Introduction to OFDM Equalization
Sandro Adriano Fasolo and Carlos Augusto Rocha
Telecommunications Department - Inatel - National Institute of Telecommunications
Avenida Joao de Camargo, 510, Santa Rita do Sapuca - MG - Brasil - CEP 37540-000
sandro.fasolo@inatel.br, caugusto@inatel.br
Abstract How the equalization technique on Multiple
Carrier Modulation works ? This tutorial aims to present
the basic equalization technique applied in multicarrier
systems. The multicarrier system includes a cyclic prefix
and reference sub carriers in the transmitted signal to
protect it against the multipath channels. First, the cyclic
prefix prevents the intersymbol interference, while the
duration of cyclic prefix will be greater than the delay
of multipaths present in the channel. However, yet there
are the intrasymbol interference and its consequence is the
corruption of the amplitude and phase of each sub carrier
of transmitted signal. This happens because the signal in-
terferes itself and this combination produces modifications
in the amplitude and phase of received signal. To mitigate
these effects, some reference sub carriers are transmitted
with the role of estimating the multipath channel behavior.
The interpolation technique used here for the channel
estimation is the linear interpolation. Therefore, having
the estimated behavior of the channel, the equalization can
be performed by several equalizers composed by a single
tap at each frequency of the received signal. The focus of
the paper is to show the generation of transmitted signal,
how we can include the reference sub carriers and the
cyclic prefix, the effect of multipath channel in the received
channel and the equalization procedure.
Index Terms multiple carrier modulation, equalization,
orthogonal frequency multiplex division, digital transmis-
sion.
1. INTRODUCTION
At this time, using the modulation criterion, the sys-
tems for broadcasting of digital television can be separate
in two mayor groups: single carrier modulation (SCM)
and multiple carrier modulation (MCM). As example
of first group we have the american system, known by
ATSC (Advanced Television System Committe). In the
last group, we have the European System, DVB (Digital
Video Broadcasting), and the Japan System, ISDB-T
(Integrated Service Digital Broadcasting). The China is
studying other five systems, employing SCM, MCM
and a combination of MCM and SS technique (Spread-
Spectrum). The 802.11a standard also uses the OFDM
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex). The ATSC
standard uses the 8 VSB (Vestigial Side Band with 8
level). The European and Japan standard use the OFDM
with 2k or 8k carriers. The choose so different in the
physic layer result in a natural concurrency among the
standards and stimulate a comparison between his quality
and deficiency. These differences are results of ATSC
standard uses the modulation in the time domain and the
other ones use the modulation in the frequency domain.
However, the wireless communication have the big
problem, the multipath distortion, that limits the per-
formance in a tragic way. The SCM lets to adaptive
equalizer in the receiver the job of mitigating the mul-
tipath effect. Thus, the ATSC employs the Decision
Feedback Equalizer (DFE), an adaptive digital filter in
time domain that eliminates the multipath of channel. It
is known that the convolution in time domain between
impulse response of channel and equalizer must be the
result in the impulse function. The impulse response
of equalizer can be found using algorithms with or
without training sequence (the last one is known by
Blind Equalization). These equalizers are complex, their
implementation is based on digital filter with larger
number of coefficients (taps) and weighed algorithms for
coefficients update. The MCM modulation protects the
signal before the transmission using the cyclic prefix in
time domain and pilots carriers in the frequency domain.
The cyclic prefix avoids the interference of one OFDM
symbols in the OFDM adjacents symbols,i.e., the inter
symbols interference. However, still it will exist the
intra symbol interference. This last interference will be
resolved using the pilots carriers. Instead of one large
equalizer, it will be necessary many equalizers with just
one tap by carrier. In this paper, we present the MCM
modulation and demodulation in section 2. In section
3 is presented the cyclic prefix and the channel model.
The inter symbol interference and intra symbol one is
discussed in section 4 and 5, respectively. The simulation
is presented in section 6, that is performance designed
a multicarrier systems and using graphics, curves and
few simply equations. All the simulation was made on
MatLab Simulator. Finally, the conclusions are listed
in section 7. The authors wait with this tutorial help
the curious about the basics about the mitigation of the
effects of multipath channels in multicarrier signals.
2. OFDM MODEM
The wireless channel is responsible for main inter-
ferences and noise of telecommunications system. The
noise is mitigated increase of signal-noise ratio, coding
or choosing the most robust modulation. However, the
multipath distortion transforms a channel plane in a
frequency selective channel, with high inter symbol
interference. In SCM modulation, the channel equalizer
is employed to eliminate the multipath, although a digital
filter at symbol rate. In the SCM modulation, the symbol
occupies all the bandwidth destined for signal, Figure 1
[1].
Fig. 1. Frequency x time for SCM and MCM.
Since that the symbol rate is high, the symbol duration
will be little, and any multipath will provoke an inter
symbol interference. In the MCM modulation, instead
of transmitting the symbol in serial mode, the idea is
to transmit the symbol in parallel mode. The symbols
in MCM modulation are transmitted in N sub carri-
ers, where the bandwidth of each carrier is the total
bandwidth of signal divided by N. The result is that
each symbol MCM is bigger than the SCM symbol by
N factor. Now, it is possible to add a guard time on the
transmitted signal. In the SCM it is impossible to add
an guard time because it is necessary a guard time with
duration equivalent of many data symbols, the data rate
Fig. 2. Modem OFDM.
will be low. In the MCM, the data rate will diminish,
but to acceptable values.
The MCM modulation can be transformed into a
frequency selective channel in plane channel although
the decrease of bandwidth of each sub channel. It is
made increase the symbol time duration. Of course, the
characteristics of signal (symbol duration) and channel
(time dispersion), will say whether the channel is or
not selective in frequency. Note that each SCM symbol
occurs in short time, TSCM .occupying all bandwidth.
In MCM modulation, each symbol will be occured
in TM CM = 4TSCM ,where each carrier occupies a
fraction of total bandwidth. How much bigger it will be
the number of sub carriers, bigger will be the symbol
duration and less will be the bandwidth of each sub
carrier. The basic modulator scheme is presented in
Figure 2 ( in practice, the IFFT is used) [2] [3]. This
scheme shows N modulators in quadrature, where each
carrier is modulated using a complex number. The real
part modulates the in-phase component and the imagi-
nary part modulates the quadrature component. Using
different constellation, we can modify the data rate.
The N outputs modulators are summed to produce the
OFDM symbol. The constellation for each carrier can be
different, e. g., in data carrier are used QPSK, 16 QAM
or 64 QAM and BPSK in pilots carrier. Before presenting
the equalization technique, it is necessary to design the
system for simulation. The system will be developed in
base band. Consider the following characteristic:
Number of carriers: 8.
Duration of SCM symbol: 1ms.
 Data carrier constellation: QPSK.
Data carriers: 6.
Data carriers: 2 (first and last ones).
Constellation for pilots carrier: BPSK.
Guard time: 1/4.

The useful time of OFDM symbol (or, simpleness,

symbol) is given by
TM CM = N TSCM = 8 1 ms = 8 ms (1)
Fig. 4. Cyclic prefix.
In the MCM system, the carriers are orthogonal, this im-
plication means that the value for sub carrier frequency h(t) .......
.......
must be multiple integer of OFDM symbol rate, that is: ....
.
1 .......
.........
1 ......
.........
1 ...
...
fn = n = n 125 Hz, n = 0, 1, ..., N 1 .... .
..................................................................................................
..
TM CM ...
...
...
...
(2) ... ..
.................................................................................................................
Note that the amplitude and phase of each carrier are t
changed in OFDM symbol at rate of 125 Hz . The useful
Fig. 5. Impulse response of channel.
bit rate, excluding the pilots carrier are:
carrier bits OFDM symbol
Rdc = 6 2 125
OFDM symbol carrier second
= 1, 5 kbps
(3)
The bit rate for pilots carrier is
carrier bits OFDM symbol
Rpc = 2 1 125
OFDM symbol carrier second
= 250 bps
(4) Fig. 6. Transfer function of response impulse with one direct path
and one multipath with = 5 ms.
The total bit rate is 1, 75 kbps. This rate will be
decreased by introducing of cyclic prefix, explained in
the next section. In Figure 3 it is illustrated the signals 4. INTER SYMBOL INTERFERENCE
and waveform for one OFDM symbol. The transmission
signal is the summation of co-sines and sinus, modulated The OFDM communication system has two kinds of
in quadrature and phase by input bits. interference: Inter and intra symbol interferences. Figure
7 shows the waveform to direct path, multipath and
received signal using the channel model of last section.
3. CYCLIC PREFIX The means of symbols are:
The cyclic prefix is the repetition in the begin of Tu1 Useful time of symbol 1.
OFDM symbol of final part of same OFDM symbol. The Tg1 Cyclic prefix of symbol 1.
total duration of OFDM symbol will be the useful time 0
Tu1 Multipath of useful time of symbol 1.
plus cyclic prefix time. In the Figure 4 this scheme is 0
Tg1 Multipath of cyclic prefix of symbol 1.
shown, with cyclic prefix equal 1/4 of useful time. But, Tu2 Useful time of symbol 2.
how does it help to mitigate the multipath channel ? First Tg2 Cyclic prefix of symbol 2.
of all, we must define a channel model to help us in this 0
Tu2 Multipath of useful time of symbol 2.
explanation. The most simple channel with multipath is 0
Tg2 Multipath of cyclic prefix of symbol 2.
the one composed by two rays, the line of sight and Here, is presented the signals to one carrier, but they
one multipath with delay. The impulse response of this can be generalized to other ones. The first symbol hasnt
channel and its transfer function are given by any type of interference, thus, it is necessary to use the
h(t) H() second symbol to learn about the protection mechanism
(5) against multipath interference.
(t) + (t ) 1 + ej 0
C ASE Tg2 + Tu1 : If the spread delay of multipath is
and shown in the Figure 5 and Figure 6. less or equal that cyclic prefix duration, Tg , are
Fig. 3. The MCM symbol.
will not occur interference of anterior OFDM symbol in
the actual OFDM symbol. The anterior OFDM symbol
multipath will just provoke interference in the cyclic
prefix of actual OFDM symbol. In this way, it hasnt
inter symbol interference. In OFDM modulation it is
possible to add a time guard because the symbol duration
is higher. The impact on symbol rate is acceptable.
In the SCM modulation, it is impossible, because the
time guard will be many times the value for symbol
duration, the impact over symbol rate is unacceptable.
The new rate using the cyclic prefix must be evaluated.
The duration of cyclic prefix, called guard time, is given
by
Tg = 1/4 Tu = 1/4 8 ms = 2 ms (6)
resulting in OFDM symbol with duration of
Ts = Tu + Tg = Tu (1 + 1/4) = 8 ms + 2 ms = 10 ms
(7)
The new OFDM symbol rate is
Rs = 1/ [Tu (1 + 1/4)] = 1/10 ms = 100 sym/s (8)
Thus, the new bit rate to data carriers is
carrier bits OFDM symbol
Rdc = 6 2 100
OFDM symbol carrier second
= 1, 2 kbps
(9)
Fig. 7. Signals in antenna receiver.
The new bit rate for pilots carrier is
carrier bits OFDM symbol
Rpc = 2 1 100
OFDM symbol carrier second
= 200 bps
(10)
Generalizing, the new rates can be adjusted by factor:
Tu
= (11)
Tu + Tg
5. INTER SYMBOL INTERFERENCE
The repetition of final part of useful symbol has
the objective of generating a continued signal, without
discontinuing.
0
C ASE Tg2 + Tg2 : the objective of this part is also to
avoid the inter symbol interference. In this example, this
part just has intra symbol interference. But this part isnt
used in the receiver to estimate the transmitted symbol.
0 0
C ASE Tu2 + Tg2 and Tu2 + Tu2 : In the received, the
correlation operation will be evaluated over the useful
symbol, that contains the direct path and multipath
signals. The summation of two (or more) signals with
equal frequency but distinct amplitude and phase result
in other signal with same frequency but amplitude and
phase different of last two. Then, the consequence is
that the demodulated signal will have amplitude and
 phase different of original transmitted signal, but with 2) Transmission of pilot carriers in each symbol
same frequency. The channel, to produce this effect, OFDM: in all symbols are transmitted data and
multiplies the transmitted signal by a complex gain, that training data. The estimation is made using the
modifies the amplitude and phase of each sub carrier pilots carrier and interpolating the frequency res-
of transmitting signal. This interference can be resolved ponse among the pilots carrier. The carrier between
using a complex multiplication, inverting the gain and two pilots carriers are correct using the interpola-
phase introduced in each sub channel. Consider the ting the gain and phase among the pilots carriers.
transmission of complex symbol, sn = an + jbn , and This last one is the most employed method.
that the frequency response of channel,H(f ) , to carrier
with frequency fn is equal to 6. SIMULATION USING CARRIER PILOTS
Using the OFDM system and channel presented in the
H(fn ) = Hn ejn (12)
last sections, a simulation was made to illustrate these
where Hn is the gain amplitude and n the phase in each concepts. The simulation scheme is illustrated in Figure
frequency fn . It can proved that the received complex 9. In the Figure 10 is shown the frequency response of
symbol, s0n = an + jbn , is given by channel together of estimated response frequency using
the linear interpolation. In Figure 11 is shown the trans-
a0n = Hn [an cos(n ) + bn sin(n )] mitted, received and equalized symbols constellation.
(13)
b0n = Hn [bn cos(n ) an sin(n )] In Table I is shown the result of simulation and
equalization. In first column is presented the transmitted
where a0n is the in phase and b0n is the quadrature symbol and in second columns is presented the received
values. The analysis of (13) shows that exists mutual symbols. The equalization of received symbols is per-
interference between the value of quadrature and phase formance using (14) and presented in last column. The
components. The effect of channel is a constellation received symbols using simulation are coherent with the
rotation of each sub carrier, illustrated in phasor diagram values obtained applying (13) over transmitted symbols.
in Figure 8.
7. CONCLUSION
.......
Q .......
...
0 ........ The analysis of result shows the importance of cho-
Q ...
...
b
... n s n
...
...
... ..
......
.
. . .
.
. . . . .... .......
.......
.........
....
...........
osing appropriate spacing among pilots carriers. The
... ... .. .. ....... .........
..... 0
. . . .
... ..
. .
... ...
. a .......
.. .. . . .... ...
. .
.
.............
.....
.............. . ....
..
..
...
0 I distance between two pilots adjacent must be less than
.
b ..0 ......... ..... .
....
...................................
n ......... ...................................... ..... .
n
coherence bandwidth of channel. In the linear interpo-

..............................................................................................................................................................................................
.......... ......... lation we can see the error provoked in amplitude of
......
..........
... . . .
.
a
.... ....
.
n I
... ....
... ...
... ....
response frequency. The phase is estimated without error,
... ...
...
.
... because the linear phase of channel contributes, then
Fig. 8. Diagram of components in phase and quadrature. the linear interpolation can get the perfect response.
The amplitude estimate is more difficult, because the
Using the trigonometry, it is easy to show that the curve is non-linear. In this case, it is necessary to use
received symbol can be found applying a phase rotation other interpolation method, such as, low-pass filter or
and adjusting in amplitude given by polinomial. After estimation of channel, the equalization
can be performed using one complex gain by sub carrier.
an = Hn [a0n cos(n ) b0n sin(n )] This gain adjusts the amplitude and phase of each
(14)
bn = Hn [b0n cos(n ) + a0n sin(n )] received symbol.
In the OFDM system, it is necessary to know the gain ACKNOWLEDGMENT
in each carrier frequency, Hn , and the phase, n . Before
the equalization, it is necessary to estimate the frequency The authors would like to thank to INATEL and
response of channel, using one of these two methods: FINEP/FUNTTEL for the financial support.
1) Transmission of an OFDM symbol to estimate REFERENCES
the frequency response of channel: all the carriers
[1] Fasolo, S.A.,Equalizacao de receptores para televisao digital em
are used to make the estimation of channel. In alta definicao para a modulacao 8 VSB(in Portuguese), State
this method, it is possible to know the gain and University of Campinas-UNICAMP. February, 2001.
phase of channel in each carrier, without error. [2] Bahai, Ahmad R. S.; SaLltzberg, Burton R., Multi-Carrier digital
communications: theory and applications of ofdm. New Jersey,
But, among the transmission of training symbols, 2001.
the frequency response can change. This method [3] Van Nee, Richard And Prasad, Ramjee; Ofdm for wireless mul-
is good to slow fading. timedia communications. Boston: Artech House, 2000.
Fig. 9. Simulation scheme.

Fig. 10. Transfer function from pilots carriers.

Fig. 11. Transmitted, received and + equalized symbols constellations.

TABLE I
T RANSMITTED , RECEIVED AND EQUALIZED SYMBOLS .

f(Hz) Transmitted Received Equalized

Rectangular Polar Rectangular Polar Rectangular Polar
0 1.000 1.0000 1.9999 1.9999 0 0.9998 0.9998 0
125 0.707 + 0.707i 1.000 45 1.0898 - 1.6309i 1.9615 303.70 0.7835 - 0.7835i 1.1080 -0.7854
250 -0.707 + 0.707i 1.000 135 -1.7071 - 0.7071i 1.8477 202.50 -0.8483 - 0.8483i 1.1996 -2.3562
375 -0.707 - 0.707i 1.000 225 -0.3244 + 1.6309i 1.6629 101.25 -0.8974 + 0.8974i 1.2692 2.3562
500 0.707 - 0.707i 1.000 315 1.4142 1.4142 0 0.9257 + 0.9257i 1.3091 0.7854
625 0.707 + 0.707i 1.000 45 -0.2168 - 1.0898i 1.1111 258.75 0.9241 - 0.9241i 1.3068 -0.7854
750 0.707 - 0.707 1.000 315 0.7071 - 0.2929i 0.7653 337.50 0.8725 + 0.8725i 1.2340 0.7854
875 1.000 1.000 0 0.0761 - 0.3827i 0.3902 281.25 0.9998 0.9998 0