representations#of#a#three7dimensional#space,#which#means#that#all#maps#have#a#certain#
level# of# distortion.# This# distortion# may# not# matter# much# when# the# map# is# of# the#
universe#or#even#of#our#galaxy,#but#when#the#map#depicts#the#Earth#or#any#region#of#the#
Earth,# the# issue# is# more# important.# Because# the# Earth# is# an# irregular# spheremore#
specifically,# the# Earths# shape# is# described# as# an# irregular# ellipsoida# transformation#
must# occur# to# place# a# three7dimensional# area# of# the# Earth# on# a# flat# surface.# This#
transformation# is# called# projection.# Many# different# projections# exist,# and# which#
projection# is# chosen# by# a# cartographer# depends# on# the# purpose# for# which# the#
geographic#data#are#displayed.##
(
Longitude# and# latitude# were# developed# in# order# to# determine# the# location# of# specific#
positions# on# the# earths# surface.# Longitude# is# anchored# by# the# prime# meridian,# an#
imaginary#line#which#is#determined#to#be#0#and#which#circles#the#earth#from#the#North#
Pole# to# the# South# Pole,# dividing# the# earth# into# the# Eastern# and# Western# hemispheres.#
Longitude#is#measured#by#degrees,#from#0#to#180,#with#either#a#West#or#an#East#direction.#
Lines# of# latitude# cross# lines# of# longitude.# The# equator# is# the# equivalent# of# the# lateral#
prime#meridian,#and#it#divides#the#world#into#the#Northern#and#Southern#hemispheres.#
Hence,# the# latitude# of# a# place# on# the# earth# will# be# between# 0# and# 90,# with# either# a#
North# or# a# South# direction.# Degrees# can# be# divided# further# into# minutes# and# seconds.#
Calculating#an#exact#location#on#the#earths#surface#requires#determining#the#locations#
longitude#and#latitude#to#an#exact#degree,#minute,#and#second.#If#you#have#ever#used#a#
GPS,#you#have#seen#the#nine7digit#notation#used#for#geographic#locations.#A#GIS#draws#
on#libraries#of#GPS#data#to#calculate#different#map#projections#for#you.#
#
The#lines#of#longitude#and#latitude#essentially#create#a#grid#of#the#Earths#surface,#which#
is# important# for# mapmaking# because# it# provides# a# way# for# users# to# assign# geographic#
coordinates#to#their#data.#This#grid#must#be#mated#to#an#estimate#of#the#shape#and#size#
of#the#Earth,#and#this#estimate#is#referred#to#as#a#datum.#A#datum#provides#a#model#of#
the# Earth# as# an# ellipsoid;# because# the# Earth# is# not# a# perfect# ellipsoid,# there# are# many#
different#datums#(correct#plural#for#this#use#of#the#word#datum;#not#data)#to#express#
its#irregular#shape.#When#the#datum#model#is#expressed#in#longitude#and#latitude#(and#
often# elevation)# data,# the# result# is# commonly# called,# in# the# GIS# world,# a# geographic(
coordinate(system.# Among# the# most# common# datums# are# the# World# Geodetic# System#
1984#(WGS#1984),#the#North#American#Datum#83#(NAD83),#the#North#American#Datum#
27# (NAD27),# and# the# European# Terrestrial# Reference# System# 1989# (ETRS89).# When#
creating#a#map,#it#is#important#first#to#assign#a#datum#to#give#meaning#to#the#location#of#
your# data.# Hundreds# of# datums# have# been# created,# and# each# of# them# will# introduce# a#
! 40#
measure#of#distortion#to#the#final#map,#depending#on#the#area#of#the#Earths#surface#in#
which#the#cartographer#is#interested.#Fortunately,#you#do#not#have#to#worry#about#the#
mathematical#basis#of#datums;#you#just#have#to#remember#to#pick#one#at#the#beginning#
of#any#project,#before#you#start#working#on#a#map.#Once#a#datum#has#been#selected#for#a#
project,#the#second#stage#is#to#assign#a#type#of#map#projection.#Different#projections#are#
selected#for#different#communication#purposes.#
#
Basics(of(Map(Projection#
Because#the#Earth#cannot#be#represented#accurately#on#a#flat#surface,#such#as#a#piece#of#
paper# or# a# computer# screen,# every# map# projection# presents# some# sort# of# distortion.# A#
projection# may# seek# to# preserve# various# properties# of# a# map,# such# as# area,# shape,# or#
distance,#but#a#projection#cannot#preserve#all#of#these#things#at#once.#Often,#a#projection#
will#seek#a#balance#to#preserve#as#much#of#the#area,#shape,#and#distance#as#possible,#thus#
making#each#of#them#slightly#distorted.#
(
Although# it# is# difficult# to# classify# the# different# types# of# projection,# Judith# Tyner# has#
separated# projection# properties# into# four# types:# a)# equivalence# of# an# area;# b)#
preservation# of# angles# or# of# the# shape# of# small# areas;# c)# linear# scale;# and# d)# direction.1#
Equivalence#of#area#or#equal#area#maps#preserve#area#scale.#Conformal#or#orthomorphic#
projections# preserve# angles# or# the# shape# of# small# areas.# These# projections# are# best# at#
preserving# small# features,# such# as# a# bay# or# peninsula. 2 #Linear# scale,# also# called#
equidistant# projection,# shows# distances# correctly.# Direction# projections# are# also# called#
azimuthal# or# zenithal# projections;# they# will# represent# the# correct# distances# between#
places#when#the#calculations#are#made#from#the#center#point#of#the#map.#Of#the#many#
projections#available,#each#has#distinctive#advantages#and#disadvantages#depending#on#
the#scale#and#purpose#of#your#map.#To#visualize#the#difference#a#projection#can#make,#
see# Figure# 3.1.# Note# the# stretch# that# occurs# in# the# image# on# the# right# when# the# map#
projection#used#for#the#image#on#the#left#is#changed#to#another#projection.#
#
#
#
#
1 #Judith#Tyner,#Principles*of*Map*Design#(New#York:#The#Guilford#Press,#2010),#1017122.#
2 #Ibid.,#102.#
! 41#
#
Figure(3.1:(The(image(on(the(left(is(a(North(America(Albers(Equal(Area(Projection.(On(
the(right,(the(image(was(reprojected(into(a(NAD(1983(UTM(Zone(20N.#
(
Cylindrical,(Conical,(and(Azimuthal(Projections(
All#projections#take#a#three7dimensional#image#and#map#it#onto#a#two7dimensional#map.#
The#three#most#common#ways#of#doing#this#mapping#are#by#using#cylindrical,#conical,#
and#azimuthal#projections.#A#cylindrical#projection,#in#essence,#wraps#a#geometric#plane#
around# the# Earth:# in# this# example,# only# touching# around# the# equator# (see# Figure# 3.2).3#
The#result#is#a#planar#representation#of#the#Earth.#With#this#cylindrical#projection,#there#
is#less#distortion#around#the#equator#and#more#around#the#Polar#Regions.##
#
#
Figure(3.2:(This(image(demonstrates(how(cylindrical(projections(are(created.(
#
If#the#plane#was#wrapped#around#the#poles,#rather#than#the#equator,#the#distortion#to#the#
map#would#be#less#at#the#poles,#and#it#would#increase#closer#to#the#equator.#
#
A#conical#projection#places#a#cone#over#a#part#of#the#earth.#A#conical#projection,#taken#
from# the# vantage# point# of# the# North# Pole,# can# be# seen# in# Figure# 3.3.4#With# a# conical#
projection,#area#is#preserved,#but#not#scale#and#shape.##
3 #Miller#Cylindrical#Projection,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org).#
4 #Polar#Conical#Projection,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org).#
! 42#
#
Figure(3.3:(A(conical(projection.#
#
An#azimuthal#projection#uses#a#planar#surface#and#places#it#across#a#single#point#of#the#
Earths# surface.# Azimuthal# projections# preserve# direction# from# a# certain# point.#
Adopting#this#goal#means#that#shape#and#area#are#increasingly#distorted#from#the#center#
point#of#a#map.#The#Lambert#azimuthal#projection#is#shown#in#Figure#3.4.5#The#point#at#
which#the#planar#surface#touches#the#Earth#in#the#Lambert#azimuthal#projection#is#0#N#
and#0#E,#south#of#the#West#African#country#of#Ghana.#Notice#how#much#more#distorted#
both#the#Polar#Regions#and#the#equatorial#edges#are#in#this#map.#
5 #Lambert#Azimuthal#Projection,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org).#
! 43#
#
Figure(3.4:#This(image(portrays(an(azimuthal(projection(with(its(center(point(just(
south(of(Ghana.(
#
The# Universal( Transverse( Mercator# (UTM)# is# a# projected# coordinate# system# that#
divides#the#earth#into#60#zones.#UTM#applies#the#Transverse#Mercator#map#projection,#is#
based# on# a# specific# cylindrical# projection.# UTM# coordinate# systems# seek# a# balance#
between#preserving#shape,#area,#distance,#and#direction.#As#historians#are#interested#in#
different# parts# of# the# world,# it# is# good# to# learn# which# UTM(s)# fall# inside# of# your#
region(s)#of#interest.#UTM#projections#can#be#a#good#fit#for#many#GIS#users#if#their#area#
of#concern#falls#entirely#within#a#UTM#zone.#Figure#3.5#lists#all#60#of#these#UTM#zones.6#
One#of#the#benefits#of#using#UTM#projections#is#that#each#zone#is#fairly#small,#making#it#
easier#to#minimize#distortions.#
6#UTM#60#Zones,#from#the#Wikimedia#Commons#(commons.wikimedia.org),#via#the#Wikipedia#article#
Universal#Transverse#Mercator#coordinate#system,#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Transverse_Mercator_coordinate_system,#accessed#on#9#January#
2014.#
! 44#
#
Figure(3.5:(The#Universal(Transverse(Mercator((UTM)(system(of(dividing(the(Earth(
into(60(projections.(
(
Other(Types(of(Datums(
While# some# types# of# datum# are# regional,# national,# or# global# in# scope,# there# are# also#
much#more#localized#ones.#For#example,#in#the#United#States,#the#state#plane#coordinate#
system# is# widely# used,# and# Beijing,# China,# also# has# its# own# coordinate# system.# These#
coordinate# systems# were# developed# in# order# to# preserve# as# much# area,# distance,# and#
shape#accuracy#as#possible.#For#many#historians#and#other#social#science#and#humanities#
scholars,#the#WGS84#datum#will#be#the#best#choice.#However,#if#your#research#topic#is#
focused#on#a#very#small#area,#like#a#single#city,#or#on#a#very#large#area,#such#as#an#entire#
continent,#a#different#datum#may#work#better#for#the#cartographic#visualization#of#your#
information.#
#
In#the#following#exercise,#we#will#apply#what#you#have#learned#regarding#datums#and#
map#projections.#While#going#through#this#exercise,#it#is#important#to#remember#that#in#
terms# of# mapmaking,# there# is# not# a# single# correct# projection.# The# proper# projection#
depends# upon# the# purpose# of# each# individual# map.# Cartography# is# a# form# of#
communication,# and# the# projection# you# select# will# depend# on# what# you# wish# to#
communicate# with# your# map.# Most# of# the# exercises# in# this# manual# will# use# a# UTM#
projected#coordinate#system#for#cartographic#projects.#
(
! 45#
EXERCISE(3(
Of# the# hundreds# of# digital# maps# available# online,# many# have# not# been# projected,# and#
others#may#have#been#assigned#a#projection#that#is#not#the#best#one#for#a#particular#use.#
Therefore,#it#is#important#to#know#how#to#apply#a#projection#to#a#digital#map.#
(
Task:((
For# this# exercise,# we# are# going# to# take# an# unprojected# map# of# France# and# apply# an#
appropriate#projection#to#it.#
#
Step(1:(((
Go#to#http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wp7
content/uploads/exercises/exercise3.zip##
#
Save#this#shapefile#in#your#Shapefiles#folder#in#a#subfolder#labeled#Exercise#3,#and#
unzip#the#shapefile.#You#will#see#the#France.shp#file#in#your#Exercise#3#subfolder.#
#
Note:##
If#you#are#using#Windows#7,#the#subfolder#will#be#created#for#you#when#you#unzip#the#
file.#
#
Step(2:(
To#load#this#shapefile,#open#the#MapWindow#application.##
#
Click#the# #button.#
#
Navigate#to#your#jExercise#3#subfolder.#
#
Select#the#shapefile#France.shp#and#open#it#as#a#layer#in#MapWindow#[Figure#3.1].#The#
colors# of# your# map# may# be# different# from# those# in# the# map# used# to# illustrate# this#
exercise.#As#you#can#see,#the#map#of#France#is#distorted.#We#need#to#apply#a#projection#
to#correct#that#distortion.#
#
! 46#
#
Figure(3.1:(Map(of(France(without(projection.(
Step(3:(
As# you# have# learned,# there# are# many# datums# and# projected# coordinate# systems# from#
which# to# choose,# and# some# of# these# favor# different# areas# of# the# globe.# For# France,# we#
should# use# the# WGS# 1984# (World# Geodetic# System# 1984)# datum# and# the# WGS# 1984#
UTM#Zone#30N#projection.#As#we#explained#in#the#chapter,#UTM#stands#for#Universal#
Transverse#Mercator.#We#are#using#zone#30N#because#France#falls#within#zone#30#of#the#
Northern#hemisphere.#
#
To#be#able#to#choose#a#projection,#you#will#need#to#switch#from#the#Layers#view#to#the#
Toolbox#view#in#the#Legend#pane#on#the#left#side#of#the#screen#[Figure#3.2].#
#
! 47#
#
Figure(3.2:(]Toolbox](view(in(the(Legend(pane.(
Step(4:((
To# determine# if# a# datum# or# a# geographic# coordinate# system# has# been# applied# to# the#
shapefile# of# France,# go# to# Projections,# in# the# Toolbox# menu,# and# in# Projections,#
double7click# Identify# Projection.# This# will# open# the# Identify# Projection# window#
[Figure#3.3].##
#
! 48#
#
Figure(3.3:(]Identify(projection](window.(
#
In# Select# layer,# choose# France,# and# then# click# the# Identify# button.# You# will# see#
that#the#Projection#string#window#is#blank#because#a#projection#has#not#been#applied#
to#the#shapefile.##
#
To#assign#the#WGS#1984#datum,#click#Cancel#to#go#back#to#Projections,#and#double7
click#Assign#Projection#to#Shapefile#to#open#the#Assign#Projection#window#[Figure#
3.4].##
#
! 49#
#
Figure(3.4:(]Assign(Projection](window.(
Click#the#+#button#(shown#on#the#bottom#of#the#right#half#of#the#screen)#to#open#the#
Select# layers# window.# Select# the# France# layer,# as# shown# in# Figure# 3.5,# and# click#
Ok.##
#
#
Figure(3.5:(Select(layers(window.(
#
! 50#
Now# that# the# France# layer# has# been# selected,# this# window# will# close# and# you# will#
return#to#the#Assign#Projection#screen.##
#
Select# the# Geographical# folder# in# the# file# list# on# the# left# side# of# the# screen.# In# the#
Geographical#folder,#click#WGS#84,#and#then#click#the#Assign#button#[Figure#3.6].##
#
#
Figure(3.6:(WGS(84(in(the(Geographical(folder.(
#
You#will#see#a#message#stating#that#the#projection#was#successfully#assigned#to#the#file#
[Figure#3.7].#The#datum#has#been#assigned,#and#you#are#halfway#to#success!#
#
#
Figure(3.7:(Successful(projection(message.(
(
(
! 51#
Step(5:((
Now#that#we#have#applied#the#WGS84#datum,#we#need#to#select#the#correct#UTM#zone#
to#give#us#a#map#projection;#the#one#for#France#is#UTM#zone#30N.##
#
Close# the# Assign# Projection# window# and# in# the# Projections# toolbox,# double7click#
Reproject#Shapefile.#This#will#open#the#Reproject#Layers#window#[Figure#3.8].#
#
#
Figure(3.8:(]Reproject(Layers](window.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 52#
Click#the#+#button#and#select#the#France#layer,#as#you#did#in#step#4.#In#the#folder#
World#on#the#left#side#of#the#window,#choose#the#subfolder#WGS#84#[Figure#3.9].##
#
#
Figure(3.9:(]WGS(84](subfolder.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 53#
Click#the#+#symbol#next#to#the#WGS#84#to#expand#the#subfolder#and#scroll#down#to#
the# folder# labeled# UTM# Northern# Hemisphere,# and# then# click# the# +# symbol# to#
expand#the#UTM#Northern#Hemisphere#subfolder.#In#UTM#Northern#Hemisphere,#
choose#WGS#84#/#UTM#zone#30#N#[Figure#3.10],#and#click#the#Reproject#button.#
#
#
Figure(3.10:(]WGS(84/UTM(zone(30(N](projection.(
You# will# see# a# window# displaying# the# projection# results# [Figure# 3.11].# Once# you# have#
confirmed#the#results,#click#Close.#
#
#
Figure(3.11:(]Projection(checking(results.](
(
! 54#
Step(6:(
After#you#have#closed#the#Projection#checking#results#window,#you#will#see#a#message#
stating# that# the# projected# layer# could# not# be# added# to# the# map# [Figure# 3.12].# Dont(
worry# # this# just# means# that# you# will# have# to# manually# add# the# reprojected# layer# to#
MapWindow.#
#
#
Figure(3.12:(Projection(message.(
#
Close#the#Projection#message#window,#and#then#close#the#Reproject#layers#window.#
#
Click#the#Add# button#to#open#the#Add#Map#Layer#window,#and#navigate#to#
your#Exercise#3#subfolder.#You#should#see#a#new#shapefile#named#France.WGS#84##
UTM# zone# 30N,# as# shown# in# Figure# 3.13.# Select# this# shapefile# and# click# the# Open#
button.##
#
! 55#
#
Figure(3.13:(]Add(Map(Layer](window.(
#
You#will#notice#that#the#new#map#does#not#appear#on#the#screen.#That#is#because#we#
need#to#tell#MapWindow#to#show#the#new#one.#
#
In#the#Legend#pane,#switch#to#the#Layers#view,#right7click#the#newly#added#layer,#
and#choose#Zoom#to#Layer#from#the#drop7down#menu#[Figure#3.14].##
#
#
Figure(3.14:(Zoom(to(Layer(in(the(Layers(menu.(
! 56#
Now# you# will# see# that# you# have# a# new# map# of# France# with# a# projected# geographic#
coordinate#system#added#to#it#[Figure#3.15]:#
#
#
Figure(3.15:(Correctly(projected(map(of(France.(
#
Congratulations!#You#now#have#a#correctly#projected#the#map#of#France.#Save#this#new#
file#to#your#Exercise#3#subfolder;#we#will#be#using#it#for#future#exercises.#
##
If# you# do# not# yet# feel# comfortable# with# datums# and# projections,# we# suggest# that# you#
save# this# map,# and# then# repeat# this# exercise# choosing# other# datums# and# projections.#
This#repetition#will#give#you#a#sense#of#how#the#various#projection#systems#will#redraw#
the#map,#and#familiarize#you#with#the#process#of#projecting#a#coordinate#system.#
#
When#you#are#ready#to#continue,#move#on#to#the#next#chapter,#which#will#introduce#you#
to#the#basics#of#cartography#so#that#you#can#produce#informative,#easy7to7read#maps.#
#
! 57#
CHAPTER(4:(Cartography(
With#this#chapter,#we#place#in#your#hands#a#particularly#powerful#way#to#communicate#
your#ideas.#Cartography#is#the#study#and#practice#of#producing#maps.#It#is#possible#that#
the#majority#of#the#human#brain#has#evolved#to#deal#with#the#visual.#This#centrality#of#
visual#perception#makes#cartography#a#superb#form#of#communication#among#humans.#
Indeed,# cartographic# communication# is# so# powerful# that# those# producing# maps# must#
take#care#that#they#do#not#convey#false#information.1#
#
Map# production# combines# elements# of# art,# science,# and# technology.# Because# mapC
making# generally# involves# scaling# down# a# representation# of# the# Earths# surface,# the#
process# comes# with# inherent# limitations.# Good# cartography# seeks# to# minimize# those#
limitations# as# much# as# possible.# However,# it# is# important# to# realize# that# no# map# can#
show# everything.# What# the# cartographer# decides# to# include# in# a# map# should# largely#
depend#upon#the#scale#and#purpose#of#the#map.#While#there#is#not#a#hard#and#fast#set#of#
rules# for# cartographic# design,# there# are# some# general# guidelines# that# we# can# discuss.#
Much#of#this#discussion#is#based#on#Judith#Tyners#Principles*of*Map*Design.2#
#
Elements(of(a(Map(
Most#maps#include#items#to#make#it#easier#for#the#reader#to#understand#the#meaning#of#
the# map.# Such# items# include# titles,# legends,# a# north# arrow# or# compass# rose,# and# some#
indication#of#the#size#of#the#region#shown#on#the#map,#usually#by#including#a#scale#bar.#
The#title#of#a#map#should#be#concise#but#descriptive#of#the#subject#of#the#map.#A#legend#
should# explain# the# symbols# used# on# the# map.# If# a# legend# title# is# deemed# necessary,# it#
should#be#different#from,#but#a#concise#and#effective#complement#to#the#map#title.#The#
legend#should#include#all#symbols#on#the#map,#along#with#their#meanings.#A#compass(
rose#or#north(arrow#provides#a#directional#orientation#for#the#map.#Using#a#compass#
rose# or# north# arrow# is# particularly# helpful# when# dealing# with# a# geographic# area# that#
may#not#be#familiar#to#your#map#readers.#As#always,#your#design#decisions#should#be#
determined# by# the# purpose,# audience,# intended# use# of# your# map.# Scale( shows# the#
representative# units# of# measurement# of# the# map.# There# are# three# ways# to# show# scale:#
with#a#ratio,#in#words,#or#by#a#bar#scale,#and#MapWindow#can#show#scale#in#all#of#these#
ways.##An#example#of#a#scale#based#upon#ratio(is#this#expression:#1:250,000.#This#type#of#
scale#is#particularly#useful#because#a#ratio#transcends#units.#The#scale#of#a#map#can#also#
1#Edward#R.#Tufte,#Envisioning*Information#(Cheshire,#CT:#Graphics#Press,#1990).#As#soon#as#possible,#you#
should#read#two#inexpensive#books#by#Mark#Monmonier,#published#by#the#University#of#Chicago#Press:#
How*to*Lie*with*Maps#(1996),#and#Mapping*It*Out:*Expository*Cartography*for*the*Humanities*and*Social*
Sciences#(1993).#
2#Judith#Tyner,#Principles*of*Map*Design#(New#York:#The#Guilford#Press,#2010).#
! 58#
be# expressed# in# words:# one# inch# represents# ten# miles.# A# scale# bar# depicts# map# units#
graphically,#such#as:#
# #
#
You#must#understand#how#cartographers#employ#the#terms#large(scale#and#small(scale,#
because# the# concepts# are# often# confused.# For# example,# when# comparing# maps# with#
ratios#of#1:250,000#and#1:1,000,#one#might#assume#that#the#1:1,000#scale#is#smaller#and#the#
1:250,000#is#larger;#however,#the#opposite#holds#true.#If#the#map#unit#represents#one/oneC
thousandths# of# the# area# of# the# map,# it# is# larger# than# a# unit# representing# one/two#
hundred#fiftyCthousandths#of#that#area.#Thus,#a#scale#of#1:1,000#is#larger#than#a#scale#of#
1:250,000.#The#cartographic#standard#is#that#the#larger#the#area#represented#by#the#map,#
the#smaller#the#scale.#To#see#this#concept#visually,#compare#Figures#4.1#and#4.2.#
#
(
Figure(4.1:(This(smallCscale(image(shows(a(large(area.(
! 59#
#
Figure(4.2:(This(large(scale(map(shows(a(smaller(area(than(in(figure(4.1.((
(
Layout(and(Planning(
Along#with#the#legend,#compass#rose,#and#scale,#there#are#other#aspects#to#a#good#map#
that# can# make# the# map# easier# to# read# for# the# viewer.# When# designing# a# map,# it# is#
important#to#consider#these#various#elements.#Obviously,#the#geographic#component#of#
your#map#should#make#up#the#largest#portion,#but#there#are#other#components#of#a#map#
that#can#make#the#information#more#easily#understood#by#the#viewer.#Tyner#suggested#
that#cartographers#pay#particular#attention#to#the#design#elements#of#the#map,#including#
clarity,#order,#balance,#contrast,#unity,#and#harmony.#She#noted#that#all#the#elements#of#a#
map#are#interdependent,#including#topic,#audience,#lettering,#purpose,#scale,#color,#and#
symbols.#3#Imagine#that#each#map#element#carries#with#it#a#weight,#based#upon#its#size#
and#color.#Each#weight#should#be#balanced#in#such#a#way#that#the#map#includes#all#the#
information# needed,# without# these# other# elements# overshadowing# the# graphic# map#
itself.# Figures# 4.3# and# 4.4# illustrate# the# difference# between# a# balanced# map# and# an#
unbalanced#one.#
#
3 ##Ibid.,#19C23.#
! 60#
#
Figure(4.3:(This(map(has(balanced(all(of(the(map(elements(across(the(page.(
(
#
#
Figure(4.4:(The(layout(of(this(map(is(not(wellCbalanced(and(is(difficult(to(read.(
! 61#
Lettering*
Text#in#a#map#serves#several#purposes:#to#label,#to#explain,#to#direct#the#user#to#specific#
features,#to#establish#a#hierarchy,#or#to#show#size.#Here#are#some#general#guidelines#for#
formatting#and#placing#text#on#a#map:##
1)#Water#features,#such#as#rivers#and#lakes,#are#labeled#in#italics.#With#rivers,#the#
name# should# follow# the# line# representing# the# river# and# be# repeated# throughout#
the#map#if#the#river#is#a#long#one.#Lakes#and#other#bodies#of#water#should#have#
the#name#inside#if#it#fits;#if#not,#it#should#be#placed#completely#outside#the#body#
of#water.##
2)#Roads,#railroads,#and#other#linear#features#are#labeled#like#rivers,#except#they#
are#not#italicized.##
3)# Mountain# ranges,# regions,# and# other# areas# typically# have# text# that# is# spread#
throughout#the#respective#space.##
4)# When# point# symbols# are# used# to# represent# locations# of# places,# such# as# cities,#
there#is#a#hierarchy#of#optimal#places#to#locate#the#name#in#relation#to#the#point.#
The#best#place#is#off#the#topCright#of#the#point;#the#next#best#is#the#bottom#right,#
then# topCleft,# or# if# none# of# these# is# possible,# the# bottomCleft.# If# other# features# in#
the#map#do#not#allow#for#the#best#convention,#place#the#label#in#the#best#location#
possible# [see# Figure# 4.5].# As# always,# you# are# concerned# about# achieving# clarity#
and#legibility.#
#
#
Figure(4.5:(In(this(example,(because(of(the(path(of(the(river,(the(best(location(for(the(
city(name(is(topCleft,(rather(than(topCright.(
(
While# the# simplest# solution# may# be# to# place# text# near# a# point# feature# on# a# map,#
cartographic# guidelines# suggest# that# if# the# text# can# be# placed# in# the# optimal# position#
! 62#
using#cartographic(masking,#the#cartographer#should#do#so.#If#we#look#at#Figure#4.5,#we#
can#see#that#if#we#just#put#the#text#St.#Paul#to#the#topCright#of#the#point#representing#
the# city,# we# would# obscure# parts# of# both# the# line# indicating# the# river# and# the# one#
indicating# the# state# border.# Cartographic# masking# allows# the# mapCmaker# to# create# a#
small#polygon#across#those#features#in#such#a#way#that#the#city#name#can#be#located#in#
the# proper# position# without# obscuring# the# line# features.# For# example,# in# Figure# 4.6,# a#
cartographic#mask#was#placed#through#the#Mississippi#River#in#order#to#provide#a#space#
for#the#name#St.#Paul.##
#
#
Figure(4.6:(Map(depicting(the(label(for(St.(Paul(using(cartographic(masking.(
#
Masks#can#be#performed#with#many#different#colors,#if#necessary,#by#creating#as#many#
different#colored#polygons#as#needed.#We#used#the#same#fill#color#for#the#background#of#
our#label,#and#set#the#border#color#to#clear,#so#that#the#label#box#around#the#text#would#
disappear.#In#this#way,#cartographic#masking#enables#users#to#display#lettering#in#a#lessC
cluttered#manner.#Any#decision#to#employ#cartographic#masking#must#be#based#on#the#
purpose#of#the#map.#For#example,#if#the#Mississippi#River#were#the#main#subject#of#the#
map,# we# would# probably# not# wish# to# cut# up# that# feature# with# repeated# cartographic#
masking.#
#
Color(
When#used#properly,#color#can#enhance#cartographic#visualization;#however,#poor#color#
choices# can# obscure# important# aspects# of# a# map.# Arthur# Robinson4#suggested# three#
4#Arthur#H.#Robinson#(1915C2004),#of#the#University#of#WisconsinCMadison,#introduced#Owens#to#
cartographic#design#and#the#history#of#cartography.#Before#Robinsons#death,#Owens#was#able#to#tell#him#
! 63#
reasons#for#using#color#in#cartography:#first,#it#can#clarify#and#simplify#the#information#
on#the#map#by#increasing#the#number#of#visual#levels#and#unifying#the#elements#on#the#
map;#second,#color#choices#can#strongly#influence#the#reactions#of#the#map#reader;#and#
finally,#color#can#markedly#affect#how#the#reader#perceives#the#map.5#Color#also#attracts#
attention#and#leads#the#eye#to#the#most#relevant#areas#of#the#map.#For#this#reason,#mapC
makers# should# choose# colors# that# are# not# overly# showy# and# that# share# the# same# tonal#
values.#It#is#also#a#good#idea#to#use#only#as#many#colors#as#are#needed#to#highlight#the#
information# you# want# your# map# to# convey;# too# many# colors# can# distract# the# eye# and#
make#it#more#difficult#for#the#user#to#comprehend#the#purpose#of#the#map.#Color#often#
carries# cultural# perceptions,# too;# for# example,# among# most# linguistic# groups,# red# is#
generally# recognized# to# indicate# heat,# while# blue# is# usually# interpreted# as# cool.#
Therefore,# it# is# important# that# your# color# choices# be# made# with# these# perceptions# in#
mind.# Unwise# color# choices# can# lead# the# map# viewer# to# misunderstand# the# maps#
purpose#and#the#information#the#map#is#meant#to#convey.##
#
Also,#you#should#communicate#to#your#audience#information#about#the#creator#of#your#
map#(you)#and#the#decisions#you#made#about#projection.#In#other#words,#put#your#name#
on#your#map#with#some#indication#of#your#affiliation.#Tell#your#audience#the#datum#and#
projection# you# used# in# creating# the# map.# Remember# that# your# choices# of# datum# and#
projection# will# have# an# impact# on# the# way# that# your# map# appears,# and# sophisticated#
viewers#will#want#to#know#what#choices#lay#behind#the#map#they#see.#Also,#depending#
on#the#nature#of#your#map,#you#may#wish#to#include#a#concise#indication#of#the#sources#
of#the#information#on#which#the#map#is#based.#
#
Although#it#is#impossible#to#discuss#in#detail#every#aspect#of#cartography#in#one#chapter#
(see#note#1#on#the#books#of#Mark#Monmonier),#those#we#have#discussed#will#help#you#
add#meaning#to#your#map.#As#you#become#more#familiar#with#mapmaking#and#the#use#
of# MapWindow,# it# will# become# easier# for# you# to# keep# these# elements# in# mind# as# you#
design# your# maps.# Also,# just# as# you# would# do# with# a# written# text,# you# should# have#
colleagues# read# your# map# to# make# sure# that# its# purpose# and# meaning# are#
communicated# clearly.# They# can# also# evaluate# if# your# map# is# interesting# and# original;#
these# are# important# issues# in# making# use# of# a# powerful# form# of# communication.# Our#
exercise# for# this# chapter# will# take# the# correctly# projected# map# of# France# we# created# in#
Exercise#3,#and#teach#you#how#to#turn#it#into#a#properlyCbalanced#finished#map.#
#
about#the#proposed#GISCbased#graduate#program#at#Idaho#State#University#and#about#the#Cartography:#
History#and#Design#course#Owens#was#creating.#He#was#the#author#of#the#influential#Robinson#
projection#for#a#world#map.#
5#As#summarized#in#Tyner,#Principles*of*Map*Design,#62.#
! 64#
EXERCISE(4(
We# have# already# created# a# properly# projected# map# of# France.# However,# that# map#
conveys#no#information#besides#the#basic#shape#and#proportion#of#the#country,#with#its#
major# regions# outlined.# However,# this# map# is# incomplete# and# unbalanced# because# it#
lacks# the# cartographic# features,# such# as# a# legend# and# title,# that# provide# critical#
information#to#the#map#reader.(
(
Task:##
This#exercise#will#teach#you#how#to#create#a#balanced#map#of#the#administrative#regions#
of#France#by#using#color#to#differentiate#the#regions#and#by#adding#a#legend,#compass#
rose,#and#scale#indicator.#We#will#also#use#MapWindows#Print#Layout#feature#to#print#
the#finished#map.#
#
Step(1:((
Open# MapWindow.# Click# on# the# add# button# and# add# as# a# layer# in# MapWindow# the#
France.WGS#84##UTM#zone#30N#shapefile#of#France#[Figure#4.1],#which#you#created#
in#exercise#3#as#a#layer#in#MapWindow.#
#
#
Figure(4.1:(PFrance(WGS84(C(UTM(zone(30NP(layer(created(in(Exercise(3.(
#
#
#
#
! 65#
Step(2:(
MapWindow# provides# many# cartographic# tools# in# the# Properties# of# a# given# layer.#
These#include#tools#to#change#the#color#of#a#map.#To#explore#these#tools,#go#to#Layers#
in#the#Legend#pane.#RightCclick#on#the#France#layer#and#select#Properties#from#the#
dropCdown#menu#to#open#the#Layer#properties#window#[Figure#4.2].#
#
#
Figure(4.2:(PLayer(propertiesP(window(for(our(France(layer.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 66#
In# the# Layer# properties# window,# select# the# Categories# tab# [Figure# 4.3].# Under#
Classification,#check#the#box#Unique#values.#In#Fields,#select#NAME#to#choose#
the#names#of#the#administrative#regions#of#France,#and#click#Generate.#Notice#the#list#
of#regions#that#now#appears#under#Categories.#
#
#
Figure(4.3:(Categories(window(after(the(administrative(regions(are(selected.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 67#
Now#we#want#to#use#color#to#differentiate#between#the#administrative#regions.#In#Color#
scheme,# check# the# box# Random# Colors,# which# will# open# a# dropCdown# list# of# color#
schemes,# and# select# the# seventh# color# scheme# [Figure# 4.4].# Click# Generate,# then#
Apply,#and#then#Ok.#
#
#
Figure(4.4:(List(of(Color(schemes.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 68#
Your# map# should# look# something# like# Figure# 4.5.# DO( NOT( WORRY( if# your# colors#
appear# different.# MapWindow# will# use# the# same# colors# scheme,# but# may# assign#
different#color#values#from#it.#
#
#
Figure(4.5:(Map(of(France(with(the(administrative(regions(delineated(by(color.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 69#
Step(3:((
As#you#created#your#map,#MapWindow#has#created#a#legend,#a#scale#bar,#and#a#north#
arrow.# However,# because# MapWindow# does# not# necessarily# place# these# items# in# the#
best# locations# on# the# map,# it# is# important# to# reassign# them# according# to# your# map#
design.##In#the#MapWindow#menu#bar,#go#to#Project,#and#then#choose#Print.#
#
#
Figure(4.6:(MapWindow(menu(bar.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 70#
The#MapWindow#Print#Layout#window#will#open#[Figure#4.7].#Notice#that#there#is#a#
pane#on#the#upper#rightChand#side#with#a#list#of#map#components.#We#can#edit#the#map#
by#choosing#the#relevant#components#from#this#list.#
#
#
Figure(4.7:(PPrint(LayoutP(window.(
First,#we#want#to#center#the#position#of#the#map#on#our#print#layout.#To#do#this,#in#the#
upper# right# hand# pane,# scroll# down# until# you# see# the# option# Map# 1# and# click# on# it.#
This#choice#gives#you#the#ability#to#move#the#map#on#the#main#pane.#Place#your#map#in#
the#visual#center#of#the#page#[Figure#4.8].#
(
Note:##
To# increase# or# decrease# the# size# of# your# map,# you# can# use# the and# #buttons.#
Please#note#that#these#buttons#are#activated#only#when#the#option#Map#1#is#selected.#
#
! 71#
#
Figure(4.8:(Placing(the(map(in(the(visual(center(of(the(page.(
#
Step(4:((
As# you# can# see# from# Figure# 4.8,# our# map# still# needs# work;# while# MapWindow# has#
generated#the#scale#bar#for#us,#placed#the#date#on#the#map,#and#provided#a#legend,#the#
map# remains# unbalanced.# Because# the# legend# and# the# MapWindow# logo# are# in# the#
wrong#places,#we#are#going#to#move#them#to#better#locations.##
#
In#the#upper#right#pane,#scroll#to#the#option#Legend#1#and#click#on#it;#this#allows#us#to#
move#the#legend.#With#your#mouse,#drag#the#legend#to#the#bottom#left#corner#area#of#the#
page,#above#the#date#created.##
#
Now# we# need# to# move# the# MapWindow# logo# to# a# place# where# it# will# not# draw# the#
readers#eyes#away#from#the#map.#The#best#location#for#this#purpose#is#the#right#of#our#
map.##
#
#
#
! 72#
From# the# list# of# elements# in# the# upperCright,# scroll# to# and# select# MapWindowLogo.#
Drag#the#MapWindow#logo#to#the#right#center#of#the#page#[Figure#4.9]:#
#
#
Figure(4.9:(Properly(place(legend(and(logo.(
#
Step(5:((
Our#map#is#beginning#to#look#more#balanced,#but#it#is#still#incomplete.#We#need#to#add#a#
title#to#the#map.#In#the#upper#right#pane,#scroll#to#and#select#ProjectName.#Now#look#
at#the#information#pane#below#the#component#list,#on#the#bottom#right.#You#will#see#a#
list# with# the# top# item# called# Layout.# These# are# fields# that# you# can# change# to# add# or#
edit#text#information#on#the#map.##
#
Map# titles# should# be# short# but# effective# in# telling# the# viewer# exactly# what# the# map#
depicts.#Because#our#map#is#of#the#administrative#regions#of#France,#that#is#what#our#title#
should#be.#Once#a#title#is#chosen,#we#want#to#add#it#to#the#map#in#a#clear,#easilyCreadable#
font.# Avoid# fancy# fonts# for# map# titles# because# those# fonts# will# draw# attention# away#
from#the#map#to#the#title.#We#are#going#to#use#the#Verdana#font,#and#we#want#it#large#
enough#to#be#read#easily,#but#not#so#large#that#it#overwhelms#the#map.##
#
! 73#
In# the# Layout# list,# locate# the# field# labeled# Font,# and# click# on# it.# Then# click# the# #
button#that#will#appear,#which#will#allow#you#to#select#and#customize#the#font.#Choose#
Verdana,# Regular,# and# 28# point.# Click# OK.# Now# move# your# cursor# to# the#
Text#box#below#the#Layout#list,#and#type#Administrative#Regions#of#France.##
#
The#title#will#now#show#up#on#the#map.#To#center#the#title,#drag#the#box#to#the#desired#
location##generally,#the#title#will#be#centered#above#the#map#[Figure#4.10].#
#
#
Figure(4.10:(Map(with(title.(
#
Notice# that# the# map# of# France# takes# center# place,# with# the# title,# legend,# compass# rose,#
scale# bar,# date# created,# and# MapWindow# logo# all# easily# readable# without# interfering#
with#the#map.#Those#are#the#hallmarks#of#a#wellCbalanced#map.#
#
To#save#the#map,#go#to#the#Projects#menu#and#then#select#the#Save#as#option.##We#
recommend#that#you#also#print#your#map#if#you#would#like#to#save#it#as#a#balanced#map.##
#
#
! 74#
Note:##
DO( NOT( SAVE( FROM( THE( PRINT( LAYOUT( WINDOW.# The# Save# option# in# the#
Print#Layout#window#will#save#the#layout,#which#will#cause#problems#when#you#use#the#
feature#on#a#different#map.#This#troublesome#issue#will#be#addressed#in#a#newer#version#
of#MapWindow.#
#
Congratulations!# This# exercise# has# taught# you# how# to# create# a# balanced# map# using#
colors# and# MapWindows# Print# Layout# feature.# As# always,# if# you# feel# that# you# need#
more#practice,#you#can#do#this#exercise#again.#Play#with#using#different#color#schemes,#
fonts,#and#placements#to#get#a#feel#for#how#map#balance#is#best#achieved.#You#can#also#
go# beyond# this# exercise# to# add# your# name# and# institutional# affiliation,# as# well# as#
information# about# the# datum# and# map# projection# you# used# to# create# the# map.# This#
additional#text#will#require#more#thought#about#how#to#balance#the#map.#
#
In# the# next# chapter,# we# will# explore# how# to# refine# our# map# even# more,# to# be# able# to#
create#maps#truly#tailored#for#ones#research.#We#will#also#explain#how#to#add#data#to#a#
map#layer#or#MapWindow#project.#We#strongly#recommend#that#from#this#point#on,#you#
open#MapWindow#as#you#read#a#new#chapter,#to#see#and#use#the#tools#as#we#introduce#
them.##
#
! 75#
CHAPTER(5:(Symbology(and(Data(Management(
Symbology(
Symbology#in#MapWindow#GIS#allows#the#user#to#change#the#symbols#and#appearance#
of#various#data#layers#to#enhance#the#communication#impact#of#the#project.#For#example,#
one#can#change#the#color#of#the#fill#within#the#shape#of#an#area,#the#transparency#of#the#
color,# or# the# design# of# the# fill# in# a# polygon.# Or# one# might# wish# to# change# the# color# or#
width#of#lines#or#of#the#border#around#an#area.#The#shapes,#sizes,#and#colors#of#points#
can#all#be#changed,#as#well.#Changing#these#features#on#the#map,#while#not#changing#the#
actual# data# of# a# project,# contributes# to# the# final# look# of# the# map# and# can# dramatically#
improve# its# readability.# The# wide# variety# of# tools# available# merits# a# closer# look# before#
we#begin#to#use#them#with#a#map.#
#
As# we# saw# in# the# previous# chapter,# MapWindow# offers# an# easy# way# to# change# the#
symbology#of#any#aspect#of#a#map#in#the#Properties#of#the#data#layer,#which#is#opened#
by# rightLclicking# on# the# data# layer# in# the# Legend# pane,# and# then# selecting# the#
Properties#option#[Figure#5.1].#
#
#
Figure(5.1:(The(Properties(option(for(a(data(layer.(
! 76#
This#choice#opens#a#window#with#several#tabs#across#the#top#[Figure#5.2].#Each#tab#
allows#the#user#to#manipulate#different#aspects#of#the#selected#layer.#
#
#
Figure(5.2:(The(General(tab(in(Layer(properties.(
#
The# General# tab# shows# a# preview# of# the# layer,# allows# users# to# see# the# name# of# the#
layer,#and#shows#information#about#that#layer,#such#as#its#projection,#location,#and#type#
of# shapefile.# From# this# window,# one# can# change# the# layer# name,# alter# the# layers#
projection,#turn#the#layers#visibility#on#and#off,#and#leave#detailed#notes#about#the#layer#
(also#known#as#metadata)#in#the#Description#field.#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 77#
The#Mode#tab#in#Layer#properties#contains#several#editing#features#[Figure#5.3].##
#
#
Figure(5.3:(The(Mode(tab(in(Layer(properties.(
(
The# Options# field# provides# three# specific# options,# which# can# be# turned# on# or# off# in#
this# tab.# The# Fast# drawing# mode# enables# the# program# to# draw# data# layers# more#
quickly.# The# Editing# mode# turns# on# and# off# editing# sessions.# When# turning# off# an#
editing# session,# the# user# is# given# the# opportunity# to# save# edits.# The# Spatial# index#
option#indexes#the#layers#spatial#data,#which#makes#searching#that#data#faster.#Another#
option#lets#one#adjust#the#minimum#size,#in#pixels,#of#shapes#to#be#drawn#and#labeled.#
Finally,#one#can#avoid#collisions#between#points,#or#between#points#and#labels,#by#using#
the#features#under#the#Collision#mode#section.###
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 78#
The# Appearance# tab# in# Layer# properties# allows# users# to# change# the# fill# color# and#
type#of#a#polygon,#the#shape#and#color#of#point#data,#or#the#color#and#width#of#a#line,#
depending#on#the#type#of#data#used#[Figure#5.4].##This#tab#also#allows#us#to#change#the#
transparency#of#a#layer,#which#can#be#useful#when#using#colored#layers#acquired#from#
other#sources,#or#when#digitizing#historical#maps.#
#
#
Figure(5.4:(The(Appearance(tab(in(Layer(properties.(
Clicking#More#options#reveals#the#Fill,#Outline,#and#Vertices#tabs,#with#which#
the# size,# color,# and# fill# type# can# be# changed,# the# color# and# width# of# lines# outlining#
shapes# can# be# changed,# and# the# color,# size,# and# shape# of# points# can# be# altered.# The#
More#options...#button#also#provides#the#user#with#several#drawing#options,#including#
changing# the# shape# of# points,# specifying# fonts# for# text,# incorporating# applicable# icons#
into# the# map,# and# otherwise# personalizing# the# map# colors# and# symbols.# The#
Appearance#tab#is#where#most#of#the#actual#symbology#options#are#located,#and#it#is,#
therefore,#the#one#with#which#you#should#become#particularly#familiar.#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 79#
The#Categories#tab#in#Layer#properties#enables#users#to#color#and#classify#schemes#
[Figure# 5.5].You# have# already# used# this# menu# in# the# exercise# for# Chapter# 4,# when# we#
made# our# map# of# the# administrative# regions# of# France.# This# tab# is# particularly# useful#
when# employing# color# to# display# variables# in# the# data,# such# as# percentages,# as# in# a#
choropleth# map,# or# when# using# a# random# color# scheme# to# make# large# areas,# such# as#
states,#counties,#or#provinces,#more#distinctive.#
#
#
Figure(5.5:(The(Categories(tab(of(Layer(properties.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 80#
The# Labels# tab# in# Layer# properties# is# used# to# label# the# features# on# a# map.# On# the#
main#page#of#this#tab,#the#user#can#create#labels#and#designate#whether#or#not#the#labels#
and#the#frames#surrounding#them#are#visible#[Figure#5.6].##
#
#
Figure(5.6:(The(Labels(tab(of(Layer(properties.(
#
This# control# over# visibility# is# useful# when# the# user# is# doing# cartographic# masking,# for#
example.#The#Setup...#button#permits#one#to#specify#more#information#regarding#the#
color,# style,# font,# frame,# visibility,# and# positioning# of# a# label.# If# one# decides# that# the#
changes#made#to#a#labels#or#its#frames#need#to#be#modified,#the#Clear#button#offers#an#
easy#way#to#remove#previous#changes.#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 81#
There#are#times#when#the#best#way#to#convey#geographic#information#to#ones#audience#
may#not#be#through#maps.#MapWindow#provides#the#option#of#creating#pie#charts#and#
bar# charts# based# upon# ones# data,# through# the# Charts# tab# in# Layer# properties#
[Figure#5.7].##
#
#
Figure(5.7:(The(Charts(tab(of(Layer(properties.(
#
For#example,#the#user#could#make#a#pie#chart#of#population#data#based#upon#population#
age#groups,#by#clicking#the#Setup...#button,#choosing#the#data#from#which#to#make#a#
chart,# and# then# determining# the# specifics# of# the# look# and# visibility# of# the# chart.# This#
window# also# offers# a# Clear# button# as# an# easy# way# to# remove# charts# if# one# changes#
ones#mind#about#those#specifics.#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 82#
The# last# tab# in# Layer# properties# is# the# Visibility# tab,# which# enables# users# to# turn#
labels#on#and#off#for#a#given#attribute#based#upon#the#scale#[Figure#5.8].#In#other#words,#
labels#can#be#turned#off#when#the#map#reader#zooms#out#to#a#certain#degree,#and#then#
turned#back#on#when#the#reader#zooms#back#into#a#specified#scale.#
#
#
Figure(5.8:(The(Visibility(tab(in(Layer(properties.(
Taken# together,# the# layer# properties# within# MapWindow# provide# a# wide# range# of#
methods# to# enhance# the# symbology,# readability,# and# functionality# of# ones# maps.#
Although# you# may# feel# overwhelmed# by# the# myriad# things# one# can# do# within# the#
various#tabs#of#the#layer#properties,#the#best#way#to#approach#these#tools#is#one#at#a#time.#
We# encourage# you# to# spend# some# time# playing# with# the# various# options# within# the#
Layer#properties#tabs,#to#become#more#familiar#with#these#tools.#As#you#become#more#
familiar# with# MapWindow,# you# will# be# able# to# perform# many# of# these# functions#
without#difficulty.###
#
Adding(Data(to(a(GIS(
One#way#that#GIS#allows#scholars#to#store#valuable#historical#data#is#in#a#shapefile.#This#
procedure#works#because#a#shapefile#allows#for#the#storage#of#any#kind#of#information#
in#its#attribute#table.#Ian#Gregory#and#Paul#S.#Ell,#authors#of#Historical*GIS:*Technologies,*
Methodologies*and*Scholarship,#have#argued#that#the#power#of#layers#in#GIS#does#not#come#
from#their#ability#to#display#data#on#a#map;#instead,#it#comes#from#the#ability#of#the#layer#
! 83#
to#store#and#integrate#data#from#a#variety#of#sources.1#Data#can#range#from#the#locations#
of# historical# events,# to# the# number# of# acres# of# farmland# in# a# medieval# township,# to#
disease#outbreaks,#to#religious#affiliation,#to#population#drift,#to#dietary#staples#such#as#
fish#and#herd#animals,#to#anything#else#a#user#wants#to#include.#Thus,#the#data#that#can#
be# stored# in# the# attribute# table# of# a# shapefile# goes# far# beyond# geographic# information#
such#as#public#buildings,#roads,#rivers,#administrative#units,#and#woodlands.2#Valuable#
primary#sources#also#can#be#stored#in#an#attribute#table#and#be#either#visualized#or#put#
to#use#in#a#spatial#analysis.#In#a#study#conducted#by#Robert#Churchill#and#Amy#Hillier,#
the# authors# used# police# arrests,# birth# and# death# records,# city,# church,# and# state#
directories,#mortgage#records,#and#census#information,#all#of#which#was#managed#in#a#
GIS.3#There# are# two# ways# to# add# data# to# a# MapWindow# project:# by# creating# a# new#
shapefile#or#by#creating#or#modifying#an#attribute#table#of#a#data#layer.#
#
Creating(a(New(Shapefile#
One# way# to# add# data# to# a# GIS# is# by# creating# a# new# shapefile.# As# we# discussed# in#
Chapter#2,#a#shapefile#is#comprised#of#several#different#files,#but#we#can#think#of#a#single#
shapefile#as#a#data#layer.#The#combination#of#point,#line,#and#polygon#shapefiles,#along#
with#any#other#data,#make#up#a#MapWindow#project#(.mwprj).#Before#we#can#create#a#
new# shapefile,# we# need# to# turn# on# the# shapefile# editor.# To# do# this,# open# MapWindow#
and#click#PlugLIns#in#the#main#menu,#and#then#select#Shapefile#Editor#[Figure#5.9].##
1#Ian#N.#Gregory#and#Paul#S.#Ell,#Historical*GIS:*Technologies,*Methodologies*and*Scholarship#(Cambridge,#
New#York:#Cambridge#University#Press,#2008),#37.#
2#Ibid.##
3#Robert#Churchill#and#Amy#Hillier,#Teaching#with#GIS,#in#Placing*History:*How*Maps,*Spatial*Data,*and*
GIS*are*Changing*Historical*Scholarship,#eds.#Anne#K.#Knowles#and#Amy#Hillier#(Redlands:#ESRI#Press,#
2008),#79.##
! 84#
#
Figure(5.9:(Opening(the(Shapefile(Editor(plugTin.(
(
This#will#create#a#new#tool#bar#across#the#top#of#the#MapWindow#panes,#and#add#a#new#
menu#option#on#the#leftLhand#side#of#the#main#menu#[Figure#5.10].##
#
#
Figure(5.10:(New(Shapefile(Editor(tool(bar.(
! 85#
#
To# create# a# new# shapefile,# click# on# the# Create# new# shapefile# button# ,# which# is#
now#located#in#the#upper#left#corner#of#the#screen#under#the#main#menu.#A#dialog#box#
will# appear,# as# seen# in# [Figure# 5.11].# Click# the# #button# to# select# the# location# where#
you#wish#to#save#the#new#shapefile.##
#
#
Figure(5.11:(New(shapefile(options.(
#
Remember# that# when# saving# a# GIS# project,# file# management# is# important.# You# may#
want# to# create# a# new# subfolder# within# your# Exercise# folder# and# call# it# Shapefile#
Practice.#After#designating#the#location#where#it#will#be#saved,#name#the#new#shapefile#
Practice_Point.# Under# Shapefile# Type,# select# Point,# and# click# OK.# The# new#
shapefile# will# appear# under# Data# Layers# on# the# leftLhand# side# of# the# screen,# and# a#
window#will#open#to#warn#you#that#an#empty#shapefile#has#been#created#[Figure#5.12].#
Click#OK.#
#
##
Figure(5.12:(Empty(shapefile(warning.(
! 86#
Editing(a(Shapefile(
We#have#created#an#empty#shapefile#that#needs#to#be#filled.#To#be#able#to#add#data#to#the#
new# shapefile,# click# the# shapefile# under# Data# Layers# in# the# Legend# pane# [Figure#
5.13].#
#
#
Figure(5.13:(Select(empty(data(layer(to(add(data.(
(
We#can#now#add#point#data#to#the#empty#shapefile#by#clicking#on#the#Add#New#Shape#
to# Current# Shapefile# button# .# The# Add# shape# points# screen# will# appear# [Figure#
5.14].#This#shows#the#X,#Y#coordinates#in#meters,#based#upon#the#position#of#the#cursor.#
Move#your#mouse#around#in#the#Map#pane#and#notice#how#the#numbers#in#the#X#and#Y#
boxes#in#Add#shape#points...#change.#
#
#
Figure(5.14:(Add(shape(points(window.(
(
#
#
#
#
#
! 87#
Select#the#location#where#you#would#like#to#add#a#point,#and#click#your#mouse.#A#new#
point#will#appear#in#the#Map#pane#[Figure#5.15].#
#
#
Figure(5.15:(New(point(created(in(the(empty(shapefile.(
(
This# method# of# adding# points# works# well# if# you# only# need# to# add# a# few# points# to# the#
shapefile;#however,#it#does#not#work#as#well#if#you#have#a#great#deal#of#data#to#add.#A#
more# efficient# way# to# add# many# points,# rather# than# clicking# the# Add# New# Shape# to#
Current# Shapefile# every# time,# is# to# click# on# the# Shapefile# Editor# in# the# main# menu#
and#choose#Stay#in#Add#Mode#when#Adding#[Figure#5.16],#and#then#click# the#Add#
New# Shape# to# Current# Shapefile# button.# This# enables# you# to# add# multiple# points#
consecutively.#
! 88#
#
Figure(5.16:(Shapefile(Editor(window.(
(
Attribute(Tables(
The#data#used#in#a#GIS#is#stored#in#a#spreadsheet#called#an#attribute#table.#Each#line,#or#
row,#in#the#spreadsheet#can#contain#data#held#in#a#number#of#columns;#the#number#of#
columns# and# the# type# of# data# each# column# holds# is# userLdefined,# making# the#
spreadsheet#accommodating#enough#to#hold#almost#any#type#of#information.#Microsoft#
Excel#and#OpenOffice#are#the#two#most#commonly#used#software#packages#for#creating#
spreadsheets.#If#you#do#not#have#either#of#these#programs,#you#will#need#to#download#
the#free#OpenOffice#software#to#be#able#to#create#the#necessary#attribute#tables#for#future#
exercises.#
#
The# attribute# table# not# only# stores# the# coordinate# data# for# points,# lines,# and# polygons,#
but#also#any#other#data#the#user#wants#to#have#associated#with#them.#For#example,#for#a#
map# of# the# United# States# that# displays# population# density# and# ethnic# diversity,# the#
attribute#table#can#contain#U.S.#Census#data#on#population#and#ethnicity#[Figure#5.17].#
The#user#can#define#what#types#of#attributes#and#how#many#fields#are#used#to#store#the#
data.#This#flexibility#is#one#of#the#reasons#GIS#can#be#useful#for#any#historical#project.##
! 89#
#
Figure(5.17:(Attribute(table(of(a(GIS(layer(containing(U.S.(census(data.(
(
Throughout#this#section,#we#will#demonstrate#various#ways#to#add#data#to#an#attribute#
table#in#MapWindow.#In#order#to#follow#along,#please#open#the#reprojected#shapefile#of#
France# created# in# the# exercise# for# Chapter# 3,# labeled# France.WGS84LUTM30N.# Open#
the#attribute#table#of#the#data#layer#by#rightLclicking#on#the#data#layer#and#then#clicking#
View#Attribute#Table#Editor#[Figure#5.18].###
#
#
Figure(5.18:(Attribute(Table(Editor(option.(
! 90#
Now#you#should#be#able#to#see#all#of#the#attribute#data#associated#with#this#map#layer#
[Figure# 5.19].# In# this# attribute# table,# the# NAME# field# lists# the# name# of# each#
administrative#region#of#France,#while#the#other#fields#contain#many#other#types#of#data#
associated#with#this#layer.#
#
#
Figure(5.19:(Attribute(Table(Editor(window.(
(
MapWindow# gives# users# the# ability# to# add# new# fields# to# these# existing# ones,# which#
permits#us#to#add#historical#data.#This#data#can#then#be#synthesized#with#the#coordinate#
data#in#the#attribute#table.#However,#entering#this#data#is#extremely#timeLconsuming,#so#
it# is# worth# spending# some# time# to# think# about# what# kinds# of# information# should# be#
included#to#give#additional#value#to#your#GIS#project.# #
#
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 91#
Adding(a(Field((
The#first#step#in#adding#new#information#to#an#attribute#table#is#creating#a#new#column,#
or#field,# within#the#attribute#table#to#hold#the#new#data.#To#add#a#new#field,#go#to#the#
Edit# menu# in# the# upper# left# corner# of# the# Attribute# Table# Editor# and# click# Add#
Field#[Figure#5.20]:#
(
(
Figure(5.20:(Adding(a(field(to(the(attribute(table.(
(
This#will#open#the#Create#Field#dialog#box#[Figure#5.21].#Enter#the#name#of#your#new#
field#into#the#Name#box;#for#our#purposes,#we#can#call#it#test.#Now#we#need#to#select#
which#type#of#data#we#will#be#entering.#
#
#
Figure(5.21:(Create(Field(dialog(box.(
(
Type# refers# to# the# kind# of# information# the# field# will# contain.# In# MapWindow,# there#
are#three#options.#The#first#type#in#the#dropLdown#menu#is#Double.#This#data#type#is#
used#to#input#a#number#that#contains#a#decimal,#such#as#123.456.#The#Precision#option#
is# grayed# out# unless# Double# is# chosen# under# data# type.# Precision# will# then# be#
activated# to# allow# the# user# to# specify# the# number# of# decimal# points# allowed# in# the#
associated#field.#Integer#data#is#a#positive#or#negative#whole#number,#such#as#100#or#L
47.#Finally,#String#data#is#a#sequence#of#characters#enclosed#by#quotation#marks#such#
as# this;# this# type# of# field# can# contain# words,# phrases,# or# alphanumeric# strings.# The#
Width#field#determines#how#long#a#text#string#can#be,#with#the#default#set#to#10.#For#
! 92#
longer# text# strings,# it# is# necessary# to# increase# the# corresponding# width.# Because#
historians# often# work# with# qualitative# information# rather# than# quantitative# data,# the#
string#field#feature#takes#on#great#importance.4##
#
To#recap,#to#add#data#to#an#attribute#table,#you#must#create#the#new#field#and#select#its#
type,# and# width# if# necessary.# For# this# demonstration,# select# Integer# and# click# OK.##
As#we#can#see#in#Figure#5.22,#when#a#new#field#is#added#to#an#existing#attribute#table,#
the# new# field# is# filled# with# a# Null# value,# which# the# user# must# replace# with# the#
relevant#data#by#entering#the#information#into#each#line#of#the#field.#You#can#add#and#fill#
as#many#fields#as#needed#for#your#particular#research#purposes.#
#
#
Figure(5.22:(New(field(added(to(attribute(table.(
#
Now# we# will# look# at# a# specific# example# to# clarify# this# procedure.# One# of# our# authors,#
Barbara# Stephenson,# is# studying# the# records# of# a# sixteenthLcentury# French# royal# law#
court#over#one#kings#reign,#a#32Lyear#period.#The#source#materials#come#from#the#daily#
records#of#the#court#and#include#information#such#as#the#number#of#the#folio#on#which#
the#material#is#found,#the#date#of#the#event,#the#type#of#event#(testimony,#commission,#
judgment,#etc.),#the#location#of#the#event,#and#the#names#of#the#individuals#involved.#At#
first#glance,#it#might#appear#that#the#only#relevant#information#for#a#map#would#be#the#
locations# of# the# events.# However,# using# additional# data# can# allow# the# researcher# to#
4#It#is#worth#noting#that#Lotfi#A.#Zadeh#has#established#fuzzy#set#theory#or#fuzzy#logic#to#provide#a#
viable#means#of#establishing#numerical#values#for#qualitative#information,#when#that#is#necessary#because#
of#the#inherent#complexity#of#reality.#See,#J.#B.#Owens#and#Emery#A.#Coppola,#Jr.,#Fuzzy#Set#Theory#(or#
Fuzzy#Logic)#to#Represent#the#Messy#Data#of#Complex#Human#(and#other)#Systems#
https://www.academia.edu/1100044/Fuzzy_Set_Theory_or_Fuzzy_Logic_to_Represent_the_Messy_Data_
of_Complex_Human_and_other_Systems,#accessed#21#December#2013.#
! 93#
identify,# for# example,# which# towns# were# more# likely# to# have# religious# conflicts# that#
required#court#intervention.#It#is#important,#therefore,#to#keep#the#name#and#event#type#
data#associated#with#the#place#data.#The#archival#location#of#the#source#material#(in#this#
case,#the#folio#number#of#a#court#record)#and#the#date#of#the#event#are#also#relevant#and#
should#be#associated#with#the#event#and#place#data.#Furthermore,#because#an#important#
aspect# of# the# study# is# the# analysis# of# social# interactions,# the# names# of# the# individuals#
involved#in#each#event#also#need#to#be#associated#with#the#event.#In#short,#all#the#data#in#
the#source#are#relevant#and#should#be#included#in#the#spreadsheet,#with#a#separate#field,#
or#column,#for#each#type.#In#a#GIS#project,#the#inclusion#of#all#the#data#associated#with#
the# research# also# makes# it# easier# for# later# scholars# to# build# upon# that# research,# even# if#
they#are#interested#in#different#aspects#of#the#data.#One#of#the#good#things#about#using#
GIS# for# historical# research# is# that# a# project# can# be# extended# and# corrected# through#
subsequent#research.#
#
GIS# programs# will# typically# incorporate# attribute# tables# produced# using# spreadsheet#
software.# In# MapWindow,# we# can# either# enter# data# directly# into# the# new# field# we#
created,#or#we#can#use#some#type#of#spreadsheet#software,#such#as#Microsoft#Excel.#We#
have# already# discussed# how# to# enter# your# own# information# manually# into# new# fields#
within# MapWindow.# However,# when# dealing# with# a# large# quantity# of# data,# a# more#
efficient# way# to# incorporate# your# own# data# into# MapWindow# is# by# creating# a# new#
spreadsheet,# filling# in# the# data,# and# then# adding# it# to# the# existing# attribute# table.# The#
exercise#at#the#end#of#this#chapter#will#guide#you#through#the#process#of#inputting#data#
into#a#spreadsheet#and#then#transferring#the#data#into#the#attribute#table#of#a#given#layer.#
If# you# do# not# have# the# spreadsheet# program# you# need,# OpenLOffice# provides# a# free,#
openLsource#option.#This#suite#also#includes#document,#presentation,#database,#drawing,#
and#other#software.##
(
! 94#
EXERCISE(5(
We#have#learned#how#to#use#attribute#tables#to#store#data#in#a#shapefile,#and#how#to#add#
data# to# a# MapWindow# shapefile.# Now# we# are# going# to# learn# how# to# mine,# or# extract#
valuable# historical# information# from# narratives# and# documents# and# store# this#
information#in#the#attribute#table#of#a#shapefile.#Then#we#will#learn#how#to#add#this#data#
to# a# map.# As# usual,# you# will# want# to# create# a# subfolder# for# this# exercise,# labeled#
Exercise5.#
#
Task:##
We# will# use# actual# primary# source# data# from# our# authors# research# on# a# sixteenthL
century#French#law#court#and#add#it#to#our#map#of#France#from#Exercise#3.#We#will#then#
plot#the#location#data#on#the#map.#
(
Step(1:((
The# information# that# we# are# going# to# use# to# create# our# attribute# table# comes# from# the#
following#excerpts#from#the#primary#sources#being#used#for#a#research#project#by#one#of#
our#authors.#The#italicized#information#indicates#the#event#type#and#the#event#location.#
#
Folio(51,(17(Dec(1537(
On# the# said# day,# permission# was# given# to# Monsieur# de# Casaux# to# go# and# execute# the#
arrt# of# Monsieur# de# Couillard,# and# to# bring# the# said# de# Couillard# to# the# court,# to# be#
made#to#pay#for#his#damages#to#interests#in#Berbigueres.#judgment,*Berbigures.*
#
Folio(88,(18(Feb(1537(
The#said#day#were#presented#by#Monsieur#de#la#Chassaigne#certain#letters#patent#given#
at#Lyon#on#the#28#of#last#February.#By#which#the#said#de#la#Chassaigne#is#commissioned#
to#raise#the#deniers#of#the#generality#of#Guyenne#for#this#year,#requiring#that#he#vacate#
his#position#in#the#court#for#this#period.#royal*appointment,*Lyon.*
*
Folio(301,(21(Dec(1538(
The# said# day# permission# was# granted# to# Monsieur# de# Bouchier# to# be# absent# until# the#
Feast#of#Kings,#to#go#to#La#Reolle.#permission,*La*Role.##
#
Folio(510,(19(Dec(1539(
The#said#day#permission#was#given#to#Monsieur#the#First#President#to#go#on#commission#
to# the# inhabitants# of# Monpezac,# until# a# fortnight# after# the# Feast# of# Kings.# commission,*
Monpezat.*
#
! 95#
Step(2:(
We# need# to# open# a# new# spreadsheet# in# Excel# or# OpenOffice# and# enter# the# data# as#
shown,#adding#longitude#and#latitude#for#each#location#[Figure#5.1].#You#should#define#
the#column#types#for#the#date,#longitude,#and#latitude#as#number.#
(
Place( Modern( Event( Date( Long( Lat( F(type(
Berbigueres( Berbigures( judgment( 17/12/1537( 1.03( 44.83( town(
Lyon( Lyon( royal( 23/1/1537( 4.83( 45.76( town(
appointment(
La(Reolle( La(Role( permission( 21/12/1538( T0.03( 44.58( town(
Monpezac( Monpezat( commission( 19/12/1539( 0.52( 44.35( town(
Figure(5.1:(Source(data(in(a(spreadsheet(format.(
(
As#you#can#see#by#looking#at#the#place#names#in#our#table,#the#modern#place#name#can#
differ# from# the# name# in# the# historical# record.# Because# sources# for# geographic#
coordinates#use#modern#place#names,#it#essential#for#the#success#of#your#map#project#to#
make#sure#you#are#searching#for#the#coordinates#under#the#correct#name.#
(
Note:##
For# this# exercise,# we# have# provided# the# longitude# and# latitude# for# each# town.# As# you#
become#more#proficient#with#MapWindow#and#begin#to#use#it#with#your#own#data,#you#
will# need# to# find# the# necessary# geographic# coordinates# for# yourself.# There# are# many#
sources#available#for#this#online,#such#as#Google#Maps.##
#
Although# we# have# only# included# four# towns# in# our# spreadsheet# for# this# exercise,# it# is#
possible# to# add# as# many# towns# or# other# point# data# as# needed# for# your# own# project,#
whether#that#is#a#dozen#locations#or#thousands.#This#aspect#of#using#a#GIS#can#be#very#
timeLconsuming,#depending#on#the#size#of#your#data#set.#
#
Now# that# we# have# created# the# attribute# table,# we# need# to# save# it# as# an# .xls# file.# In#
Excel#or#Open#Office,#name#your#file#France_locations,#and#save#it#as#an#.xls#file#in#
your#Exercise#5#subfolder.#If*you*are*using*a*version*of*Excel*that*is*more*recent*than*2003,*
make*sure*you*save*the*file*as*an*.xls*file,*not*as*the*default*.xlsx*file,*by*saving*it*in*the*
Excel* 97T2003* format.# Once# you# have# saved# your# spreadsheet,# close# Excel# or#
OpenOffice.#
(
(
(
! 96#
Step(3:((
To# complete# this# exercise,# we# will# use# the# shapefile# of# France# that# was# created# in#
Exercise# 3.# Open# MapWindow,# and# go# to# your# Exercise3# subfolder# to# load# the#
France.WGS#84##UTM#zone#30N#shapefile#[Figure#5.2].#
#
#
Figure(5.2:(France.WGS84(T(UTM(zone(30N(shapefile.(
Step(4:((
To# add# the# data# from# the# spreadsheet# we# just# created# to# a# shapefile# and# then# plot# the#
locations,#we#need#to#add#the#Spatial#Converter#function#to#MapWindow.#Go#to#the#
PlugLins# options# in# the# top# menu# and# click# on# Spatial# Converter,# as# shown# in#
Figure#5.3:#
#
#
Figure(5.3:(Spatial(Converter(plugTin.(
! 97#
In#Spatial#Converter,#click#Import#to#a#shapefile;#then#click#Import#from#excel.#
The#ImportXLS#window#then#will#appear#[Figure#5.4].#
#
# #
Figure(5.4:(dImportXLSd(window.(
#
Click# the# #button# next# to# the# Input# file# line,# navigate# to# your# Exercise# 5#
subfolder,#and#choose#the#France_locations.xls#file#that#you#saved#in#step#2.##
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 98#
In#the#Workbook#box,#select#Sheet1#and#click#the#Open#File#button#[Figure#5.5].#
#
#
Figure(5.5:(Completed(dImportXLSd(window.(
#
Confirm#that#points#is#selected#in#Data#Type,#then#click#the#Convert#button#at#the#
bottom#of#the#screen.#Leave#the#other#options#as#set.#
#
MapWindow# will# ask# where# you# would# like# to# save# the# new# shapefile.# Choose# your#
Exercise#5#subfolder#and#close#the#ImportXLS#window.#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 99#
Step(5:((
MapWindow# will# ask# if# you# want# to# assign# a# projection# to# the# new# shapefile# [Figure#
5.6].#Choose#Ignore#the#absence,#and#click#Ok.#We#will#manually#assign#a#projection#
to#the#shapefile.#
#
#
Figure(5.6:(dProjection(absenced(window.(
#
If#you#look#at#the#Legend#pane,#you#should#see#a#new#layer#called#France_locations,#
which#is#a#point#data#layer.#RightLclick#on#it#and#select#Zoom#to#layer.#The#four#points#
from#the#spreadsheet#should#now#show#on#your#screen#as#a#layer#[Figure#5.7].#
#
#
Figure(5.7:(Point(layer(from(the(imported(spreadsheet.(
! 100#
Obviously,#this#point#layer#does#not#indicate#anything#meaningful,#because#there#is#no#
other#information#associated#with#it.#We#need#to#assign#a#projection#to#the#data#layer#so#
that#MapWindow#knows#where#to#place#these#points.##
#
Step(6:((
To# assign# a# projection# to# the# shapefile# so# that# the# four# points# are# aligned# with# our#
France.WGS#84##UTM#zone#30N#shapefile,#switch#to#Toolbox#in#the#Legend#pane.##
In#Projections,#doubleLclick#on#Assign#Projection#to#Shapefile#[Figure#5.8].#
#
#
Figure(5.8:(Projections(options(in(the(Toolbox(menu.(
#
The# Assign# Projection# window# will# open# [Figure# 5.9].# Click# the# +# button# in# the#
rightLhand#pane.#Check#the#France_locations#layer,#and#click#Ok.##
#
#
Figure(5.9:(dAssign(Projectiond(window.(
! 101#
In#the#leftLhand#pane,#select#the#Geographical#folder#and#choose#WGS#84.#Click#the#
button#Assign,#and#then#click#Close.#You#should#see#the#message#that#the#projection#
assignment#was#successful#[Figure#5.10].#
#
#
Figure(5.10:(Successful(projection(message.(
#
Now# that# we# have# added# a# projection,# we# need# to# reproject# it# with# the# correct# UTM#
zone,# just# as# we# did# in# Exercise# 3.# Go# back# to# Projections# and# choose# Reproject#
layers#[Figure#5.11].##
#
#
Figure(5.11:(dReproject(layersd(window.(
#
Click# the# +# button# in# the# bottom# rightLhand# pane# and# select# the# France_locations#
layer.# In# the# folder# list# in# the# leftLhand# pane,# select# World# # WGS84# UTM#
Northern#Hemisphere,#and#choose#WGS#84/#UTM#zone#30#N.##
#
Click#Reproject,#and#then#Close.#
#
#
! 102#
You#will#be#asked#if#you#want#to#add#layers#to#the#project#[Figure#5.12].#Click#Yes:#
#
#
Figure(5.12:(Add(layers(question(screen.(
#
Step(7:((
We#can#now#see#in#the#Layers#list#a#new#layer#that#contains#a#map#of#France#with#our#
four# points.# Go# to# the# Layers# view# in# the# Legend# pane,# which# now# contains# the#
new#layer#France_locations.#WGS84##UTM#zone30N.##RightLclick#this#new#layer#and#
choose#Zoom#to#layer#to#see#this#new#layer#[Figure#5.13].##
#
You#can#identify#each#point#using#the#Identify## #button.#
#
#
Figure(5.13:(Map(of(France(with(points(representing(our(towns.(
! 103#
Congratulations!# You# have# successfully# added# information# to# a# map# by# creating# an#
attribute#table#(spreadsheet)#to#hold#the#data,#importing#it#into#MapWindow,#adding#the#
correct#projection#to#it,#and#adding#it#to#a#preLexisting#map!#Now#you#can#save#this#new#
map#to#your#Exercise#5#folder;#we#named#it#NewFrance_locations,#but#you#can#give#
it#a#different#name#if#you#choose.#
#
As#always,#if#you#do#not#feel#comfortable#with#the#steps#in#the#exercise,#you#should#redo#
the#exercise#until#you#are#comfortable,#before#moving#on#to#the#next#chapter.#
#
Now#that#you#have#learned#the#basics#of#loading#and#editing#shapefiles#and#adding#data#
to# a# project,# you# are# ready# to# start# using# MapWindow# to# do# basic# analysis# of# spatial#
data.##
#
! 104#
CHAPTER(6:(Basic(Spatial(Analysis(
MapWindow$ provides$ a$ variety$ of$ ways$ to$ analyze$ geographic$ data.$ This$ type$ of$
analysis$ is$ known$ as$ spatial( analysis.$ A$ fundamental$ way$ to$ do$ so$ is$ to$ create$ and$
manipulate$ point$ and$ line$ data.$ This$ chapter$ will$ discuss$ the$ geocoding,$ clipping,$
buffering,$and$intersect$tools$in$MapWindow.$We$will$also$discuss$how$these$tools$can$
assist$you$in$analyzing$historical$data.$$$
(
Geocoding(
Geocoding$assigns$X$and$Y$coordinates,$or$longitude$and$latitude$values,$to$addresses,$
cities,$ or$ other$ data$ that$ can$ be$ represented$ with$ points.$ This$ process$ allows$ the$
mapmaker$to$place$buildings,$towns,$or$virtually$any$data$that$could$be$represented$as$
points$ in$ their$ exact$ geographic$ location$ on$ the$ map.$ As$ we$ have$ seen,$ the$ more$
accurate$a$map$is,$the$more$useful$it$will$be.$Most$of$us$do$not$know$what$the$X$and$Y$
coordinates$ are$ for$ a$ given$ location;$ however,$ there$ are$ various$ online$ tools$ to$ find$
these$coordinates.$In$MapWindow,$a$plugGin$can$be$added$that$allows$the$cartographer$
to$ use$ Google$ Geocoder.$ To$ set$ up$ this$ tool,$ click$ PlugGins$ in$ the$ main$ menu$ bar$
[Figure$6.1].$$
$
$
Figure(6.1:(The(PlugAIns(menu.(
! 105$
Choose$the$Google$Geocoder$option,$which$will$add$a$new$choice$to$the$main$menu$
[Figure$6.2].$Now$click$on$the$Google$Geocoder$option,$which$will$be$next$to$the$Help$
option$on$the$top$menu.$$
$
$
Figure(6.2:(The(Google(Geocoder(tab(on(the(main(menu(bar.(
$
The$ window$ that$ opens$ will$ offer$ three$ options:$ Find$ an$ address,$ Geocode$
address(es),$or$About$PlugGin$[Figure$6.3].$$
$
$
Figure(6.3:(Google(Geocoder(window.(
(
For$ our$ purposes$ here,$ click$ Geocode$ address(es).$ A$ message$ box$ will$ appear$
informing$ you$ that$ there$ is$ a$ Key$ missing,$ and$ telling$ you$ that$ You$ must$ enter$ a$
Google$API$key$in$the$about$plugGin$menu$[Figure$6.4].$$
$
$
Figure(6.4:(API(key(warning.(
$
Click$OK$to$open$the$about$plugGin$menu$[Figure$6.5],$which$will$allow$you$to$locate$
the$ correct$ API$ key.$ An$ API$ key$ is$ an$ application$ programming$ interface$ key.$ It$
allows$people$to$access$a$websites$application$programming$interface,$and$in$this$case,$
it$permits$you$to$enter$your$institutional$affiliation,$which$will$be$used$to$calculate$your$
geographic$ location$ and$ to$ track$ how$ many$ locations$ you$ geocode$ with$ the$ Google$
plugGin.$$
! 106$
(
Figure(6.5:(About(window(for(Google(Geocoder.(
(
To$obtain$an$API$key,$and$therefore$the$right$to$use$the$Google$Geocoder$tool,$simply$
enter$ the$ URL$ of$ the$ institution$ of$ which$ you$ are$ affiliated,$ for$ example$
http://www.isu.edu,$in$the$Your$API$key$box.$Upon$entering$the$URL,$a$window$will$
open$in$which$you$can$enter$landmarks$or$addresses$you$may$wish$to$geocode.$
(
Once$you$have$gone$through$these$steps,$you$are$ready$to$use$the$Google$Geocoder.$To$
test$its$functionality,$go$to$Geocode$Addresses,$and$type$a$series$of$landmark$names$
or$addresses$[Figure$6.6].$
$
! 107$
$
Figure(6.6:(Geocode(List(of(Addresses(Dialogue(Box.(
Alternatively,$ MapWindow$ allows$ you$ to$ add$ a$ long$ list$ of$ addresses$ by$ uploading$ a$
text$ file$ of$ the$ addresses$ to$ the$ geocoder.$ Once$ you$ have$ added$ the$ addresses,$ make$
sure$ the$ button$ Create$ new$ point$ layer$ is$ selected,$ and$ then$ click$ the$ Geocode$
button.$ The$ Verify$ Geocoding$ Results$ screen$ will$ open$ [Figure$ 6.7].$ Click$ each$
address$ to$ see$ the$ accuracy$ of$ the$ results.$ Results$ should$ be$ given$ an$ accuracy$ level$
between$one$and$nine,$where$nine$is$the$most$accurate.$If$the$accuracy$column$reports$a$
600$or$higher,$the$Google$Geocoder$has$been$unable$to$locate$that$address.$Note$that$the$
last$ two$ fields$ in$ the$ row$ show$ the$ latitude$ and$ longitude$ of$ a$ given$ address$ or$
landmark.$$
$
! 108$
$
Figure(6.7:(The(Verify(Geocoding(Results(Screen.(
$
When$you$are$satisfied$with$your$results,$click$Done.$You$will$be$asked$to$save$your$
new$ points$ as$ a$ shapefile.( Name$ the$ shapefile$ something$ easily$ remembered,$ such$ as$
WorldLandmarks$or$ResearchCities.$
$
How(to(Find(X,(Y(Coordinates(
Although$ the$ Google$ Geocoder$ will$ provide$ the$ longitude$ and$ latitude$ of$ most$
addresses$or$landmarks,$it$will$yield$an$accuracy$rating$of$600$to$indicate$if$it$does$not$
recognize$the$location.$In$some$cases,$Google$Geocoder$cannot$differentiate$between$the$
address$being$geocoded$and$similar$addresses$if$there$are$multiple$occurrences$of$the$
address$ in$ different$ locations$ (e.g.,$ 123$ Main$ Street,$ with$ no$ town$ information).$ This$
inability$ to$ differentiate$ can$ be$ a$ real$ problem$ for$ historians,$ especially$ for$ those$
working$on$preGtwentiethGcentury$history.$Therefore,$it$can$be$crucial$to$determine$the$
modern$names$of$the$locations$in$which$you$are$interested.$$
$
If$ you$ ever$ need$ coordinate$ data$ for$ addresses,$ there$ are$ other$ places$ online$ that$ can$
provide$ this$ information.$ We$ will$ use$ Google$ Maps$ to$ discover$ the$ coordinates$ of$
certain$ locations,$ in$ part$ because$ Google$ Maps$ works$ with$ MapWindow,$ and$ in$ part$
because$ it$ is$ so$ easy$ to$ use.$ To$ obtain$ coordinates$ from$ Google$ Maps,$ input$ either$ an$
address$ or$ the$ name$ of$ a$ place,$ such$ as$ Tcume,$ Peru,$ home$ of$ several$ preGHispanic$
pyramids.$ Once$ Google$ Maps$ has$ come$ up$ with$ the$ correct$ location,$ a$ pinpoint$ will$
appear$ on$ the$ map.$ To$ discover$ the$ coordinates$ of$ that$ location,$ right$ click$ on$ the$
! 109$
pinpoint$ and$ select$ Whats$ Here.$ The$ coordinates$ will$ appear$ in$ the$ search$ bar,$
showing$latitude$first,$and$then$longitude.$
$
After$the$mapmaker$has$added$the$data$points$through$geocoding,$or$through$using$a$
map$acquired$from$a$different$source,$it$is$often$necessary$to$edit$that$map$to$eliminate$
extraneous$data.$We$will$now$turn$to$various$ways$to$edit$the$visual$data$of$a$map.$$
(
Clipping(
There$ are$ times$ when$ a$ mapmaker$ needs$ to$ excise$ unnecessary$ data$ to$ customize$ a$
map:$for$example,$when$line$data$such$as$roads,$rivers,$or$railroads$extend$beyond$the$
borders$of$the$polygon$with$which$you$are$working,$you$might$want$to$cut,$or$clip,(the$
line$data.$In$Figure$6.8,$the$outline$of$Idaho$indicates$the$area$of$the$map$in$which$we$
are$interested,$but$river$data$for$the$entire$area$of$the$contiguous$United$States$obscures$
this$ area.$ To$ access$ the$ clipping$ tool,$ click$ Toolbox$ in$ the$ Legend$ pane,$ open$ the$
Overlay$folder,$and$select$the$clipping$tool.$This$tool$allows$line$data$to$be$truncated$
so$that$it$is$displayed$only$within$the$specified$polygon$[Figure$6.9].$$
$
$
Figure(6.8:(Map(with(unwanted(line(data.(
! 110$
$
Figure(6.9:(The(Shapefile(Clipping(Dialog(Box.(
$
We$loaded$the$shapefile$rivers$in$the$Subject$shapefile$box$because$that$is$the$layer$
to$be$clipped.$We$selected$Idaho$as$the$Clipping$shapefile$because$it$is$the$layer$to$
which$ we$ want$ to$ map$ the$ rivers,$ and$ then$ we$ clicked$ OK.$ Figure$ 6.10$ shows$ the$
result$of$the$clipping$operation.$
$
$
Figure(6.10:(The(result(of(clipping(the(rivers(to(the(outline(of(the(state(of(Idaho.(
! 111$
Adding(and(Moving(Vertices(
Other$ techniques$ for$ editing$ layers$ in$ MapWindow$ include$ adding$ or$ moving$ the$
vertices$of$a$line$or$polygon.$This$technique$has$particular$relevance$for$historians,$who$
often$must$recreate$maps$in$digital$form$to$apply$the$analytical$capabilities$of$GIS.$To$
practice,$open$the$New$Shapefile$PlugGin$in$the$PlugGins$menu$and$click$the$New$
button$located$on$the$far$left$side$of$the$screen.$To$add$vertices$to$a$polygon,$click$the$
Add$vertices$button.$LeftGclick$around$the$edges$of$the$polygon$wherever$you$wish$to$
add$ vertices.$ The$ more$ vertices$ a$ polygon$ has,$ the$ more$ detail$ it$ can$ have.$ When$ you$
are$ finished$ adding$ vertices,$ click$ the$ Move$ vertices$ button.$ Hover$ the$ mouse$ over$
one$of$the$vertices$you$have$just$added$and$leftGclick;$this$action$will$allow$you$to$drag$
the$vertex$to$a$new$location.$This$procedure$will$let$you$draw$a$new$line$exactly$where$
it$is$needed,$or$to$move$an$existing$line$to$a$correct$location.$If$you$are$moving$a$line,$
once$you$have$placed$the$new$vertices$in$the$proper$locations,$you$can$delete$the$old,$
inaccurate$or$unneeded$ones$by$using$the$Remove$vertices$button.$
(
Buffering,(Querying,(and(Intersecting(
There$ are$ other$ ways$ to$ analyze$ the$ map$ data$ once$ you$ have$ created$ your$ historical$
map.$However,$to$use$some$of$these$tools,$you$need$a$completed,$saved$map$project$to$
which$ MapWindow$ has$ allocated$ a$ scale$ bar.$ One$ powerful$ tool$ is$ buffering,$ which$
places$a$buffer$zone$around$userGdefined$points$on$the$map.((This$tool$allows$the$user$
to$ create$ a$ polygon$ that$ encompasses$ a$ defined$ portion$ of$ the$ map,$ and$ to$ determine$
the$ distances$ between$ the$ center$ of$ this$ new$ polygon$ and$ other$ locations$ on$ the$ map.$
The$new$polygon,$or$buffer,$can$be$placed$at$a$distance$determined$by$the$user$around$
a$ point,$ line,$ or$ polygon.$ Prior$ to$ buffering$ a$ point,$ line,$ or$ polygon,$ you$ must$ first$
project$the$data$with$which$you$are$working;$if$you$do$not$do$so,$the$size$of$the$buffer$
will$ be$ defined$ in$ unspecified$ map$ units.$ Therefore,$ it$ is$ better$ to$ know$ the$ type$ of$
unit$with$which$you$are$working$prior$to$buffering$data.$If$necessary,$you$can$change$
the$ measurement$ units$ associated$ with$ your$ map$ by$ rightGclicking$ the$ scale$ bar,$ then$
clicking$ Change$ Display$ Units$ [Figure$ 6.11].$ This$ procedure$ permits$ you$ to$ be$ sure$
which$unit$of$measurement$is$being$used$on$the$map,$and$for$the$buffer.$
$
! 112$
$
Figure(6.11:(Change(Display(Units(tool,(which(appears(when(rightAclicking(on(the(
maps(scale(bar.(
$
The$ buffering$ tool$ helps$ visualize$ proximity$ and$ can$ also$ help$ to$ answer$ historical$
questions.$ For$ example,$ imagine$ that$ you$ are$ studying$ the$ outbreak$ and$ spread$ of$ a$
waterborne$ disease.$ It$ may$ be$ useful$ to$ track$ cases$ of$ that$ disease$ by$ using$ buffers$
around$ three$ known$ wells.$ To$ apply$ a$ buffer,$ go$ to$ Toolbox$ in$ the$ Legend$ pane,$
open$the$Standard$folder,$and$then$doubleGclick$Buffer$Shapes.$In$the$window$that$
opens,$choose$the$layer$you$wish$to$buffer,$along$with$the$distance$and$map$units$you$
wish$to$use$[Figure$6.12].$
$
Figure(6.12:(This(buffer(overlaps(at(three(points.(
$
Often$ when$ buffering,$ as$ in$ our$ well$ example,$ you$ may$ want$ to$ show$ where$ things$
overlap.$ To$ achieve$ this$ visualization,$ we$ can$ use$ the$ intersection$ tool$ located$ in$ the$
Overlays$ folder$ of$ the$ Toolbox.$ This$ procedure$ works$ particularly$ well$ when$
combining$multiple$pieces$of$information.$For$example,$suppose$we$are$trying$to$locate$
where$a$historical$event$occurred$using$the$evidence$of$two$witnesses.$Based$upon$their$
! 113$
accounts,$ we$ know$ where$ each$ of$ the$ individuals$ was$ positioned$ with$ relation$ to$ the$
event.$With$this$information,$we$can$deduce$approximately$where$the$event$occurred.$
In$the$Shapefiles$Intersection$window,$we$input$the$two$shapefiles$representing$our$
witnesses$and$enter$a$filename$to$save$the$result$[Figure$6.13].$$
$
$
Figure(6.13:(The(Shapefiles(Intersection(box.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 114$
If$each$buffer$represents$how$much$of$the$scene$an$eyewitness$could$see,$the$event$must$
have$ occurred$ within$ the$ intersection$ of$ the$ buffers.$ The$ resulting$ shapefile$ yields$ the$
area$ over$ which$ the$ two$ buffers$ overlap$ [Figure$ 6.14],$ which$ MapWindow$ has$
darkened$for$us.$
$
$
Figure(6.14:(The(darker(portion(between(these(buffers(shows(the(intersection.(
Another$important$analytical$tool$is$querying,$which$allows$the$user$to$select$data$that$
fit$a$certain$criterion.$To$write$a$query,$the$user$must$build$a$logical$expression$using$
Boolean$ operators$ and$ define$ the$ information$ to$ be$ used$ to$ answer$ the$ query.$ It$ is$
important$to$note$that$the$logical$expression$of$the$query$must$be$entered$precisely$or$
the$ query$ will$ not$ run.1$To$ open$ the$ query$ tool,$ you$ must$ rightGclick$ on$ the$ desired$
layer$and$select$the$Attribute$Table$Editor.$Next,$click$Selection.$In$the$Selection$
window,$ choose$ Query.$ In$ the$ Query$ window,$ all$ the$ fields$ of$ the$ shapefile$ will$
appear,$along$with$a$calculator$that$enables$the$user$to$build$a$Boolean$equation$[Figure$
6.15].$The$calculator$lets$us$build$query$expressions,$such$as$AND$and$OR,$as$well$
as$determining$relative$values$such$as$less$than$or$equal$to$or$greater$than.$
1$If$you$are$not$familiar$with$Boolean$logic,$you$should$consult$Wikipedia$or$other$sources$for$an$
explanation.$
! 115$
$
Figure(6.15:(This(query(expression(will(identify(states(which(had(at(least(10(million(
acres(of(crops(under(cultivation(in(1987.(
$
We$ have$ written$ a$ query$ to$ identify$ which$ states$ had$ at$ least$ 10$ million$ acres$ under$
cultivation$ in$ 1987.$ The$ field$ CROP_ACR87$ contains$ the$ number$ of$ acres$ under$
cultivation$ for$ each$ state.$ Our$ query$ asks$ MapWindow$ for$ all$ states$ for$ which$
CROP_AC87$is$equal$to$or$greater$than$10$million.$Notice$that$we$have$not$used$any$
commas$ in$ 10000000;$ this$ is$ done$ because$ MapWindow$ does$ not$ permit$ commas$ in$
numbers$ in$ Boolean$ expressions.$ After$ executing$ a$ specific$ query,$ we$ can$ export$ the$
selected$features$and$save$them$as$a$new$shapefile$by$clicking$on$Selection$and$then$
Export$Selected$Features$within$the$Attribute$Table$Editor$[Figure$6.16].$$
$
Figure(6.16:(After(selecting(features(using(the(query(tool,(they(can(be(exported(as(a(
new(shapefile.(
We$ can$ see$ the$ results$ of$ our$ query$ in$ Figure$ 6.17.$ The$ shaded$ states$ had$ at$ least$ 10$
million$ acres$ under$ cultivation$ in$ 1987.$ Our$ query$ was$ a$ very$ simple$ one,$ but$ it$ is$
possible$ to$ construct$ more$ complex$ queries$ in$ MapWindow.$ Moreover,$ because$ the$
! 116$
user$can$save$the$results$of$a$query,$it$is$possible$to$do$iterative$queries$on$the$data,$to$
narrow$the$data$being$analyzed$based$on$userGdefined$criteria.$
$$
$
Figure(6.17:(The(result(of(our(query(about(cultivated(acreage.(
Conclusion(
In$ this$ chapter$ we$ have$ discussed$ a$ variety$ of$ methods$ that$ can$ be$ used$ to$ analyze$
spatial$ data.$ By$ using$ the$ geocoding,$ buffering,$ intersection,$ and$ querying$ tools,$ you$
can$perform$different$types$of$spatial$analysis$on$the$data$you$are$using.$In$Exercise$6,$
we$will$apply$each$of$these$techniques$to$a$realistic$scenario$using$historical$data.$
! 117$
EXERCISE(6(
This$ exercise$ will$ demonstrate$ how$ to$ use$ MapWindow$ to$ perform$ basic$ spatial$
analysis$ to$ answer$ a$ specific$ question$ by$ adding$ points,$ clipping$ a$ layer,$ and$ using$ a$
buffer.$We$will$use$Google$Geocoder$to$plot$our$points,$and$the$Intersection$tool$to$
determine$which$points$are$located$within$the$buffer.$
$
Task:((
Imagine$ that$ you$ are$ a$ French$ historian$ who$ wants$ to$ find$ out$ which$ of$ the$ towns$
mentioned$ in$ your$ primary$ sources$ about$ the$ Sud$Ouest$ of$ France$ are$ located$ within$
10,000$meters$of$a$river.$To$answer$this$question,$we$need$to$plot$those$towns$on$a$map$
of$ that$ region;$ then$ add$ the$ rivers;$ and$ use$ a$ buffer$ to$ determine$ which$ towns$ are$
within$the$desired$area.$We$will$use$the$map$of$France$again,$used$in$earlier$exercises,$
although$you$will$need$to$download$a$new$shapefile.$$
$
Step(1:(
Go$to$http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wpG
content/uploads/exercises/exercise6.zip$
$
When$the$file$has$downloaded,$extract$the$files$to$your$MapWindow$Exercises$folder.$
$
Step(2:((
Open$MapWindow$and$using$the$Add$button,$navigate$to$your$Exercise$6$folder.$
Select$the$fra_area_reprojected$shapefile,$which$is$the$same$shapefile$that$you$created$
in$Exercise$3$[Figure$6.1].$
$
$
Figure(6.1:(fra_area_reprojected(shapefile.(
! 118$
Step(3:((
Because$we$are$only$interested$in$the$Sud$Ouest)of$France,$we$are$going$to$export$just$
that$ area$ as$ a$ new$ shapefile.$ Click$ the$ Select$ button$ $$ in$ the$ MapWindows$
menu$bar.$Then$click$on$the$area$of$the$map$that$corresponds$to$the$Sud$Ouest$of$France.$
The$area$that$you$select$will$be$highlighted$[Figure$6.2].$
$
$
Figure(6.2:(The(Sud$Ouest(of(France(as(a(selected(area.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 119$
In$the$Legend$pane,$switch$to$the$Toolbox$view$and$open$the$Vector$Operations$
folder.$ In$ Vector$ Operations,$ choose$ the$ Standard$ folder$ and$ then$ select$ Export$
Selection$ [Figure$ 6.3].$ $ The$ Export$ Selection$ operation$ will$ allow$ us$ to$ export$ the$
area$we$selected$as$a$new$map$layer.$
$
$
Figure(6.3:(The(Standard(folder(in(Vector(Operations(in(the(Toolbox.(
(
(
(
! 120$
The$ Export$ selected$ shapes$ window$ will$ open$ [Figure$ 6.4].$ In$ the$ Shapefile$ box,$
choose$ the$ fra_area_reprojected$ shapefile,$ and$ make$ sure$ that$ the$ File$ to$ Save$
Results$To:$is$named$fra_area_reprojected_select1.shp.$Click$Ok.$
$
$
Figure(6.4:(The(Export(selected(shapes(window.(
$$
You$will$be$asked$if$you$want$to$add$the$new$layer$to$the$map.$Choose$Yes.$
$
In$the$Legend$pane,$select$Layers$and$uncheck$the$fra_area_reprojected$layer$to$
see$our$selected$region$[Figure$6.5].$
$
$
Figure(6.5:(New(layer(showing(our(selected(region(of(France.(
! 121$
Step(4:(
Now$ we$ need$ to$ add$ the$ towns$ in$ which$ we$ are$ interested$ to$ our$ map$ using$ the$
Google$ Geocoder.$ Go$ to$ PlugGins$ in$ the$ menu$ bar,$ and$ select$ Google$ Geocoder$
[Figure$6.6].$
$
$
Figure(6.6:(Google(Geocoder(in(the(PlugAins(menu.(
(
Note:((
If$you$did$not$enter$an$API$key$for$the$Google$Geocoder$plugGin$as$you$read$the$chapter,$
you$ will$ be$ asked$ to$ insert$ an$ API$ key$ in$ the$ system$ before$ you$ can$ use$ the$ Google$
Geocoder$plugGin$for$the$first$time.$Enter$your$institutions$web$address$(URL)$into$the$
API$key$box$(for$example,$http://www.isu.edu).$
! 122$
Select$Google$Geocoder$from$the$menu$bar,$and$then$select$Geocode$addresses.$We$
have$chosen$21$towns$and$cities$located$in$our$region$to$geocode,$given$in$Table$6.1.$
$
Rochechouart$
Limoges$
Bellac$
Guret$
Aubusson$
Ussel$
Tulle$
BriveGlaGGaillarde$
SarlatGlaGCanda$
Prigueux$
Nontron$
Libourne$
Bergerac$
LesparreGMdoc$
Blaye$
Bordeaux$
VilleneuveGsurG
Lot$
Nrac$
Marmande$
Agen$
Gourdon$
Table(6.1:(List(of(towns(and(cities(in(the(Sud$Ouest(area(of(France(to(be(geocoded.(
$
In$the$Geocode$list$of$addresses$window,$type$the$name$of$a$town$from$the$table$and$
then$click$the$Add$button,$as$shown$in$Figure$6.7.$Repeat$this$procedure$until$all$21$
towns$and$cities$are$listed.$You$can$also$hit$the$Enter$key$instead$of$the$Add$button$
after$each$name,$if$you$prefer.$
$
Note:$$
The$diacritical$marks$in$the$names$of$some$of$the$cities$must$be$inserted$correctly.$You$
can$use$the$website$http://french.typeit.org$to$type$the$name$of$the$cities$correctly,$and$
then$ paste$ those$ names$ into$ the$ address$ field$ in$ the$ Google$ Geocoder$ window$ as$
needed.$
$
! 123$
$
Figure(6.7:(Geocode(list(of(addresses(window.(
$
After$you$have$finished$entering$the$town$and$city$names,$look$for$the$Target$Layer$
option$ at$ the$ bottom$ of$ the$ window$ [Figure$ 6.7].$ Select$ the$ Create$ new$ point$ layer$
button,$then$click$Geocode$to$start$geocoding$the$locations.$$
$
The$Verify$Geocoding$Results$window$will$appear.$If$you$wish,$you$may$assess$the$
accuracy$of$the$geocoding$process$to$ensure$that$the$locations$for$the$towns$and$cities$
all$fall$within$our$selected$region.$Click$Done$when$you$are$satisfied$with$the$results.$
A$Save$as$window$will$open$to$allow$you$to$save$the$geocoded$places$as$a$point$layer$
in$ MapWindow.$ Name$ this$ file$ Cities$ and$ save$ it$ in$ your$ Exercise$ 6$ folder.$ Then$
add$the$new$Cities$layer$in$MapWindow.$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 124$
Your$map$should$now$look$like$Figure$6.8.$
$
$
Figure(6.8:(Map(of(Sud$Ouest(France(with(our(geocoded(towns(and(cities.(
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 125$
Step(5:((
Now$we$can$see$the$location$of$our$21$towns$and$cities,$but$that$does$not$answer$our$
question$about$which$municipalities$are$within$10,000$meters$of$a$river.$To$respond$to$
that$question,$we$need$to$add$the$rivers$that$flow$through$this$part$of$France.$Open$the$
frariver_reprojected$ shapefile$ from$ your$ Exercise$ 6$ folder.$ Your$ screen$ should$ look$
like$Figure$6.9.$
$
$
Figure(6.9:(Rivers(shapefile(added(to(our(map.(
(
As$you$can$see,$our$Rivers$layer$shows$all$the$rivers$in$France,$not$just$the$ones$in$the$
Sud$Ouest.$We$are$going$to$use$the$clipping$function$to$clip$all$of$the$line$data$that$does$
not$fall$within$the$polygon$depicting$the$Sud$Ouest$of$France.$$
$
$
In$the$Legend$pane,$switch$to$the$Toolbox$view,$and$under$Vector$Operations,$
open$the$Overlays$folder,$and$choose$Clipping$[Figure$6.10].$
! 126$
$
Figure(6.10:(The(Clipping(option(in(the(Overlays(menu.(
(
The$ Shapefile$ Clipping$ window$ will$ open.$ Choose$ frariver_reprojected$ as$ your$
Subject$ shapefile$ and$ fra_area_reprojected_select1$ as$ your$ Clipping$ shapefile$
[Figure$6.11].$Click$Ok,$and$add$the$result$to$MapWindow$as$a$new$layer$when$asked.$$
MapWindow$will$provide$the$correct$location$and$a$name$for$this$new$file.$
$
$
Figure(6.11:(Shapefile(Clipping(window.(
(
! 127$
In$the$Layers$pane,$uncheck$the$frariver_reprojected$shapefile.$You$should$see$the$
result$of$the$clipping$operation$[Figure$6.12].$
$
$
Figure(6.12:(Result(of(clipping(the(Rivers(layer(to(fall(within(the(Sud$Ouest(of(
France.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 128$
Step(6:((
We$can$see$that$many$of$our$towns$and$cities$lie$along$the$rivers$in$the$region,$but$now$
we$need$to$find$out$how$close$they$are$to$the$rivers.$$
$
Switch$to$the$Toolbox$view,$and$in$Standard,$choose$the$function$Buffer$Shapes$
[Figure$6.13].$$
$
Figure(6.13:(Buffer(Shapes(function(in(the(Standard(toolbox.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 129$
This$choice$will$open$the$Buffer$shapes$window$[Figure$6.14].$$
$
$
Figure(6.14:(Buffer(shapes(window.(
$
In$ Vector$ Layer,$ choose$ the$ frariver_reprojected_clip1$ shapefile,$ and$ in$ Buffer$
Distance,$ insert$ the$ value$ of$ 10000$ (without$ a$ comma).$ Make$ sure$ that$ the$
measurement$ type$ is$ set$ for$ meters,$ and$ that$ the$ Merge$ resulting$ shapes$ box$ is$
checked.$$
$
Click$OK$to$validate$the$changes,$and$add$the$new$layer$to$your$map.$$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 130$
Step(7:(
Now$we$can$see$which$points$fall$close$to$our$buffer$of$10,000$meters,$but$we$want$to$
see$ only$ those$ towns$ and$ cities$ that$ fall$ within$ our$ buffer$ to$ answer$ our$ question.$
Organize$ your$ layers$ under$ the$ Layers$ pane$ so$ that$ they$ are$ listed$ exactly$ as$ in$
Figure$6.15.$
$
$
Figure(6.15:(The(towns(and(buffers(on(our(map(of(Sud$Ouest(France.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 131$
To$locate$which$towns$and$cities$are$inside$of$our$10,000$meter$buffer$around$the$rivers,$
we$ need$ to$ find$ the$ overlaps,$ or$ intersections,$ of$ our$ layer$ data.$ We$ will$ use$ the$
Intersection$tool$to$locate$these$overlays.$$
$
Switch$to$the$Toolbox$view,$and$choose$the$function$Intersection$under$Overlays$
[Figure$6.16].$
$
$
Figure(6.16:(Intersection(function.(
$
! 132$
The$ Shapefiles$ Intersection$ window$ will$ open$ [Figure$ 6.17].$ You$ should$ select$
Cities$ as$ Shapefile$ 1$ and$ frariver_reprojected_clip1_buffer1$ as$ Shapefile$ 2.$
Click$Ok,$and$then$add$the$new$layer$to$the$map.$
$
$
Figure(6.17:(Shapefiles(Intersection(window.(
$
This$procedure$will$take$the$cities$layer$and$the$buffer$layer$and$calculate$the$overlap,$
or$ intersection,$ of$ the$ layers,$ revealing$ which$ towns$ and$ cities$ are$ inside$ our$ 10,000G
meter$buffer.$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 133$
Go$ to$ the$ Legend$ pane$ and$ select$ Layers.$ Turn$ off$ the$ Cities$ layer$ to$ see$ the$
results$of$our$Intersection$operation$[Figure$6.18].$
$
$
Figure(6.18:(Towns(and(cities(selected(by(the(Intersection(function.(
$
Congratulations!$ You$ have$ now$ successfully$ added$ new$ point$ data$ to$ a$ map$ using$
Google$Geocoder,$trimmed$unneeded$line$data$using$the$clipping$function,$and$used$a$
buffer$to$locate$which$towns$in$our$list$are$within$a$defined$distance$from$a$river.$If$you$
would$like$to$know$the$names$of$the$towns$that$are$within$our$intersection,$you$can$use$
the$Identify$function$from$the$menu$bar$to$select$a$point$and$see$the$data$related$to$it.$
$
Now$ that$ we$ have$ used$ geocoding$ to$ add$ data$ to$ a$ map,$ and$ performed$ some$ basic$
spatial$ analysis$ on$ that$ data,$ we$ can$ discuss$ the$ normalization$ of$ information.$ Data$
normalization$allows$us$to$use$more$correct$information$in$our$analyses,$and$permits$us$
to$use$data$in$more$complicated$ways.$$
! 134$
CHAPTER(7:(Data(Normalization(
When$working$with$data$in$an$attribute$table,$which$is$essentially$a$type$of$database,$it$
is$ important$ to$ make$ sure$ that$ your$ data$ are$ normalized,$ or$ well=organized$ and$ as$
error=free$as$possible.$For$this$reason,$when$building$an$attribute$table$with$your$data,$
you$must$think$carefully$about$how$that$data$should$be$organized$before$it$is$used$in$
MapWindow$or$any$GIS$system.$An$attribute$table$can$store$a$great$deal$of$data,$even$if$
much$of$it$will$never$be$shown$on$the$map.$For$data$that$will$be$depicted$on$the$map,$it$
is$ even$ more$ crucial$ to$ make$ sure$ that$ the$ data$ set$ is$ as$ error=free$ as$ possible.$ Basic$
precautions,$such$as$ensuring$that$words$are$spelled$consistently$and$correctly$and$that$
numbers$ are$ correct,$ will$ save$ a$ great$ deal$ of$ time$ and$ frustration$ once$ the$ data$ are$
imported$into$MapWindow.$
$
However,$ there$ are$ other$ forms$ of$ normalization$ that$ are$ more$ complicated.$ For$
example,$one$type$of$normalization$allows$us$to$take$multiple$sets$of$data$that$have$a$
common$variable$and$divide$them$by$that$variable,$to$uncover$other$characteristics$of$
the$ data$ sets.$ $ Or,$ we$ can$ take$ one$ attribute$ of$ a$ data$ set$ and$ divide$ it$ by$ another$
attribute.$ For$ instance,$ if$ we$ look$ at$ census$ data$ for$ the$ United$ States$ in$ 1990,$ the$
attribute$ table$ contains$ several$ types$ of$ data$ that$ can$ be$ normalized.$ We$ could$
normalize$ the$ overall$ population$ by$ the$ population$ of$ Hispanics,$ Asians,$ African$
Americans,$ or$ Native$ Americans$ to$ determine$ which$ ethnicities$ were$ minorities,$ and$
which$minorities$made$up$a$larger$portion$of$the$population$than$others.$We$could$also$
normalize$ the$ number$ of$ vacant$ houses$ by$ the$ total$ number$ of$ houses,$ which$ could$
demonstrate$ the$ impact$ of$ a$ population$ shift,$ an$ economic$ disruption,$ or$ a$ natural$
disaster.$There$are$also$socio=economic$data,$such$as$age,$marriage,$household$income,$
and$ number$ of$ children$ that$ could$ be$ normalized.$ Of$ course,$ it$ is$ also$ possible$ to$
normalize$several$different$data$fields,$to$provide$a$more$nuanced$analysis.$For$instance,$
we$ could$ normalize$ population$ data$ by$ ethnicity,$ household$ income,$ and$ number$ of$
children$ to$ estimate$ which$ ethnicity$ is$ most$ prosperous.$ We$ could$ then$ normalize$
household$ location$ to$ determine$ whether$ rural$ or$ urban$ families$ were$ larger$ or$ had$
larger$ incomes,$ or$ whether$ minorities$ tend$ to$ be$ concentrated$ in$ cities$ rather$ than$ the$
country.$
$
This$normalization$process$may$be$clearer$if$we$look$at$an$example:$a$choropleth$map$
based$ of$ males$ in$ Idaho$ per$ county$ would$ look$ quite$ different$ from$ a$ map$ that$
normalized+the$males$of$each$county$by$examining$how$the$number$of$males$relates$to$
the$total$population.$Figure$7.1$is$a$choropleth$map$that$looks$solely$at$the$total$number$
of$males,$while$Figure$7.2$shows$a$choropleth$map$that$normalizes$the$number$of$males$
by$ dividing$ it$ by$ the$ total$ population.$ As$ one$ might$ expect,$ these$ two$ maps$ produce$
different$results.$$
! 135$
$
Figure(7.1:(Males(in(Idaho(per(county(in(1990,(according(to(the(1990(U.S.(census,(using(
data(that(have(not(been(normalized.(
$
! 136$
If$we$compare$this$map$to$the$map$in$Figure$7.2,$we$can$see$clear$differences.$When$we$
distinguish$ between$ absolute$ numbers$ and$ total$ population,$ we$ can$ analyze$ the$ data$
differently,$ or$ ask$ different$ questions$ of$ it.$ For$ example,$ if$ we$ want$ to$ explore$ the$
effectiveness$of$disaster$preparedness$in$low=lying$coastal$areas,$population$density$is$a$
crucial$ factor.$ Or,$ if$ we$ want$ to$ examine$ how$ minority$ groups$ have$ moved$ from$ one$
section$of$a$metropolitan$area$to$another,$knowing$overall$population$density$and$the$
percentage$of$a$given$minority$in$the$population$of$each$neighborhood$would$be$useful.$
To$ get$ this$ information,$ we$ would$ first$ calculate$ population$ density$ overall,$ then$ the$
percentages$for$each$minority$in$that$population.$
! 137$
(
Figure(7.2:(Males(in(Idaho(per(county(in(1990,((according(to(the(1990(U.S.(census,(
using(data(that(have(been(normalized(to(reflect(the(percentage(of(males(in(each(
county.(
$
! 138$
There$are$several$ways$to$normalize$data.$While$the$U.$S.$data$are$national$in$scope,$it$is$
feasible$to$normalize$data$on$a$finer$scale,$such$as$a$city,$county,$or$census$tract.$Many$
types$ of$ data$ are$ readily$ available$ through$ government$ agencies$ across$ the$ world.$ Of$
course,$working$with$historical$data,$you$may$wish$to$use$your$own$data$sets$in$order$
to$ normalize$ data$ of$ importance$ to$ your$ field$ of$ study$ so$ that$ you$ produce$ relevant$
maps.$
$
Forms$of$normalization$that$go$beyond$the$organization$of$the$data$and$the$elimination$
of$redundancies$require$a$level$of$prudence$and$competence$from$the$user.$Your$data$
can$ vary$ greatly$ depending$ on$ how$ you$ manipulate$ it.$ Maps$ that$ show$ normalized$
data$ could$ convey$ something$ completely$ different$ than$ intended.$ An$ example$ of$ this$
confusion$ would$ be$ using$ per$ capita$ income$ data$ that$ does$ not$ take$ into$ account$ the$
cost$ of$ living$ when$ you$ are$ trying$ to$ determine$ which$ region$ of$ a$ country$ is$ more$
prosperous.$While$the$people$of$one$region$may$earn$more$money$over$a$period$of$time,$
it$ does$ not$ necessarily$ mean$ that$ they$ have$ more$ spending$ power$ with$ that$ money.$
Any$answer$that$does$not$factor$in$the$cost$of$living$will$be$inaccurate$or$misleading.$
Historians$ are$ used$ to$ looking$ at$ these$ types$ of$ variable,$ and$ judicious$ use$ of$
normalization$can$help$us$enhance$our$scholarship$by$creating$visually$stunning$maps,$
which$convey$information$in$a$way$that$words$sometimes$cannot.$
$
Another$ way$ to$ improve$ data$ organization$ and$ analysis$ is$ to$ break$ numerical$ data$
down$ into$ smaller$ pieces,$ or$ classes.$ Figures$ 7.3$ and$ 7.4$ demonstrate$ how$ a$ map$ can$
change$when$we$use$the$same$data$but$different$numbers$of$classes.$As$you$can$see,$by$
using$ different$ numbers$ of$ classes$ in$ maps,$ the$ cartographer$ can$ get$ quite$ different$
results.$Therefore,$you$must$be$thoughtful$when$making$these$choices.$Too$many$or$too$
few$ classes$ can$ lead$ to$ the$ distortion$ of$ the$ data$ or$ to$ misleading$ results;$ therefore,$
normalize$and$divide$your$data$into$classes$with$care.$$
! 139$
$
$
Figure(7.3:(Males(in(Idaho(per(county(in(1990,(according(to(the(1990(U.S.(census,(
broken(into(four(classes.(
! 140$
$
$
Figure(7.4:(Males(in(Idaho(per(county(in(1990,(according(to(the(1990(U.S.(census,(
broken(into(two(classes.(
(
! 141$
Classification(Breaks(
Apart$from$the$number$of$classes$used$in$a$map,$you$can$also$choose$different$ways$to$
break$up$the$data$into$classes.1$Because$of$this$capacity,$you$must$ensure$that$your$map$
data$ are$ analyzed$ properly,$ according$ to$ the$ purposes$ of$ your$ map.$ There$ are$ several$
ways$ to$ break$ your$ data$ up$ into$ classes$ and$ each$ one$ works$ best$ for$ certain$ types$ of$
data$or$certain$forms$of$analysis.$One$method$of$breaking$up$classes$of$data$is$arbitrary.$
This$method,$as$the$name$indicates,$means$that$breaks$are$selected$by$the$cartographer$
for$ no$ analytical$ purpose$ other$ than$ to$ break$ the$ data$ into$ usable$ pieces.$ Often,$ this$
division$will$mean$separating$your$data$by$numbers$ending$in$zero,$such$as$1=10,$11=20,$
and$ so$ on.$ The$ arbitrary$ method$ is$ used$ mostly$ because$ it$ breaks$ up$ the$ data$ into$
numbers$with$which$the$map$readers$are$familiar.$
$
Equal(Interval!classification$divides$the$data$classes$into$equal$parts,$for$example$0=7,$8=
15,$etc.$The$intervals$are$defined$by$determining$the$range$of$values$and$dividing$it$by$
the$number$of$classes$you$wish$to$use.$An$advantage$of$this$classification$style$is$that$it$
is$relatively$easy$for$the$cartographer$to$employ$and$easy$for$the$reader$of$the$map$to$
understand.$This$method$may$be$the$one$to$choose$when$the$classification$steps,$or$data$
classes,$with$which$you$are$working$are$nearly$equal$in$size.$$
$
Quartile(or$Quintile$breaks$means$that$the$data$are$broken$up$into$four$or$five$classes,$
respectively.$ $ This$ approach$ has$ more$ to$ do$ with$ rank$ than$ value.$ A$ choropleth$ map$
that$uses$either$the$quartile$or$quintile$approach$will$not$highlight$the$differences$in$a$
dataset$ because,$ regardless$ of$ the$ values,$ they$ are$ distributed$ equally$ into$ classes.$
However,$these$two$types$of$data$classification$can$be$useful$if$the$purpose$of$your$map$
is$ simply$ to$ order$ your$ data.$ For$ example,$ if$ you$ were$ mapping$ data$ from$ a$ survey$
question$ that$ broke$ up$ the$ data$ into$ 1)$ Strongly$ Disagree,$ 2)$ Disagree,$ 3)$ Neutral,$ 4)$
Agree,$and$5)$Strongly$Agree,$then$the$quintile$method$would$work$well.$$
$
Using$ the$ Standard( Deviation( method$ of$ establishing$ classification$ breaks$ is$ a$ good$
way$to$show$extremes$in$a$data$set,$either$high$or$low.$The$procedure$works$best$when$
data$ naturally$ form$ a$ bell=shaped$ curve$ when$ plotted.$ Another$ method$ is$ Natural(
Breaks,$ with$ which$ one$ examines$ the$ data$ either$ numerically$ or$ graphicallyfor$
example,$in$a$histogramto$determine$where$the$data$tend$to$break$naturally$[Figure$
7.5].$By$examining$the$data$and$considering$what$information$you$want$to$convey$with$
your$ map,$ you$ can$ determine$ which$ method$ and$ the$ number$ of$ breaks$ to$ use.$
Categories$ can$ then$ be$ determined,$ and$ these$ will$ result$ in$ the$ grouping$ of$ data$ with$
similar$ values.$ This$ method$ is$ often$ the$ default$ for$ GIS$ software.$ However,$ note$ that$
$For$an$extended$discussion$on$classification$breaks,$see$Judith$Tyner,$Principles+of+Map+Design$(New$
1
York:$The$Guilford$Press),$165=168.$
! 142$
when$dealing$with$a$monochromatic$choropleth$map,$four$or$five$class$breaks$generally$
works$ best.$ Fewer$ breaks$ will$ usually$ not$ convey$ meaningful$ information,$ while$ the$
visual$ systems$ of$ map$ users$ will$ not$ be$ able$ to$ recognize$ distinctions$ involving$ more$
than$five$categories.$$
$
$
Figure(7.5:(A(histogram(such(as(this(one(can(help(you(visually(determine(where(
natural(breaks(occur(in(your(data.(
(
Conclusion(
When$using$MapWindow$or$any$other$software$program$to$help$visualize$and$analyze$
your$ data,$ you$ must$ ensure$ that$ the$ data$ are$ as$ error=free$ as$ possible,$ and$ that$ any$
redundancies$in$the$data$are$reconciled.$This$review$of$the$information$is$the$most$basic$
form$ of$ data$ normalization.$ However,$ more$ advanced$ methods$ of$ normalization$ will$
allow$ you$ to$ uncover$ and$ highlight$ aspects$ of$ your$ material$ that$ would$ otherwise$ be$
difficult$ to$ identify.$ As$ is$ always$ the$ case,$ you$ need$ to$ ask$ the$ right$ questions$ and$ to$
normalize$ the$ data$ in$ the$ ways$ that$ will$ uncover$ the$ nuances$ of$ your$ information.$
Before$you$use$any$form$of$normalization,$you$must$carefully$select$the$best$method$to$
answer$the$research$questions$you$are$asking;$a$poor$choice$can$lead$to$distorted$results,$
which$in$turn$can$lead$to$misleading$or$erroneous$conclusions.$However,$with$careful$
use,$data$normalization$can$be$a$powerful$analytical$tool,$which$allows$you$to$present$
crucial$information$in$an$easily=understood$visual$format.$
$
We$ are$ going$ to$ apply$ some$ of$ these$ techniques$ in$ our$ exercise$ to$ create$ a$ map$ that$
accurately$ depicts$ the$ percentage$ of$ Asian$ Americans$ in$ the$ United$ States$ in$ 2005,$ by$
state.$
$
(
! 143$
EXERCISE(7(
Data$normalization$is$a$powerful$tool$for$analyzing$map$data,$although$it$must$be$used$
carefully.$ We$ will$ add$ data$ to$ an$ attribute$ table,$ normalize$ the$ data$ set,$ and$ map$ the$
results.$
$
Task:(
Historians$ are$ often$ interested$ in$ a$ subsection$ of$ a$ given$ population,$ and$ the$ U.S.$
Census$ tracks$ self=identified$ ethnic$ groups$ in$ the$ United$ States.$ We$ are$ going$ to$
normalize$the$population$data$in$the$attribute$table$of$our$map$to$depict$the$percentage$
of$Asian$Americans$in$the$population$of$each$state$in$2005.$
$
Step(1:((
This$ exercise$ will$ use$ the$ shapefile$ of$ the$ United$ States$ that$ you$ downloaded$ for$
exercise$2,$which$should$be$in$your$Exercise$2$subfolder.$$
$
Open$ the$ MapWindow$ application,$ and$ click$ the$ Add$ button$ in$ the$ menu$ bar.$
Navigate$to$your$Exercise$2$subfolder$and$open$the$UnitedStates1900.shp$file$as$a$
layer$[Figure$7.1].$
$
(
Figure(7.1:(Map(of(the(United(States.(
$
$
$
$
! 144$
Step(2:((
In$the$Legend$pane,$go$to$Layers$and$right=click$UnitedStates1900.shp,$and$select$
Attribute$Table$Editor$[Figure$7.2].$As$we$have$seen$in$earlier$exercises,$the$attribute$
table$for$a$data$layer$can$contain$any$information$that$the$user$wants$to$have$associated$
with$the$map.$In$this$case,$the$attribute$table$contains$a$great$deal$of$census$information$
from$the$1990$census,$as$well$as$population$data$that$was$added$later.$(
(
(
(
The$data$shown$in$Figure$7.2$are$in$their$raw$format;$we$need$to$normalize$the$data$
we$ want$ to$ use$ on$ our$ map.$ The$ first$ step$ is$ to$ add$ a$ new$ field,$ or$ column,$ to$ the$
attribute$table$to$store$our$normalized$data.$$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 145$
In$the$Attribute$Table$Editor$window,$click$Edit$and$select$Add$Field$to$open$the$
Add$ Field$ window.$ Name$ the$ new$ field$ ASIAN_NORM$ [Figure$ 7.3].$ For$ Type,$
choose$Double.$Check$the$Width$and$Precision$fields$to$make$sure$that$the$values$
are$10$and$3,$and$click$OK.$
$
(
Figure(7.3:(Add(Field(window.(
(
Note:$$
The$new$field$name$will$be$truncated$in$some$windows$to$ASIAN_NOR$$this$is$not$an$
error!$
$
In$the$Attribute$Table$Editor,$scroll$to$the$right$to$locate$the$field$that$you$just$created.$
This$ new$ creation$ should$ be$ the$ last$ field$ in$ the$ Attribute$ Table$ Editor$ window$
[Figure$7.4].$
$
(
Figure(7.4:(Newly(added(field(in(the(Attribute(Table(Editor(window.$
$
! 146$
Step(3:(
We$ can$ see$ that$ MapWindow$ assigned$ null$ values$ to$ the$ field$ that$ we$ just$ created.$
Right=click$ the$ column$ header$ ASIAN_NORM,$ and$ choose$ Calculate$ Values$ (All$
Records)$[Figure$7.5]$
$
$
Figure(7.5:(The(Calculating(values(menu(choice.(
$
The$ Field$ Calculator$ window$ will$ appear$ on$ the$ screen,$ which$ will$ let$ us$ tell$
MapWindow$ to$ assign$ numeric$ values$ to$ the$ field$ we$ created.$ We$ need$ to$ give$
MapWindow$an$equation$that$will$derive$the$numeric$values$for$the$ASIAN_NORM$
field,$by$dividing$the$field$ASIANS$by$the$total$population$field$POP2005.$$
$
To$ do$ this$ division,$ we$ first$ tell$ MapWindow$ into$ which$ field$ the$ results$ need$ to$ go.$
Thus,$in$the$Destination$Table$Field,$select$our$new$field,$ASIAN_NORM.$Next,$we$
need$to$write$our$equation$in$the$large,$empty$window$below$that$box.$$
$
To$ build$ the$ equation,$ select$ ASIANS$ in$ the$ Table$ Fields$ list.$ From$ the$ row$ of$
operations$ underneath$ the$ Functions$ window,$ select$ the$ division$ button$ (/),$ and$
then$double=click$POP2005$[Figure$7.6].$
$$
! 147$
(
Figure(7.6:(The(equation(used(to(calculate(the(normalized(population(of(Asian(
Americans.(
$
Click$ Calculate$ and$ MapWindow$ will$ run$ the$ equation$ and$ put$ the$ results$ into$ the$
ASIAN_NORM$ field.$ Once$ numeric$ values$ have$ been$ assigned$ to$ the$ field,$
MapWindow$will$ask$if$you$would$like$to$close$the$Field$Calculator$Window.$Choose$
Yes.$
$
In$the$attribute$table,$scroll$right$again$to$the$ASIAN_NORM$field$and$you$will$see$that$
numeric$values$have$been$assigned$[Figure$7.7].$These$values$represent$the$normalized$
data,$reported$in$percentage,$for$the$Asian$population$living$in$the$United$States$in$2005.$
$
! 148$
(
Figure(7.7:(Numeric(values(assigned(to(new(field.(
(
To$ save$ the$ new$ information,$ go$ to$ the$ bottom$ of$ the$ screen$ and$ click$ Apply,$ and$
then$close$the$Attribute$Table$Editor$window.$
$
Step(4:(
Now$ we$ want$ to$ assign$ a$ coloring$ scheme$ on$ our$ map$ of$ the$ United$ States$ for$ the$
ASIAN_NORM$ field$ to$ make$ a$ more$ readable$ choropleth$ map.$ Go$ to$ Layers,$ right=
click$ the$ UnitedStates1900$ layer$ and$ select$ Properties,$ and$ then$ choose$ the$
Categories$tab.$$
$
(
Figure(7.8:(Categories(window(with(the(proper(values(selected.(
! 149$
In$ Numeric$ fields,$ select$ ASIAN_NORM,$ and$ then$ select$ 3$ for$ the$ Categories$
value$ in$ the$ Classification$ box$ [Figure$ 7.9].$ Under$ Color$ scheme,$ check$ the$
Gradient$ box,$ and$ then$ click$ the$ down$ arrow$ to$ see$ the$ color$ choices.$ Select$ the$
second$color$scheme$choice.$Finally,$click$Generate,$then$Apply,$and$then$OK.$$
$
Your$ final$ map$ should$ look$ like$ Figure$ 7.9,$ with$ the$ color$ of$ each$ state$ indicating$ the$
percentage$of$Asian=Americans$living$in$that$state$in$2005.$
$
(
Figure(7.9:(Percentage(of(Asians(living(in(the(United(States(in(2005.(
(
Congratulations!$ You$ have$ created$ a$ new$ field$ (or$ column)$ in$ an$ attribute$ table;$ by$
using$ the$ field$ calculator$ tool,$ you$ normalized$ raw$ population$ data$ to$ calculate$ what$
percentage$of$the$population$of$the$United$States$in$2005$was$Asian$American;$and$you$
produced$a$choropleth$map$depicting$the$normalized$population$data.$These$tools$can$
be$applied$to$any,$or$all,$of$the$numeric$data$contained$in$an$attribute$table.$One$could$
use$this$formula$to$produce$several$maps$depicting$different$ethnic$group$populations$
at$a$given$time,$or$generate$several$maps$for$one$group$using$data$collected$at$different$
times$ in$ order$ to$ track$ population$ growth$ or$ movement$ within$ that$ group$ in$ that$
timeframe.$
$
Now$that$you$have$learned$how$to$do$some$basic$spatial$analysis$and$how$to$use$some$
data$analysis$tools,$we$will$look$at$how$to$use$for$research$the$historical$maps$that$have$
not$been$digitized.$We$will$turn$them$into$maps$that$are$usable$in$MapWindow.$
! 150$
CHAPTER(8:(From(a(Paper(Historical(Map(to(a(Digital(One(
Historical# maps# depict# the# physical# landscape# in# which# important# human# actions,#
events,#and#processes#were#shaped#and#took#place.#These#maps#help#historians#visualize#
how#the#landscape#of#an#area#changed#over#time#and#how#those#transformations#reflect#
the# human# story.# But# because# historical# maps# were# created# by# those# who# understood#
the# world# and# its# geography# in# the# terms# of# their# time,# not# ours,# these# maps# often#
contain# information# not# found# on# more# recent# maps.# This# information# might# be# the#
former#names#for#regions#of#the#map#that#have#since#become#part#of#a#different#country,#
or# for# towns# that# have# since# disappeared,# or# for# coastlines# that# were# drawn# based# on#
second@# or# third@hand# knowledge,# which# has# since# been# shown# to# be# inaccurate.# This#
data,# even# if# not# accurate,# can# convey# important# information# for# the# historical# topic#
under#study,#which#the#researcher#will,#therefore,#wish#to#maintain.#David#Rumsey#and#
Meredith# Williams# recognized# that# most# geographically@integrated# history# would# be#
impossible#without#historical#maps.#They#maintained#that#one#can#use#historical#maps#
to#examine#how#features#have#changed#over#time,#and#that#GIS#is#freeing#maps#from#the#
static#confines#of#their#original#print#form.1#However,#before#one#can#use#an#historical#
map#within#GIS,#it#is#necessary#to#turn#that#physical#map#into#a#digital#one,#which#can#
then#become#a#layer#in#a#GIS#project.#The#process#of#taking#a#paper#map#and#turning#it#
into# a# usable# digital# map# is# a# form# of# georeferencing,# and# it# is# a# crucial# tool# for# any#
historian#using#GIS.2#
#
Because# historians# generally# do# not# take# into# account# images# as# sources# of# evidence,#
those# interested# in# applying# GIS# to# historical# research# face# a# major# challenge# when#
seeking# recognition# for# their# work,# as# Anne# K.# Knowles# observed. 3 #Once# one# has#
recognized# the# value# of# maps# as# primary# sources# and# has# decided# to# integrate# an#
historical# map# into# a# GIS,# one# needs# to# georeference# the# map.# Rumsey# and# Williams#
defined# georeferencing# a# cartographic# product# as# aligning# a# scanned# map# with# [its]#
actual#geographical#location#by#assigning#geographical#coordinates#to#each#point,#or#by#
linking#each#point#to#its#equivalent#on#a#modern,#accurate#digital#map.4#In#other#words,#
to#georeference#a#map,#one#must#scan#the#map#to#create#a#digital#image,#which#can#be#
read#in#a#GIS#program,#locate#the#correct#coordinates#for#several#points#on#the#map,#and#
then#connect#those#points#to#the#map#to#ensure#that#it#is#properly#projected.#
1#David#Rumsey#and#Meredith#Williams,#Historical#Maps#in#GIS,#in#Past%Time,%Past%Place:%GIS%for%History,#
ed.#Anne#K.#Knowles#(Redlands,#California:#ESRI#Press,#2002),#2.###
2#For#a#proper#introduction#to#georeferencing,#you#must#read,#Linda#L.#Hill,#Georeferencing:%The%Geographic%
Associations%of%Information#(Cambridge,#Massachusetts,#and#London:#MIT#Press,#2006#[paper#2009]).#
3#Anne#K.#Knowles,#GIS#and#History,#in#Placing%History:%How%Maps,%Spatial%Data,%and%GIS%Are%Changing%
Historical%Scholarship,#ed.#Anne#K.#Knowles#and#Anne#Hillier#(Redlands,#California:#ESRI#Press,#2008),#2.##
4#Rumsey#and#Williams,#Historical#Maps#in#GIS,#4@5.#
! 151#
Scanning(
Once#you#have#identified#a#map#that#you#want#to#use#in#MapWindow,#you#must#scan#it#
(or# photograph# it,# depending# on# its# physical# condition)# so# that# the# resulting# digital#
image# can# be# used# with# a# computer.# MapWindow# will# load# scanned# images#
in# .bmp,# .png,# .pdf,# .tif,# .gif,# .img,# and# .jpg# formats.# Most,# if# not# all,# scanner# software#
packages#offer#users#the#option#to#save#files#in#more#than#one#of#these#formats.#With#the#
increasing# accuracy# of# modern# scanners,# even# a# small# desktop# scanner# can# be# used# to#
digitize#your#maps#and#images,#although#larger#maps#may#need#a#large@format#scanner.#
Before#scanning#your#map,#however,#you#should#check#online#to#see#if#digital#versions#
of#it#are#already#available.#For#example,#for#the#U.S.#you#will#find#the#important#Sanborn#
insurance#maps,#which#have#been#scanned#and#are#accessible#to#GIS#users.#The#Sanborn#
company#originally#made#these#maps#of#major#cities#to#provide#insurance#underwriters#
with# fire# vulnerability# data# in# the# late# nineteenth@# and# early# twentieth# centuries.# They#
provide#a#birds#eye#view#of#various#cities#at#specific#times;#they#depict#parcels#of#land,#
show#the#buildings#on#the#parcels,#and#note#the#purposes#those#buildings#served.#Many#
of#these#maps#are#available#for#different#areas#of#the#United#States#and#cover#multiple#
years.# While# there# are# no# analogous# maps# for# other# countries,# because# the# number# of#
digitized#maps#available#online#grows#daily,#you#must#check#to#see#if#a#map#that#suits#
your#research#needs#is#available#online#before#digitizing#your#own.#However,#for#those#
who#need#to#digitize#their#own#maps,#or#for#online#maps#that#have#been#scanned#but#not#
properly# projected,# MapWindow# can# be# used# to# produce# correct# and# usable# digitized#
maps.#
(
Georeferencing(with(MapWindow(
Georeferencing#a#digitized#or#scanned#version#of#a#map#consists#of#taking#and#applying#
real@world#coordinates#to#it,#in#this#case#using#MapWindow.#Primary#source#maps#may#
not#include#your#entire#research#area;#therefore,#you#may#need#to#join#several#digitized#
maps#together#to#create#a#single#map.#Ian#Gregory#and#Paul#Ell#listed#three#stages#in#the#
process# of# taking# analog# geographic# information# and# digitizing# it:# georeferencing# to#
convert# from# digitizer# to# real@world# coordinates;# projecting# to# add# a# map# projection;#
and# joining# adjacent# map# sheets# together,# probably# with# the# help# of# rubberBsheeting,# to#
create#a#single#layer#representing#several#map#sheets.5#Whether#you#are#working#with#a#
single#map#or#need#to#join#several#maps#into#one,#the#process#of#georeferencing#the#map#
in#MapWindow#makes#it#relatively#easy#to#do.#
(
(
#Ian#N.#Gregory#and#Paul#S.#Ell,#Historical%GIS:%Technologies,%Methodologies%and%Scholarship#(Cambridge:#
5
Cambridge#University#Press),#47.#
! 152#
Using# a# plug@in# tool# called# Image# to# Map,# MapWindow# allows# the# user# to# select#
control(points#to#align#the#historical#map#to#an#already#projected#shapefile#of#the#same#
area.#The#control#points#are#reference#points#that#tell#the#program#that#the#point#on#the#
historical# map# needs# to# be# located# at# the# same# position# on# the# shapefile# layer.# For#
example,#if#we#needed#to#georeference#a#map#of#Colorado,#we#would#use#the#corners#of#
the# state# as# control# points,# and# MapWindow# would# stack# the# shapefile# and# the#
historical#map#so#that#those#four#corner#points#were#on#top#of#each#other.#Another#way#
to#think#about#the#process#is#to#imagine#that#you#have#two#pieces#of#fabric,#one#with#an#
image#of#the#Eiffel#Tower#on#it,#and#the#other#with#a#cut@out#of#the#Eiffel#Tower.#If#you#
want#to#pin#the#cut@out#piece#on#top#of#the#image#of#the#Eiffel#Tower,#you#would#need#to#
pin#it#so#that#the#cut@out#was#aligned#with#the#image.#The#Image#to#Map#tool#allows#
us# to# tell# MapWindow# where# the# pins# should# go,# so# that# the# resulting# map# will# be#
properly#aligned.#Once#we#have#used#this#tool#to#align#our#digitized#historical#map,#we#
can#employ#other#tools#to#enhance#its#usability.#
#
Challenges(and(Limitations(
Digitizing# and# georeferencing# maps# can# be# challenging# for# several# reasons:# scanning#
large#maps#that#require#a#large@format#scanner#can#be#expensive#and#tedious;#scanning#
errors#can#make#it#more#difficult#to#locate#the#correct#coordinates#for#the#map;#and#it#can#
be# difficult# to# find# good# control# points# to# georeference# the# map# correctly.# However,#
georeferencing# and# digitizing# historical# maps# allows# historians# both# to# uncover#
histories# of# which# historians# themselves# might# be# unaware# and# to# preserve# the#
knowledge#and#the#memories#of#physical#and#social#landscapes#from#the#past.#We#will#
see# how# a# map# of# the# Brazilian# port# of# Recife# [Figure# 8.1]# can# serve# both# of# these#
purposes.6#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
6!The$map$is$entitled,$Plano$do$porto$e$praca"de"Pernambuco"por"Jos"Fernandes"Portugal.#Piloto#que#
serviu#narmada#Real.#Anno#1808.#It#is#in#the#public#domain.#A#photocopy#can#be#found#in#
Gilberto#Ferrez,#Raras%e%preciosas%vistas%e%panoramas%do%Recife:%1755%%1855%(Recife:#Fundaco#Nacional#Pr@
Memria(e(FUNDARPE,(1984),(without(page(number.#
! 153#
When# this# map# was# found# by# one# of# our# authors,# Anderson# Sandes,# he# also# learned#
something# about# the# previously# unknown# mapmaker:# Jos# Fernandes# Portugal.# The#
author# of# the# map# actively# supported# the# revolution# that# broke# out# in# Brazil# in# 1817,#
during# which# individuals# attempted# to# establish# an# independent# government# that#
would#free#Brazil#from#control#by#the#Portuguese#crown.#
#
#
Figure(8.1:(Plan(of(the(port(of(Recife,(1808,(by(Jos(Fernandes(Portugal,((
overlaid(on(ESRIs(ArcGlobe.(
#
Unfortunately,# he# was# arrested# and# died# in# prison# from# starvation.7#By# integrating#
Fernandes# Portugals# 1808# map# of# the# port# of# Recife# into# his# GIS,# Sandes# was# able# to#
visualize#the#landscape#of#Recife#at#that#time.#Also,#he#connected#features#depicted#on#
the#map,#such#as#buildings#and#streets,#with#data#extracted#from#travel#accounts#of#the#
time# in# order# to# build# a# more# complete,# geographically@integrated# narrative# of# the#
municipalitys# role# in# the# revolution.# Thus,# the# discovery# of# this# map# and# the#
integration# of# data# from# the# travel# narratives# allowed# Sandes# to# reveal# previously#
unknown#information#about#an#important#member#of#the#revolutionary#movement#and#
the#citys#role#in#early#nineteenth@century#Brazil.#(
#
Because# old# maps# often# contain# information# not# found# on# more# modern# maps,# a#
historian#might#want#to#georeference#an#historical#map#to#make#better#use#of#that#data.#
For# example,# an# historical# map# might# contain# not# only# the# rivers# and# mountains# in# a#
#Instituto#Histrico#e#Geogrfico#Brasileiro,#Revista%Trimensal%do%Instituto%Historico,%Geographico,%e%
7
Etnographico%do%Brasil#(Rio#de#Janeiro:#B.#L.#Gardiner,#1867),#363.##
! 154#
certain#country,#but#also#municipalities#that#have#since#disappeared,#or#regional#names#
that#are#no#longer#in#use,#or#borders#that#have#since#shifted#as#a#result#of#a#war.#Rather#
than# attempting# to# recreate# this# information# accurately# on# a# blank# map# created# in#
MapWindow#or#another#GIS,#georeferencing#allows#us#to#produce#an#accurate#map#of#
the# country# or# region# while# maintaining# important# historical# information.# In# essence,#
once#we#have#correctly#georeferenced#such#a#map,#we#can#manipulate#the#map#layer#so#
that#those#historical#details#are#visible#on#the#new,#geographically#accurate#map.#We#will#
now# learn# how# to# carry# out# such# a# manipulation,# using# our# map# of# France# from# an#
earlier#exercise.#
#
! 155#
EXERCISE(8#
We# have# learned# in# this# chapter# that# we# can# do# more# than# add# data# to# a# map# or# its#
attribute# table;# we# can# also# take# a# historical# map# that# is# not# a# shapefile# layer# and#
reference#it#to#a#shapefile.#This#referencing#allows#us#to#select#maps#that#we#want#to#use#
in#our#research#and#turn#them#into#digital#maps#that#can#then#be#analyzed.#This#exercise#
will# let# you# practice# this# skill,# which# is# one# of# the# most# important# ones# necessary# for#
doing#Geographically@Integrated#History#with#a#GIS.#
(
Task:((
We#are#going#to#take#a#historic#map#of#France8#and#digitize#it,#to#create#a#layer#with#an#
accurate#projection#and#depiction#of#scale,#without#losing#the#details#of#the#original#map.#
The# result# will# be# a# correctly# projected# map# of# France,# with# the# municipal# names# and#
other#information#from#the#original#map#visible#and#usable#for#analysis.##
#
Step(1:((
Go#to#http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wp@
content/uploads/exercises/exercise8.zip#
#
Download# the# folder# with# the# data# required# for# the# completion# of# the# exercise.# Inside#
the#folder,#you#will#find#a#map#of#France#from#the#David#Rumsey#collection,#shown#in#
Figure#8.1,#and#the#shapefile#layer#of#France,#which#will#be#used#as#our#reference#layer,#
shown#in#Figure#8.2.##
#
8#The#map#was#created#by#Aaron#Arrowsmith#and#Samuel#Lewis#and#published#in#their#world#atlas#
(Boston:#Thomas#&#Andrews,#1812).#We#have#used#the#map#from#the#David#Rumsey#Map#Collection#
(www.DavidRumsey.com),#list#no.#0028.006.#It#is#described#as#an#engraved#map,#uncolored,#with#the#
relief#shown#by#hachures.#
! 156#
(
Figure(8.1:(Map(of(France((1812)(from(the(David(Rumsey(Map(Collection.(
(
(
Figure(8.2:(Shapefile(layer(that(will(be(our(reference(layer.(
(
(
(
! 157#
Note:((
Always#make#sure#that#your#shapefile#is#projected#before#aligning#it#with#an#image.#You#
must# establish# the# shapefile# projection# because# you# will# assign# the# projection# of# the#
shapefile# to# the# image.# The# shapefile# you# are# using# is# already# projected,# under# WGS@
84/UTM#zone#30#North#(France).#(
#
Step(2:(
Open# MapWindow.# Because# you# must# load# the# reference# layer# first,# add# the#
france_reprojected#shapefile#that#you#have#downloaded.##Then#load#the#France#map.#
Refer#to#exercise#2,#step#4,#if#you#need#to#review#how#to#load#data.#
#
Step(3:(
Once# the# map# has# been# loaded,# the# Projection# absence# window# will# appear# [Figure#
8.3].#You#will#receive#this#notification#because#the#map#is#an#image#with#no#projection#
assigned#to#it.#Choose#Assign#projection#from#project,#and#click#Ok.#Now#your#map#
has#the#same#projection#as#the#france_reprojected#shapefile.##
#
(
Figure(8.3:(Projection(absence(window.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 158#
A#new#window#will#appear,#the#Projection#checking#results#[Figure#8.4],#stating#that#a#
projection#has#been#assigned.#Click#Close#to#proceed#with#the#exercise.#
#
(
Figure(8.4:(Projection(checking(results(window.(
#
Look# at# the# Layers# list# in# the# Legend# pane.# The# layers# should# be# displayed# as#
shown# in# Figure# 8.5.# If# necessary,# move# the# france# image# so# it# is# above# the#
france_reprojected#layer.#
#
(
Figure(8.5:(Data(layers(pane.(
(
Step(4:(
Now#we#want#to#get#both#images#to#be#displayed#at#approximately#the#same#size.#Right@
click#on#each#layer#and#choose#the#option#Zoom#to#Layer#from#the#drop@down#menu.#
Each#layer#will#show#as#it#is#zoomed,#but#you#will#not#see#both#images#at#the#same#time.#
You#see#the#layers#separately#because#they#are#not#aligned#yet.#When#we#georeference#
the#two#layers,#then#we#will#see#only#a#single#layer.#
#
#
#
! 159#
To# georeference# our# layers,# we# must# first# turn# on# the# Image# to# Map# plug@in.# Go# to#
Plug@ins#in#the#main#menu#bar,#and#scroll#down#to#Image#to#Map.#Click#Image#to#
Map#[Figure#8.6].#When#you#have#turned#on#the#plug@in,#you#will#see#a#new#option#on#
the#main#menu#bar,#entitled#Image#to#Map.#
#
(
Figure(8.6:(Image(to(Map(plug]in.(
#
! 160#
Step(5:(
From# the# new# Image# to# Map# option# in# the# main# menu# bar,# choose# 1.# Image#
Registration#[Figure#8.7].##
#
(
Figure(8.7:(Image(Registration(option(in(Image(to(Map.(
#
This# choice# will# open# the# Image# to# Map# Registration# by# Least# Squares# window#
[Figure#8.8].##
#
Note:##
In#red#letters#across#the#top#of#the#window,#there#is#a#note#that#says#Move#this#Window#
out#of#the#way#to#find#Match#Points.#Match#points#are#control#points,#and#they#allow#us#
to# align# our# map# with# our# reference# layer.# The# notice# is# there# to# remind# you# that# you#
can#move#the#Image#to#Map#Registration#by#Least#Squares#window#anywhere#on#the#
screen.# We# recommend# moving# it# to# the# bottom# of# your# screen# so# that# you# can# see# as#
much#of#the#MapWindow#map#pane#as#possible.#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 161#
The# window# contains# three# different# panes.# We# want# to# look# at# the# pane# on# the# left,#
which#contains#the#buttons#we#will#be#using.##
#
(
Figure(8.8:(Image(to(Map(Registration(by(Least(Squares(window.(
#
Step(6:(
We#need#to#create#two#control#points,#which#will#pin#our#historical#map#onto#our#map#
layer.# We# have# chosen# the# two# points# that# will# most# accurately# pin# the# historical# map#
and#the#map#layer#together#[Figure#8.9].##
#
(
Figure(8.9:(The(first(two(control(points(we(will(create.(
#
#
! 162#
To# create# the# first# control# point,# click# on# the# #button# in# the# left@hand# pane# of# the#
Image#to#Map#Registration#by#Least#Squares#window,#and#move#the#window#out#of#
the#way.#Notice#that#your#cursor#has#changed.#
#
As# soon# as# you# click# on# the# point# on# the# map# layer# [Figure# 8.10],# the# map# of# France#
layer#should#disappear#and#the#shapefile#layer#should#appear.##
#
(
Figure(8.10:(First(control(point(on(the(map.(
(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 163#
Click#the#corresponding#point#on#the#referenced#shapefile#layer#[Figure#8.11].#You#have#
created#your#first#control#point.##
#
#
Figure(8.11:(First(control(point(on(the(shapefile.(
#
As#soon#as#you#click#on#the#control#point#on#the#shapefile#layer,#the#map#pane#may#go#
blank#or#show#a#funny#zigzag#image#[Figure#8.12].#Do(not(panic!#This#is#normal.#
(
(
Figure(8.12:(Odd(zigzag(MapWindow(screen.(
! 164#
Step(7:(
Go#to#the#Data#Layers#pane.#TURN#OFF#the#france_reprojected#layer#under#the#Data#
Layers#pane#[Figure#8.13].#You#turn#it#off#by#unchecking#the#box#next#to#the#layer#name.#
#
(
Figure(8.13:(Unchecking(france_reprojected(layer.(
#
You#should#now#see#the#map#of#France#in#the#map#pane,#as#in#Figure#8.14.#
#
#
Figure(8.14:(MapWindow(screen(after(the(shapefile(layer(has(been(turned(off.(
#
(
(
(
(
! 165#
Step(8:(
Now#we#need#to#create#our#second#control#point.#Drag#the#Image#to#Map#Registration#
by#Least#Squares#window#to#the#center#of#your#screen,#and#click#the# #button#again.#
Move# the# window# out# of# the# way.# On# the# map# of# France,# click# the# second# point# as#
shown#in#Figure#8.15.#
#
Note:##
If#you#cannot#find#the#Image#to#Map#Registration#by#Least#Squares#window,#do#not#
panic!# Minimize# MapWindow# and# any# other# windows# that# you# have# open# on# your#
computer.# MapWindow# may# have# pushed# the# Image# Registration# by# Least# Squares#
window#to#the#background.##
#
(
Figure(8.15:(The(second(control(point(on(the(map(layer.(
#
Once#you#click#this#point#on#the#map,#the#historical#map#will#disappear.#Now,#because#
we# turned# off# the# france_reprojected# layer,# we# need# to# turn# it# on# again.# Go# to# the#
Data#Layers#pane#and#turn#on#the#france_reprojected#layer#in#the#Layers#list,#as#in#
Figure#8.16.#
#
! 166#
#
Figure(8.16:(Layers(with(the(france_reprojected(file(turned(on.(
(
The# referenced# shapefile# layer# will# appear.# Now# click# the# second# control# point# on# the#
shapefile#[Figure#8.17].##
#
#
Figure(8.17:(The(second(control(point(on(the(shapefile(layer.(
(
Note:##
If# you# would# like# to# start# the# exercise# over,# you# can# do# so# at# any# time.# However,# you#
will#have#to#use#the#original#files#placed#in#the#zipped#folder#for#Exercise#8.#You#must#
use# those# files# because,# at# this# point,# your# image# is# already# georeferenced# to# a# certain#
! 167#
extent.#If#you#do#repeat#the#exercise,#you#should#close#MapWindow#without#saving,#and#
then#reopen#MapWindow#and#reload#the#original#Exercise#8#files.#
#
Note:##
The# creation# of# control# points# is# one# of# the# more# difficult# tools# to# master.# Even#
experienced#users#can#have#problems#with#the#procedure.#Users#often#fail#to#place#the#
control#points#correctly.#If#that#happens,#the#procedure#produces#a#skewed#map,#which#
is# not# properly# aligned.# You# should# feel# free# to# repeat# this# portion# of# the# exercise# as#
often#as#needed#until#you#feel#comfortable#with#the#steps#and#the#results.#You#can#also#
experiment#with#choosing#different#control#points.#
#
After#you#have#placed#two#control#points,#the#map#and#the#reference#layer#should#both#
appear# on# your# screen,# as# in# Figure# 8.18.# You# will# see# that# the# original# map# image# is#
underneath#the#reference#layer.#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 168#
(
Figure(8.18:(Correctly(georeferenced(map(of(France,(with(the(France(shapefile(layered(
on(top(of(the(historical(map(of(France.(
(
Step(9:(
We# have# correctly# georeferenced# the# historic# map# of# France.# However,# we# cannot# use#
this#result#because#it#obscures#the#data#from#the#original#map.#We#need#to#complete#the#
digitization# of# the# map# so# that# the# towns,# cities,# and# other# information# of# the# original#
map# are# visible# and# usable.# We# can# do# this# by# first# having# MapWindow# compute# the#
new#map#using#our#control#points.#
#
Go#back#to#the#Image#to#Map#Registration#by#Least#Squares#window#and#look#at#the#
left#pane#again.##
#
Click#Compute,#and#then#click#Finish#[Figure#8.19].#
#
! 169#
(
Figure(8.19:(Left]hand(pane(in(the((
Image(to(Map(Registration(by(Least(Squares(window.(
#
Step(10:((
Finally,# we# need# to# rectify# our# new# map# in# order# to# keep# the# image# permanently#
associated#with#the#referenced#shapefile#layer.##
#
Go# back# to# the# Image# to# Map# option# in# the# main# menu# bar,# and# choose# 2.# Image#
Rectification.# The# Image# Rectification# window# will# open# [Figure# 8.20].# Look# at# the#
left#pane#of#the#window.#(
#
! 170#
(
Figure(8.20:(Image(Rectification(screen.((
#
In# the# Select# Image# to# Rectify# box,# choose# france.# Click# Rectify,# and# then# click#
Finish.#The(process(of(rectifying(the(image(might(take(a(few(minutes.((
#
When# the# image# rectification# has# finished,# go# back# to# the# Layers# list# in# the# Legend#
pane.# Right@click# on# the# france_reprojected# layer# and# choose# Properties# from# the#
drop@down#menu#[Figure#8.21].#
#
(
Figure(8.21:((The(Properties(option(for(the(france_reprojected(layer.(
#
! 171#
In#the#Layer#properties#window,#go#to#the#Appearance#tab,#and#in#the#box#next#to#
Transparency,#type#in#the#value#of#150.#Click#Apply,#and#then#click#Ok.#
#
(
Figure(8.22:(Transparency(in(the(Appearance(tab(under(Properties.((
##
Your#screen#should#now#look#like#Figure#8.23:#
#
(
Figure(8.23:(Georeferenced(map(of(France.(
#
! 172#
Congratulations!# You# have# successfully# georeferenced# a# historical# map# using#
MapWindow!# As# always,# you# should# repeat# this# exercise# until# you# feel# comfortable#
with#these#techniques.#We#suggest#you#try#using#different#control#points#(perhaps#one#
on#the#western#edge#and#one#on#the#eastern#border,#or#one#in#the#north#and#one#in#the#
south).# You# can# also# play# with# different# values# for# the# transparency# setting.# There# are#
valid# reasons# for# making# the# reference# layer# even# more# transparent;# for# example,# you#
may#wish#to#make#it#easier#to#read#the#original#information#on#the#map.#
#
If#you#have#historical#maps#of#your#own,#you#should#scan#them#(if#you#have#not#already#
done#so)#and#redo#this#exercise#using#your#own#maps.#Remember#that#you#MUST#have#
a#correctly#projected#shapefile#that#corresponds#to#your#map#to#be#able#to#georeference#
it!#
#
When# you# feel# that# you# have# mastered# the# tools# in# this# exercise,# you# can# move# on# to#
Chapter#9,#which#will#teach#you#some#more#advanced#digitalization#skills.#These#skills#
can#be#used#to#make#digitized#maps#even#more#detailed,#and#thus#more#useful#for#your#
research.##
! 173#
CHAPTER(9:(Digitizing(
In$ order$ to$ make$ spatial$ connections$ with$ historical$ data$ in$ a$ GIS,$ you$ might$ need$ to$
digitize$ much$ of$ your$ data.$ Digitizing,$ in$ general$ terms,$ means$ taking$ data$ from$ an$
analog$ format$ and$ transferring$ them$ into$ a$ digital$ format.$ In$ this$ sense,$ scanning$ is$ a$
form$of$digitizing.$However,$with$GIS,$digitizing$specifically$refers$to$taking$paper$or$
other$ hardcopy$ maps$ and$ placing$ all$ the$ information$ from$ those$ maps$ into$ a$ format$
compatible$with$GIS$software.$This$may$mean$digitally$tracing$such$features$as$roads,$
parcels,$ buildings,$ rivers,$ etc.,$ into$ points,$ lines,$ or$ polygons.$ In$ other$ words,$ we$ can$
create$new$points,$lines,$or$polygons$on$our$map$that$exactly$trace$the$features$found$
on$ the$ original$ map.$ Now$ that$ you$ have$ learned$ how$ to$ georeference$ and$ digitize$ a$
map$ in$ Chapter$ 8,$ the$ next$ step$ is$ to$ learn$ how$ to$ place$ events,$ connections,$ or$ other$
information$on$your$map.$
$
The$ most$ useful$ method$ of$ placing$ such$ data$ on$ your$ map$ is$ heads6up( digitizing,$
which$ refers$ to$ plotting$ a$ point,$ line,$ or$ polygon$ manually$ in$ GIS.$ Once$ you$ have$
georeferenced$an$image$(as$you$did$in$Exercise$8),$you$will$need$to$assign$geographic$
meaning$ to$ the$ streets,$ parcels,$ or$ other$ features$ of$ your$ historical$ map.$ Digitizing$
permits$this$enhancement.$For$example,$Figure$9.1$is$a$Sanborn$insurance$map,1$which$
depicts$every$road$and$building$in$a$section$of$Boise,$Idaho,$USA,$in$1912.$In$order$to$
define$ this$ area$ in$ geographic$ space,$ we$ can$ manually$ digitize$ the$ roads,$ city$ blocks,$
properties,$ and$ even$ individual$ buildings.$ We$ can$ then$ enter$ as$ much$ information$ as$
possible$ about$ each$ of$ these$ items,$ including$ sources$ such$ as$ digitized$ photographs,$
into$an$attribute$table$so$that$we$can$apply$spatial$analysis$to$that$data.$When$dealing$
with$ cities,$ plat(maps(like$ the$ Sanborn$ mapsmaps$ which$ locate$ individual$ property$
boundaries$ to$ scalecan$ be$ digitized$ down$ to$ each$ individual$ parcel.$ Using$
digitization,$we$can$do$the$same$thing$with$other$historical$maps,$once$they$have$been$
georeferenced.$ Once$ our$ GIS$ program$ knows$ the$ exact$ geocoordinates$ of$ our$ map$
features,$ we$ can$ begin$ to$ analyze$ those$ features,$ such$ as$ determining$ the$ distance$
between$two$roads$or$buildings,$or$how$many$are$located$in$the$city,$or$how$house$size$
correlates$to$neighborhood,$for$example.$
$
1$Many$of$the$Sanborn$Fire$Insurance$Maps$can$be$found$in$the$holdings$of$the$U.S.$Library$of$Congress$
Geography$and$Map$Reading$Room:$http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/sanborn/.$Useful$information$is$
available$in$the$Wikipedia$article$Sanborn$Maps:$http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanborn_Maps.$
! 174$
$
Figure(9.1:(Sanborn(Map(of(a(portion(of(Boise,(Idaho,(USA,(in(1912.(
(
(
(
(
! 175$
How(Historians(Use(Digitizing(in(Their(Research(
A$ good$ example$ of$ how$ a$ historian$ has$ used$ digitizing$ in$ his$ research$ is$ Brian$
Donahues$The$Great$Meadow:$Farmers$and$the$Land$in$Colonial$Concord.$Donahue$sought$
to$ demonstrate$ that$ colonial$ Concord$ was$ an$ ecologically$ sustainable$ adaption$ of$
English$ mixed$ husbandry$ to$ a$ new,$ challenging$ environment. 2 $To$ illustrate$ this,$
Donahue$ digitized$ parcels$ of$ land$ described$ in$ deeds,$ by$ landowner,$ across$ Concord,$
Massachusetts,$ spanning$ three$ centuries$ (approximately$ 1600`1900)$ and$ covering$
roughly$2,000$acres.$Tracking$land$ownership$with$relation$to$land`type$led$Donahue$to$
assert$that$colonial$farming$in$New$England$was$more$environmentally$sound$than$is$
generally$ supposed. 3 $Using$ digitized$ information$ in$ his$ historical$ study$ allowed$
Donahue$to$analyze$his$data$more$easily$and$accurately$than$would$have$been$possible$
without$ GIS,$ and$ to$ analyze$ a$ longer$ period$ than$ could$ have$ been$ done$ practically$
without$a$database.$
$
Another$ way$ to$ use$ digitized$ information$ can$ be$ seen$ in$ the$ work$ of$ Sarah$ Hinman,$
Jason$ Blackburn,$ and$ Andrew$ Curtis,$ who$ wanted$ to$ see$ if$ there$ were$ any$ spatial$
correlations$ for$ typhoid$ outbreaks$ in$ Washington,$ D.C.,$ between$ 1906$ and$ 1909.4$In$
order$ to$ carry$ out$ this$ investigation,$ they$ entered$ historical$ data$ about$ each$
neighborhood$and$each$recorded$case$of$the$disease$into$a$GIS$database$and$applied$a$
statistical$ method$ called$ Ripleys$ K`function$ to$ analyze$ the$ mapped$ point$ data.$ After$
running$their$analysis,$they$determined$that$there$were$no$significant$spatial$patterns.$
However,$ the$ same$ analysis$ proved$ that$ there$ were$ temporal$ patterns$ of$ typhoid$
outbreaks$in$the$area$during$the$specified$period.5$
$
There$ are$ many$ other$ ways$ in$ which$ digitized$ information$ can$ enhance$ historical$
analysis,$such$as:$tracing$population$shifts;$tracking$architectural,$political,$religious,$or$
intellectual$movements;$delineating$jurisdictional$boundaries;$or$correlating$wealth$and$
location,$ to$ name$ a$ few.$ The$ more$ one$ thinks$ about$ the$ connections$ between$
geographical$ location$ or$ features$ and$ historical$ events,$ the$ more$ one$ sees$ the$
tremendous$possibilities$of$using$GIS$for$geographicallyìntegrated$history.$
2$Brian$Donahue,$The$Great$Meadow:$Farmers$and$the$Land$in$Colonial$Concord$(New$Haven:$Yale$University$
Press,$2004),$xv.$
3$Brian$Donahue,$Mapping$Husbandry$in$Concord:$GIS$as$a$Tool$for$Environmental$History,$in$Placing$
History:$How$Maps,$Spatial$Data,$and$GIS$are$Changing$Historical$Scholarship,$ed.$Anne$K.$Knowles$
(Redlands:$ESRI$Press,$2008),$174.$
4$Sarah$E.$Hinman,$Jason$K$Blackburn,$and$Andrew$Curtis,$Spatial$and$Temporal$Structure$of$Typhoid$
Outbreaks$in$Washington,$D.C.,$1906`1909:$Evaluating$Local$Clustering$with$the$Gi*$Statistic,$
International$Journal$of$Health$Geographics$5/13$(March,$2006),$http://www.ij`
healthgeographics.com/content/5/1/13$(accessed$6$September$2011).$
5$Ibid.$
! 176$
Additional(Tools(Related(to(Digitizing(
As$ we$ have$ learned,$ it$ is$ possible$ to$ edit$ a$ layer$ in$ GIS$ by$ adding$ new$ points.$ When$
editing$ a$ layer,$ if$ you$ click$ the$ mouse$ at$ a$ given$ location,$ you$ create$ a$ vertex,$ or$ new$
point.$It$is$possible$to$outline$polygons$and$draw$lines$in$the$same$way,$although$the$
number$ of$ vertices$ necessary$ will$ vary,$ depending$ on$ the$ shape$ of$ the$ polygon.$ For$
example,$if$you$are$tracing$a$rectangular$boundary,$such$as$the$state$of$Wyoming,$USA,$
only$ four$ vertices$ will$ be$ required.$ But$ if$ you$ are$ tracing$ a$ coastline,$ such$ as$ that$ of$
Australia,$many$more$points$must$be$used.$MapWindow$permits$users$to$add,$delete,$
or$ move$ vertices$ in$ an$ existing$ line$ or$ polygon,$ which$ allows$ users$ to$ add$ or$ remove$
detail$in$the$digital$image.$$
$
Often$when$digitizing$information$in$MapWindow$GIS,$you$will$wish$to$go$back$and$
make$ changes$ to$ a$ line$ or$ polygon$ to$ improve$ its$ accuracy.$ This$ improvement$ can$ be$
done$ using$ the$ layer$ editing$ menu,$ which$ also$ contains$ tools$ that$ are$ useful$ for$
digitizing$data.$One$editing$issue$is$that$digitizing$maps$can$also$involve$creating$lines$
or$polygons$that$sit$next$to$each$other$and$are$so$close$that$it$can$be$difficult$to$digitize$
neighboring$areas.$For$example,$in$the$Sanborn$map$in$Figure$9.1,$only$one$line$serves$
as$the$boundary$marker$between$two$parcels$of$land,$but$if$we$digitize$the$map,$each$
parcel$ must$ have$ four$ lines$ to$ form$ the$ proper$ polygon.$ This$ requirement$ means$ that$
the$ lines$ depicting$ the$ boundary$ between$ two$ parcels$ must$ be$ flush$ with$ the$
neighboring$ lines.$ In$ other$ words,$ what$ looks$ like$ a$ single$ line$ on$ the$ map$ must$ be$
identified$ as$ two$ lines$ to$ MapWindow.$ MapWindow$ provides$ the$ snapping$ tool$ to$
accomplish$ what$ would$ otherwise$ be$ very$ difficult$ to$ do$ by$ hand.$ This$ tool$ will$
automatically$ snap$ a$ line$ to$ vertices$ that$ are$ closest$ to$ the$ cursor.$ Snapping$ makes$ it$
possible$to$align$two$separate$lines$to$the$same$vertices,$or$to$line$up$areas$of$various$
shapes,$so$that$they$are$flush$with$each$other.$$
$
After$georeferencing$and$digitizing$a$historical$map,$another$important$tool$to$further$
your$ spatial$ analysis$ is$ the$ buffer(shapes$ tool,$ which$ allows$ you$ to$ draw$ a$ buffer,$ or$
shape,$ over$ a$ defined$ portion$ of$ your$ map.$ For$ example,$ you$ may$ wish$ to$ determine$
how$many$houses$are$within$.5$mile$of$the$courthouse.$We$have$already$used$a$buffer$
when$ we$ located$ the$ towns$ in$ SudCOuest$ France$ that$ were$ within$ 10,000$ meters$ of$ a$
river;$now$we$will$learn$how$to$use$buffers$for$more$sophisticated$purposes.$
$
Our$ exercise$ will$ take$ a$ historical$ map$ that$ has$ already$ been$ georeferenced,$ of$ Recife,$
Brazil,$and$it$will$teach$you$how$to$digitize$many$of$its$features.$
$
$
$
! 177$
EXERCISE(9(
This$exercise$will$teach$you$how$to$perform$a$more$advanced$spatial$analysis$using$the$
Buffer$ Shapes$ tool,$ as$ well$ as$ how$ to$ create$ a$ shapefile$ and$ to$ digitize$ polygons,$ to$
delimit$a$particular$portion$of$a$city$and$the$buildings$within$that$section.$
$
Task:((
Imagine$that$you$are$a$travel$writer$visiting$the$city$of$Recife,$Brazil,$and$you$are$trying$
to$find$a$place$to$live.$Ideally,$you$want$to$select$a$building$that$is$within$0.5$miles$of$
the$ large$ stone$ fort$ of$ Cinco$ Pontas,$ as$ described$ by$ British$ travel$ writer$ Henry$
Koster$in$his$book$Travels$in$Brazil,$published$in$1816.$Due$to$transportation$issues,$you$
also$want$a$building$that$is$within$0.4$miles$of$the$two$main$bridges$in$Recife.$
$
Step(1:((
Go$to$http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wp`
content/uploads/exercises/exercise9.zip$
$
Download$the$folder$with$the$data$required$for$the$completion$of$this$exercise,$and$then$
extract$these$files$into$your$exercise$9$folder.$$
$
Open$ MapWindow$ and$ add$ the$ 1808$ map$ of$ Recife$ [Figure$ 9.1],$ and$ then$ add$ the$
Bridges$and$fort$shapefiles.$$
$
$
Figure(9.1:((Map(of(1808(Recife,(Brazil,(with(point(data(depicting(the(citys(two(main(
bridges(and(the(fort(of(Cinco(Pontas.(
! 178$
Now$that$we$have$a$map$of$Recife$with$the$bridges$and$the$fort$indicated$on$it,$we$need$
to$apply$buffers$to$locate$the$portions$of$the$city$that$are$within$0.5$miles$of$the$fort$and$
within$0.4$miles$of$the$bridges.$This$buffering$will$help$us$locate$those$areas$of$the$city$
deemed$safest.$
(
Step(2:((
First,$we$will$apply$a$buffer$of$0.5$miles$around$the$fort.$In$the$Legend$pane,$switch$
to$the$Toolbox$view$and$go$to$Vector$Operations.$In$Vector$Operations,$select$the$
Standard$folder$and$choose$the$Buffer$shapes$function$[Figure$9.2].$$
$
$
Figure(9.2:(Buffer(Shapes(in(the(Standard(folder(under(Vector(Operations(in(
the(Toolbox(view.(
! 179$
To$ apply$ a$ buffer$ of$ 0.5$ miles$ around$ the$ fort,$ in$ the$ Buffer$ shapes$ window,$ in$ the$
Vector$Layer$box,$choose$fort.$In$the$Buffer$distance$field,$type$in$the$value$of$0.5.$
From$ the$ drop`down$ menu$ next$ to$ Buffer$ distance,$ choose$ Miles,$ and$ click$ Ok$
[Figure$ 9.3].$ Confirm$ that$ the$ program$ will$ save$ the$ results$ to$ the$ proper$ file,$
fort_buffer1.shp.$
$
$
Figure(9.3:(Buffer(shapes(window(with(the(correct(information(entered.(
$
After$you$click$OK,$your$screen$should$look$like$Figure$9.4.$
$
$
Figure(9.4:(Map(of(Recife(with(a(buffer(of(0.5(miles(around(the(fort.(
! 180$
Step(3:(
Now$we$need$to$repeat$this$procedure$to$apply$a$buffer$of$0.4$miles$around$the$bridges$
of$Recife,$using$the$Bridges$shapefile.$Make$sure$you$select$the$Bridges$layer$and$
that$the$distance$is$still$measured$in$Miles$[Figure$9.5].$
$
(
Figure(9.5:(Buffer(shapes(window(to(create(a(buffer(of(0.4(miles(around(the(main(
bridges(of(Recife.(
(
After$ applying$ the$ second$ buffer$ around$ the$ bridges,$ your$ map$ of$ Recife$ should$ look$
like$Figure$9.6.$$$
$
$
Figure(9.6:(Map(of(Recife(with(buffers(around(the(fort(and(both(bridges.(
! 181$
The$buildings$that$would$be$appropriate$for$your$living$accommodations$lie$in$the$area$
in$which$these$buffers$overlap.$
$
Step(4:(
To$locate$the$intersection,$go$back$to$the$Toolbox$view.$Under$Vector$Operations,$
select$ the$ Overlay$ folder,$ then$ choose$ the$ Intersection$ tool.$ When$ the$ Shapefiles$
Intersection$window$opens,$select$your$fort$buffer$for$Shapefile$1$and$the$bridges$for$
Shapefile$2,$as$in$Figure$9.7.$Make$sure$that$the$result$will$be$saved$to$the$correct$file,$
and$click$OK.$
$
(
Figure(9.7:(Correctly(filled(Shapefile(Intersection(window.(
(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 182$
You$will$be$asked$if$you$want$to$add$the$new$layer$to$your$map;$click$Yes.$Now$your$
map$should$look$like$Figure$9.8.$
$
$
Figure(9.8:(Intersection(depicted(the(portion(of(the(city(of(Recife(that(is(within(0.5(
miles(of(the(fort(and(0.4(miles(of(the(bridges.(
(
Step(5:(
We$have$identified$the$area$of$intersection$of$our$buffers,$but$we$need$to$see$the$actual$
buildings$that$are$within$our$intersection$and$digitize$them.$Our$first$step$is$to$go$back$
to$the$Layers$view$in$the$Legend$pane$and$turn$off$both$the$Bridges_buffer1$and$
fort_buffer1$layers$[Figure$9.9]$to$see$just$the$area$of$intersection.$
$
(
Figure(9.9:(The(section(of(Recife(that(contains(buildings(relevant(to(our(area(of(
interest.(
! 183$
Now$ we$ need$ to$ make$ our$ selected$ area$ transparent$ so$ that$ we$ can$ see$ the$ buildings$
within$ it.$ In$ the$ Layers$ pane,$ right`click$ the$ fort_buffer1_intsc1$ layer$ and$ choose$
Properties$from$the$drop`down$menu.$$
$
In$the$Layer$properties$window,$go$to$the$Appearance$tab.$On$the$right$side$of$the$
window,$in$the$middle,$is$a$scale$bar$labeled$Transparency,$with$a$value$box$next$to$it$
[Figure$9.10].$Type$the$value$of$100$in$the$box$and$click$Ok.$$
$
(
Figure(9.10:((The(Transparency(window(in(Layer(properties.(
(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 184$
Now$we$can$see$the$buildings$that$fall$within$the$appropriate$area$[Figure$9.11]$of$the$
city.$$
$
(
Figure(9.11.(Appropriate(buildings(within(our(desired(area(of(Recife.(
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 185$
Step(6:(
Our$next$step$is$to$digitize$the$buildings$that$fall$within$our$area$of$interest.$$
$
To$ perform$ this$ digitization,$ we$ need$ to$ create$ a$ new$ polygon$ shapefile.$ In$ the$ main$
menu$bar,$go$to$Plugìns$and$add$the$Shapefile$Editor$[Figure$9.12].$
$
(
Figure(9.12:(Shapefile(Editor(plug6in.(
! 186$
This$selection$will$add$several$icons$to$the$left`hand$side$of$the$tool$menu$across$the$top$
of$your$screen.$
Click$ the$ $ $button$ that$ will$ appear$ under$ MapWindows$ menu$ bar$ to$ open$ the$
New$Shapefile$Options$window$[Figure$9.13].$Notice$that$the$default$shapefile$type$is$
point.$
$
$
Figure(9.13:(New(Shapefile(Options.(
(
Step(7:(
We$want$to$add$the$new$shapefile$to$our$Exercise$9$folder.$To$do$add$the$shapefile,$
click$ the$ $button.$ The$ Choose$ location$ for$ new$ shapefile$ window$ will$ open$
[Figure$ 9.14].$ Navigate$ to$ the$ correct$ folder,$ if$ necessary,$ and$ name$ the$ new$ shapefile$
Polygons.$Then$click$Save.$$
$
(
Figure(9.14:(Choose(location(for(new(shapefile(window.(
! 187$
After$you$click$Save,$the$Choose$location$window$will$close$and$you$will$be$back$at$
the$ New$ Shapefile$ Options$ window$ [Figure$ 9.15].$ In$ Shapefile$ Type,$ choose$
Polygon$from$the$drop`down$menu,$and$click$OK.(
$
(
Figure(9.15:(Polygon(selected(as(Shapefile(type(in(the(New(Shapefile(Options(
window.$$
$
The$Important$Information!$window$will$open$to$inform$you$that$an$empty$polygon$
shapefile$has$been$created$[Figure$9.16].$The$message$will$warn$you$to$make$sure$your$
extents$are$properly$set.$Click$OK$to$close$the$window.$
$
(
Figure(9.16:((Important(Information!(window.(
(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 188$
Notice$that$your$new$shapefile$is$now$listed$in$the$Layers$pane$[Figure$9.17],$at$the$
top$of$the$list$of$layers.$
$
(
Figure(9.17:((New(polygon(layer(in(the(Data(Layers(pane.(
(
Step(8:(
Now$ that$ we$ have$ a$ new$ polygon$ layer,$ we$ can$ start$ digitizing$ the$ buildings$ in$ our$
intersection$on$the$map.$$
$
Click$the$ $button$to$start$digitizing$your$polygon.$$
$
To$digitize$a$polygon,$place$your$mouse$cursor$on$the$corner$of$the$polygon$(building)$
to$be$digitized.$When$the$cursor$is$located$properly,$click$the$mouse.$A$blue$shape$will$
appear$in$the$corner.$As$you$move$your$mouse,$you$will$see$a$blue$line$extending$from$
that$ point$ [Figure$ 9.18].$ Move$ your$ mouse$ to$ the$ next$ corner$ (vertex)$ of$ the$ building,$
and$click$the$mouse$again.$$
$
! 189$
(
Figure(9.18:(Selecting(vertices(and(segments(of(a(polygon(on(the(map.(
(
Note:$$
You$can$use$the$Pan$tool$to$zoom$into$the$map,$which$will$make$it$easier$to$see$the$
outlines$of$the$polygons$to$be$digitized.$
$
Continue$ to$ move$ your$ mouse$ to$ the$ next$ vertex$ until$ all$ the$ corners$ of$ the$ polygon$
have$been$selected.$Then$click$the$first$vertex$again$to$close$the$polygon.$The$polygon$
should$now$be$shaded$on$the$map$[Figure$9.19].$$
$
(
Figure(9.19:(A(completed(polygon(will(be(shaded(on(the(map.(
(
! 190$
Repeat$ these$ steps$ until$ you$ have$ digitized$ all$ the$ borders$ of$ the$ buildings$ that$ fall$
within$the$area$of$intersection$shown$on$the$map.$
$
You$will$find$that$some$buildings$are$not$simple$rectangles$but$have$many$corners$and$
segments$[Figure$9.20].$You$can$digitize$these$in$the$same$way,$by$clicking$each$end$of$
the$segment$between$two$corners,$until$you$have$connected$the$entire$polygon$[Figure$
9.21].$
$
(
Figure(9.20:(Vertices(and(segments(of(a(complex(polygon.(
(
(
Figure(9.21.(Completed(irregular(polygon.(
(
! 191$
Note:((
You$can$delete$a$polygon$with$which$you$are$not$satisfied$by$selecting$the$polygon$with$
the$ $button$ on$ MapWindows$ menu$ bar$ and$ then$ clicking$ the$ $button.$
This$deletion$will$allow$you$to$start$over$with$that$polygon.$
$
Step(9:(
Often$ when$ you$ are$ digitizing$ polygons,$ you$ will$ have$ additional$ information$ about$
them,$which$you$want$to$include$in$your$attribute$table,$such$as$building$names$or$the$
dates$ when$ they$ were$ erected.$ Although$ we$ do$ not$ have$ such$ information$ for$ our$
buildings$in$Recife,$we$are$going$to$add$data$to$our$attribute$table$as$if$we$did.$$
$
You$must$learn$how$to$add$data$to$the$attribute$table$of$a$shapefile.$For$example,$if$you$
were$ investigating$ the$ Pernambuco$ revolt$ of$ 1817,$ which$ took$ place$ in$ Recife$ (and$
preceded$ the$ independence$ of$ Brazil),$ you$ would$ want$ to$ add$ the$ names$ of$ the$
individuals$who$lived$in$each$building$shown$in$the$map.$In$doing$so,$you$could$create$
a$ project$ aimed$ at$ examining$ how$ the$ ideas$ that$ shaped$ the$ independence$ of$ Brazil$
passed$through$the$social$networks$of$residents$within$the$physical$landscape$of$Recife$
during$one$of$the$most$critical$periods$in$Brazilian$history.$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 192$
Once$ you$ have$ finished$ digitizing$ all$ the$ polygons$ in$ our$ intersection$ on$ the$ map$ of$
Recife,$ open$ the$ attribute$ table$ of$ your$ polygons$ shapefile$ [Figure$ 9.22],$ by$ right`
clicking$ on$ the$ layer$ name$ and$ selecting$ Attribute$ Table$ Editor.$ $ Click$ Edit,$ and$
choose$Add$Field.$
$
(
$
$
$
$
! 193$
Create$a$new$field$named$Building,$as$shown$in$Figure$9.23,$and$select$String$for$
the$type.$Remember$that$because$string$fields$contain$alphanumeric$data,$they$can$hold$
both$words$and$numbers.$
$
(
Figure(9.23:(The(Add(Field(window(in(the(Attribute(Table(Editor.(
(
The$attribute$table$for$your$polygons$shapefile$will$open,$with$a$line$for$each$polygon$
that$ was$ digitized.$ Name$ each$ of$ the$ polygons$ [Figure$ 9.24],$ click$ Apply,$ and$ then$
Close.$You$can$name$your$buildings$however$you$want;$we$have$named$ours$B1,$
B2,$etc.$
$
(
Figure(9.24:(New(Building(field(with(names(added,(in(our(attribute(table.(
! 194$
Step(10:(
Before$we$look$at$the$buildings$that$are$in$our$selected$area$of$Recife,$we$need$to$turn$
off$ the$ Shapefile$ Editor$ plugìn$ to$ restore$ our$ original$ menu$ bar.$ To$ do$ this,$ go$ to$
Plugìns$and$click$Shapefile$Editor$to$deactivate$the$plugìn.$$
$
Your$final$screen$with$your$digitized$polygons$should$look$like$Figure$9.25.$
$
(
Figure(9.25:(Map(of(Recife(with(the(digitized(polygons(depicting(the(buildings(
within(the(area(of(intersection(identified(by(buffers.(
$
Congratulations!$ You$ have$ performed$ complex$ spatial$ analysis$ on$ a$ historical$ map$ of$
Recife,$Brazil,$by$applying$multiple$buffers,$identifying$the$overlapping$intersection$of$
those$ buffers,$ and$ then$ digitizing$ the$ buildings$ located$ within$ that$ intersection.$
Although$we$undertook$this$spatial$analysis$to$locate$appropriate$housing$locations$for$
our$fictional$traveler,$the$same$techniques$can$be$used$to$analyze$a$variety$of$historical$
questions.$As$always,$feel$free$to$repeat$this$exercise$and$play$with$these$tools$until$you$
feel$comfortable$with$them.$$
$
In$our$next$chapter,$we$will$begin$to$use$a$different$type$of$data$from$the$vector$data$we$
have$ been$ using.$ Raster$ data$ provides$ information$ about$ elevation.$ If$ you$ have$ ever$
used$a$topographical$map,$you$have$used$a$map$with$raster$data.$For$some$historical$
questions,$maps$using$raster$data$can$provide$more$sophisticated$ways$to$analyze$your$
data.$$
! 195$
CHAPTER(10:(Raster(Data(
We$explained$vector$data$in$Chapter$2,$and$now$we$are$going$to$discuss$a$different$data$
format$ known$ as$ raster( data.$ While$ vector$ data$ uses$ coordinates$ to$ represent$ spatial$
data$ in$ the$ form$ of$ points,$ lines,$ and$ polygons,$ raster$ data$ are$ digital$ images$ that$
display$ and$ store$ information$ at$ the$ cell$ (or$ pixel)$ level.$ If$ you$ take$ a$ photo$ with$ a$
digital$ camera,$ you$ create$ a$ raster$ image.$ Some$ common$ raster$ formats$ include$ .tif$
(Tagged$Image$File),$.geotiff$(Georeferenced$Tagged$File$Format),$and$.jpg$(from$JPEG,$
the$acronym$of$the$Joint$Photographic$Experts$Group).$Information$regarding$features,$
such$ as$ elevation$ or$ land$ use,$ can$ be$ imbedded$ within$ certain$ types$ of$ raster$ data.$
Different$ values$ are$ often$ assigned$ for$ a$ particular$ type$ of$ information,$ and$ those$
numbers$are$plotted$on$a$grid;$thus,$each$number$shown$on$the$grid$might$represent$a$
different$elevation,$or$a$different$land$use.$For$example,$in$the$grid$shown$in$Figure$10.1,$
each$grid$cell$has$a$number$associated$with$it$which,$in$turn,$represents$land$use$type.$
Land use:
Figure(10.1:(A(raster(image(is(broken(down(pixel(by(pixel,(in(this(case(by(land(usage.
! 196$
Topographical$ maps$ are$ a$ common$ example$ of$ maps$ using$ raster$ data,$ and$ many$ of$
them$ also$ have$ contour( lines,$ or$ isolines,$ which$ are$ lines$ that$ delineate$ different$
elevation$values.$For$example,$the$maps$of$the$United$States$Geological$Survey$(USGS)$
for$ hiking$ in$ national$ parks$ are$ topographical$ maps$ with$ contour$ lines.$ Contour$ lines$
on$those$maps$are$not$associated$with$different$color$values$for$different$elevations,$but$
it$ is$ possible$ and,$ in$ some$ cases,$ desirable$ to$ use$ both$ color$ and$ contour$ lines$ to$
emphasize$ the$ changes$ in$ elevation$ in$ a$ map.$ As$ always,$ you$ must$ decide$ what$ you$
wish$ to$ communicate$ with$ your$ map$ and$ make$ the$ cartographic$ decisions$ that$ best$
permit$you$to$achieve$that$goal.$
$
How(is(Raster(Data(Used(by(Historians(and(Historical(Social(Scientists?(
Although$historians$have$traditionally$used$vector$data$in$GIS$studies,$there$are$many$
opportunities$for$the$application$of$raster$data$to$historical$research.$Native$American$
Studies$professor$Elisabeth$Rose$Middleton$used$both$raster$and$vector$data$to$produce$
a$ map$ of$ historic$ and$ contemporary$ Maidu$ lands$ in$ northern$ California,$ USA.1$She$
argued$ that$ a$ map$ made$ with$ GIS$ software,$ in$ addition$ to$ storyVtelling$ and$ tribal$
histories,$ can$ produce$ a$ powerful$ sense$ of$ placeVmaking.$ Drawing$ upon$ such$ raster$
data$as$parcel$maps$and$satellite$imagery,$Middleton$used$GIS$as$a$method$to$recreate$
the$past.$Viewing$cultural$information$on$a$single$frame,$she$said,$is$a$great$way$to$
visualize$ various$ conceptions$ of$ the$ landscape$ and$ provides$ a$ visual$ tool$ to$ pair$
geographic$with$cultural$data$for$anthropologists$and$ethnohistorians.2$$
$
Geographers$ Jeff$ Ueland$ and$ Barney$ Warf$ used$ census$ data$ and$ a$ digital$ elevation$
model$ (DEM)$ to$ determine$ whether$ 146$ cities$ in$ the$ southern$ United$ States$ exhibited$
altitudinal$ residential$ segregation. 3 $Of$ these$ cities,$ they$ found$ that$ 35$ percent$
exhibited$statistically$significant$correlations$(p<.05)$between$percent$black$and$mean$
blockVgroup$altitude$in$1990,$indicating$that$whites$lived$at$greater$elevations$than$did$
blacks.4$This$correlation$held$true$in$most$cases,$with$exceptions$noted$only$in$the$case$
of$ expensive$ oceanfront$ property.$ Ueland$ and$ Warf$ noted$ that$ living$ at$ lower$
elevations$ often$ comes$ with$ disadvantages,$ such$ as$ those$ associated$ with$ damp$ and$
1$Elisabeth$Rose$Middleton,$Seeking$Spatial$Representation:$Reflections$on$Participatory$Ethnohistorical$
GIS$Mapping$of$Maidu$Allotment$Lands,$Ethnohistory$57/$3(2010):$363V387,$
http://ethnohistory.dukejournals.org/content/57/3/363.full.pdf+html.$
2$Ibid.,$381.$
3$Jeff$Ueland$and$Barney$Warf,$Racialized$Topographies:$Altitude$and$Race$in$Southern$Cities,$
Geographical1Review$91/$1$(2010):$1V29,$http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1931V
0846.2006.tb00387.x/pdf.$
4$Ibid.,$9.$
! 197$
floodVprone$ areas.$ While$ they$ used$ recent$ data$ for$ their$ study,$ one$ could$ recreate$ a$
similar$study$in$a$different$era$using$a$similar$approach.5$
$
In$ Chapter$ 8,$ we$ discussed$ how$ historic$ maps$ can$ be$ defined$ in$ space$ by$
georeferencing$ the$ map$ to$ a$ shapefile$ of$ the$ same$ location$ using$ a$ series$ of$ control$
points.$ This$ method$ is$ a$ common$ way$ for$ historians$ to$ use$ GIS$ in$ their$ scholarship.$
Historic$maps$that$are$scanned$and$georeferenced$into$MapWindow$GIS$are$technically$
raster$images$because$when$scanned$they$are$saved$as$an$image,$such$as$a$.jpg$or$a$.png$
(Portable$ Network$ Graphics)$ file.$ MapWindow$ offers$ a$ variety$ of$ ways$ to$ perform$
spatial$analysis$of$these$raster$images.$$
$
Digital(Elevation(Models((
Unlike$a$basic$digital$image,$a$digital$elevation$model$(DEM;$also$called$a$digital$terrain$
model)$ contains$ elevation$ data$ at$ the$ pixel$ level$ and$ shows$ a$ 3VD$ representation$ of$ a$
terrain$or$surface.$This$model$is$created$using$a$triangular$irregular$network$(TIN).$A$
TIN$ is$ much$ like$ vector$ data$ in$ that$ lines$ are$ connected$ by$ points$ in$ order$ to$ assign$
values$ to$ pixels.$ If$ done$ in$ fine$ enough$ detail,$ this$ process$ can$ give$ a$ fairly$ realistic$
depiction$of$the$Earths$surface.6$In$this$way,$raster$data$can$give$a$3VD$appearance$to$
the$Earth,$while$vector$data$only$appears$in$2Vdimensions.$DEMs$can$be$very$significant$
for$ many$ historical$ questions.$ For$ instance,$ a$ researcher$ may$ want$ to$ define$ areas$ of$
habitation$ of$ an$ indigenous$ group$ of$ people$ in$ a$ particular$ location.$ Drawing$ upon$
already$ existing$ knowledge$ about$ diet$ or$ the$ areas$ where$ the$ group$ foraged$ from$
season$ to$ season,$ scholars$ may$ identify$ the$ elevation$ of$ the$ flora$ and$ fauna$ of$ the$
groups$diet.$In$this$way,$digital$elevation$models$could$help$answer$questions$about$an$
indigenous$groups$historical$boundaries$or$lands$of$importance$where$such$issues$are$
frequently$sources$of$contention$in$nearly$all$of$the$worlds$regions.$$$
5$Or$one$might$use$a$technique$from$Marc$Bloch,$Les1caractres1originaux1de1l:histoire1rurale1franaise$(Paris:$
Armand$Colin,$1931),$who$sometimes$began$with$information$about$the$20thVcentury$situation$and$then$
pursued$its$origins$in$the$historical$record.$It$was$a$method$that$revealed$to$him$aspects$of$French$rural$
history$that$he$might$have$otherwise$missed.$We$mention$Bloch$because$he$was$an$inspiration$for$the$use$
of$GIS$for$historical$research,$something$that$only$became$possible$long$after$his$murder$by$the$Gestapo$
in$1944$due$to$his$courageous$work$in$the$French$Resistance.$
6$Ian$N.$Gregory$and$Paul$S.$Ell,$Historical1GIS:1Technologies,1Methodologies,1and1Scholarship$(Cambridge:$
Cambridge$University$Press,$2007),$30V31.$$$
! 198$
$
Figure(10.2:(This(photo(depicts(digital(elevation(for(a(portion(of(the(Grand(Canyon(of(
the(Colorado(River,(USA.(Actual(elevation(data(is(contained(within(a(DEM,(not(just(a(
regular(image.(
(
Aerial(Photography(
Although$they$do$not$include$the$elevation$data$of$a$DEM,$aerial$photographs$can$also$
be$ useful$ for$ historical$ analysis$ of$ a$ given$ location.$ A$ good$ way$ to$ view$ aerial$
photography,$ or$ orthoimagery,$ of$ the$ Earth$ is$ through$ the$ United$ States$ National$
Agriculture$Imagery$Program$(NAIP).$$This$program$maintains$a$large$library$of$aerial$
photographs$ online,$ which$ covers$ the$ Earths$ surface$ over$ several$ decades.$ Aerial$
photography$ can$ only$ be$ employed$ easily$ in$ historical$ studies$ of$ the$ period$ since$ the$
beginning$ of$ human$ flight.$ However,$ for$ historians$ of$ the$ early$ twentieth$ century$ on,$
orthoimagery$ can$ prove$ a$ useful$ tool.$ Aerial$ photography$ has$ flourished$ since$ World$
War$I$and$has$exponentially$increased$our$ability$to$survey$vast$swaths$of$area$with$a$
camera$ and$ an$ airplane.$ Now$ with$ satellites,$ highVprecision$ imagery$ of$ our$ planet$ is$
widely$ available$ to$ users$ everywhere. 7 $For$ the$ most$ part,$ scholars$ can$ find$ free,$
downloadable$ orthoimagery$ of$ the$ entire$ Earth,$ with$ varying$ degrees$ of$ resolution,$
through$government$websites.$
$For$a$brief$history$of$geospatial$imagery,$see$Penn$State$Universitys$Geospatial1Revolution$videos,$
7
particularly$the$first$one,$http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=poMGRbfgp38.$
! 199$
$
Figure(10.3:(An(aerial(photograph(of(Hagley(Park(in(Christchurch,(New(Zealand.(
$
Raster(Data(vs.(Vector(Data:(A(Comparison(
Raster$data$and$vector$data$both$serve$certain$purposes$well.$While$vector$data$limits$
users$ to$ employing$ data$ that$ contains$ longitude$ and$ latitude$ (x,$ y)$ measurements,$
certain$types$of$raster$data$enable$users$to$incorporate$elevation$data$(often$referred$to$
as$a$z$value).$Where$vector$data$typically$shows$solid$colors$for$areas$on$maps,$raster$
data$includes$orthophotography,$which$can$give$a$detailed,$birdsVeye$view$of$the$area$
of$ interest.$ Of$ course,$ this$ detail$ may$ be$ more$ confusing$ for$ viewers,$ and$ using$ it$
certainly$depends$upon$the$purpose$of$your$map.$Finally,$though$file$size$is$becoming$
less$of$an$issue$with$advancements$in$computer$technology,$it$is$worth$discussing$here.$
Vector$data$uses$a$fraction$of$the$storage$space$of$most$raster$images.$For$example,$an$
aerial$ photograph$ of$ a$ watershed$ in$ western$ Wisconsin,$ USA,$ which$ comprised$ two$
small$counties,$surpassed$one$gigabyte$in$size.$Vector$data$of$the$same$area,$depending$
! 200$
upon$ its$ accompanying$ database,$ may$ only$ use$ a$ few$ kilobytes.$ These$ are$ things$ to$
consider$ when$ exploring$ your$ own$ GIS$ project.$ If$ your$ project$ will$ be$ reliant$ upon$
raster$ data,$ it$ will$ likely$ cost$ more$ to$ obtain$ and$ store$ the$ data$ than$ it$ would$ to$ do$ a$
project$of$the$same$area$with$vector$data.$But$because$raster$data$does$offer$users$more$
analytical$potential$in$some$respects,$the$decision$must$be$based$on$what$you$are$trying$
to$convey$to$your$map$readers.( (
(
In$ our$ exercise,$ we$ will$ use$ raster$ data$ for$ a$ specific$ geographical$ area$ and$ apply$
various$tools$to$enhance$the$maps$value$for$a$specific$historical$question.$We$will$use$
color$and$contour$lines$to$improve$the$readability$of$the$map,$and$we$will$add$points$
indicating$the$location$of$the$historical$events$in$which$we$are$interested.$
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! 201$
EXERCISE(10(
Historians$ can$ use$ raster$ data$ and$ digital$ elevation$ models$ (DEMs)$ to$ pinpoint$
locations$ and/or$ track$ the$ spread$ of$ an$ event$ according$ to$ the$ topology$ of$ the$ area$
under$study.$In$this$exercise,$we$are$going$to$use$this$methodology$to$attempt$to$track$a$
disease$outbreak.$
$
Task:((
The$ influenza$ pandemic$ between$ 1918$ and$ 1920$ was$ one$ of$ the$ deadliest$ and$ most$
severe$pandemics$ever$recorded.$We$are$going$to$use$a$DEM$depicting$Saint$Louis$City$
County,$ in$ Missouri,$ to$ pinpoint$ the$ locations$ of$ the$ cases$ of$ influenza$ and$ map$ the$
spread$of$the$disease.$$
$
Step(1:(
Go$to$http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wpV
content/uploads/exercises/exercise10.zip$$
$
Download$the$zipped$folder$containing$the$data$you$will$use$in$this$exercise,$and$unzip$
it$to$your$Exercise10$folder.$Your$folder$will$contain$a$subfolder$named$DEM,$which$
contains$ a$ DEM$ of$ Saint$ Louis$ City$ County,$ and$ a$ second$ subfolder$ named$
Influenza_Deaths,$containing$point$data$depicting$influenza$deaths.$
$
Step(2:$$
Open$MapWindow,$click$on$the$ $button,$and$navigate$to$your$DEM$folder.$In$
DEM,$identify$the$file$hdr.adf$and$load$the$file$as$a$layer$in$MapWindow$[Figure$
10.1].$
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! 202$
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Figure(10.1:(DEM(of(Saint(Louis(City(County,(MO.(
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! 203$
Step(3:((
Our$ DEM$ accurately$ shows$ the$ topology$ of$ our$ county,$ but$ we$ want$ to$ add$ a$ color$
scheme$ to$ make$ the$ differences$ in$ elevation$ more$ apparent.$ To$ do$ this,$ go$ to$ Data$
Layers,$rightVclick$on$the$hdr$layer,$and$select$Properties.$$
$
From$ the$ Properties$ menu,$ choose$ the$ Legend$ Editor$ [Figure$ 10.2],$ and$ go$ to$
Coloring$Scheme.$Click$on$the$ $button$that$will$appear$next$to$Edit...$on$the$right$
of$Coloring$Scheme.$
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Figure(10.2:(Coloring(Scheme(in(the(Legend(Editor(window.(
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! 204$
This$ will$ open$ the$ Coloring$ Scheme$ Editor$ window$ [Figure$ 10.3].$ Click$ on$ the$ $
button$at$the$top$of$the$screen.$$
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Figure(10.3:(Coloring(Scheme(Editor(window.$
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The$ Input$ number$ of$ breaks...$ window$ will$ open$ [Figure$ 10.4],$ which$ will$ ask$ you$
how$ many$ breaks$ you$ want$ to$ use.$ Each$ break$ will$ correspond$ to$ an$ elevation$ value;$
you$can$have$as$many$elevation$values$as$you$desire,$but$for$our$purposes,$we$will$use$
only$5$elevation$values.$
$
Choose$Equal$Breaks$from$the$dropVdown$menu,$enter$the$value$5,$and$click$OK$
[Figure$10.4].$$
$
! 205$
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Figure(10.4:(Input(number(of(breaks(window.(
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The$ Coloring$ Scheme$ Editor$ window$ now$ shows$ five$ elevation$ values$ depicted$ in$
different$colors.$Click$Apply,$and$then$OK.$
$
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Figure(10.5:(Coloring(Scheme(Editor(window.(
! 206$
The$ range$ of$ colors$ assigned$ by$ MapWindow$ is$ not$ one$ that$ will$ show$ our$ elevation$
differences$ very$ clearly.$ To$ enhance$ the$ elevation$ differences,$ we$ want$ to$ change$ the$
colors$ to$ light$ blue,$ light$ green,$ green,$ pink,$ and$ brown.$ To$ do$ this,$ click$ on$ the$ color$
block$in$the$leftVhand$column,$which$will$open$the$Color$window.$This$window$will$
show$a$grid$of$colors$headed$Basic$colors.$Select$the$desired$color$by$clicking$on$that$
color$box,$and$then$click$OK.$The$color$block$in$the$Color$column$in$the$Coloring$
Scheme$ Editor$ window$ should$ change$ to$ the$ selected$ color.$ Repeat$ this$ until$ all$ five$
colors$match$those$in$Figure$10.5,$then$close$the$Coloring$Scheme$Editor.$
$
On$the$MapWindow$map$screen,$the$DEM$layer$will$now$show$five$different$elevation$
values,$ with$ the$ color$ for$ each$ value$ making$ it$ easy$ to$ differentiate$ between$ them$
[Figure$10.6].$$
$
Figure 10.6: Color-differentiated elevation values on our map.
! 207$
Step(4:((
As$ we$ explained$ in$ the$ chapter,$ contour$ lines,$ or$ isolines,$ correspond$ to$ lines$ of$
elevation.$ To$ better$ visualize$ the$ elevation$ values$ from$ our$ DEM,$ we$ can$ extract$
contour$lines$from$it.$Each$contour$line$will$correspond$to$each$elevation$value.$
(
In$ the$ Legend$ pane,$ switch$ to$ the$ Toolbox$ view$ and$ scroll$ down$ to$ the$ Raster$
folder$[Figure$10.7].$Open$it$and$choose$Generate$a$Contour$Shapefile.$$
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Figure(10.7:(Generate(a(Contour(Shapefile(tool(in(the(Raster(folder.(
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! 208$
From$ the$ Generate$ Contour$ Shapefile$ window,$ under$ Contour$ Options,$ choose$
Use$ fixed$ levels$ (separated$ by$ space)$ [Figure$ 10.8]$ and$ type$ the$ elevation$ values$
recorded$during$Step(3((Figure$10.5).$Click$on$the$Generate$button.$$
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Figure(10.8:(Generate(Contour(Shapefile(window(with(the(proper(values(entered.(
$
The$ Done$ window$ will$ appear,$ stating$ that$ a$ contour$ shapefile$ has$ been$ generated$
[Figure$10.9].$Click$OK.$
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Figure(10.9:(Done!(confirmation(window.(
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! 209$
Your$map$should$now$look$like$Figure$10.10.$
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Figure(10.10:(DEM(with(contour(lines(depicting(elevation(values.(
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! 210$
Step(5:((
Now$ that$ we$ have$ learned$ how$ to$ visualize$ elevation$ values$ from$ a$ DEM,$ we$ can$
analyze$how$the$influenza$pandemic$occurred$in$the$county.$We$will$do$this$by$adding$
the$point$data$that$shows$the$location$of$each$case$of$the$disease$to$our$map.$
$
From$ the$ main$ menu$ bar,$ add$ the$ Influenza_1918$ shapefile$ to$ the$ project.$ This$
shapefile$ depicts$ deaths$ caused$ by$ influenza$ in$ December$ of$ 1918$ in$ the$ county.$ The$
map$should$now$contain$points$that$indicate$the$cases$of$the$disease$[Figure$10.11],$so$
we$can$see$whether$the$disease$occurred$more$at$certain$elevations.$
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Figure(10.11:(1918(influenza(deaths(by(elevation.(
$
! 211$
As$we$can$see,$elevation$was$a$significant$factor$in$the$influenza$outbreak$of$1918$in$this$
Missouri$county,$with$the$midVrange$elevations$more$likely$to$see$an$outbreak$than$the$
lowest$or$highest$elevations.$We$could$do$even$more$with$this$DEM;$for$example,$one$
could$use$this$map$to$plot$the$point$data$for$towns$in$the$county,$to$see$if$urban$or$rural$
dwellers$ were$ more$ likely$ to$ live$ at$ these$ elevations$ and$ therefore$ more$ likely$ to$ be$
affected$ by$ the$ pandemic.$ A$ statistic$ analysis$ can$ be$ used$ to$ accurately$ determine$ a$
correlation$ between$ deaths$ and$ elevation.$ If$ we$ had$ temporal$ data$ indicating$ when$
each$ case$ occurred,$ we$ could$ generate$ several$ maps,$ one$ for$ each$ temporal$ break,$ to$
track$the$outbreak$over$time.$
$
Congratulations!$You$have$now$learned$how$to$use$raster$data,$in$the$form$of$a$DEM,$
along$with$contour$lines$and$point$data.$As$always,$you$should$repeat$the$exercise$until$
you$feel$comfortable$with$these$techniques.$If$you$feel$comfortable$doing$so,$you$could$
edit$the$attribute$table$of$our$point$data,$or$change$the$number$of$elevation$breaks,$and$
see$how$that$changes$the$resulting$map.$$
$
You$ have$ also$ completed$ the$ first$ section$ of$ this$ manual,$ which$ contains$ the$ basic$
techniques$ necessary$ to$ implement$ GIS$ analysis$ into$ your$ research.$ The$ remainder$ of$
this$manual$contains$more$specialized$information,$designed$for$those$users$who$need$
to$ go$ beyond$ the$ basics$ in$ their$ research.$ We$ have$ tried$ to$ offer$ several$ different$
problems$ the$ historical$ researcher$ might$ face,$ and$ the$ tutorials$ from$ the$ remaining$
chapter$do$not$need$to$be$done$in$order;$they$are$each$beneficial$on$their$own.$
$$
$
! 212$
CHAPTER(11:(ArcGIS(Tutorials(
By$ the$ time$ that$ you$ have$ completed$ the$ MapWindow$ tutorials,$ you$ will$ have$
developed$ the$ basic$ skill$ set$ you$ need$ to$ use$ GIS$ for$ historical$ research.$ You$ will$ be$
familiar$with$common$GIS$operations$such$as$geocoding,$georeferencing,$clipping,$and$
buffering$ shapes.$ You$ may$ wish,$ however,$ to$ go$ beyond$ what$ you$ have$ learned.$
MapWindow$is$an$open$source$project,$and$it$does$not$provide$an$extensive$set$of$GIS$
functions.$ At$ the$ time$ of$ the$ production$ of$ this$ training$ manual,$ MapWindow$ only$
provided$the$GIS$tools$required$to$gain$a$basic$skill$set$and$understanding$of$GIS.$As$
you$become$more$confident$with$your$GIS$skills,$you$may$wish$to$learn$new$concepts$
such$ as$ map$ algebra,$ data$ conversion,$ and$ retrieval$ of$ elevation$ values$ from$ digital$
elevation$models$(DEMs).$These$GIS$operations$are$important$if$you$want$to$examine$
issues$such$as$the$change$of$vegetation$in$an$area$over$a$given$period$of$time,$or$if$you$
want$ to$ retrieve$ specific$ elevation$ values$ from$ a$ DEM$ to$ examine$ the$ influence$ of$
topography$on$a$historical$event.$Many$commercial$packages$offer$these$features.$This$
chapter$provides$four$additional$tutorials$aimed$at$helping$learners$who$wish$to$make$
the$ transition$ from$ MapWindow$ GIS$ to$ ESRIs$ ArcGIS$ 10$ (or$ later$ versions),$ and$
discover$the$advantages$of$using$a$commercial$GIS$software$package$with$an$extensive$
set$of$GIS$and$cartographic$functions.1$
$
Tutorial(I$introduces$you$to$the$concept$of$cartographic$modeling.$It$teaches$you$how$
to$build$a$simple$cartographic$model$by$using$GIS$operations$with$which$you$became$
acquainted$while$completing$the$MapWindow$GIS$tutorials.$Tutorial(II$introduces$you$
to$ data$ conversion.$ You$ will$ learn$ how$ to$ convert$ a$ shapefile$ to$ a$ KML$ (Keyhole$
Markup$ Language)$ file$ designed$ for$ use$ in$ Google$ Earth$ or$ ESRIs$ ArcGlobe.$ Google$
Earth$ and$ ArcGlobe$ enable$ the$ visualization$ of$ data$ in$ a$ threeSdimensional$
environment.$Visualizing$your$data$in$Google$Earth$or$ArcGlobe$might$give$you$new$
insights$ about$ your$ information.$ Tutorial( III$ introduces$ the$ concept$ of$ map$ algebra.$
You$will$learn$how$to$generate$a$new$raster$layer$from$already$existing$layers.$Tutorial(
IV$teaches$you$how$to$create$a$cartographic$model$aimed$at$identifying$areas$on$maps$
with$particular$characteristics,$such$as$elevation$or$slope.$
$
The$ approach$ to$ learning$ ArcGIS$ 10$ we$ have$ adopted$ includes$ the$ creation$ of$
cartographic$ models$ built$ through$ ArcGIS$ 10$ ModelBuilder,$ and$ this$ method$ is$
innovative$in$how$it$presents$GIS$to$novice$users.$We$chose$this$approach$because$the$
use$ of$ cartographic$ models$ enables$ users$ to$ organize$ and$ visualize$ their$ data$ and$ the$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1$ArcGIS$is$one$of$the$most$sophisticated$softwareSpackages$for$GIS.$Please$access$the$ArcGIS$website$to$
learn$about$pricing$and$how$to$purchase$a$copy$of$the$software:$
http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/pricing$(accessed$on$October$21$2013).$
! 213$
GIS$ operations$ to$ which$ their$ data$ are$ submitted.$ A$ cartographic$ model$ can$ be$
interpreted$as$a$flowchart.2$A$flowchart$is$a$graphic$representation$of$the$data,$the$GIS$
operations$ to$ which$ the$ data$ are$ submitted,$ and$ the$ systematic$ specification$ of$ their$
sequence.3$The$ output$ data$ depicts$ the$ final$ result$ and$ shows$ what$ was$ possible$ to$
retrieve$from$the$spatial$investigation.$You$can$create$different$cartographic$models$to$
solve$ the$ same$ problem.$ Because$ the$ creation$ of$ a$ cartographic$ model$ requires$ a$
flowchart$ specifying$ the$ GIS$ tools$ you$ are$ using$ along$ with$ the$ description$ of$ the$
sequence$in$which$the$tools$are$presented,$you$will$gain$a$deeper$understanding$of$the$
GIS$ operations$ you$ are$ employing.$ As$ Figure$ 1$ shows,$ building$ a$ model$ invites$ GIS$
practitioners$to$think$critically$about$which$GIS$operations$they$wish$to$use.$$
$
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Figure(1:(Building(a(simple(model(in(ArcGIS10(ModelBuilder.(
$$$
The$ four$ tutorials$ we$ present$ provide$ all$ of$ the$ instructions$ required$ to$ build$ a$
cartographic$model$for$the$first$time.$Cartographic$models$can$be$designed$in$a$number$
of$ ways$ to$ solve$ the$ same$ problem.$ We$ encourage$ you$ to$ experiment$ creating$
cartographic$models$different$from$those$we$present.$Prior$experience$with$ArcGIS$10$
and$ArcGIS$10$ModelBuilder$is$not$a$requirement$for$the$completion$of$the$tutorials.$
$
We$caution$users$of$this$training$manual$that$we$cannot$create$the$tutorials$on$the$basis$
of$ a$ stable$ version$ of$ ArcGIS$ because$ ESRI$ is$ continuously$ improving$ the$ software.$
Therefore,$you$may$experience$some$differences$from$the$procedures$we$describe.$
(
Tutorial(I(
Our$first$tutorial$teaches$you$how$to$build$a$simple$model$by$using$GIS$operations$with$
which$ you$ became$ acquainted$ while$ doing$ the$ MapWindow$ GIS$ $ exercises.$ $ You$ will$
work$with$a$dataset$containing$multiple$entries$recorded$in$an$Excel$spreadsheet.$Your$
task$is$to$retrieve$particular$records$that$depict$the$voyage$commanded$by$Lieutenant$
General$ Benito$ Antonio$ de$ Espnola$ from$ Veracruz,$ Mexico,$ to$ Cdiz,$ Spain,$ in$ 1735.$
The$purpose$of$this$tutorial$is$to$introduce$you$to$the$concept$of$cartographic$modeling.$
You$will$learn$what$a$cartographic$model$is,$how$to$create$it,$and$how$to$use$it$in$more$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2$Paul$Bolstad,$GIS$Fundamentals:$A$First$Text$on$Geographic$Information$Systems$(Minnesota:$Eider$Press,$
White$Bear$Lake,$2008),$480.$$
3$Ibid.$
! 214$
complex$spatial$analyses,$such$as$those$that$demand$the$use$of$raster$files$and$DEMs.$$
$
(
Figure(2:(Model(proposed(for(tutorial(I.(
$
For$her$kindness$in$providing$us$with$the$data$set$that$we$use$in$this$tutorial,$we$would$
like$ thank$ our$ colleague$ Dr.$ Ana$ Crespo$ Solana,$ a$ researcher$ with$ the$ Instituto$ de$
Historia,$ Centro$ de$ Ciencias$ Humanas$ y$ Sociales,$ Consejo$ Superior$ de$ Investigaciones$
Cientficas,$ Madrid,$ Spain.( Dr.$ Crespo$ is$ a$ worldSrenowned$ expert$ on$ 18thScentury$
Atlantic$trade.$
$
Tutorial(II(
Our$ second$ tutorial$ introduces$ you$ to$ data$ conversion.$ You$ will$ convert$ entries$
recorded$in$an$Excel$spreadsheet$to$a$shapefile,$and$then$convert$the$shapefile$to$KML.$
KML$stands$for$Keyhole$Markup$Language.$KML$files$are$primarily$designed$for$use$in$
Google$Earth/Maps.$Once$you$finish$the$data$conversion,$you$will$load$your$KML$file$
in$ESRIs$ArcGlobe$or$Google$Earth.$You$might$want$to$consider$converting$shapefiles$
to$KML$files$for$the$purposes$of$better$visualization.$Google$Earth$uses$digital$elevation$
models$ to$ depict$ the$ surface$ of$ the$ Earth,$ and$ it,$ therefore,$ enables$ you$ to$ obtain$ a$
visualization$of$the$Earth$in$three$dimensions.$$
$
Visualizing$ spatial$ data$ through$ Google$ Earth$ or$ ArcGlobe$ will$ likely$ enable$ you$ to$
gain$ new$ insights$ about$ your$ data.$ The$ dataset$ used$ in$ this$ exercise$ comes$ from$
Anderson$Sandess$research$about$Henry$Koster,$a$19thScentury$travel$writer$who$wrote$
extensively$about$the$physical$and$social$landscape$of$Brazil.$You$can$view$the$project$
online$at$http://www.andersonsandes.com/koster/.$$
$
! 215$
(
Figure(3:(KML(files(depicting(Henry(Kosters(travel(overlaid(in(Google(Maps.(
(
When$you$finish$the$tutorial$and$load$the$KML$file$in$Google$Earth$or$ArcGlobe,$you$
will$be$able$to$see$the$places$about$which$Koster$wrote.$We$hope$that$you$will$use$KML$
files$ to$ enhance$ the$ visualization$ of$ your$ own$ spatial$ data$ as$ you$ become$ more$
acquainted$with$the$technology$of$Google$Earth$and$ArcGlobe.$
$
Tutorial(III(
Our$third$tutorial$introduces$the$concept$of$map$algebra.$What$is$map$algebra?$Simply$
put,$map$algebra$is$as$a$set$of$operations,$such$as$addition,$subtraction,$multiplication,$
and$ division,$ between$ the$ cells$ (or$ pixels)$ of$ two$ or$ more$ raster$ layers.4$When$ you$
perform$a$map$algebra$operation$using$raster$layers,$a$new$layer$composed$of$new$cells$
(or$pixels)$containing$new$information$is$generated.$This$tutorial$will$teach$you$how$to$
build$a$cartographic$model$using$Landsat$5$TM$raster$satellite$datasets$to$examine$the$
change$ of$ vegetation$ in$ the$ period$ of$ 10$ years$ (2001S2011)$ in$ Bannock$ County,$ Idaho,$
the$ home$ of$ the$ main$ campus$ of$ Idaho$ State$ University.$ To$ retrieve$ the$ green$ values$
depicting$ vegetation,$ you$ will$ learn$ how$ to$ use$ the$ Raster$ Calculator$ tool$ from$
ArcGIS$10$and$employ$a$vegetation$index.$$
$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4$For$example,$Ian$N.$Gregory,$and$Paul$S.$Ell,$Historical$GIS:$Technologies,$Methodologies$and$Scholarship$
(Cambridge,$New$York:$Cambridge$University$Press,$2007),$80S81;$Bolstad,$GIS$Fundamentals,$380S384.$
! 216$
Vegetation$ indices$ are$ formed$ through$ the$ combination$ of$ spectral$ values$ that$ can$ be$
added,$ divided,$ or$ multiplied.$ This$ technique$ can$ assist$ researchers$ in$ assessing$ the$
vigor$of$vegetated$surfaces.5$For$this$exercise,$you$will$apply$the$Normalized$Difference$
Vegetation$Index$(NDVI),$which$is$one$of$the$most$widely$used$vegetation$indices.6$The$
NDVI$uses$the$nearSinfrared$and$visible$(red)$bands$of$the$Landsat$5$TM$raster$dataset,$
as$demonstrated$below:$
$
$
$
A$new$raster$layer$containing$green$values$is$derived$from$the$NDVI$analysis.$This$new$
layer$contains$information$that$corresponds$to$vegetation$or$vegetated$surfaces.$By$the$
time$ that$ you$ complete$ this$ tutorial,$ you$ will$ have$ learned$ how$ to$ perform$ the$ NDVI$
analysis$to$retrieve$green$values$from$Landsat$5$TM$datasets.$$
(
(
Figure(4:(Model(proposed(for(Tutorial(III.$
$
The$Landsat$5$TM$raster$datasets$presented$in$this$tutorial$are$courtesy$of$Idaho$State$
Universitys$GIS$Training$and$Research$Center$(http://giscenter.isu.data).$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5 $James$B.$Campbell,$Introduction$to$Remote$Sensing$(New$York,$London:$The$Guilford$Press,$2008),$465.$
6 $Ibid.$
! 217$
Tutorial(IV(
Our$fourth$tutorial$teaches$you$how$to$retrieve$elevation$values$from$a$DEM.$Imagine$
yourself$ living$ in$ the$ city$ of$ Spokane,$ Washington,$ United$ States.$ You$ are$ a$ historian$
and$ medical$ geographer$ interested$ in$ documenting$ the$ history$ of$ Spokanes$ famous$
High$ Bridge$ Park.$ This$ recreational$ area,$ according$ to$ the$ historical$ project$ Spokane$
Historical$ (http://spokanehistorical.org),$ promoted$ by$ Eastern$ Washington$ University$
(http://www.ewu.edu),$ was$ used$ as$ a$ sanitarium$ to$ treat$ patients$ with$ tuberculosis$ in$
the$ past.7$You$ are$ looking$ for$ a$ house$ in$ which$ to$ live$ in$ Spokane$ that$ is$ close$ to$ the$
park,$but$you$dislike$walking$in$hilly$areas.$Therefore,$you$want$to$live$in$a$house$that$
is$within$0.5$miles$of$High$Bridge$Park,$and$that$is$in$a$flat$area.$$To$identify$a$flat$area,$
you$will$use$a$DEM$and$look$for$specific$areas$in$the$city$with$a$slope$of$less$than$0.5$
degrees.$ To$ find$ these$ values,$ you$ will$ again$ use$ the$ Raster$ Calculator$ tool$ from$
ArcGIS$ 10.$ The$ DEM$ presented$ in$ this$ tutorial$ is$ courtesy$ of$ the$ City$ of$ Spokane$
website$(http://www.spokanecity.org).$
$$
(
Figure(5:(Model(proposed(for(Tutorial(IV.((
$$
We$hope$that$the$content$provided$through$the$four$tutorials$help$you$understand$and$
feel$ comfortable$ while$ using$ ArcGIS$ 10$ or$ later$ versions$ of$ the$ software.$ We$ chose$ to$
introduce$the$concept$of$cartographic$modeling$because$we$want$you$to$learn$how$to$
organize$ your$ GIS$ data$ and$ operations$ more$ systematically.$ In$ becoming$ comfortable$
with$ cartographic$ modeling,$ it$ is$ our$ hope$ that$ you$ will$ learn$ how$ to$ think$ more$
critically$about$the$GIS$tools$and$operations$you$are$employing$to$achieve$your$goals.$(
(
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7$Tracy$L.$Rebstock,$High$Bridge$Park.$http://spokanehistorical.org/items/show/142#.UmrCgRbvaSI$
(accessed$on$June$12$2012).$$
! 218$
TUTORIAL(I(
You$ will$ build$ a$ model$ to$ query$ the$ data$ stored$ in$ two$ shapefiles$ depicting$ multiple$
18th<century$voyages.$In$completing$this$tutorial,$you$will$learn$how$to$create$your$first$
model$through$ArcGIS$10$ModelBuilder,$and$$create$a$map$depicting$an$18th<century$
expedition$from$Veracruz,$Mexico,$to$Cdiz,$Spain$$$
$
Considerations(
By$now,$you$must$have$ArcGIS$installed$on$your$machine.$You$must$turn$on$all$ArcGIS$
extensions.$Click$the$Start$button,$go$to$All$Programs,$and$then$click$the$ArcMap$
10$option$under$ArcGIS$[Figure$1.1].$
$
(
Figure(1.1:(ArcMap(10.(
$
When$ArcMap$10$starts,$go$to$Extensions$[Figure$1.2].$
$
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Figure(1.2:(Extensions.(
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$
! 219$
Activate$all$the$extensions$and$click$Close,$as$shown$in$Figure$1.3.$(
$
(
Figure(1.3:(Extensions(window.(
(
Step(1:((
Go$to$http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wp<
content/uploads/exercises/tutorial1.zip$
$
Download$ the$ zipped$ folder.$ You$ are$ being$ provided$ with$ two$ shapefiles$ named$
Origen1$ and$ Destino2,$ respectively.$ Because$ these$ data$ relates$ to$ the$ 18th<century$
Castilian$ trade,$ all$ of$ our$ descriptions$ are$ in$ Spanish.$ Origen$ means$ origin$ and$
destino$means$destination.$$
$
! 220$
Step(2:((
Click$the$button$that$activates$the$ModelBuilder$window$(ArcMaps$menu$bar):$
$
(
Figure(1.4:(ModelBuilder(window.(
$ $
Step(3:(
You$will$see$the$Model$window.$$
$
(
Figure(1.5:(Model(window.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 221$
Step(4:((
Click$ the$ $button$ (Model$ window).$ Navigate$ to$ your$ Tutorial$ I$ folder$ and$ load$
the$two$shapefiles$in$the$Model$window:$
$
(
Figure(1.6:(Add(Data(or(Tool.(
$
Step(5:(
The$Model$window$should$look$like$in$Figure$1.7:(
$
(
Figure(1.7:(Model(window(with(input(data.(
! 222$
Step(6:((
The$ next$ step$ consists$ of$ adding$ GIS$ operations$ to$ the$ Model$ window.$ Open$ the$
Search$window$by$clicking$the$Search$window$button$[Figure$1.8],$type$Select$in$
the$ search$ field,$ and$ press$ the$ key$ Enter.$ Drag$ the$ Select$ (Analysis)$ tool$ from$ the$
list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$1.9].$
$
(
Figure(1.8:(Search(window.(
(
(
Figure'1.9:'Dragging'tool'from'list'of'functions'and'dropping(it(into(Model(
window.!(
(
Step(7:(
Click$twice$on$the$rectangle$representing$the$tool$(Select)$that$you$have$added$to$your$
model.$You$will$see$the$Select$window.$This$process$is$the$first$to$which$your$input$
data$will$be$submitted.$$
$
$
$
$
! 223$
In$ Input$ Features,$ choose$ Origen1.shp.$ Now$ click$ the$ SQL$ button$ to$ start$
querying$the$data:$
$
(
Figure(1.10:(Select(window.(
$
Step(8:((
The$Query$Builder$window$will$appear.$We$are$interested$in$the$voyage$commanded$
by$ Lieutenant$ General$ Benito$ Antonio$ de$ Espnola$ in$ 1735.$ Format$ your$ query$ as$ in$
Figure$ 1.11.$ Use$ the$ buttons$ =,$ Get$ Unique$ Values,$ and$ And$ to$ format$ your$
query.$$
$
(
Window(1.11:(Query(builder(window.(
! 224$
Step(9:((
The$Select$window$should$look$like$in$Figure$1.12.$$
$
(
(
Please& notice& that& the& data& derived& from& this& step& will& be& saved& in& the& Default.gdb&
geodatabase.*If*you*wish,*you*can*save%the%output%raster%in%a%place%of%your%choice%and%
under&a&different&name.&To&do&this,&click&the !button&shown&in&Figure&1.12&and&choose&a&
place&in&which&you&want&to&save&the&output&data.&By#default,#ArcMap'saves'the'output'
data$ of$ all$ processes$ in$ the$ Default.gdb$ geodatabase$ that$ is$ located$ under$
Documents\ArcGIS.((Click&Apply&and&then&OK.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 225$
Step%10:%(
Your%model%should%look%like%in%Figure%1.13.%Click$the$Auto$Layout$button$to$organize$
the$layout$of$your$model$and$click$the$Run$button$to$run$your$model$[Figure$1.14].$
$
(
Figure'1.13:'Model'window.!(
(
$
Figure'1.14:'Auto'Layout'and'Run'buttons.!(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 226$
Step(11:((
Your$model$should$look$like$in$Figure$1.15:$
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 227$
Step(12:((
The$ Select$ tool$ has$ selected$ the$ row$ in$ the$ attribute$ table$ that$ corresponds$ to$ the$
voyage$led$by$Lieutenant$General$Benito$Antonio$de$Espnola.$We$want$to$export$the$
selected$entry$as$a$shapefile.$To$achieve$this$goal,$we$must$use$the$Copy$tool.$$
$
Open$the$Search$window$by$clicking$the$Search$window$button$[Figure$1.16],$type$
Copy$ in$ the$ search$ field,$ and$ press$ the$ key$ Enter.$ Drag$ the$ Copy$ (Data$
Management)$tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$1.17].$
$
(
$
$
Figure(1.17:$Dragging'tool'from'list'of'functions'and'dropping'it'into'Model'
window.!(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 228$
Step(13:(
Click$ twice$ on$ the$ rectangle$ representing$ the$ tool$ that$ you$ have$ added$ to$ your$ model$
(Copy).$You$will$see$the$Copy$window.$In$Input$Data$Element,$choose$the$data$
derived$from$the$Select$process$(Origen1_Select).$$
$
(
Figure(1.18:(Copy(window.(
(
Please$ notice$ that$ the$ data$ derived$ from$ this$ step$ will$ be$ saved$ in$ the$ Default.gdb$
geodatabase.*If*you*wish,*you*can*save*the*output*raster*in*a*place*of*your*choice*and*
under&a&different&name.&To&do&this,&click&the !button&and&choose&a&place&in&which&you&
want%to%save%the%output%data.%By#default,#ArcMap'saves'the'output'data'of'all'processes'
in# the# Default.gdb# geodatabase# that# is# located# under# Documents\ArcGIS.( Click(
Apply'and'then'OK.$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 229$
Step(14:((
Your% model% should% look% like% that% in% Figure% 1.20.% Click$ the$ Auto$ Layout$ button$ to$
organize$ the$ layout$ of$ your$ model$ and$ click$ the$ Run$ button$ to$ run$ your$ model$
[Figure$1.19].$
(
$
Figure'1.19:'Auto'Layout'and'Run'buttons.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 230$
Step(15:((
Once$you$have$run$your$model,$right<click$the$data$derived$from$the$Copy$operation$
and$choose$the$option$Add$to$Display.$
$
(
Figure(1.21:(Add(to(Display.(
(
Step(16:((
Now$you$can$see$a$point$depicting$the$origin$of$the$voyage$in$Veracruz,$Mexico.$
$
(
Figure(1.22:(Shapefile(derived(from(the(Copy(operation.(
! 231$
Step(17:(
The$next$steps$consist$of$applying$to$the$Destino2$shapefile$the$same$process$that$we$
applied$to$the$Origen1$shapefile.$In$doing$this,$we$will$obtain$a$point$depicting$the$
destination$of$the$voyage.$$
$
(
Figure(1.23:(Model.(
(
Step(18:((
Drag$the$Select$(Analysis)$tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model:$
$
$
Figure(1.24:$Dragging'tool'from'list'of'functions'and'dropping'it'into'Model'
window.!(
$
(
! 232$
Step(19:((
Click$the$rectangle$representing$the$tool$that$you$have$added$to$your$model.$The$
Select$window$will$appear.$In$Input$Features,$choose$Destino2.shp.$Click$the$
SQL$button$to$start$querying$your$data.$$
$
(
(
Step(20:((
The$Query$Builder$window$will$appear.$We$are$interested$in$the$voyage$commanded$
by$ Lieutenant$ General$ Benito$ Antonio$ de$ Espnola$ in$ 1735.$ Format$ your$ query$ as$ in$
Figure$ 1.26.$ Use$ the$ buttons$ =,$ Get$ Unique$ Values,$ and$ And$ to$ format$ your$
query.$
$
(
Window(1.26:(Query(builder(window.(
! 233$
Step(21:((
The$Select$window$should$look$like$Figure$1.27.$
$
(
$
geodatabase.*If*you*wish,*you*can$save$the$output$raster$in$a$place$of$your$choice$and$
under&a&different&name.&To&do&this,&click&the !button&shown&in&Figure&1.12&and&choose&a&
place&in&which&you&want&to&save&the&output&data.&By#default,#ArcMap'saves'the'output'
Documents\ArcGIS.(Click(Apply(and(then(OK.$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 234$
Step(22:((
Your$ model$ should$ look$ like$ Figure$ 1.28.$ Click$ the$ Auto$ Layout$ button$ to$ organize$
$
(
Figure'1.28:'Model'window.(
$
$
Figure'1.29:'Auto'Layout'and'Run'buttons.(
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 235$
Step(23:((
The$ Select$ tool$ has$ selected$ the$ row$ in$ the$ attribute$ table$ that$ corresponds$ to$ the$
voyage$led$by$Lieutenant$General$Benito$Antonio$de$Espnola.$We$want$to$export$the$
selected$entry$as$a$shapefile.$To$achieve$this$goal,$we$must$use$the$Copy$tool.$$
$
Copy$ in$ the$ search$ field,$ and$ press$ the$ key$ Enter.$ Drag$ the$ Copy$ (Data$
Management)$tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$1.31].$
$
(
(
$
Figure(1.31:$Dragging'tool'from'list'of'functions'and'dropping(it(into(Model(
window.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 236$
Step(24:((
Click$ twice$ on$ the$ rectangle$ representing$ the$ tool$ that$ you$ have$ added$ to$ your$ model$
(Copy).$You$will$see$the$Copy$window.$In$Input$Data$Element,$choose$the$data$
derived$from$the$Select$process$(Destino2_Select).$$
$
(
Figure(1.32:(Copy(window.(
(
geodatabase.*If*you*wish,*you*can*save*the*output*raster*in*a*place*of*your*choice*and*
under&a&different&name.&To&do&this,&click&the !button&and&choose&a&place&in&which&you#
want%to%save%the%output%data.%By#default,#ArcMap'saves'the'output'data'of'all'processes'
in# the# Default.gdb# geodatabase# that# is# located# under# Documents\ArcGIS.( Click(
Apply'and'then'OK.$
(
Step(25:(
Your%model%should%look%like%in%Figure%1.33.%Click$the$Auto$Layout$button$to$organize$
(
$
Figure'1.33:'Auto'Layout'and'Run'buttons.!(
(
! 237$
(
Figure'1.34:'Model'window.!(
(
Step%26:(
Once$you$have$run$your$model,$right<click$the$data$derived$from$the$Copy$operation$
and$choose$the$option$Add$to$Display.$
$
(
Figure'1.35:'Add'to'Display.(
$
$
$
$
! 238$
Step(27:(
Now$you$can$see$a$point$depicting$the$destination$of$the$voyage$in$Cdiz,$Spain:$
$
(
Figure(1.36:(Shapefile(derived(from(the(Copy(operation.(
(
Step(28:((
Click$the$ $button$(Model$window)$to$save$your$model.$Your$model$will$be$saved$
in$the$Toolbox$that$is$located$under$Documents\ArcGIS.(Close(the(Window(model.($
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
(
! 239$
Step%29:%(
On# ArcMaps# menu# bar,# click# the# !button.' Navigate' to' your' Tutorial' I' folder' and'
load% the% shapefile% TM_WORLD_BORDERS<0.3% in% ArcMap.% Organize% your% layers% so%
that$they$look$like$Figure$1.37:$
$
(
Figure(1.37:(Layers.(
(
Step(30:((
Switch$to$the$Layout$View$(bottom<right$of$your$screen):$
$
$
Figure(1.38:(Layout(View.(
(
Step(31:((
Create$ a$ map$ like$ the$ one$ shown$ in$ Figure$ 1.40.$ To(create(a(line(depicting(the(origin(
and(destination(of(the(voyage:$$Go$to$Customize,$choose$Toolbars,$and$then$click$
Draw.$ The$ Draw$ window$ will$ appear.$ Click$ the$ rectangle$ shown$ in$ Figure$ 1.39.$
Choose$Line$or$Curve$from$the$list.$$
$
(
Figure(1.39:(Draw(window.(
! 240$
(
Figure(1.40:(Map.(
(
Congratulations!$ You$ have$ learned$ how$ to$ build$ and$ run$ a$ model$ successfully.$ If$ you$
feel$uncomfortable$with$what$you$have$learned,$please$go$back$to$the$beginning$of$the$
exercise$ and$ practice$ building$ a$ model$ by$ carefully$ following$ the$ instructions$ this$
exercise$provides.$$
$
!
! 241$
!
TUTORIAL(II(
Henry# Koster# traveled# throughout# Brazil# from# 1809# to# 1815# and# carefully# recorded#
information#about#each#location#he#visited.#Koster#is#praised#as#a#travel#writer#due#to#his#
close#attention#to#the#physical#and#social#landscape#about#which#he#wrote#that#of#preD
independence# Brazil.# This# exercise# will# teach# you# how# to# visualize# in# ArcGlobe# each#
location#about#which#Koster#wrote.##
#
Requirements(
As# always,# make# sure# that# all# of# your# extensions# are# activated! prior% to% beginning% the%
exercise.( If( the( extensions( are( not( activated,( you( will( not! be# able# to# complete# the#
exercise.( On( ArcMap/s( menu( bar,( go( to( Customize,( and( then( choose( Extensions....(
The$Extensions$window$will$appear.$Check$all$the$extensions$that$you$have$available$
and$click$Close.$Please&notice&that&the&Spatial&Analyst&extension&is&fundamental&for&
the$completion$of$this$exercise.$#
#
#
Figure'2.1:'Extensions'window.(
! 242#
!
Step%1:#(
Go#to#http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wpD
content/uploads/exercises/tutorial2.zip#
#
Download' the' zipped' folder' containing' the' data' required' for' the' completion' of' this'
exercise.(#
#
Step%2:%(
On# ArcMaps# menu# bar,# click# the# !button& and& navigate& to& the& folder& you& have&
downloaded.)Select)the)file)TravelsInBrazil.xls)and)click)Add.#
#
(
Figure'2.2:'Add'Data'window.(
(
Step%3:%(
Because'you'are'using'an'Excel'spreadsheet,'ArcMap'will'ask'you'to'select'the'sheet'
that$you$want$to$open.$Choose$the$sheet$shown$in$Figure$2.3,$and$click$Add.#
#
(
Figure'2.3:'Add'Data'window.!(
! 243#
!
Step%4:%(
You$will$see$the$gazetteer$under$the$Table$of$Contents$pane.$RightDclick%the%file%with%
your%mouse,%and%choose%the%option%Display%XY%Data.%#
#
(
Figure'2.4:'Display'XY'Data'option.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 244#
!
Step%5:%(
You$will$see$the$Display$XY$Data$window.'In'the'X'Field,'choose'DECLONGITU..
In#the#Y#Field,#choose#DECLATITUD.#Click#OK.#
#
(
Figure"2.5:"Display"XY"Data"window.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 245#
!
Step(6:((
You#will#see#a#warning#message.#Ignore#it#and#click#OK.#You#will#see#all#the#locations#
about#which#Koster#wrote#depicted#as#point#data:#
#
(
Figure(2.6:(Locations.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 246#
!
Step(7:(
Export#the#point#data#as#a#shapefile.#RightDclick#the#layer#under#the#Table#of#Contents#
pane,#then#go#to#Data,#and#choose#the#option#Export#Data.#
#
#
Figure(2.7:(Export(data(option.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 247#
!
Step(8:((
You#will#see#the#Export#Data#window.#Save#the#shapefile#in#your#Tutorial#II#folder#
and#name#it#Koster.#Click#OK#and#add#the#new#shapefile#as#a#layer#in#ArcMap.#
(
(
Figure(2.8:(Export(Data(window.(
(
Step(9:((
Open#the#shapefiles#attribute#table#to#see#the#information#stored#in#each#point.#
#
(
Figure(2.9:(Table(window.(
(
! 248#
!
Step(10:(
Now,#we#will#change#the#look#of#the#points#depicting#Kosters#travels.#Because#we#are#
going#to#load#the#points#in#ArcGlobe,#we#want#to#make#the#points#3D.#Click#twice#on#the#
point# layer# depicting# Kosters# travels.# This# is# the# shapefile# you# have# created.# The#
Symbol#Selector#window#will#appear.##
#
(
Figure(2.10:(Symbol(Selector(window.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 249#
!
Step(11:((
Click#on#the#Style#References#button.#
#
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 250#
!
Step(12:(
The#Style#References#window#will#show#up.#Activate#the#option#ArcGIS_Explorer,#
as#shown#in#the#figure#below:#
(
(
Figure(2.12:(Style(References(window.(
(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 251#
!
Step(13:((
Now# you# will# see# new# symbols# in# the# Symbol# Selector# window.# Choose# the# Black#
Pushpin.#Click#OK.#
#
(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 252#
!
Step(14:((
Now#your#screen#should#look#like#Figure#2.14.#
#
(
Figure(2.14:(points.(
#
Step(15:((
Our#next#step#is#to#convert#the#shapefile#depicting#Kosters#locations#to#KML#so#that#you#
can#load#the#file#into#ArcGlobe#and,#alternatively,#into#Google#Maps.#Open#the#Search#
window# by# clicking# the# Search# window# button# [Figure# 2.15],# type# KML# in# the#
search#field,#and#press#the#key#Enter.##
#
(
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 253#
!
Step(16:((
Click#the#option#Layer#to#KML#(Conversion).#
#
(
Figure(2.16:(Layer(to(KML((Conversion).(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 254#
!
Step(17:((
The#Layer#to#KML#window#will#appear.#In#Layer,#choose#Koster.#Save#the#output#
file#as#koster_locations#and#make#sure#the#file#is#saved#in#your#Tutorial#II#folder.#In#
Layer#Output#Scale,#type#20000.#Click#OK.#
#
(
Figure(2.17:(Layer(to(KML.(
(
Step(18:(
The#following#window#will#appear#on#the#bottom#of#your#screen#stating#that#your#layer#
has#been#converted#to#KML.#
#
(
Figure(2.18:(Layer(to(KML(conversion.((
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 255#
!
Step(19:((
Close#ArcMap#and#open#ArcGlobe.#
#
(
Figure(2.19:(Opening(ArcGlobe10.(
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
! 256#
!
Step(20:((
Once#you#have#opened#ArcGlobe,#it#will#look#like#2.20.#
#
(
Figure(2.20:(ArcGlobe(screen.(
(
Step(21:((
Now#we#are#going#to#load#the#KML#file#depicting#Kosters#travels.#Go#to#Customize,#
click#Toolbars,#and#click#KML,#as#shown#in#the#Figure#2.21.#
(
(
Figure(2.21:(Activating(KML(toolbar.(
! 257#
!
Step(22:((
The# KML# window# will# appear.# Click# the# first# button# of# the# window,# as# shown# in# the#
figure# below.# Navigate# to# your# Tutorial# II# folder# and# load# in# ArcGlobe# the#
koster_locations.kmz#file#that#you#created#in#step#17.#
#
(
Figure(2.22:(KML(window.(
(
Step(23:((
This#is#what#your#screen#should#look#like:#
#
#
Figure(2.23:(ArcGlobe(screen.(
(
(
(
(
(
! 258#
!
Step(24:((
You# can# now# visualize# and# retrieve# information# about# the# locations# visited# by# Koster.#
Zoom#in,#zoom#out,#and#discover#the#names#of#each#location#about#which#Koster#wrote.#
#
(
Figure(2.24:(Locations.(
#
Congratulations!#You#have#learned#how#to#convert#shapefiles#to#KML,#and#how#to#open#
KML# files# in# ArcGlobe.# The# next# exercise# will# teach# you# how# to# use# Landsat# 5# TM#
satellite# datasets# to# assess# the# change# of# vegetation# in# the# county# of# Bannock,# Idaho,#
United#States,#during#the#period#of#10#years#(2001D2010).##
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
!
! 259#
!
TUTORIAL(III(
Landsat$ satellites$ have$ been$ capturing$ images$ from$ the$ surface$ of$ Earth$ since$ 1972.$
These$ images$ can$ provide$ valuable$ information$ about$ the$ Earth?s$ surface$ for$ studies$
about$use,$management,$and$preservation$of$natural$resources.$$
$
A$ vegetation$ index$ can$ be$ efficiently$ used$ to$ detect$ vegetated$ surfaces$ from$ satellite$
imagery.$ A$ vegetation$ index$ is$ an$ indicator$ of$ vegetation$ health$ and$ abundance.$ The$
Normalized$ Difference$ Vegetation$ Index$ (NDVI)$ is$ a$ vegetation$ index$ that$ is$ widely$
used$to$detect$healthy$green$vegetation$from$satellite$imagery.$$
$
This$ tutorial$ will$ teach$ you$ how$ to$ detect$ vegetation$ information$ from$ Landsat$ 5$ TM$
datasets$in$Bannock$County,$Idaho,$in$2001$and$2011,$respectively.$$
$
You$will$become$familiarized$with$the$following$ArcGIS$tools:$$
Float$$
Raster$Calculator$$
Reclassify$
Extract$by$Mask$$
$
Considerations(and(acknowledgments((
Idaho$ State$ Universitys$ GIS$ Training$ and$ Research$ Center$ has$ applied$ atmospheric$
correction$to$the$Landsat$datasets$you$are$going$to$use$in$this$exercise.$This$means$that$
the$datasets$can$be$accurately$applied$in$a$temporal$study.$$
$
You$ can$ download$ similar$ datasets$ that$ are$ available$ for$ the$ scientific$ community$ for$
free$at$http://giscenter.isu.edu/data/.$$
$
You$will$be$using$only$Landsat$bands$3$(red)$and$4$(nearînfrared)$in$this$exercise.$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
(
! 260$
!
Requirements(
As$ always,$ make$ sure$ that$ all$ of$ your$ extensions$ are$ activated$ prior$ to$ beginning$ the$
exercise.$ If$ the$ extensions$ are$ not$ activated,$ you$ will$ not$ be$ able$ to$ complete$ the$
exercise.$ On$ ArcMap?s$ menu$ bar,$ go$ to$ Customize,$ and$ then$ choose$ Extensions....$
and$click$Close.$Please$notice$that$the$Spatial$Analyst$extension$is$fundamental$for$
the$completion$of$this$exercise.$$
$
$
$
$
$
! 261$
!
As$a$reminder,$you$may$wish$create$a$folder$to$store$all$of$the$output$data$derived$from$
your$model.$As$you$have$learned$in$Tutorial$I,$when$you$create$and$run$a$model$your(
original(input(data(are(subjected(to(a(set(of(processes.$Each$process$will$result$in$new$
data,$and$you$may$wish$to$save$these$data$in$a$specific$folder$of$your$choice.((
(
If$you$do$not$specify$a$location$where$you$would$like$your$data$to$be$saved,$the$data$
will$be$saved$in$the$default$geodatabase$(Default.gdb)$located$at$
Documents\ArcGIS\Default.gdb.(
$
As$ in$ Tutorial$ I,$ you$ will$ create$ an$ ArcGIS$ 10$ ModelBuilder$ model.$ This$ model$ is$
shown$in$Figure$3.2.$The$model$shows$our$input$data,$the$set$of$processes$to$which$our$
input$ data$ will$ be$ subjected,$ and$ the$ output$ data$ of$ our$ model.$ Examine$ the$ model$
closely$and$try$to$understand$the$set$of$processes$depicted$in$the$model.$If$you$cannot$
understand$the$model,$do$not$worry.$This$exercise$will$teach$you$how$to$build$and$run$
the$model$successfully.$
(
(
Figure(3.2:(Model(depicting(sequence(of(steps.(
! 262$
!
Step(1:((
Go$to$http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wp^
$
Download$the$zipped$folder.$If$you$experience$any$difficulties$unzipping$the$file,$please$
contact$ Anderson$ Sandes$ through$ his$ e^mail$ (sandande@isu.edu).$ Because$ Landsat$
images$ have$ a$ large$ size,$ please$ be$ patient$ and$ wait$ until$ the$ download$ is$ finished$ to$
extract$the$files.$
$
Step(2:((
As$you$did$in$Tutorial$I,$open$ArcMap$and$click$the$ModelBuilder$window$button$
[Figure$3.3].$
$
$
Figure(3.3:(ModelBuilder(window(button.((
$
Step(3:((
The$Model$window$will$appear.$As$in$Tutorial$I,$click$the$+$button$to$add$the$input$
data$of$your$model$[Figure$3.4].$As$in$Tutorial$I,$you$will$drag$GIS$tools$from$the$list$of$
functions$and$drop$these$GIS$tools$in$the$Model$window.$$
$
$
! 263$
!
Step(4:((
Navigate$ to$ the$ folder$ you$ downloaded.$ You$ will$ find$ two$ sub^folders$ named$ 2001$
and$ 2011,$ respectively.$ You$ will$ also$ find$ a$ shapefile$ depicting$ Bannock$ County,$
which$ we$ will$ use$ later.$ Navigate$ to$ the$ 2001$ subfolder$ and$ add$ the$ Landsat$ bands$
aLT5p39r30_20010615b3.rst$ and$ Alt5p39r30_20010615b4.rst$ to$ the$ Model$
window.$ The$ input$ data$ are$ adding$ to$ the$ Model$ are$ appropriate$ for$ the$ NDVI$
analysis.$The$NDVI$vegetation$index$employs$the$red$and$nearînfrared$bands$to$detect$
healthy$ green$ vegetation$ from$ satellite$ imagery.$ Band$ 3$ corresponds$ to$ red$
reflectance$ and$ band$ 4$ corresponds$ to$ nearînfrared$ reflectance.$ Your$ input$ data$
should$appear$as$in$Figure$3.5.$
$
$
Figure(3.5:(Landsat(bands.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 264$
!
Step(5:((
If$ you$ wish$ to$ know$ what$ a$ file$ looks$ like,$ you$ can$ display$ it$ in$ ArcMap$ by$ right^
clicking$the$file$and$then$choosing$the$option$Add$to$Display$[Figure$3.6].$Minimize$
the$Model$window,$and$you$will$be$able$to$see$the$files$in$ArcMap$[Figure$3.7].$
$
$
Figure(3.6:(Add(to(Display(option.(
(
(
Figure(3.7:(Files(displayed(in(ArcMap.((
(
(
(
! 265$
!
Note:(
As$you$have$learned$in$the$first$tutorial,(your(original(input(data(will(be(subjected(to(a(
set(of(processes.$$
$
Step(6:((
Notice$that$the$raster$dataset$shown$in$Figure$3.7$is$composed$of$many$cells,$or$pixels.$
To$perform$the$NDVI$analysis$accurately,$we$need$to$assure$ourselves$that$the$numeric$
values$ of$ these$ cells$ are$ represented$ as( decimals.$ We$ can$ use$ the$ Float( (Spatial(
Analyst)( tool$ to$ convert$ the$ numeric$ value$ of$ each$ cell$ into$ a$ floating^point$
representation.$$
$
Float$in$the$search$field,$and$press$the$key$Enter.$Drag$the$Float$(Spatial$Analyst)$
tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$3.9].$
$
$
Figure(3.8:(Search(Window(button.((
(
$
Figure(3.9:(Dragging(tool(from(list(of(functions(and(dropping(it(into(Model(
window.((
(
! 266$
!
We$ will$ have$ to$ convert$ the$ two$ bands$ we$ have$ loaded$ in$ the$ Model$ window$ into$
decimals.$ Because$ we$ have$ two$ bands,$ we$ will$ have$ to$ do$ the$ same$ procedure$ twice.$
Right^click$twice$on$the$rectangles$representing$the$Float$tool$(the$tool$that$you$have$
dropped$in$the$Model$window)$and$the$Float$window$will$appear$[Figure$3.10].$$
$
(
Figure(3.10:(Float(window.(
$
Select$band$3,$as$in$Figure$3.11,$and$click$OK.$
$
(
Figure(3.11:(Band(3((red).(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 267$
!
Note:(
Please$ notice$ that$ all$ the$ output$ data$ shown$ in$ this$ exercise$ are$ saved$ in$ the$
Default.gdb$ geodatabase.$ If$ you$ wish,$ you$ can$ save$ the$ output$ raster$ in$ a$ place$ of$
your$choice$and$under$a$different$name.$To$do$this,$click$the $button$under$Output$
raster,$ and$ choose$ a$ place$ in$ which$ you$ want$ to$ save$ the$ output$ data.$ By( default,(
ArcMap$saves$the$output$data$of$all$processes$in$the$Default.gdb$geodatabase$that$is$
located$under$Documents\ArcGIS.$$
(
Now$repeat$the$procedure$and$do$to$band$4$the$same$that$you$did$to$band$3:$
$
$
Figure(3.12:(Band(4((near[infrared).(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 268$
!
This$is$what$your$model$should$look$like$now:$
$
(
(
Click$ the$ Auto$ Layout$ button$ to$ organize$ the$ layout$ of$ your$ model$ and$ click$ the$
Run$button$to$run$your$model.$
$
(
Figure(3.14:(Auto(Layout(and(Run(buttons.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 269$
!
$
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 270$
!
Step(7:((
Now(we(are(ready(to(use(the(Raster(Calculator(tool.(We$have$successfully$converted$
the$ numeric$ value$ of$ each$ cell$ of$ our$ raster$ data$ into$ decimals.$ Click$ the$ Search$
window$button$[Figure$3.8]$to$open$the$list$of$functions.$Type$Raster$Calculator$in$
the$search$field,$and$press$the$key$Enter.$As$you$did$before,$drag$the$tool$from$the$list$
and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$3.16].$
$
(
window.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
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! 271$
!
Right^click$ twice$ on$ the$ Raster$ Calculator$ tool$ in$ the$ Model$ window$ to$ see$ the$
Raster$Calculator$[Figure$3.17]:$
$
(
Figure(3.17:(Raster(Calculator(window.(
$
Notice$ that$ we$ are$ going$ to$ use$ the$ data$ derived$ from$ the$ Float$ operation.$
Float_rst1$ corresponds$ to$ band(3((red),$ whereas$ Float_rst2$ corresponds$ to(band(4(
(near[infrared).(
$
The$ NDVI$ equation$ is$ understood$ as$ (near[infrared( [( red)( /( (near[infrared( +( red),$ or,$
using$ the$ derived$ data$ from$ step$ 7,( it$ can$ formatted$ as( (Float_rst2( ( Float_rst1)( /(
(Float_rst2(+(Float_rst1).((
(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 272$
!
Select$ the$ Float_rst2$ and$ Float_rst1$ layers$ from$ the$ Layers$ and$ variables$ list$ by$
clicking$ each$ of$ them$ with$ your$ mouse,$ and$ format$ the$ equation$ as$ shown$ in$ Figure$
3.18.$
$
(
$
Click$Apply,$then$OK,$and$run$your$model.$
$
! 273$
!
(
(
The$result$of$the$raster$calculation$that$you$have$performed$should$be$a$single$raster$
dataset$with$binary$values$ranging$from$^1$to$1.$To$view$this$single$raster$dataset$in$
ArcMap,$right^click$the$data$derived$from$the$raster$calculation$(Model$window)$and$
then$choose$Add$to$Display$[Figure$3.20].$$
$
(
(
(
! 274$
!
Minimize$ the$ Model$ window,$ and$ you$ will$ be$ able$ to$ view$ the$ new$ raster$ dataset$
derived$from$the$raster$calculation$in$ArcMap.$
$
(
Figure(3.21:(New(raster(dataset(with(values(ranging(from([1(to(1.((
(
Notice$ that$ the$ minimal$ value$ for$ vegetated$ surfaces$ may$ vary$ according$ to$ each$
situation$and$location.$For$this$exercise,$we$are$going$to$use$the$values$of$0.2$to$0.85$as$
values$ that$ depict$ greenery.$ We,$ of$ course,$ encourage$ you$ to$ experiment$ using$ other$
values$to$examine$how$well$they$depict$green$reflectance.$1$$
$
$
$
$
$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1$We$ recommend$ reading$ Zohrabi$ Samani$ et$ al.,$ Measuring$ on^farm$ irrigation$ efficiency$ with$ chloride$
tracing$ under$ deficit$ irrigation,$ Journal( of( Irrigation( and( Drainage( Engineering$ 131$ (2005),$ 555559;$
Youngryel$ Ryu$ et$ al.,$ Testing$ the$ performance$ of$ a$ novel$ spectral$ reflectance$ sensor,$ built$ with$ light$
emitting$diodes$(LEDs),$to$monitor$ecosystem$metabolism,$structure$and$function,$Agricultural(and(Forest(
Meteorology(150$(2010),$1597^1606.$
$
! 275$
!
Step(8:((
We(are(ready(to(use(the(Reclassify(tool.$Open$the$Search$window$by$clicking$the$
Search$window$button$[Figure$3.8],$type$Reclassify$in$the$search$field,$and$press$the$
key$Enter.$Drag$the$Reclassify$(Spatial$Analyst)$tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$
the$Window$model.$
$
(
window.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 276$
!
Right^click$ the$ Reclassify$ tool$ (as$ shown$ in$ the$ Model$ window)$ and$ the$
Reclassify$window$will$appear:$
$
(
Figure(3.23:(Reclassify(window.(
(
In$Input$raster,$choose$the$data$derived$from$the$raster$calculation.$You$will$see$all$
the$values$ranging$from$^1$to$1.$
$
(
Figure(3.24:(Reclassify(window.(
$
! 277$
!
Select$all$the$rows$with$your$mouse$and$click$Delete$Entries,$as$shown$in$Figure$3.25.(
$
(
Figure(3.25:(Delete(Entries.(
(
Add$three$empty$rows$by$clicking$twice$on$the$Add$Entry$button:$
$
(
Figure(3.26:(Add(Entry.(
(
! 278$
!
Add$ the$ new$ values$ as$ shown$ in$ Figure$ 3.27.$ All$ values$ ranging$ from$ ^1$ ^$ 0.2$ will$ be$
classified$ as$ 0,$ or$ no$ green$ reflectance.$ All$ values$ ranging$ from$ 0.2$ ^$ 0.85$ will$ be$
classified$as$1,$or$green$reflectance.$All$values$ranging$from$0.85$^$1$will$be$classified$
as$2,$or$no$green$reflectance.$$
$
(
Figure(3.27:(Adding(new(values.(
$
Click$the$Auto$Layout$button$to$organize$the$layout$of$your$model$and$the$Run$
button$to$run$your$model:$
$
(
(
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 279$
!
$
(
(
Right^click$ the$ data$ derived$ from$ the$ reclassification$ process$ and$ select$ Add$ to$
Display.$
(
(
(
$
$
! 280$
!
Minimize$the$model$window.$This$is$what$your$screen$should$look$like:$$
$
(
Figure(3.31:(Resulting(layer.(
(
Note:(
Do$ not$ forget$ that$ because$ GIS$ software$ assigns$ colors$ to$ data$ randomly,$ your$ colors$
might$be$different$than$those$shown$in$Figure$3.31.$$
$
Because$ the$ values$ of$ 0and$ 2$ do$ not$ represent$ green$ reflectance,$ right^click$ the$
rectangles$next$to$0$and$2$and$set$their$color$to$No$Color.$Set$the$value$of$1$to$
Fern$Green.$
$$
(
Figure(3.32:(Colors.(
! 281$
!
Turn$on$the$layer$derived$from$the$raster$calculation.$This$is$what$your$screen$should$
look$like:(
$
(
Figure(3.33:(NDVI(for(2001.(
$
Zoom$in$to$an$area$of$interest$(e.g.$the$American$Falls$Reservoir)$to$see$how$the$output$
layer$derived$from$your$model$depicts$vegetated$surfaces$accurately.$Congratulations!$
You$ have$ learned$ how$ to$ create$ a$ model$ that$ allows$ you$ to$ detect$ green$ reflectance$
values$from$satellite$imagery.$$
(
(
Figure(3.34:(American(Falls(Reservoir.(
! 282$
!
Step(9:((
Now$we$will$discover$which$NDVI$values$fall$within$Bannock$County.$$Type$Extract$
by$Mask$in$the$search$field,$and$press$the$key$Enter.$As$you$did$before,$drag$the$tool$
from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model.$
$
(
window.(
$
Step(10:((
Navigate$ to$ the$ Tutorial$ 3$ folder$ and$ add$ the$ Bannock$ County$ shapefile$ to$ your$
model$using$the$ $button.$
$
(
! 283$
!
Step(11:((
Right^click$ the$ Extract$ by$ Mask$ tool$ (as$ shown$ in$ the$ Model$ window)$ and$ the$
Extract$by$Mask$window$will$appear.$In$Input$raster,$choose$Reclass_rast1$and$in$
Input$ raster$ or$ feature$ mask$ data,$ choose$ Bannock.shp.$ Click$ Apply$ and$ then$
OK.$
$
(
Figure(3.37:(Extract(by(Mask(window.(
(
Click$the$Auto$Layout$button$to$organize$the$layout$of$your$model$and$the$Run$
button$to$run$your$model:$
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 284$
!
Right^click$ the$ data$ derived$ from$ the$ reclassification$ process$ and$ select$ Add$ to$
Display.$
(
(
(
Organize$your$layers$as$in$Figure$3.40.$
$
(
Figure(3.40:(Table(of(Contents.(
(
(
! 285$
!
This$is$what$your$screen$should$look$like:$
$
(
Figure(3.41:(Bannock(County.(
(
Step(12:((
Examine$ the$ input$ data$ and$ the$ output$ data,$ as$ well$ as$ the$ processes,$ documented$ in$
the$model$shown$in$Figure$3.2$in$the$beginning$of$the$exercise.$To(obtain(the(NDVI(for(
2011,$create$an$identical$model$to$the$one$shown$in$Figure$3.2.$Make$sure$that$you$use$
the$data$stored$in$the$2011$subfolder.$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 286$
!
Step(13:((
Go$to$the$Table$of$Contents$pane$(left$side$of$the$screen),$and$place$the$resulting$layer$
from$ your$ 2011$ model$ above$ the$ resulting$ layer$ from$ the$ 2001$ model.$ As$ you$ did$ in$
step$9,$set$the$0$and$2$values$of$the$2011$layer$to$No$Color$and$set$the$1$value$
of$the$2011$layer$to$Tzavorite$Green.$
(
(
Figure(3.42:(Colors.(
$
Step(14:((
This$is$what$your$screen$should$look$like:$
$
(
Figure(3.43:(Layers(displayed(in(full(extent.(
! 287$
!
Step(15:((
If$you$wish,$create$a$map$like$the$one$shown$in$Figure$3.44.$
$
(
Figure(3.44:(Final(map.(
(
!
! 288$
TUTORIAL(IV(
Tutorial$IV$will$teach$you$how$to$use$a$digital$elevation$model$(DEM)$to$assess$which$
areas$of$the$city$of$Spokane,$in$the$State$of$Washington,$United$States,$are$flat$or$have$a$
slope$of$less$than$0.5$degrees.$$
$
The$ project$ Spokane$ Historical$ is$ a$ public$ history$ program$ developed$ by$ Eastern$
Washington$ University$ (http://www.ewu.edu).$ You$ are$ a$ historian$ and$ medical$
geographer$interested$in$documenting$the$history$of$and$doing$field$work$at$the$High$
Bridge$Park.$This$recreational$area$of$Spokane,$according$to$Spokane$Historical,$was$
used$as$a$sanitarium$to$treat$patients$with$tuberculosis$in$the$past.$$
$
To$document$the$history$of$High$Bridge$Park,$you$will$have$to$live$in$Spokane$for$one$
year.$You$are$looking$for$a$house$in$which$to$live$in$Spokane$that$is$close$to$the$park.$
You$dislike$walking$in$hilly$areas.$Therefore,$you$want$to$live$in$a$house$that$is$within$
0.5$miles$of$High$Bridge$Park$and$that$is$in$a$flat$area.$Because$you$want$to$live$in$a$flat$
area,$you$are$required$to$identify$areas$with$a$slope$of$less$than$0.5$degree.$$$
$
You$will$use$the$following$GIS$functions:$
Slope$$
Raster$Calculator$$
Buffer$$
Extract$by$Mask$$
$
Considerations(and(acknowledgments((
The$ spatial$ data$ you$ are$ using$ in$ this$ exercise$ are$ courtesy$ of$ the$ City$ of$ Spokane$
website$(http://www.spokanecity.org).$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
(
(
! 289$
Requirements(
As$ always,$ make$ sure$ that$ all$ of$ your$ extensions$ are$ activated$ prior$ to$ beginning$ the$
exercise.$ If$ the$ extensions$ are$ not$ activated,$ you$ will$ not$ be$ able$ to$ complete$ the$
exercise.$ On$ ArcMapZs$ menu$ bar,$ go$ to$ Customize,$ and$ then$ choose$ Extensions....$
and$click$Close.$Please$notice$that$the$Spatial$Analyst$extension$is$fundamental$for$
the$completion$of$this$exercise.$$
$
$
$
$
$
$
! 290$
As$a$reminder,$you$may$wish$create$a$folder$to$store$all$of$the$output$data$derived$from$
your$model.$As$you$have$learned$from$Tutorials$I$and$III,$when$you$create$and$run$a$
model$ your(original(input(data(are(subjected(to(a(set(of(processes.$ Each$ process$ will$
result$ in$ new$ data,$ and$ you$ may$ wish$ to$ save$ these$ data$ in$ a$ specific$ folder$ of$ your$
choice.(If$you$do$not$specify$a$location$where$you$would$like$your$data$to$be$saved,$the$
data$ will$ be$ saved$ in$ the$ default$ geodatabase$ (Default.gdb)$ located$ at$
Documents\ArcGIS\Default.gdb.$
$
As$in$the$previous$exercises,$you$will$create$an$ArcGIS$10$ModelBuilder$model.$This$
model$is$shown$in$Figure$4.2.$The$model$shows$our$input$data,$the$set$of$processes$to$
which$our$input$data$will$be$subjected,$and$the$output$data$of$our$model.$Examine$the$
model$closely$and$try$to$understand$the$set$of$processes$depicted$in$the$model.$If$you$
cannot$understand$the$model,$do$not$worry!$This$exercise$will$teach$you$how$to$build$
and$run$the$model$successfully.$
$
(
Figure(4.2:(Model(depicting(sequence(of(steps.(
$
$
Step(1:((
Go$to$http://www.geographicallyintegratedhistory.com/wpa
$
Download$the$zipped$folder.$$
$
$
$
! 291$
Step(2:(
As$you$did$in$the$previous$exercises,$open$ArcMap$and$click$the$ModelBuilder$
window$button:$
$
Figure(4.3:(ModelBuilder(window(button.((
(
Step(3:((
The$ Model$ window$ will$ appear.$ Click$ the$ +$ button$ to$ add$ the$ input$ data$ of$ your$
model.$ As$ in$ the$ previous$ exercises,$ you$ will$ drag$ GIS$ tools$ from$ the$ list$ of$ functions$
and$drop$these$GIS$tools$in$the$Model$window.$$
$
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 292$
Step(4:((
Navigate$ to$ the$ folder$ you$ downloaded.$ Load$ the$ DEM$ from$ which$ the$ slope$ will$ be$
calculated$and$the$HighBridgePark.shp$shapefile$into$the$Model$window:$
$
(
Figure(4.5:(Input(data.(
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
(
! 293$
Step(5:((
Slope$ in$ the$ search$ field,$ and$ press$ the$ key$ Enter.$ Drag$ the$ Slope$ (Spatial$
Analyst)$tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$4.7].$
$
$
$
(
window.((
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 294$
Step(6:((
Rightaclick$twice$on$the$rectangle$representing$the$Slope$tool$(the$tool$that$you$have$
dropped$ into$ the$ Model$ window)$ and$ the$ Slope$ window$ will$ appear.$ In$ Input$
raster,$ choose$ 1239CATD.DDF.$ In$ Z$ factor$ (optional),$ leave$ the$ default$ value$ of$
1.$$
$
(
Figure(4.8:(Slope(window.(
$
geodatabase.$If$you$wish,$you$can$save$the$output$raster$in$a$place$of$your$choice$and$
under$a$different$name.$To$do$this,$click$the $button$shown$in$Figure$4.8$and$choose$a$
place$in$which$you$want$to$save$the$output$data.$By(default,(ArcMap$saves$the$output$
Documents\ArcGIS.$$Click$Apply$and$then$OK.$
$
$
! 295$
Step(7:((
Your$model$should$look$like$Figure$4.9.$Click$the$Auto$Layout$button$to$organize$the$
layout$of$your$model,$and$click$the$Run$button$to$run$your$model$[Figure$4.10].$
$
$
(
$
Figure(4.10:(Auto(Layout(and(Run(buttons.((
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 296$
Step(8:((
Your$model$should$look$like$Figure$4.11.$If$you$wish$to$know$what$the$derived$dataset$
looks$like,$you$can$display$it$in$ArcMap$by$rightaclicking$the$file$and$then$choosing$the$
option$Add$to$Display.$You$will$see$the$dataset$containing$slope$values$[Figure$4.12].$$
(
(
(
(
Figure(4.12:(Derived(raster(dataset(containing(slope(values.(
$
! 297$
Step(9:((
The$ next$ step$ involves$ identifying$ areas$ in$ which$ the$ slope$ is$ less$ than$ 0.5.$ Open$ the$
Search$ window$ by$ clicking$ the$ Search$ window$ button$ [Figure$ 4.13],$ type$ Raster$
Calculator$in$the$search$field,$and$press$the$key$Enter.$Drag$the$Raster$Calculator$
(Spatial$Analyst)$tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$4.14].$
$
$
$
(
Figure(4.14:$Dragging(tool(from(list(of(functions(and(dropping(it(into(Model(
window.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 298$
Step(10:((
Rightaclick$twice$on$the$rectangle$representing$the$Raster$Calculator$tool$(the$tool$that$
you$have$dropped$into$the$Model$window)$and$the$Raster$Calculator$window$will$
appear.$You$will$create$a$conditional$statement.$In$Conditional,$choose$Con.$Select$
the$ Slope_DDF1$ layer$ from$ the$ Layers$ and$ variables$ list$ by$ clicking$ it$ with$ your$
mouse.$ Format$ the$ equation$ as$ shown$ in$ Figure$ 4.15.$ Because$ this$ is$ a$ conditional$
statement,$ the$ value$ of$ 1$ means$ true,$ whereas$ the$ value$ of$ 0$ means$ false.$ In$
formatting$ the$ equation$ as$ shown$ in$ Figure$ 4.15,$ the$ Raster$ Calculator$ will$ return$
only$slope$values$below$0.5.$$
$
(
(
under$a$different$name.$To$do$this,$click$the $button$shown$in$Figure$4.15$and$choose$
a$place$in$which$you$want$to$save$the$output$data.$By(default,(ArcMap$saves$the$output$
Documents\ArcGIS.$Click$Apply$and$then$OK.$
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 299$
Step(11:((
Your$ model$ should$ look$ like$ Figure$ 4.16.$ Click$ the$ Auto$ Layout$ button$ to$ organize$
$
(
(
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 300$
Step(12:((
Your$model$should$look$like$Figure$4.18.$If$you$wish$to$know$what$the$derived$dataset$
looks$like,$you$can$display$it$in$ArcMap$by$rightaclicking$the$file$and$then$choosing$the$
option$Add$to$Display.$You$will$see$the$dataset$containing$slope$values$that$are$less$
than$0.5$[Figure$4.19].$
(
(
$
$
Figure(4.19:(Derived(raster(dataset(containing(slope(values.(
$
(
(
! 301$
Note:(
Slope$values$that$are$less$than$0.5$are$represented$by$the$number$1,$whereas$slope$
values$that$are$larger$than$0.5$are$represented$by$the$number$0$[Figure$4.19].$$Set$the$
value$of$0$to$No$Color.$
$
(
Figure(4.20:(No(color.(
(
(
Figure(4.21:(Suitable(slopes.((
! 302$
Step(13:((
The$ next$ step$ involves$ applying$ a$ buffer$ of$ 0.5$ miles$ to$ the$ shapefile$ depicting$ High$
Bridge$ Park.$ Open$ the$ Search$ window$ by$ clicking$ the$ Search$ window$ button$
[Figure$ 4.22],$ type$ Buffer$ in$ the$ search$ field,$ and$ press$ the$ key$ Enter.$ Drag$ the$
Buffer$(Analyst)$tool$from$the$list$and$drop$it$into$the$Window$model$[Figure$4.23].$
$
$
(
(
window.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 303$
Step(14:((
Rightaclick$twice$on$the$rectangle$representing$the$Buffer$tool$(the$tool$that$you$have$
dropped$ into$ the$ Model$ window)$ and$ the$ Buffer$ window$ will$ appear.$ In$ Input$
Features,$ choose$ HighBridgePark.shp,$ and$ in$ Linear$ unit,$ choose$ Miles$ and$ type$
the$value$of$0.5,$as$in$Figure$4.24.$$
$
(
Figure(4.24:(Buffer(window.(
(
$
Step(15:((
Click$the$Auto$Layout$button$to$organize$the$layout$of$your$model$and$click$the$
Run$button$to$run$your$model$[Figure$4.25].$
$
(
(
! 304$
Step(16:((
Your$model$should$look$like$Figure$4.26.$If$you$wish$to$know$what$the$buffer$looks$like,$
you$ can$ display$ it$ in$ ArcMap$ by$ rightaclicking$ the$ file$ and$ then$ choosing$ the$ option$
Add$to$Display$[Figure$4.27].$$
$
(
$
(
Figure(4.27:(Buffer(of(0.5(miles(surrounding(High(Bridge(Park.(
! 305$
Step(17:((
The$next$step$is$to$obtain$the$slope$values$calculated$in$step$10$that$fall$within$the$buffer$
of$ 0.5$ miles$ surrounding$ High$ Bridge$ Park.$ To$ achieve$ this$ goal,$ we$ use$ the$ tool$
Extract$by$Mask.$Open$the$Search$window$by$clicking$the$Search$window$button$
[Figure$ 4.28],$ type$ Buffer$ in$ the$ search$ field,$ and$ press$ the$ key$ Enter.$ Drag$ the$
Extract$ by$ Mask$ (Spatial$ Analyst)$ tool$ from$ the$ list$ and$ drop$ it$ into$ the$ Window$
model$[Figure$4.29].$
$
$
Figure(4.28:(Search(Window(button.(
(
(
Figure(4:29:(Dragging(tool(from(list(of(functions(and(dropping(it(into(Model(
window.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 306$
Step(18:((
Rightaclick$twice$on$the$rectangle$representing$the$Extract$by$Mask$tool$(the$tool$that$
you$ have$ dropped$ in$ the$ Model$ window)$ and$ the$ Extract$ by$ Mask$ window$ will$
appear.$ In$ Input$ raster,$ choose$ the$ dataset$ derived$ from$ the$ Raster$ Calculation$
operation.$In$Input$raster$or$feature$mask$data,$choose$the$dataset$derived$from$the$
Buffer$operation.$
$
(
Figure(4.30:(Extract(by(Mask.(
$
$
Step(19:((
Click$the$Auto$Layout$button$to$organize$the$layout$of$your$model,$and$click$the$
Run$button$to$run$your$model$[Figure$4.31].$
$
(
(
! 307$
Step(20:((
Your$finalized$model$should$look$like$in$Figure$4.32:$$
$
(
Figure(4.32:(Finalized(model.(
$
Step(21:((
To$ see$ the$ suitable$ area,$ rightaclick$ the$ dataset$ derived$ from$ the$ Extract$ by$ Mask$
operation$and$choose$the$option$Add$to$Display.$This$is$what$the$suitable$area$should$
look$like:$
$
(
Figure(4.33:(Suitable(area.(
! 308$
Step(22:((
You$ are$ not$ yet$ seeing$ the$ suitable$ area$ because$ the$ Extract$ by$ Mask$ function$ has$
given$you$two$values:$0,$or$false,$and$1$or$true.$Therefore,$you$should$set$the$value$
of$0$to$no$color.$
$
(
Figure(4.34:(No(Color.(
$
Now$you$can$see$the$appropriate$areas$with$a$slope$of$less$than$0.5$degrees.$
$
(
Figure(4.35:(Suitable(areas(with(slope(of(less(than(0.5(degrees.(
! 309$
Step(23:((
Click$the$ $button$(Model$window)$to$save$your$model.$Your$model$will$be$saved$
in$the$Toolbox$that$is$located$under$Documents\ArcGIS.$Close$the$Window$model.$$
$
Step(24:((
On$ ArcMaps$ menu$ bar,$ click$ the$ $button.$ Navigate$ to$ your$ folder$ and$ load$ the$
shapefile$streets$in$ArcMap.$Organize$your$layers$so$that$they$look$like$Figure$4.36.$
Ignore$the$Geographic$Coordinate$Systems$warning$window$that$may$appear.$
$
(
Figure(4.36:(Layers.(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
! 310$
Step(25:((
If$you$wish,$create$a$map$like$the$one$shown$in$Figure$4.37.$
$
(
Figure(4.37:(Final(map.(
$
Congratulations!$ You$ have$ learned$ how$ to$ build$ and$ run$ successfully$ a$ cartographic$
model$that$identifies$flat$slopes.$If$you$feel$uncomfortable$with$what$you$have$learned,$
please$ go$ back$ to$ the$ beginning$ of$ the$ exercise$ and$ carefully$ follow$ the$ instructions$
again$until$you$feel$comfortable.$
!
! 311$
!
REFERENCES'
Baker,$ A.R.H.$ Reflections$ on$ the$ relations$ of$ historical$ geography$ and$ the$ Annales$
School$of$history.$in$The$Annales$School:$critical$assessments;$vol.II,$ed.$S.$Clark.$London:$
Routledge,$1999.$$
$
___________.$On$the$Relations$of$History$and$Geography.$Historically$Speaking$5,$no.$6$
(July/August$2004):$27P29.$
$
___________.$ Geography$ and$ History:$ Bridging$ the$ Divide.$ Cambridge:$ Cambridge$
University$Press,$2003.
$
Black,$ Fiona$ A.,$ Bertrum$ H.$ MacDonald,$ and$ J.$ Malcom$ W.$ Black.$ Geographic$
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(1998):$11P31.$$
$
Bloch,$ Marc.$ Les$ caractres$ originaux$ de$ lDhistoire$ rurale$ franaise.$ Paris:$ Armand$ Colin,$
1931.$
$
Bolstad,$ Paul.$ GIS$ Fundamentals:$ A$ First$ Text$ on$ Geographic$ Information$ Systems.$
Minnesota:$Eider$Press,$White$Bear$Lake,$2008.$$
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Campbell,$James.$Introduction$to$Remote$Sensing.$New$York,$London:$The$Guilford$Press,$
2008.$$
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Churchill,$Robert,$and$Amy$Hillier.$Teaching$with$GIS.$in$Placing$History:$How$Maps,$
Spatial$Data,$and$GIS$are$Changing$Historical$Scholarship,$eds.$Anne$K.$Knowles$and$Amy$
Hillier.$Redlands:$ESRI$Press,$2008.$$
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Cunfer,$ Geoff.$ On$ the$ Great$ Plains:$ Agriculture$ and$ Environment.$ College$ Station:$ Texas$
A&M$University$Press,$2005.$
$
Donahue,$ Brian.$ The$ Great$ Meadow:$ Farmers$ and$ the$ Land$ in$ Colonial$ Concord.$ New$
Haven:$Yale$University$Press,$2004.$
$
___________.$ Mapping$ Husbandry$ in$ Concord:$ GIS$ as$ a$ Tool$ for$ Environmental$
History.$ in$ Placing$ History:$ How$ Maps,$ Spatial$ Data,$ and$ GIS$ are$ Changing$ Historical$
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Ferrez,$ Gilberto.$Raras$ e$ preciosas$ vistas$ e$ panoramas$ do$ Recife:$ 1755$ $ 1855.$

Recife:$Fundaco#Nacional#PrPMemria(e(FUNDARPE,(1984.$
$
Gregory,$Ian$N.,$and$Paul$S.$Ell.$Historical$GIS:$Technologies,$Methodologies$and$Scholarship.$
Cambridge:$Cambridge$University$Press,$2007.$
$
___________,$ and$ Richard$ G.$ Healey.$ Historical$ GIS:$ Structuring,$ Mapping,$ and$
Analysing$Geographies$of$the$Past.$Progress$in$Human$Geography$31,$no.$5$(2007):$638P
653.$
$
Hill,$ Linda$ L.$ Georeferencing:$ The$ Geographic$ Associations$ of$ Information.$ Cambridge,$
Massachusetts,$and$London:$MIT$Press,$2006.$
$
Hinman,$ $ Sarah$ E.,$ Jason$ K$ Blackburn,$ and$ Andrew$ Curtis.$ Spatial$ and$ Temporal$
Structure$ of$ Typhoid$ Outbreaks$ in$ Washington,$ D.C.,$ 1906P1909:$ Evaluating$ Local$
Clustering$ with$ the$ Gi*$ Statistic.$ International$ Journal$ of$ Health$ Geographics$ 5,$ no.$ 13$
(March,$ 2006).$ http://www.ijPhealthgeographics.com/content/5/1/13$ (accessed$ 6$
September$2011).$
$
Instituto$ Histrico$ e$ Geogrfico$ Brasileiro.$ Revista$ Trimensal$ do$ Instituto$ Historico,$
Geographico,$e$Etnographico$do$Brasil.$Rio$de$Janeiro:$B.$L.$Gardiner,$1867.$$
$
Knowles,$Anne$Kelly.$Introduction.$Social$Science$History$24,$no.$3$(Fall$2000):$451P470.$
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___________.$GIS$and$History.$in$Placing$History:$How$Maps,$Spatial$Data,$and$GIS$Are$
Changing$Historical$Scholarship,$ed.$Anne$K.$Knowles$and$Anne$Hillier.$Redlands:$ESRI$
Press,$2008.$$
$
Middleton,$ Elisabeth$ Rose.$ Seeking$ Spatial$ Representation:$ Reflections$ on$
Participatory$Ethnohistorical$GIS$Mapping$of$Maidu$Allotment$Lands.$Ethnohistory$57,$
no.$3$(2010):$363P387.$$
$
Monmonier,$ Mark.$ Mapping$ It$ Out:$ Expository$ Cartography$ for$ the$ Humanities$ and$ Social$
Sciences.$Chicago:$University$of$Chicago$Press,$1993.$$
$
___________.$How$to$Lie$with$Maps.$Chicago:$University$of$Chicago$Press,$1996.$$
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Owens,$ J.$ B.$ Toward$ a$ GeographicallyPIntegrated,$ Connected$ World$ History:$
Employing$ Geographic$ Information$ Systems$ (GIS).$ History$ Compass$ 5,$ no.$ 6$ (2007):$
2014P2040.$doi:$10.1111/j.1478P0542.2007.00476.x.$
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___________.$ What$ historians$ want$ from$ GIS.$ ArcNews,$ 29,$ 2$ (summer$ 2007):$ 4P6.$
http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/summer07articles/whatPhistoriansPwant.html$
(accessed$14$May$2014).$$
$
___________.,$and$Laura$WoodworthPNey.$Envisioning$a$masters$degree$program$in$
geographicallyPintegrated$history.$Journal$of$the$Association$for$History$and$Computing$8,$
no.$2$(September$2005).$$
$
___________.$ Graduate$ Education$ in$ GeographicallyPIntegrated$ History:$ A$ Personal$
Account.$Journal$of$the$Association$for$History$and$Computing$13,$no.$1$(May$2010).$
$
___________.$ Historical$ Studies,$ GIS$ for.$ in$ Encyclopedia$ of$ Geographic$ Information$
Science,$ed.$Karen$Kamp.$Thousand$Oaks:$Sage,$2008.$
$
___________.,$ and$ Emery$ A.$ Coppola,$ Jr.$ Fuzzy$ Set$ Theory$ (or$ Fuzzy$ Logic)$ to$
Represent$ the$ Messy$ Data$ of$ Complex$ Human$ (and$ other)$ Systems.$
https://www.academia.edu/1100044/Fuzzy_Set_Theory_or_Fuzzy_Logic_to_Represent_
the_Messy_Data_of_Complex_Human_and_other_Systems$ (accessed$ 21$ December$
2013).$
$
Rumsey,$ David,$ and$ Meredith$ Williams.$ Historical$ Maps$ in$ GIS.$ in$ Past$ Time,$ Past$
Place:$GIS$for$History,$ed.$Anne$K.$Knowles.$Redlands,$California:$ESRI$Press,$2002.$$$
$
Ryu,$ Youngryel,$ Dennis$ D.$ Baldocchi,$ Joseph$ Verfaillie,$ Siyan$ Ma,$ Matthias$ Falk,$ Ilse$
RuizPMercado,$ Ted$ Hehn,$ and$ Oliver$ Sonnentag.$ Testing$ the$ performance$ of$ a$ novel$
spectral$ reflectance$ sensor,$ built$ with$ light$ emitting$ diodes$ (LEDs),$ to$ monitor$
ecosystem$metabolism,$structure$and$function.$Agricultural$and$Forest$Meteorology$150,$
no.$12$(2010):$1597P1606.$
$
Samani,$ Zohrab,$ Ted$ Sammis,$ Rhonda$ Skaggs,$ N.$ Alkhatiri,$ and$ Jose$ Deras.$
Measuring$ OnPFarm$ Irrigation$ Efficiency$ with$ Chloride$ Tracing$ under$ Deficit$
Irrigation.$Journal$of$Irrigation$and$Drainage$Engineering$131,$no.$6$(2005):$555P559.$
$
Siebert,$ Loren.$ Using$ GIS$ to$ Document,$ Visualize,$ and$ Interpret$ Tokyos$ Spatial$
History.$Social$Science$History$24,$no.$3$(2000):$$537P574.$
$
Tufte,$Edward$R.$$Envisioning$Information.$Cheshire,$CT:$Graphics$Press,$1990.$$
$
Tyner,$Judith.$Principles$of$Map$Design.$New$York:$The$Guilford$Press,$2010.$
$
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Ueland,$ Jeff,$ and$ Barney$ Warf.$ Racialized$ Topographies:$ Altitude$ and$ Race$ in$
Southern$Cities.$Geographical$Review$91,$no.$1$(2010):$1P29.$
$
Worster,$ Donald.$ Dust$ Bowl:$ The$ Southern$ Plains$ in$ the$ 1930s.$ New$ York:$ Oxford$
University$Press,$1979.$$
$
Yuan,$May.$Dynamics$GIS:$Recognizing$the$dynamic$nature$of$reality.$Arc$News$30,$1$
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(accessed$14$May$2014).$$
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!
GLOSSARY:'Commonly'Used'Terms''
ArcGlobe:$ArcGlobe$depicts$a$virtual$globe,$with$geographic$and$mapping$information.$
ArcGlobe$provides$3PD$symbology$and$navigation.$See$Google'Earth.''
'
Attribute' table:$ The$ data$ used$ in$ a$ GIS$ is$ stored$ in$ a$ spreadsheet$ called$ an$ attribute$
table.$ Each$ line,$ or$ row,$ in$ the$ spreadsheet$ can$ contain$ data$ held$ in$ a$ number$ of$
columns;$ the$ number$ of$ columns$ and$ the$ type$ of$ data$ each$ column$ holds$ is$ userP
defined,$ making$ the$ spreadsheet$ accommodating$ enough$ to$ hold$ almost$ any$ type$ of$
information.$See$Attributes.$$
$
Attributes:$Attributes$in$a$GIS$could$be$names,$population$information,$homes,$crops,$
or$any$number$of$things.$Attributes$in$a$GIS$are$stored$in$the$Attribute'table.$$
$
Azimuthal' projection:$ An$ azimuthal$ projection$ uses$ a$ planar$ surface$ and$ places$ it$
across$ a$ single$ point$ of$ the$ Earths$ surface.$ Azimuthal$ projections$ preserve$ direction$
from$a$certain$point.$See$Projection.$$
$
Boolean'logic:$To$write$a$query,$the$user$must$build$a$logical$expression$using$Boolean$
operators$and$define$the$information$to$be$used$to$answer$the$query.$See$Querying.$$
$
Buffer' Shapes:$ Buffer$ Shapes$ is$ a$ MapWindow$ tool$ located$ under$ Vector$
Operations$in$the$Toolbox$view.$See$Buffering.'
'
Buffering:$The$Buffering$tool$places$a$buffer$zone$around$userPdefined$points,$lines,$or$
polygons.$ This$ tool$ allows$ the$ user$ to$ create$ a$ polygon$ that$ encompasses$ a$ defined$
portion$ of$ the$ map,$ and$ to$ determine$ the$ distances$ between$ the$ center$ of$ this$ new$
polygon$and$other$locations$on$the$map.$$
$
Cartographic'model:$A$cartographic$model$constitutes$a$graphic$representation$of$the$
spatial$data,$and$the$operations$to$which$the$data$are$submitted.$A$cartographic$model$
allows$the$user$to$describe$the$sequence$in$which$each$GIS$operation$is$presented.$See$
Model'Builder.$$
$
Cartography:$ Cartography$ is$ the$ study$ and$ practice$ of$ producing$ maps.$ Cartography$
combines$elements$of$art,$science,$and$technology.$$
$
Choropleth' map:$ A$ thematic$ map$ in$ which$ areas$ are$ shaded$ in$ proportion$ to$ the$
measurement$of$the$data$variable$being$depicted.$See$Symbology.$$
! 316$
!
Clipping'tool:$The$Clipping$tool$in$MapWindow$is$located$under$Overlays$in$the$
Toolbox$view.$See$Clipping.$$
$
Clipping:$Clipping$is$the$process$of$excising$unnecessary$data$to$customize$a$map.$For$
example,$when$line$data$such$as$roads,$rivers,$or$railroads$extend$beyond$the$borders$of$
a$polygon,$a$GIS$practitioner$or$mapmaker$can$cut,$or$clip,$the$line$data,$by$using$the$
Clipping'tool.$$$
$
Color:' When$ used$ properly,$ color$ can$ enhance$ cartographic$ visualization;$ however,$
poor$color$choices$can$obscure$important$aspects$of$a$map.$See$Cartography.$$
Conical'projection:$A$conical$projection$places$a$cone$over$a$part$of$the$earth.$With$a$
conical$projection,$area$is$preserved,$but$not$scale$and$shape.$See$Projection.'
'
Contour' lines:$ Also$ called$ isolines.$ Contour$ lines$ are$ lines$ that$ delineate$ different$
elevation$values.$$
$
Control' points:$ Control$ points$ are$ reference$ points$ that$ allow$ the$ user$ to$ align$ a$
scanned$ or$ digitized$ map$ to$ an$ already$ projected$ shapefile$ of$ the$ same$ area.$ See$
Georeferencing.$$
$
Cylindrical' projection:$ A$ cylindrical$ projection,$ in$ essence,$ wraps$ a$ geometric$ plane$
around$the$earth.$The$result$is$a$planar$representation$of$the$Earth.$With$this$cylindrical$
projection,$ there$ is$ less$ distortion$ around$ the$ equator$ and$ more$ around$ the$ Polar$
Regions.$See$Projection.$$
$
Datum:$A$datum$provides$a$model$of$the$Earth$as$an$ellipsoid;$because$the$Earth$is$not$
a$perfect$ellipsoid,$there$are$many$different$datums$to$express$its$irregular$shape.$When$
the$datum$model$is$expressed$in$longitude$and$latitude$(and$often$elevation)$data,$the$
result$ is$ commonly$ called,$ in$ the$ GIS$ world,$ a$ geographic' coordinate' system.$ When$
creating$a$map,$it$is$important$first$to$assign$a$datum$to$give$meaning$to$the$location$of$
your$data.$$
$
Digital'elevation'model'(DEM):'Also$called$a$digital$terrain$model.$A$digital$elevation$
model,$or$DEM,$is$a$raster$file$that$contains$elevation$data$at$the$pixel$level$and$shows$a$
3PD$representation$of$a$terrain$or$surface.$See$Raster'data.$$
$
Digitizing:$Digitizing,$in$general$terms,$means$taking$data$from$an$analog$format$and$
transferring$ them$ into$ a$ digital$ format.$ In$ GIS,$ digitizing$ may$ mean$ digitally$ tracing$
features$such$as$buildings,$rivers,$counties,$etc.,$into$points,$lines,$or$polygons.$$
! 317$
!
ETRS89:$European$Terrestrial$Reference$System$1989.$See$Datum.$$
$
Export' Selection:$ Export$ Selection$ is$ a$ MapWindow$ tool$ located$ under$ Vector$
Operations$in$the$Toolbox$view.$Export$Selection$allows$the$user$to$export$a$userP
defined$area$on$the$map$as$a$shapefile.$$
$
Extract'by'Mask:$The$Extract$by$Mask$tool$allows$the$user$to$determine$which$cell$(or$
pixel)$values$fall$within$a$userPdefined$area.$See$Raster'data.$$
$
Float:$ The$ Float$ tool$ allows$ the$ user$ to$ convert$ the$ numeric$ value$ of$ each$ cell$ (or$
pixel)$into$a$floatingPpoint$representation.$See$Raster'data.$$
$
Geocoding:$Geocoding$is$a$process$that$assigns$X$and$Y$coordinates,$or$longitude$and$
latitude$values,$to$addresses,$cities,$or$other$data$that$can$be$represented$with$points.$$
$
Geographic'coordinate'system:$See$Datum.$$
$
Georeferencing:'Georeferencing$is$the$process$of$applying$realPworld$coordinates$to$a$
scanned$ or$ digitized$ map$ through$ control$ points.' Georeferencing$ allows$ the$ user$ to$
align$a$map$to$an$already$projected$shapefile$of$the$same$area.$See$Control'points.''
'
Google' Earth:$ Google$ Earth$ is$ a$ free$ program$ that$ depicts$ a$ virtual$ globe,$ with$
geographic$ and$ mapping$ information,$ although$ it$ is$ not$ a$ complete$ GIS$ program.$
Google$ Earth$ uses$ digital$ elevation$ models$ to$ depict$ the$ surface$ of$ the$ Earth,$ and$ it,$
therefore,$allows$the$user$to$obtain$a$visualization$of$the$Earth$in$three$dimensions.$$
$
Google'Geocoder:$Google$Geocoder$is$a$MapWindow$plugPin$that$allows$the$user$to$
geocode$locations.$See$Geocoding.$$
$
Identify' Projection:$ Identify$ Projection$ is$ a$ MapWindow$ tool$ located$ under$
Projections$ in$ the$ Toolbox$ view$ that$ allows$ the$ user$ to$ examine$ if$ a$ datum$ or$
projection$has$been$assigned$to$a$shapefile.$$
$
Image' to' Map:$ Image$ to$ Map$ is$ a$ MapWindow$ plugPin$ that$ allows$ the$ user$ to$ use$
control$points$to$align$a$scanned$or$digitized$map$to$an$already$projected$shapefile$of$
the$same$area.$See$Georeferencing.$$
$
ImportXLS:$ The$ ImportXLS$ tool$ allows$ the$ user$ to$ convert$ a$ spreadsheet$ file$
containing$X$and$Y$coordinates,$or$longitude$and$latitude$values,$into$a$shapefile.$See$
Spatial'Converter.'
! 318$
!
Intersection:$The$Intersection$tool$allows$a$user$to$visualize$spatial$information$(for$
example,$ polygons$ or$ lines)$ that$ overlap$ or$ intersect.$ The$ Intersection$ tool$ in$
MapWindow$is$located$under$Overlays$in$the$Toolbox$view.$$
$
Isolines:$ Also$ called$ contour' lines.$ Isolines$ are$ lines$ that$ delineate$ different$ elevation$
values.$
$
KML:$KML$stands$for$Keyhole$Markup$Language.$KML$files$are$primarily$designed$for$
use$in$Google$Earth.$KML$files,$combined$with$Google$Earth,$allow$the$user$to$enhance$
the$visualization$of$their$data.$See$Google'Earth.'
'
Latitude:$Lines$of$latitude$cross$lines$of$longitude.$The$equator$is$the$equivalent$of$the$
lateral$ prime$ meridian,$ and$ it$ divides$ the$ world$ into$ the$ Northern$ and$ Southern$
hemispheres.$See$Longitude.$$
Layers:$Various$types$of$geographic$data$(for$example,$points,$lines,$or$polygons)$that$
can$be$added$to$MapWindow$or$ArcGIS,$and$then$turned$on$and$off.$$
$
Legend:$A$legend$explains$the$symbols$used$on$the$map.$See$Cartography.$$
$
Lines:$Lines$in$a$GIS$are$made$of$a$series$of$vertices,$or$connected$points,$that$may$be$
representative$of$length.$Lines$typically$represent$rivers$or$streets,$though$they$are$not$
limited$to$these$things.$See$Vector'data'model.$$
$
Longitude:$ Longitude$ is$ anchored$ by$ the$ prime$ meridian,$ an$ imaginary$ line$ which$ is$
determined$to$be$0$and$which$circles$the$earth$from$the$North$Pole$to$the$South$Pole,$
dividing$the$earth$into$the$Eastern$and$Western$hemispheres.$See$Latitude.'$$
Map' Algebra:$ Map$ Algebra$ is$ a$ set$ of$ operations,$ such$ as$ addition,$ subtraction,$
multiplication,$and$division,$between$the$cells$(or$pixels)$of$two$or$more$raster$layers.$
See$Raster'Calculator.$$
$
Model'Builder:$ Model$ Builder$ is$ an$ application$ that$ allows$ a$ user$ to$ create,$ edit,$ and$
manage$models.$These$models$allow$the$user$to$specify$the$GIS$tools$used$and$organize$
the$sequence$in$which$each$tool$is$presented.$See$Cartographic'model.$$
$
NAD27:$North$American$Datum$27.$See$Datum.''
'
NAD83:$North$American$Datum$83.$See$Datum.$$
! 319$
!
NDVI:$ Normalized$ Difference$ Vegetation$ Index.$ The$ NDVI$ allows$ a$ user$ to$ detect$
green$values$from$satellite$imagery$by$using$the$nearPinfrared$and$visible$(red)$bands.$$
$
North' arrow:$ Also$ called$ a$ compass$ rose.$ A$ north$ arrow$ provides$ a$ directional$
orientation$ for$ the$ map.$ Using$ a$ north$ arrow$ is$ particularly$ helpful$ when$ dealing$
with$a$geographic$area$that$may$not$be$familiar$to$map$readers.$See$Cartography.'
'
Points:$Points$in$GIS$allow$a$user$to$assign$a$precise$geographical$location$to$a$map.$A$
point$symbol$shows$a$vertex$at$which$the$lines$of$longitude$(x)$and$latitude$(y)$cross.$
Points$ can$ represent$ anything$ from$ cities$ to$ fire$ hydrants,$ to$ deaths$ caused$ by$ yellow$
fever.$See$Vector'data'model.$$
$
Polygons:$Polygons$in$GIS$are$a$group$of$connected$lines$and$are,$therefore,$shapes$that$
represent$ an$ area.$ Examples$ of$ polygons$ are$ states,$ countries,$ continents,$ geographic$
regions,$etc.$See$Vector'data'model.$$
$
Projection:$ Because$ the$ Earths$ shape$ is$ described$ as$ an$ irregular$ ellipsoid,$ a$
transformation$ must$ occur$ to$ place$ a$ threePdimensional$ area$ of$ the$ Earth$ on$ a$ flat$
surface.$ This$ transformation$ is$ called$ projection.'Many$ different$ projections$ exist,$ and$
which$ projection$ is$ chosen$ by$ a$ cartographer$ depends$ on$ the$ purpose$ for$ which$ the$
geographic$data$are$displayed.$$
$
Querying:$ Querying$ allows$ the$ user$ to$ select$ data$ that$ fit$ a$ certain$ criterion.$ See$
Boolean'logic.'
'
Raster'Calculator:$The$Raster$Calculator$tool$allows$the$user$to$perform$Map$Algebra$
expressions.$See$Map'Algebra.$$$
$
Raster'data:'Digital$images$that$display$and$store$information$at$the$cell$(or$pixel)$level.$$
$
Scale:$A$scale$shows$the$representative$units$of$measurement$of$the$map.$A$scale$can$be$
represented$as$a$ratio,$in$words,$or$by$a$bar$scale.$$
$
Shapefile' Editor:$ Shapefile$ Editor$ is$ a$ MapWindow$ plugPin$ that$ allows$ the$ user$ to$
create$and$edit$a$shapefile.$See$Digitizing.$$
$
Shapefile:$A$file$comprised$of$several$different$files.$Required$files$contained$within$a$
shapefile$ include$ the$ database$ file$ (.dbf),$ and$ a$ shape$ index$ format$ (.shx).$ Any$ given$
shapefile$ may$ have$ many$ other$ file$ extensions$ associated$ with$ it.$ See$ Vector' data'
model.''
! 320$
!
Spatial'Converter:'Spatial$Converter$is$a$MapWindow$plugPin$that$allows$the$user$to$
access$the$ImportXLS$tool.$See$ImportXLS.'
'
Symbology:''The$ process$ of$ viewing,$ creating,$ and$ using$ various$ kinds$ of$ symbols$ in$
GIS.$Symbology$allows$the$user$to$change$the$symbols$and$appearance$of$various$data$
layers$to$enhance$the$communication$impact$of$a$project.$
$
Universal' Transverse' Mercator' (UTM):$ Projected$ coordinate$ system$ that$ divides$ the$
earth$into$60$zones$(for$example,$France$is$within$zone$30$of$the$Northern$hemisphere).$$
$
Vector' data' model:$ A$ vector$ data$ model$ uses$ geographical$ coordinates$ to$ represent$
spatial$data.$The$spatial$data$are$represented$as$geometric$points,$lines,$and$polygons.$
A$vector$data$model$is$saved$in$a$unique$file$format$known$as$shapefile.'
'
WGS'1984:$World$Geodetic$System$1984.$See$Datum.$$
$
$
$
$
! 321$
When J. B. Owens walked into the early Friday morning session at the 2006 American Historical
Association (AHA) meeting, it pleased him to see a packed room of people excited to hear the
College of San Antonio discussion of their GIS-based world history pedagogical project
(h p://sacarcims.sac.alamo.edu/default.htm).
But
it
shocked
him
when
the
presentation
opened
with a quotation from his 1999 World History Association (WHA) paper about using geographic
information systems (GIS) for world history (based on a 1998 funding proposal). When leaving
the session a few hours later, a prominent world-systems sociologist asked Owens, How does
it feel to be recognized as a prophet, ahead of your time? Owens stammered a response about
how there were several other people in the room who had played more important roles in
stimulating interest in the use of GIS for historical research and teaching. He thought, however,
that all of this interest, including the strong response to their 2004 AHA paper about Idaho State
Universitys innovative, GIS-based Masters degree program (Owens and Woodworth-Ney 2005),
presented a challenge because the discipline lacked an adequate research infrastructure to
prepare historians, historical social scientists, and their students for this type of work. This GIS
training
manual
constitutes
a
partial
response
to
Owenss
concern.
It
oers
tutorials
that
introduce
historians
to
the
basic
elements
of
GIS.
The
rst
ten
chapters
use
a
free,
open-source
GIS software package so that interested researchers, teachers, and students can try the technology
without cost.
This training manual was proposed as part of the collaborative project Understanding Social
Networks
within
Complex,
Nonlinear
Systems:
Geographically-Integrated
History
and
Dynamics
GIS [SOCNET], which was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation under Grants No.
0941371
($1,290.704;
lead
project
Principal
Investigator
Dr.
J.
B.
Owens,
Idaho
State
University)
and
No.
0941501
($471,193;
Principal
Investigator
Dr.
May
Yuan,
University
of
Oklahoma),
for
a
total award of $1,761,897 (2009-2013).

A Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Training Manual For Historians and Historical Social Scientists

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This work is provided as part of the project

" ""button"on"MapWindowis"menu"bar,"and"then"click"the"state."" "

Figure 10.6: Color-differentiated elevation values on our map.

Ferrez,$ Gilberto.$Raras$ e$ preciosas$ vistas$ e$ panoramas$ do$ Recife:$ 1755$ $ 1855.$

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