Teaching learners with Special Educational Needs – Notes

These statements reflect some common beliefs about students with special educational needs. Here is a
summary of the comments made by Marie Delaney in the video:
1 Teachers need special training to teach students with special educational needs.
Teachers don't need to have special training. They can use the same classroom management and teaching
strategies that they probably already use with their classes; an understanding approach by the teacher is
also important.

2 There aren't any special needs: some students are just badly behaved or lazy.
Sometimes students have a special need that hasn't yet been diagnosed. They may seem to be lazy,
inattentive, or disruptive but this may be a sign that they are struggling. It is better to look at the
behaviour and try to work out what it means than judge it.

3 It's impossible to cater for the special needs of one or two students in a class of thirty.
Generally speaking, extra planning or resources are not necessary. Some new techniques or adaptations
may be required but they are probably things most teachers already know or can easily learn.

4 Other students make less progress when there are students with special needs in the class.
This does not have to be the case. Students can benefit from being in a class with students with SEN. It
can teach them kindness, empathy, and understanding towards people who are different. Teachers also
need to reassure parents that every student's needs are being met.

5 Students with special educational needs can't learn a foreign language.

Many of the approaches to learning in the foreign language classroom, such as role play, pairwork, and
games can help students with SEN. Learning a foreign language can especially benefit students who have
language difficulties as it can help them with their first language.

Helpful strategies
 Having a caring, positive attitude
 Showing understanding of the student's needs
 Using visuals to aid comprehension
 Using an individual checklist to help the student remember instructions
 Giving the student a job which meets their need, e.g. to move around
 Staying calm and not shouting
 Using enjoyable games and activities to motivate students
 Allowing the student to explain their SEN to the class, if they want to

Unhelpful strategies
 Labelling and judging the student as lazy
 Expecting the student to do too many long periods of reading and writing
 Giving the student a lot of things to copy down from the board
 Getting angry and impatient with the student
 Putting time pressure on a student who is struggling
 Not listening to the advice and experience of parents/carers
What are special educational needs?
The term 'SEN' can mean something slightly different in different parts of the world, and it
covers a wide range of student needs. In this course, we use the following definition:
'Students have special educational needs if they have significantly greater difficulty in learning
than the majority of students of the same age and special educational provision has to be made
for them.'
In your country, the definition of students with SEN might be slightly different. For example, it
might include students who have a different home language or students who come from
disadvantaged backgrounds. Some definitions of SEN include students who are 'gifted and
talented', i.e. students who have significantly greater ability than their peers in one or more
subjects.
What terms should I use to describe SEN?
In the past, a number of terms have been used to describe students with SEN; you may know
some of them. They include 'mentally retarded', 'defective', 'handicapped', 'slow learners', and
'educationally subnormal'. However, these are now all considered unacceptable and offensive.
It is very important to be careful with the terms you use in English when referring to students
with SEN. The terms listed above all suggest that there is something wrong with the student
and that they are even somehow inferior to other students. In the UK, it is generally considered
acceptable nowadays to use the term 'students with special educational needs' or 'students with
additional educational needs'. There is less agreement about the use of the words 'disorder',
'difficulty', and 'condition'. You will often see them used interchangeably, e.g. 'Attention Deficit
Disorder' and 'Attention Deficit Difficulty'. Some people believe we should not use the term
'disorder' because it suggests something is wrong with the student. They prefer the word
'difficulty'.
What's the difference between SEN and mixed ability?
'Mixed ability' is a general term which refers to the varying levels of student ability in one
class. All classes are to some extent mixed-ability classes because students are individuals and
will all have different strengths and weaknesses. Students will also have different abilities in
different subjects. For example, they might be good at maths but not as good at English.
However, if a student has SEN, they will usually have difficulties across most (and sometimes
all) subjects and classes. Their difficulties will appear as significantly greater than expected for
their age and school year. Assessment of special needs should be carried out by a qualified
psychologist.

Categories of SEN

Cognition and learning

This category includes general learning difficulties and specific learning difficulties. Students
with general learning difficulties usually make slower progress than their peers in literacy,
numeracy, and general understanding. They might have problems with generalizing or
understanding abstract ideas. Students with specific learning difficulties may only have
problems in one area of learning, for example reading and writing, and no problems in other
areas. Specific learning difficulties include dyslexia (difficulties with reading and spelling) and
dyspraxia (difficulties with coordination and motor skills). Some students may have more than
one specific learning difficulty. These difficulties can affect a range of areas, including
memory, concentration, organization, communication, and social skills.
Communication and interaction
This category covers a wide range of problems, including disordered and delayed language.
Speech and language difficulties can be productive and/or receptive, and will often impact on a
student's ability to learn another language. Students have problems with productive language
when they have difficulty producing words, expressing their thoughts, and making themselves
understood. They may speak in short sentences using limited vocabulary and incorrect
grammar. Students have problems with receptive language when they have difficulty
understanding what another person is saying. They might be slow to respond to questions and
instructions. This group includes students with autism spectrum condition (ASC), such as
Asperger's syndrome.

Social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD)

We use this term to describe students with emotional difficulties, very challenging behaviour,
or serious psychological difficulties. It can sometimes be difficult to decide when poor
behaviour should be treated as a SEN. We use SEBD to describe a problem behaviour which is
severe, not age appropriate, happens frequently, and occurs in different situations. This
category includes students who are continually disruptive, challenging towards the teacher,
withdrawn, impulsive, or hyperactive. This group includes students with attention deficit
hyperactive disorder (ADHD). Students with SEBD are often capable of learning another
language if their behaviour can be managed in class

Gifted and talented

'Gifted and talented' is the term applied to students who are achieving, or who have the
potential to achieve, at a level significantly beyond the rest of their peer group. Gifted describes
students who have the ability to excel academically in one or more subjects such as English,
maths, or foreign languages. Talented describes students who have the ability to excel in
practical skills, such as sport, music, or art. A gifted and talented student may not always stand
out from the rest of the class. Some students are confident and keen to show their ability, but
others may hide their ability in order to fit in.

Cognition and learning

Jacques: The challenges for Jacques involve coordinating his movements and being organized for class. His
problems with organization suggest he has a poor working memory. His difficulties in holding a pencil
suggest he also has problems with fine motor skills, and this will make writing slow and painful. He can seem
slower to do many things than his peers, and this may make him feel upset and frustrated. Other students may
be impatient with him because they often have to wait for him. This could lead to low self-esteem for Jacques.
He may have problems with homework because he might forget what he has to do, or have been too slow to
write down the instructions, or have forgotten to take the right books home. He could also take a long time to
process the information and do the task, particularly if it involves writing.

Communication and interaction

Anna: The challenges for Anna involve understanding and making herself understood. Her speech and
language difficulties mean that she does not always understand what to do and she does not have the language
skills to ask for help or clarification. This could be frustrating and upsetting for her. She will have problems
with her peers because she needs time to think about how to express her opinions and the other students may
not be patient with her. She lacks confidence in speaking in the larger group and this may also hold her back,
particularly if there are whole-class activities. She will probably have problems with homework because she
will not always know what to do, and she may have difficulties finding the right words to complete
assignments.
Social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties
Antonio: The challenges for Antonio involve settling down to learn and believing that he can learn. His
behavioural and emotional difficulties mean that he will find it hard to make friends with other children.
Other students will be scared of him and avoid his company. He may become increasingly isolated and
demotivated because his mother also seems to have given up with him. This could lead to even worse
behaviour. If home life is difficult, he might have no place to do his homework and no one who can help him,
even if he wants to do it.

Gifted and talented

Louella: The challenges for Louella involve remaining motivated when the work does not seem challenging
enough or interesting enough. She will also have problems with her peers because she does not realize that
they do not like her taking over and answering all the questions. She is unaware of social conventions and
quite immature in her social interaction. She may become isolated and disliked. She might also become badly
behaved if the lessons do not appeal to her way of thinking and level of ability. She might do homework if she
finds it stimulating, but she might not do homework tasks which she finds too easy or boring.

Here is a summary of the expert's main points in response to each question:

1 Specialist training isn't essential; there are practical strategies and techniques teachers can use which don't
require specialist training and which they may already be using in their teaching.
2 There isn't a single correct approach. Teachers mainly need a flexible and open-minded attitude. They can
often build on existing skills, and should be willing to try out new ideas that help to include students with
SEN in their lessons.
3 Many materials and activities will work with both SEN students and the rest of the class. Sometimes
teachers will need to adapt them in order to remove anything which might act as a barrier to learning or
taking part.
4 Good classroom management is essential; this includes classroom rules, seating arrangements, and giving
instructions.
5 Attitude is very important, and the teacher requires patience and understanding as well as the confidence
to believe that SEN students can work effectively in the same classroom as the rest of their students.

The UNESCO Salamanca Statement

in a nutshell
This statement calls on the international community to endorse the approach of
inclusive schools by implementing practical and strategic changes
Full text of the Salamanca Statement
Adoption
Adopted by the World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality
(Salamanca, Spain, 7-10 June 1994).

This report from the UN’s education agency calls on the international community to
endorse the approach of inclusive schools by implementing practical and strategic
changes.
In June 1994 representatives of 92 governments and 25 international organisations
formed the World Conference on Special Needs Education, held in Salamanca, Spain.
They agreed a dynamic new Statement on the education of all disabled children,
which called for inclusion to be the norm. In addition, the Conference adopted a
new Framework for Action, the guiding principle of which is that ordinary schools
should accommodate all children, regardless of their physical, intellectual, social,
emotional, linguistic or other conditions. All educational policies, says the
Framework, should stipulate that disabled children attend the neighbourhood school
'that would be attended if the child did not have a disability.'

Education for all

The Statement begins with a commitment to Education for All, recognising the
necessity and urgency of providing education for all children, young people and
adults 'within the regular education system.' It says those children with special
educational needs 'must have access to regular schools' and adds:

Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of
combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an
inclusive society and achieving education for all; moreover, they provide an
effective education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency and
ultimately the cost-e ffectiveness of the entire education system.

Call to governments
The World Conference went on to call upon all governments to:

 give the 'highest policy and budgetary priority' to improve education services
so that all children could be included, regardless of differences or difficulties.
 'adopt as a matter of law or policy the principle of inclusive education' and
enrol all children in ordinary schools unless there were compelling reasons for
doing otherwise.
 develop demonstration projects and encourage exchanges with countries with
inclusive schools.
 ensure that organisations of disabled people, along with parents and
community bodies, are involved in planning decision-making.
 put greater effort into pre-school strategies as well as vocational aspects of
inclusive education.
 ensure that both initial and in-service teacher training address the provision
of inclusive education.

Inclusive schooling
The Statement also calls on the international community to endorse the approach of
inclusive schooling and to support the development of special needs education as an
integral part of all education programmes. In particular it calls on UNESCO, UNICEF,
UNDP and the World Bank for this endorsement.
It asks for the United Nations and its specialised agencies to 'strengthen their inputs
for technical co-operation' and improve their networking for more efficient support
to integrated special needs provision. Non-governmental organisations are asked to
strengthen their collaboration with official national bodies and become more
involved in all aspects of inclusive education.

As the UN agency for education, UNESCO is asked to:

 ensure that special needs education forms part of every discussion dealing
with education for all.
 enhance teacher education in this field by getting support from teacher
unions and associations.
 stimulate the academic community to do more research into inclusive
education and disseminate the findings and the reports.
 use its funds over the five-year period, 1996--2001, to create an expanded
programme for inclusive schools and community support projects, thus
enabling the launch of pilot projects.

Equalisation of opportunity
The Framework for Action says 'inclusion and participation are essential to human
dignity and to the enjoyment and exercise of human rights.' In the field of education
this is reflected in bringing about a 'genuine equalisation of opportunity.' Special
needs education incorporates proven methods of teaching from which all children
can benefit; it assumes human differences are normal and that learning must be
adapted to the needs of the child, rather than the child fitted to the process. The
fundamental principle of the inclusive school, it adds, is that all children should
learn together, where possible, and that ordinary schools must recognise and
respond to the diverse needs of their students, while also having a continuum of
support and services to match these needs. Inclusive schools are the 'most effective'
at building solidarity between children with special needs and their peers. Countries
with few or no special schools should establish inclusive – not special – schools.

The checklist can help you to build up a clearer picture of a student's difficulties and think about the areas you
need to focus on.
When you have an idea of the student's strengths and difficulties, try to have a meeting with other teachers to
identify and share strategies which work with the student. It is better to focus on what is working than on the
problems. Try to have an open, cooperative approach and not to feel defensive if another teacher does not
agree with you about the student.
If you all have concerns and you think that the student has difficulties across the curriculum, it will be helpful
to talk to other colleagues, such as a special needs coordinator or other responsible person, or the head
teacher. You might need to discuss a possible referral for an official assessment by a psychologist. However,
remember to involve parents/carers in any discussions about this.
 Problems with working memory
‘Working memory’ is a memory system which stores and works with information
that you need for everyday activities, such as remembering phone numbers. It
also helps you to remember what has just been said and follow instructions.
Students who have difficulty with working memory might present certain
behaviours in class, such as not paying attention, daydreaming, or being easily
distracted. They may find it difficult to:
 follow a sequence of instructions
 remember things they have just read or been told
 keep their place when they are reading
 do problem-solving activities.

Managing information overload

When presenting new information to the class, there are a number of things you
can do to avoid overloading your students:
 use short, simple sentences when you give instructions
 give students a written hand-out
 present important information at the beginning of a lesson and review it again at
the end
 build in breaks and changes of focus throughout your lesson
 use verbal or visual prompts to help students remember important routines and
instructions.

Helping students with reading

Students with poor working memory find reading comprehension difficult
because they quickly forget information they have just read. They can easily
become demotivated and end up abandoning tasks. Various reading strategies can
help these students, e.g.
 use shorter texts with illustrations, which help with meaning
 use pre-reading tasks to engage students and prepare them for the topic
 divide long texts into shorter parts and ask questions at regular intervals while
reading, not just at the end.

Here are some suggested strategies for the classroom. They should be useful for all of your students, not just
those with special educational needs.

Listening
 Make sure you have everyone's attention before you give instructions. Help students by numbering your
instructions as you speak; repeat instructions if necessary. Ask students questions to check that they have
understood.
 Teach students to listen politely and attentively and not to interrupt. Remind them that they can raise their
hand and ask a question if they are unsure what to do.
 Use a 'study buddy' system where students volunteer or are assigned to help other students who are struggling
to follow instructions.

Productive language
 Students could practise their answers in pairs and then in groups. This will give time for all the students to
formulate their answers.
 Students with difficulties could work with an able and sympathetic peer who can help them with productive
tasks.
 Teach students useful phrases, such as 'I'm sorry. I don't understand. Can you say it again?' and encourage
everyone to try hard to understand any student who is struggling.

Receptive language
 Speak naturally and clearly. Do not speak more loudly or slowly with SEN students.
 Give students more thinking time and be patient when waiting for answers.
 Vary the method of responding. Students could draw or write a response instead of speaking.

Interaction with peers

 Encourage all students to develop understanding and empathy. This will lead to better interaction and a more
harmonious environment.
 Remember that students with communication and interaction difficulties can be involved in an activity
without always having to speak themselves – you could give them a different task to perform. The important
thing is to make them feel included and valued.
 Set a good example yourself by always being patient with students who are struggling.
Common problem areas: practical ideas for the classroom
These ideas and activities can be helpful when dealing with three of the common problems areas
for students with SEN: working memory, communication and interaction skills, and self-esteem.

Improving working memory

My memory bookmark
Ask students to choose something they need to remember. It could be some key words for writing
or some important classroom rules. Ask them to make a bookmark with the key words or rules
written on it. Allow time in class or for homework to design and colour the bookmark. Tell them
to keep this bookmark in their books as a reminder of what to do.

Coat pegs
Ask students to draw a set of coat pegs or give out a picture. If you have coat pegs in your
classroom, you can use the real item and ask students to focus on them. Tell students that they
should put words they want to remember or things they need to do on the coat pegs. When they are
having problems remembering, ask them to imagine their coat pegs and what is on them.

Memory strategies
Memory games can become competitive and this can create more stress for students with SEN. To
avoid this, a er completing a memory game, ask the students to share the strategies they used to
help them remember. Then do the activity again, so that students can try out di erent ways of
remembering.

Developing communication and interaction skills

Think, pair, share
When you ask the class a question:
1 give students two minutes to think
2 give them one minute to discuss their ideas with another student
3 ask pairs to share their ideas with the class.
This approach gives students time to process questions and think of a response.

Mini-whiteboards
Students can write answers on a mini-whiteboard and hold it up so that you can see them. They can
also easily correct any mistakes. If you do not have mini-whiteboards, laminate some sheets of
white A4 paper and use them as wipe-o whiteboards.

Talking pen
Use a special pen or object for this exercise. Tell students that only the person holding the talking
pen can speak. When that person is speaking, other students must listen and not interrupt. Try to
make sure all students get an opportunity to have the pen.

Building self-esteem
Student of the week
Reward students for non-academic and personal qualities, e.g. good social skills, sense of
responsibility, perseverance, or kindness. Rewards could be related to the class, such
as choosing a game to play at the end of the lesson, being the leader in a game, or getting extra
computer time. Rewards can also involve giving positive feedback to parents/carers, such as giving
the student a certificate of achievement to take home, or telephoning parents/carers to tell them
about an achievement. It’s good to discuss a menu of rewards with students themselves, which
they can choose from.

Thank-you stars
To encourage students to appreciate each other’s good qualities, give them a piece of paper
and ask them to draw a star on one side and write a positive comment about some of the
other students in the class on the other side. Stars can be given out at any time. If some students are
not getting many stars, discuss with them that the best way to get stars is to give stars. This will
help some students learn to think more about others.

Imaginary wristbands
Ask students to think about a time when they felt happy and confident, for example, on holiday,
playing a sport, or doing something they love. Now tell them to hold their wrists and imagine
putting that great feeling onto an imaginary wristband. They can then touch their imaginary
wristband any time they need to feel confident.

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Understanding Children's Hearts and Minds: Emotional Functioning and Learning

Disabilities
By: Jean Cheng Gorman
Emotional aspects of learning disabilities
Abrams (1986) stated, "The vast majority of children with learning disabilities have some
emotional problem associated with the learning difficulty" (p. 190). Traditionally, however,
educators have placed priority on the diagnosis and remediation of learning disabilities (Hiebert,
Wong, & Hunter, 1982). Empirical data suggest the critical need to treat emotional aspects of
learning disabilities. Here are startling findings:
Learning disabilities have been found to occur in approximately 4.7 % of children and adolescents.
(Fristad, Topolosky, Weller, & Weller, 1992). However, Peck (1985) found that 50% of children
under age 15 who committed suicide in Los Angeles County over a 3-year period had been
diagnosed as learning disabled.
As mainstreaming and inclusion become increasingly pervasive, it is especially important for all
teachers to understand the interaction of emotional concerns and learning disabilities and the impact
of that interaction on children's functioning. Indeed, Sabornie (1994) suggested, "Educators' lack
of concern for social- affective problems among pupils is analogous to educational neglect" (p.
268).
Need for purposeful strategies
Promoting wellness in children requires purposeful attention and intervention in both educational
and emotional arenas. Although it is not always possible to determine which of the two factors is
responsible for a child's performance, it is important to keep in mind the types of possible
interactions to best determine intervention strategies.

Discerning interactions
The interaction of emotional functioning and learning disabilities is complex and not always clearly
discernible in a given situation. Regarding the well-documented link between depressive illness
and learning difficulties, Livingston (1985) stated that it is difficult to discern whether depression
causes or worsens learning difficulties, whether learning difficulties put children at risk for
depression, or whether an overarching brain dysfunction increases the likelihood of both. Although
it may be impossible to definitively state any directional relationship, it is essential to identify the
possible interactions.
At the risk of oversimplification, one can conceptualize five main ways in which emotional
concerns and learning disabilities interact.
 Learning disabilities may lead to emotional distress.
 Learning disabilities may raise or exacerbate existing emotional concerns.
 Emotional issues may mask a child's learning disability.
 Emotional issues may exacerbate learning disabilities.
 Conversely, emotional health may enhance the performance of children with learning
disabilities.
The purpose of this article is to review research regarding each of these types of interactions and
to draw implications for teachers of children who may have learning disabilities. Case examples
illustrate the interaction of emotional functioning and learning disabilities in the classroom.
Following each example are suggestions for interventions and remedial efforts.
A five-way interaction to watch for
1. Learning disabilities may lead to emotional distress.
2. Learning disabilities may exacerbate existing emotional concerns.
3. Emotional and behavioral displays may mask emotional and behavioral displays.
4. Emotional problems may magnify learning disabilities.
5. Emotional health can actually enhance the performance of children with learning
disabilities.
Learning disabilities may lead to emotional distress
Much research has demonstrated that students with learning disabilities experience emotional
distress related to their difficulties. Students with learning disabilities tend to have higher levels of
emotional concerns, such as depression, loneliness, and low self-esteem, than do their peers without
disabilities.
Low academic self-concept
Sabornie's (1994) literature review confirms that students with learning disabilities have poor self-
concepts related to their school functioning, but not necessarily to their global self-concept. Other
researchers have also found that students with learning disabilities, as early as in Grade 3, have
negative academic self-concepts that may be generalized from low self-views in specific academic
subjects (Hiebert et al., 1982). In his study of middle school students with and without learning
disabilities, Sabornie found that students with learning disabilities expressed more loneliness, felt
less integrated in the schools, and were victimized (e.g., physically assaulted, had their possessions
removed) more often than were other students. These findings suggest that the emotional effects of
learning disabilities make life in school more difficult for children with learning disabilities than
for their peers without disabilities.
Anxiety
Learning disabilities have also been linked to greater anxiety in children. For example, Margalit
and Zak (1984) found that children with learning disabilities have higher levels of anxiety than do
their peers without disabilities. Specifically, they tended to feel more often that events beyond their
control were happening to them. Increased levels of anxiety are also reflected in more frequent
somatic complaints by students with learning disabilities (Margalit & Raviv, 1984).
Depression
Researchers have consistently linked depression to children with learning disabilities. Fristad et al.
found the presence of learning disabilities among a sample of clinically depressed hospitalized
children to be seven times higher than in the general population. Other researchers have also noted
the high "comorbidity" of learning disabilities and depression (Bender & Wall, 1994; Livingston,
1985; Peck, 1985). Fristad et al. suggested that the "additional difficulties experienced by
[depressed] children [with learning disabilities] in the classroom may be due to the stress and
frustration caused by their learning disabilities" (p. 57).
Attempts to cope
The mechanisms by which emotional issues arise are not clear, but researchers have postulated
some causal means. Chandler (1994) suggested that some emotional adjustment disorders result
from "attempts to cope with a difficult learning process and the resultant failure, frustration, and
feelings of incompetence that those attempts engender" (p. 162). For some, "school achievement
has become equated with self-competency, and the loss of competence has led to feelings of
inadequacy, depression, withdrawal and an uncaring attitude" (p. 163). For others, "poor school
performance [leads] to dependency and learned helplessness as a maladaptive style of coping" (p.
163).
A case example of a child who has difficulties with spatial organization and poor graphomotor
skills illustrates the negative effects that learning disabilities may have on emotional functioning.
Joel's "carelessness"
Joel, a fifth grader, was consistently turning in "sloppy and careless" work. Although his reading
was above grade level, the quality of his written work was well below that expected of children his
age. He lost points on math tests because he misread the numbers he had written on his worksheet.
This wasn't surprising, because the numbers were hardly recognizable. Joel's written assignments
were often unfinished when handed in, or else were much too short, a four-line book report, for
example.
Also, his teachers complained that Joel was very restless and inattentive in class. When questioned,
he grumbled about school being boring. Joel's parents had noticed that he had become moody and
generally uncooperative at home, too. (Adopted from Novick & Arnold, 1995, p. 145)
Analysis. By the fifth grade, Joel had undoubtedly struggled many times with the untidy appearance
of his work. He was possibly teased by his classmates because of his difficulties and apparently
was reproached by teachers for his work. After years of receiving such negative feedback, it is
understandable that Joel felt badly about his abilities and thought negatively of school. His
restlessness and inattention could be indicators of anxiety or frustration experienced as a result of
his difficulties. Fine motor coordination disorders like Joel's can produce ongoing distress if not
properly addressed.
What's a teacher to do? In this case, as with other children who experience emotional distress as a
result of their learning difficulties, teachers can play a helpful role:
 Employing teaching strategies that cater to different learning styles, such as using
multisensory methods, is important.
 Specific educational interventions to remediate learning disabilities should also be
implemented. For example, regarding math instruction, Fleischner and Manheimer (1997)
suggest using concrete representation (e.g., manipulatives) and pictorial representation
when introducing new topics to help students with learning disabilities translate their
 understanding of new concepts to more abstract forms.
 Educational accommodations that facilitate task completion (e.g., permitting assignments
to be word-processed) may also reduce some of the emotional sequelae of learning
disabilities.
 Simple psychological interventions can have a positive effect. Teachers can take the time
to talk with a student about his or her frustrations or anxiety.
 Teachers can praise a child's efforts and persistence despite his or her struggles.
 Activities that boost self-confidence, such as serving as a peer mentor or special teacher's
assistant, begin to address the child's need for a sense of self-efficacy.
As the analysis of this case shows, teachers can try several strategies to address the student's
negative feelings about himself or herself.
Learning disabilities may exacerbate existing emotional concerns
Many researchers have suggested that learning disabilities may negatively affect a child's social or
emotional functioning because the disabilities influence the child's ability to develop positive
interpersonal relationships. "Deficits in cognitive processing, which are sufficient to cause major
learning problems in academic areas, are probably sufficient to cause major learning problems in
nonacademic areas as well" (Bender & Wall, 1994, p. 323).
Ineffective social behavior
Students with learning disabilities often demonstrate more problems in social competence than do
their peers without disabilities. Sabornie (1994) found that general education teachers consistently
rated the social behavior of students without disabilities as higher than that of students with learning
disabilities. Similarly, Hiebert et al. (1982) reported that teachers rated students with learning
disabilities as "behaving in less socially acceptable ways" than their peers (p. 340).
Resulting sadness and anxiety
Undoubtedly, this reduced social competence, whether actual or perceived, results in emotional
concerns for these children. For example, whether they lack friends, get into fights, or feel they are
misunderstood, children with learning disabilities most likely will experience additional confusion,
sadness, and anxiety that may already be present as a result of the learning disabilities themselves.
The example of Margaret, a 9-year-old girl, illustrates the potential for learning disabilities to
exacerbate existing emotional concerns .
Margaret's "stumbling"
Margaret had been plagued with social and academic difficulties ever since nursery school. At that
time, her teachers voiced concern about her comprehension of spoken language. When asked a
question or told to do something, her response was often "What?" or an inappropriate action. In
first grade, she had unusual difficulty learning her classmates' names. She also tended to describe
a person rather than giving him or her a name (e.g., "the lady in the art room" instead of "Ms. Smith,
the art teacher"). Margaret often spoke hesitantly, stumbling over words and saying, "You know
what I mean." She misused pronouns and prepositions, saying "him" for "her" and "under" when
she meant "over." Margaret's first-grade teachers also had concerns about her difficulty following
directions and her slowness in mastering basic reading and spelling skills.
In second grade, Margaret showed slow progress in reading and spelling. She was still struggling
with basic reading and subtraction the following year. In fourth grade, her spelling was still
rudimentary, and she was having trouble understanding what she read. Most of all, she hated having
to express her ideas either orally or in writing.
In school, Margaret increasingly become a loner and was not well-liked by either peers or staff. In
part, this seemed to be due to her difficulty communicating. Margaret's parents seemed particularly
concerned over her lack of close friends, as Margaret was never invited to any of her classmates'
birthday parties. (Adapted from Novick & Arnold, 1995, p. 163.)
Analysis. Margaret's language-based learning disabilities not only affected multiple areas of her
academic functioning, but they also spilled over into her social interactions and relationships. As a
young child, it is likely that she was frustrated at not being able to communicate her needs and
desires to her parents. In school, her disability had similar effects and strained her interpersonal
relationships. These continued social difficulties most likely exacerbated her existing emotional
issues. Not wanting to speak out, she was further unable to express her needs and continued to be
socially isolated.
What's a teacher to do? Teachers may be able to intervene in situations like Margaret's in several
ways:
 Provide opportunities for children with learning disabilities to be involved and demonstrate
competencies that are not compromised by their learning disabilities.
 Involve the child with other children in pantomime or group art activities.
 Increase the student's adaptive skills by building social skills (e.g., interpreting ambiguous
social situations). Improved social skills may provide the student a buffer against the
exacerbation of existing emotional issues.
For further reading on promoting prosocial and adaptive skills in the classroom, see the
"Resources" boxes.
Emotional issues may mask learning disabilities
Often a child's learning disabilities go unnoticed because other aspects of the child are more salient,
such as acting-out behaviors or personality features. Teachers may be focused on a child's
demeanor or actions and consequently may not realize that learning difficulties are present.
Physical ailments or complaints
For example, Margalit and Raviv (1984) studied the expression of minor somatic complaints in
learning disabled children. They assert that minor somatic complaints, such as stomach aches,
"communicate feelings of stress and inadequacy [and are] designed to prompt adult support and
guidance" (pp. 227-228). Therefore, expression of such complaints can be considered a coping
strategy for children with learning disabilities.
Students who frequently complain of minor physical discomfort but do not have physical illness
may be using the somatic complaints to avoid situations or may be manifesting unrealized anxiety
in a physical manner. Teachers who have known students who continually complain of minor
discomfort may initially feel more annoyed than suspicious about the possibility of learning
disabilities.
Acting out
More frequently, it is more serious acting-out behaviors that mask learning disabilities. Abrams
(1986) believes that failure experienced by students with learning disabilities may result in
excessive anger, which can be turned on others or back onto the child. For example, the child may
feel she is "stupid," and may turn her hatred onto herself, continually misbehaving and provoking
reproach. In addition, failure may serve as a defense, "failing in order to rid oneself of the
anticipation of failure" (p. 190). Children who display acting-out behavior are often seen as having
behavioral problems. They may act out in class, get into fights with other children, display defiance
toward teachers, and exhibit other disruptive behaviors.
Distracting the teacher
Some children may intentionally or unintentionally distract their teachers from their learning
difficulties by their disruptive behaviors. For example, Abrams (1986) recounted the experience of
one child who "'willed' herself to think about a million different things' whenever it was time for a
reading lesson and the inevitable pain of failure" (p. 193). Her teacher saw her as merely
"hyperdistractible."
Whether a child is unintentionally or deliberately acting out, it is easy for teachers to note the
behavioral problems, particularly if there are external circumstances that can account for emotional
disturbance, and not to consider the possible role of learning difficulties. The case example of
Edward illustrates that the salience of emotional factors may overshadow a child's cognitive
difficulties.
Edward's "acting out"
Edward was the middle child in a family of three boys being raised by a young single mother. He
lived in a run-down inner city apartment building that was known to have frequent drug activity.
When he attended a half-day preschool, he seemed to enjoy playing by himself more than with
others. At home, this was also true in relation to his brothers or neighbors. In fact, he was able to
occupy himself quietly and happily for hours on end. However, everything about first grade was a
disaster. Edward hated his teacher and tended to ignore her, sometimes even threatening her when
she asked him to do something he did not feel like doing. His attitude was that school was "stupid."
Edward become the class bully early on and often got into fights. As a result, he was frequently
sent out of the classroom, but this did not seem to significantly affect his behavior. By the end of
the year, Edward was reading at the third- grade level, but his math had not advanced beyond
kindergarten skills. (Adapted from Novick & Arnold, 1995, p. 71)
Analysis. Because Edward seemed to do well in preschool but began to have noticeable difficulties
in first grade, it is tempting to believe that emotional factors (e.g., separation anxiety) may be the
cause of his difficulties. His trying home situation may also be thought to account for his
unacceptable behavior in school. In cases such as these, any academic problems may be seen as
resulting from emotional concerns. The large discrepancy between Edward's reading and math
abilities, however, suggests that he had a learning disability that was not given sufficient attention.
It is possible that Edward learned to avoid situations where his learning problems would be
manifested.
What's a teacher to do? Although it is difficult to know whether children who act out are doing so
because of learning difficulties or because of emotional concerns, teachers can take steps to try to
distinguish between the two factors:
 Behavioral analysis may reveal a pattern of behavior, such as acting out during math time.
 Timely alterations in routine could further identify suspected problem areas.
 Comprehensive psychoeducational testing also serves to clarify these issues.
Emotional concerns may intensify learning disabilities
Abrams (1986) stated, "Constant failure and frustration may lead to strong feelings of inferiority,
which in turn, may intensify the initial learning deficiency" (p. 189). For example, anxiety
experienced as a result of having difficulty with certain academic tasks may decrease a child's
ability to attend and concentrate.
Escaping school
A child may escape into fantasy to avoid the painful experience of failure. This not only results in
failing to learn new skills, but reinforces the child's sense that the disability is too great to handle.
Furthermore, if a child's efforts are unsuccessful, but he sees peers receive praise for their work, it
is highly likely that the child will become unresponsive to school-related events (Hall & Haws,
1989) and may abandon effort.
Trouble at home
External factors may raise levels of emotional distress to such a degree that a child's ability to deal
with school is compromised. Indeed, a child's life situation or surroundings may be so unstable or
chaotic that they disrupt the child's ability to learn. Hall and Haws (1989) posit that "if a child is
depressed, his/her academic performance would decline" (p. 359). Clearly, strong emotional
concerns lessen a child's resources for learning and for dealing with challenging school
experiences.
Organic interactions
The possibility that emotional concerns may affect a child organically has also been raised. For
example, Brumback and Stanton (1983) postulated that depression may aggravate a learning
disability because it intensifies the underlying neurological dysfunction. Bryan, Mathur, and
Sullivan (1996) reported that "negative affective states have been found to produce low-effort
processing of information and the use of less complex semantic processing strategies and lower
cognitive processing effort" (p. 154). The case example of William highlights the possibility that
emotional factors can exacerbate a child's learning disability.
William's "laziness"
Twelve-year-old William was getting poor grades, particularly in math, largely due to "careless"
work. His teachers maintained that this was merely a sign of William's laziness, his not taking
school seriously enough, and his lack of desire to succeed. But his parents knew that William spent
hours on the simplest homework assignment. He impressed them as a child trying very hard to do
his best. Often, he would redo an assignment multiple times in order to "make it look right." On
these occasions, William appeared to be absurdly perfectionistic, despite his typically disappointing
results. (Adopted from Novick & Arnold, 1995, p. 72)
Analysis. William's perceptual learning disability made math particularly demanding because
mastery of math requires spatial organization. This difficulty, however, was exacerbated by his
perfectionistic traits, which did not allow him to complete an assignment until he had aligned all
the numbers and problems perfectly. The amount of effort William put into making his homework
and schoolwork "look nice," perhaps in an effort to conceal his learning disability, reduced the
amount of energy he had for dealing with other academic consequences of his disability.
Alternatively, a child's emotional concerns may affect the teacher so that the teacher's ability to
deal with the child's learning disability is lessened. For example, a child may repeatedly act out,
may whine and complain, or may sulk and withdraw. Abrams (1986) observed that "the same
frustration and anger that have been experienced by the parent in his relationship with the child
may also be felt by the teacher, and as with the parent, may serve to bring about an inflexible
approach to the child that will lessen the teacher's effectiveness" (p. 189). This may be seen in the
form of reduced patience, inability to think of alternative ways to interacting or teaching, and
reduced attention to the child in general.
What's a teacher to do? The possibility that the child's emotional responses affect the teacher's
functioning must be explored, because this interaction may seriously affect a child's ability to deal
with learning difficulties. Talking with other teachers and school staff about personal frustrations
with specific children can be helpful in increasing the teacher's coping abilities.
Emotional health can enhance school performance of students with learning disabilities
In contrast to the negative relationships between emotions and learning disabilities, there is
growing evidence that emotional states may positively affect the performance and relationships of
children with learning disabilities.
Effect of positive feelings
Bryan et al. (1996) reported that positive "affective states" have been found to increase performance
on various tasks, such as memory, computation, and discrimination tasks. In addition, their research
indicated that inducing positive feelings in children facilitated the learning of new information. The
authors postulated that "'positive affect results in a more efficient utilization of cognitive material
than neutral or negative moods," and that "positive affect may influence cognitive organization
such that cognitive material is more integrated and related" (p. 160). The positive mood induced in
the children had demonstrable effects across a 2-week time span, suggesting that the benefits of
positive mood on learning and performance are significant.
Learning about learning disabilities
Some researchers have suggested that an increased understanding of what a learning disability
encompasses may add to a child's ability to deal with his or her learning disability. Specifically,
Hall and Haws (1989) found that younger children with learning disabilities had greater depressive
indicators than did older students. They postulated that older children may be better able to identify
and deal with anxiety-provoking school situations, such as separation from peers, and may thus be
less negatively affected.
A "can-do" attitude
Further, Meichenbaum (as cited in Hiebert et al., 1982) suggested that students with learning
disabilities may think negative self-statements before they begin academic tasks, such as "I can't
do this." Their anticipation of failure may lead to reduced effort, decreased ability to concentrate,
or difficulty applying the skills they do have. As a result, cognitive therapy may be instrumental in
addressing the effects of a student's emotions on their school performance and relationships.
Specifically, Hiebert et al. suggested that teachers should systematically build "'positive affect and
hopeful expectation, utilizing self-instruction or some other procedure for promoting positive
affect" (p. 342). For example, teachers might ask children to visualize a pleasant experience or
situation before they begin a task. Teachers could also present enjoyable tasks before asking
children to do difficult ones.
A factual account of a girl's struggle with reading highlights the importance of a positive mindset
for learning.
Shalema: A success story
Shalema was a noticeably tall, heavy-set girl in her second-grade classroom. She barely had the
reading skills of a kindergartner, but because of her size, she was promoted to the second grade.
For most of the day, Shalema sat in the back of the room, staring into space and twirling her hair.
She was never disruptive, but also never participated in class activities and did not have any friends.
The teacher tried to give her individual attention, but because she had 30 other students, she was
usually unable to do much. When a student teacher came to her room, the teacher asked her to work
individually with Shalema. The student teacher frequently praised Shalema for her efforts, and was
genuinely pleased when Shalema was able to identify a sight word. She always made efforts to
state that she felt Shalema was a smart girl and was able to learn to read.
Shalema began to look forward to her times with the student teacher, and became increasingly
eager to read the few sight words she knew. Shalema also began to take out her preprimer books
during reading period and read to herself. One day, Shalema's mother come to the class and reported
that Shalema had asked her to buy books to read at home, and that they had been sitting down after
dinner each night to read. She had come to class to report that Shalema read her first book.
Encouraged by this news, the teacher announced to the class that Shalema had made great progress,
to which the class responded by spontaneously giving her thunderous applause.
Analysis. Shalema struggled to catch up to her peers and continued to have difficulty in reading.
Her change in self-perception, however, as well as the positive feedback from her teacher and
classmates, increased Shalema's desire to learn to read. This self-motivation was crucial to her
overcoming her difficulties.
What's a teacher to do? Teachers may find that words of encouragement and genuine belief in the
child's abilities produce more change than expected.
Final thoughts
In his study of general and special education teachers, Sabornie (1994) found that "the regular class
teachers' rating of social competence [of students with and without learning disabilities] proved to
be the best single discriminator [of social-affective variables], showing that these teachers should
be counted on to determine who may or may not need social skills instruction" (p. 277). Sabornie
suggested that all teachers, and perhaps general education teachers in particular, have the potential
to be instrumental in addressing the complex interaction of emotional concerns and learning
disabilities for children with learning disabilities in their classrooms. Sabornie further stated:
Educators should be cognizant of the different types of social and affective problems they are likely
to confront in students with learning disabilities. (p. 277)
Inevitably, a combination of interactions between emotional issues and learning disabilities may
be at work in any given situation, and it may be impossible to definitively identify the causes of
poor performance or inappropriate behavior. Nevertheless, having a clear understanding of the
different mechanisms of interaction can be helpful in selecting priorities and strategies for
intervention.