Mistakes Writing English How To Avoid Them 1000127851 PDF

MISTAKES
WRITING ENGLISH,
AND HOW TO AVOID THEM.
FOR THE TJS" OF ALL WHO TEACH, WRITE, OR SPEAK
THE LAKOUAGR
BY
MARSHALL T. BIGELOW,
AUTHOR OP "punctuation, AND OTHBB
TTPOOKAPHICAL MATTERS."
THIRD EDITION.
BOSTON:
LEE AND SHEPARD, PUBLISHERS.
NEW YORK:
CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM.
1891.
Copyright, 1886,
Bt Marshall T. Bioelow.
Uniyebsitt Pbbss:
John Wilson and Son, Cambbidoe.

PREFACE.
WRITER in Blackwood once said that, *'with

A of Wordsworth, there is not
the exception one
celebrated author of this day who has written two
pages consecutively without some flagrant impropri-

ety
in the grammar." This have been an aggerated
ex-
may
statement, nevertheless it is very near the
truth in reference to the present time.
While mere slavish following of the rules of mar

gram-
does not necessarily constitute elegant English,

and while all great writers have of
peculiarities their
own, it must be admitted that no writer, however
brilliant, should be excused for grammatical errors
that might be avoided.
It be sufficient reason for publishing other

an-
may a
work on a subject on which so much has been
written, to say that the object of it is entirely differ-

ent
from that of most works which have appeared

within recent years, which seem to have been written
iv PREFACE,
,
mainly for the purpose of pickingevery flaw possible
in the author criticised.
It is hoped that this work may be of use to the
teacher or by pointingout, in
scholar, an orderlyar-
rangement,
the errors to which the best writers of
Englishare liable. It is so arrangedthat any ular

partic-
subjectmay readilybe found, and is so brief
that a full knowledge of all the pointstreated may

be easilyacquired. No space has been wasted on
mere vulgarismswhich every one with any claim to
education is supposed to know and avoid,but such

errors as my experiencehas shown to be common to
all authors have received attention.

particular
A large number of the ungrammaticalsentences
given were observed in and
proof-reading, were rected
cor-
by their writers before the works in which
they occurred were published. Others have been
from
appropriated any source whenever they served
my purpose. It must be borne in mind, that,in

the correction of erroneous sentences,the main object
ia to show
clearly the error ; and in merelycorrecting
the grammar, the sentence may often be left inelegant,
and in many cases should undoubtedlybe entirely

reconstructed.
In the examples cited,all the words printedin

Italicsare either tautological,
ungrammatical, or super-
PREFACE. V
fluous. The words inserted in brackets are to take

the placeof the precedingItalic words, or are sarily
neces-
added to make the sentence correct.
Where an author's name is given for an erroneous
sentence,it is done for the purpose of showing that

the best writers are not infallible,no" "
even those
who are considered standard authorities in matters
relating
to grammar.
The grammaticalerrors in the languageof the Bible
and of Shakespeare
are not pointedout with any idea
that they ought to be but
corrected, to show that in
writingmodem Englishwe are not to follow archaic
forms. "
The short chapter entitled "Construction of Sen-

tences"
might lead one to expect more than is there
given; but as that is the

precisely matter to which it
relates,
it is so though a thoroughtreatment
entitled,
of the subjectwould of itself requirea volume.
In the Appendix are given rules for the formation
of the in
plural, which I have ventured to propose a
change which this

simplifies matter very much, and
which I have no doubt will be generally
approved,
as in the line of true reform.
spelling I have also
given some rules as to with

compound words,together
remarks on some typographical
matters with which
authors ought to be acquainted.

vi PREFACR
Besides the Grammars of Murray, Goold Brown,
Professors Whitney and Tweed, and others, I have

^
made frequent use

of Prof. A. S. Hill's "Principles
of Rhetoric," Prof. A. P. Peabody's "Conversation,
its Faults and its Graces," the various publications of
Mr. Richard Grant White, and Professor Mathews's
"Words, their Use and Abuse," and to all these
works I am greatly indebted.
M. T. BIGELOW.
Cambridge, October 5, 1886.

CONTENTS.
CHATTIB PAOI
I. Use of ths Abticlb "

9
II. The Nominative Case akd the Verb 13

. .
III. The Possessite Case 21
IV. The Objective Case 24
y. '
Pronoun and Antecedent 25
VI. " The Subjunctive Mood 30
VII: The Infinitive Mood 31
VIII. Tense, or Time 34
IX. Shall and Will, Should and Would . .

.36
X. Lie and Lay. " Set and Sit 42

....
XI. Use Op the Participle 45
XII. Adjectives and Adjective Pronouns . .

48
XIII. Adverbs 55
XIV. Relative Pronouns 60
XV^ Double Negatives 64
XVI. Correlatives '66

VIU CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGI
XVII. CONJtTNCTIONS 69
XYIII. Prepositions 72
XIX. Construction of Sentences 76

.....
XX. Tautological and Superfluous W(irds 78

. "
XXI. Miscellaneous Words and Phrases .81

. "
APPENDIX.
I. Formation Plural 89
of the
93
n. Compound Words .....""
III. Some Ttpographical Matters .100

"
. . .
1""7
INDEX
MISTAKES
IN WRITING ENGLISH.
CHAPTER I.
USES OF THE ARTICLE.
" 1. A ov an ia the indefinite article,and cannot be

used with a plural noun. It can be used, however,
before a noun of multitude ; as, army,""
a dred,'*
hun-
an
"
"
a fleet,"etc. ; and also with a pluralsignifica-
tion
in phrases like many
"
a man,"
"
many a gem,"
"many a flower,"etc.
" 2. ^ is used before all words beginning with a
consonant, or a consonant sound; an, before all words
beginning with a true vowel or a silent h; as, "a man,"

"a woman," youth," "a European," "a unit,"
"a
"such a one," "a harpoon," "a harangue," "a hypo-

critical
"an angel," "an Indian," "an hour," "an
honest." The words unit, European, reallybegin with
the consonant sound of y, and one begins with the sound
of w; they therefore require a, and not an, which is
often erroneously used before these and other words
beginning with similar combinations.
There is an exception to the rule for the use of a
before a consonant as to words "beginningwith h, of

10 MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGLISH.
more than two syllables, which have either a primary

or a secondaryaccent on the second syllable,in which
case an is used; as, "an historian,"
"an rapher,"
historiog-
"an harpooner," "an hypothesis."^
" 3. The definite articlethe may be used before any
noun, whether singular or plural, except abstract terms,

or names of vices,
virtues, or sciences.
" 4. The omission of the articlewhere it should be

used is very common ; as,
**The metaphorical literalmeaning of words should
and [the]
be distinguished."
**But the French pilfered
from both the Greek and [the]
Latin."
'*
A red and
[a]blue star may producephotographic images
of equalintensity."
**The president and [the] secretarywere elected."
"The indebtedness of the Englishto the French,[the]
Latin,
and [the]
Greek is disclosed in almost every sentence."
"These terms are uttered by the artist, the mechanic,and
[the]husbandman."
"
Nouns in the
English languagehave three cases ; the nomi-
native,
[the] and [the]
possessive, objective."
"
*The treasurer and
secretary' means one person
who holds two offices; *the treasurer and the secre-
tary'
means two officers. *A black and white dog'

means one parti-coloredanimal ; a black and a white*
'
dog means two dogs,one black and one white. The *
1 Worcester's rule for the use of an before h is as well

defective,
as^Webster's; and each of them violates his own rule. Worcester
says that an should be used before all wordsbeginningwith h which
are accented on the second syllable;
Webster,that it should be used
before all words banning with h which are accented on syllable
any
but the first. Yet both write,very properly, a "
hotel," a har-"
poon,"
and Worcester even gives **a hxirpooner"which is wrong
according
to either rule.
USES OF THE ARTICLE. 11
'
honest and intelligent are those who are both honest
and intelligent; 'the honest and the intelligent' are
two classes : one, composed of those who are honest ;

the other,of those who are intelligent. The follow-
ing
sentence is therefore defective :
*
The council and
[the]synod maintained that the unity of the person
impliednot any unity in the consciousness.' The
context shows that tha council was one body, the
synod another."^
" 5. Wlienever the present participle
is followed
immediatelyby o/, it should be preceded by the
definite article;
as,
'*It is [the]
drawingof a conclusion which was before known
un-
or dark."
"
Prompted by extreme he persisted
vanity, in [the]
writing
of bad verses."
**
In [the]framingof his sentences he was very exact."
"
From [the]
calling of names he proceeded to blows."
But if the articleand the of are both omitted,these

sentences will be equallycorrect.
" 6. Articles are also often inserted erroneously,
as
in the following
examples: "
"
That is the kind of a man of whom we are speaking."
"
**
What sort of a charm do
theypossess ?
"
**
What of
species a is this?
reptile
"
Men to whom this kind of
oi^nization has been given an
generallyhave active minds." Ayres,Verbalist, p. 192. "
"
He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman."
"
The one styled the Mufti is the head of the ministers of law
and religion."
He was a better mathematician
** than a linguist"
The article should not be used between the posses-

sive
case and the noun which it governs; as,
1 of
Hill's Principles Rhetoric,
p. 104.
**Prescott*s *
Th6 Conquest of Mexico/ and his *
The quest
Con-
"
of Peru.'
"
*'
Howells's *A Chance Acquaintance.'
"
"Cushing's *A Year in Spain.'
This* is equivalent to saying "his the book." The
foregoing examples are all wrong, and the Italicized

articles should be omitted in all the examples in this
section.
" 7. The definite and the indefinite article are times

some-
improperly used together : as,
**An [the] eagle is the emblem of the United States."

**
A diphthong is the [a] combination of two vowels in one
syllable."
" 8. Where two or more adjectives qualify the same
noun, the article must precede each adjective if the
noun is put in the singular, but only the first if the
noun is made plural; as,
"The nominative and the objective case."

"The nominative and objective sases."
But a plural verb must be used in either case, as the
noun is to be understood after each adjective ; as,
**In a sonnet, the'firat,the fourth, the fifth,and the eighth

line usually rhyme ; so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh
lines, the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth lines, and the tenth,
twelfth, and fourteenth lines."
"The Old and the New Testament are both believed by
Christians generally to be inspired.'
THE NOMINATIVE CASE AND THE VERB. 13
CHAPTER II.
THE NOMINATIVE CASE AND THE VERB.
" 9. The noun subject

or of a
pronoun which is the
sentence, or the nominative,alwaysgoverns the verb,
both in number and person. Very common violations
of this rule in conversation are the use of You 2â"," "
for You were,"and of

"
He donX' for He does n't." " "
The rule is often carelesslyviolated in writing,although

in many cases it is difficult to determine the actual
nominative. The following
are examplesof incorrect
usage : "
"The steamer, with the crew and passengers, were [was]

lost."
"What [signify]
signifies when
good opinions, our practice
"
is bad ?
"
In pietyand the happiness
virtue consist [consists] of man."
"A conformityof opinionsand qualities
prepare [prepares]
us for
friendship."
"
Day after day pass [passes]away."
**Tlie Legislature, how
with the Governor, decide [decides]
the State taxes expended." shall he
"The whole scope of these provisions what the
show [shows]
objectof the Legislature was."

Nothing less than murders,rapine,
" and conflagrations
ploy
em-
[employs] their thoughts."

"One economist after another have [has] protested
against
some other of the articlesof the old Ricardian creed."
one or
"
The second book of the ^neid is one of the greatest pieces
master-
that ever was [were] executed by any hand."
"This letter is one of the best that has [have] been written
about Lord Byron."
H MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGLISH.
"
"To these preceptsare [is]subjoiued

a copiousselection of
rules and maxims."

**
The of Addison in matters
authority of grammar, of Bentley,
who never made the
Englishgrammar his study,of Bolingbroke,
Pope, and others,are [is]nothing." Harrison,
The English "
Langiiage,
"The conduct of the Administration towards the nies,
Colo-
and of the Commissioners at Boston,were [was]wamily
attacked."
Better,perhaps, "The conduct of the Administration to-
wai*ds the Colonies,as well as that of the Commissioners at
Boston, was warmly attacked."
Or, "The conduct of the Administration towards the Colo-
nies,
and that of the Commissioners at Boston, were warmly
attacked."
"That moment the world,and its falsestandards and prizes,
recedes and fallsinto its place."
Con'ect as follows: "That moment the world,with its false^
standards and recedes
prizes, and fallsinto its place."
" 10. Two or more nouns or pronouns in the sin-

gular
number, in the nominative case, or two or more
whether connected by and

clauses, or without any necting
con-
require
particle, verb. As,
a plural
"Art, empire,earth itself,to changeare doomed."

"
Reason,virtue, answer one greataim."
"Virtue, honor, even self-interest,conspireto recommend
the measure."
"
morality,
Patriotism, and private
every public consideration,
demand our submission to lawful government."
The following
examplesare therefore erroneous : "
"Tranquillityand peace dvoells [dwell] there."

"By whose power all good and evil is [are]distributed."
"
For woman's fear and love holds [hold]quantity." Hamlet, "
"
Man, woman too,craves [crave] ing,
feel-
and lifeis action,
life,
variety."
purpose and the onlydirect effect of the evidence is
"
The
[are]
to show that the witness is not to be believed."
"The letterand the of
spirit the statute is defeated."
[are]
" 11. When two or more nominatives stand for the

same person or the
subject, verb governedmust be in
the singular;
as,
'*
This
prodigy of leamiDg,this scholar,critic, and antiquary,
was entirelydestitute of breeding and civility." -
"The philosopher and jioetwas banished from his country."

**
Such a Saviour and Redeemer is actually providedfor us."
Whose
"
icycurrent and compulsivecourse
Ne'er feelsretiringebb, but keepsdue on."
**The said deed and conveyance is now recorded in the regis-
try
of deeds,and at the time said deed and conveyance was corded,"
re-
etc.
**
for its own
Truth,and truth only,is worth seeking sake." "
**
In this mutual influence there is a wisdom,a wonderful
wisdom, which we cannot fathom."
self-command,this exertion of reason in the midst of
"This
passion, has a wonderful effect,
both to please and to persuade."
"A purpose, a design, an intention,is evident in everything."
** You create a fastidiousness,
a cravingfor the ideal, which
compelsmany of the sons of rank and fortune to become weary
wanderera in lands."
foreign
" 12. Where whether
nominatives,
two or more nected
con-
by a7id or unconnected,are qualified by every,

each,no, or not, the verb must be singular
; as,
**
Every man, woman, and child knows this to be so."
"
Each soldier,
seaman, and ofScer receives his allottedshare."
"
No glaringchalk,no grim sandstone, no ruggedflint, outface
it."
[outfaces]
"
Not a bird and not a beast,not a tree and not a shrub,was
to be seen,"
" 13. WTiere two or more singular nominatives are

separated by or, nor, as well as, or other disjunctive,
the verb must "bein the singular; as,
"The of Newton,
Principia M^caniqueCeleste of La-
or the
place,
were [was]not the outcome of any thoughtwhatever. "
"
Not a weed nor a blade of grass loere [was]to be seen.
**
Prescott as well as Ticknor make [makes] this statement. f*
**
Nor eye, listening
nor ear, an object ^wd [finds]."
**
Neither character nor dialogue were [was]yet understood."
"
No monstrous height, or breadth, or length appear [appears].
* *
**
Either one or the other of them are [is] the wrong."
i n
" 14. But where either of two or more nominatives

separated by a disjunctive,as in the foregoingsection,
is plural,the verb should also be plural. The follow-
ing
sentences are incorrect : "
"Neither riches nor poverty affects a man*s

[affect] ness."
happi-
"It is not his exceptional

beauty,or gifts,
or that
culture,
him this distinction."
gives[give]
**
In death of any such children,
case of the the shai*e or
shares of such deceased children is [are]to be divided among
his or her brothers and sistei-s."
"They fawn upon every one whose faultsor negligenceinter'
rupts or retards their lessons." (Changefaultsto fault,
and the
sentence is correct.)
"An example or two is [are]
sufficientto illustratethe gen-
eral
observation."
"The entire mass remains undisturbed exceptwhere erosion,
or the
earthquakes, hand of man, lias [have]mutilated it."^
" 15. A word in the

singularnumber indicating
many persons or things,called a collective noun or
1 grammarians say, that,in

Some cases where a singularand a
pluralnominative are separatedby a the verb

disjunctive, must
agree with the nominative nearest to it; as, "Neither the servants
nor the master is respected;" "Neither the writings nor the author
is in existence."
Goold Brown says, farther," But where the remoter nominative
is the word, and the
principal expressedparenthetically,
nearer is
the verb with the former,and
agrees literally only by implication ^
with the latter," and cites the following

examples: "One example
or ten says nothingagainstit" (LeighHunt) ; "A parenthesis,or
brackets, consists of two angularstrokes,

or hooks,enclosing one or
'ôre words." I think,however, that all such sentences are un-

immatical.
noun multitude,or a word indicating

of a portionof
such a noun, requires verb or pronoun
a plural where
the idea of pluralityis conveyed. As,
"The troopwhich followed Crastinus were volunteers."

''Dana believes that a part of the Achsean rocks are fossil-
iferous."
**The greaterpart of philosophers
have acknowledged
the
excellemje of this government."
**
A number of men and women were present."
The following
sentences are therefore incorrect : "
"The assemblywas [were]

divided in Us sentiments."
[their]
"A portion of the assembly was [were]opposed to the
measure."
**By not attending
to this rule many errors have been com-
mitted,
a number of which is [are] subjoined,as a further

caution and direction to the learner." "
Murray*s Chraminarf
Rule XX.
"
Yet a potent fraction of the noblesse was [were]
also of the
new faith."
"Butler, in his History,mentions the fact that there wa^
[were] number
a large of persons of that name in the town."
But where the idea of the collective noun is singular,

a singular
verb must be used. As,
**
The troopwhich followed Crastinus was made up of vol-
luiteers."
"
The court of Rome were [was]not without solicitude."
"The House of Lords were [was]much influenced by these
reasons."
"
An army of many thousands were [was]assembled."
" 16. The having the nomi-
intransitiveverb native to he
case after the verb as well as before it,where

one nominative is singular,
and the other is plural, or
consists of two or more singular nouns, or two or more
clauses, the nominative preceding or following the verb

may govern it,according to the more natural meaning,
or to the more immediate proximityof the verb, as

follows : "
The wages of sin is death."

**
**
Whatever we have,and whatever we are, above the level of
barbarism,is a matter of growth."
"To be moderate in our views,and to proceed in
temperately
the pursuitof them, are [is] the best way to insure success."
To do justly,
**
to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God,
is a duty [areduties] of universal obligation."
An offerto selland actually
'*
sellingis but one offence."
*'The only objection to the presenthalls is [are] the cross
lights which fallupon some of the wall cases."
"This and
dwelling-house the land under it is the property
soughtto be divided."
**
His illness was and
pleurisy rheumatism."
" 17. A sum of money, in the form,is usually

plural
followed by a singularverb ; as,
"Twenty dollars was subscribed by him."

"
Fiftythousand pounds was lost in this speculation."
''Three hundred thousand dollars is to constitute the capital
of the company."
The title of a book in the pluralnumber should be
followed by a verb.
singular As,
"Dr. Holmes's 'American Annals' was published
at bridge,
Cam-
in 1805."
"Mrs. Jameson's 'Memoirs
EarlyItalian Painters* of the
comprisesupwardsof thirtybiographies."
" 18. Several words in Englishwhich are pluralin
form are used in the number, and
singular with a gular
sin-
verb. Such endingin
are the names of sciences
icsâs ethics^mathematics,hydraulics, etc.;also
optics,
news, means as an instrument or objectby which to
attain an end or purpose, and pains in the sense of
toilsome effort or severe labor.^
I See infra,page 49.

The word whereabouts as a noun is often erroneously

used in newspapers with a pluralverb ; as,
"The whereabouts of the child were [was]unknown to him."
Acquaintanceis a better form for the pluralthan

; and folk is better
acquaintances than folks. As,
''And theysought him among their kinsfolk and ance."
acquaint-
" Luke u. 44, '
**
Behold two thirds of our company safe at their
home, telling
strangeadventures to relativesand acquaintance."
"As the words cherubim and
seraphimare plurals,
the terms cherubims and seraphims,
as the
expressing
plural, are quiteimproper."^
is often used
The pluraleffluvia as if singular;
as,
"a disagreeable
ejluvia.'*
Mussulmen is often used for the proper pluralMus-
sulmans,^
The titles Mr., Mrs.,and Miss in the pluralare spectively
re-
Messieurs,Mesdames, and Misses ; as. Mes-

sieurs
Eothschild,Mesdames Barrett and Thompson,
Misses Smith. The surname should never be made
pluralafter a title.
" 19. A very common error in writinga decimal
number is to use pluralafter
the it; as, .0048 grains,
.025 miles,.38 any decimal
yards. This is wrong,
as
number, no matter of how many or how few figures it

consists,is less than the whole number one, and there-
fore
cannot be plural. The above expressions mean
48 ten-thousandths of a grain; 25 thousandths of a

mile ; 38 hundredths of a yard; and consequently the
singularnumber should be used in all three cases, "
grain,mile, yard.
1 Dr. Rhetoric.
Campbell'sPhilosophyof
3 For the formation of the see Appendix L
plural,
" 20. The words alternative aud dilemma iu their
correct use must be iu the singular number, as each of
these words indicates a position in which one of two
things, and of two only, can be done or can happen.

The following examples of the use of alternative are
contrary to the true signification.

**
Not a mouthful of food was left,and the alternatives native]
[alter-
now before us were [was] a twelve-mile paddle or no
supper."
**
Unless the reference is credited as inconsistent with the ceding
pre-
statement, we are driven to the only other alternative."
**An argument which presents an antagonist with two or
more alternatives^ but is equally conclusive against him, which- '
ever alternative he chooses." "

Webster's Dictionary, under
Dilemma.
*'Mr. Gladstone's manifesto does not offer a single argument

to that coercion is the only alternative policy to home rule
prove
for Ireland. Mr. Chamberlain gave one alteniative other than
coercion, and Mr. John Morley suggested a fourth, by admitting

that it was possible to govern Ireland as a Crown colony. . . .
It must be made clear that there is another alternative, namely,

to give Ireland local control of her local affairs." "
London
Times, June 14, 1886 (cable despatch).

"
The expression "
either horn of the dilemma is fre-
quently
seen, showing the true significationof the word.
The following example shows the correct usage ; "
*'
A strong dilemma in a desperate case.
To act with infamy or quit the place." "

Swift.
THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 21
CHAPTER III.
THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
" 21. All nouns in the singularnumber, and all

nouns in the pluralendingwith any other letter than
", form the possessive

case by the addition of the apos-
trophe
and the letter s;
man's, men's,child's,
as, dren's,
chil-
Felix's,
Charles's, Hastings's,witness's,duchess's.
When the singular
noun ends in ", sh,ch soft,
ce, se, or x,
the addition of the
possessive apostrophe and s makes
another syllable; as, James's,countess's, Mackintosh's,
church's, horse's,
justice's, fox's. It is therefore just
as proper to omit the plural es in Charleses, countesses,
horses,boxes,jttstices,
or churches, as to omit the '" in the
posses^vecases above given,or in any proper name

ending either with s or any other of the letters or
digraphsmentioned.
The only exceptions to this rule are that in poetry
the additional s may be elided for the sake of the meter ;
and that a few
like
phrases, for righteousness'
sake," "
"for conscience' sake," for goodness'

"
sake," "for Je-
have become from longusage established as
^^^fius^-eake,"
idioms. The followingexamples are consequently
erroneous, and require the addition of s after the
apostrophe.
"Moses' minister."
"Phinehas'wife."
"Festus came into Felix' room."
"These answers were made to the witness' questions."
"
A largecompany attended the countess* party."
"The administratrix' sale."
**
Burns' Poems."
**
Mr. James' novel of PhilipAugustus." "
" 22. All ending in s form the pos-

plural nouns sessive
by the addition simplyof an apostrophe after
the 8; as, boys*, horses*,
Jameses',countesses',
foxes',
churches'.
" 23* .Personal pronouns possessive case never in the

take the apostrophe, but are written kera,
itsôurs, yours,
theirs. The indefinite pronouns 07ie and other, however,
form the possessivein the same way with nouns ; as,
**
One is apt to lose one's self."
**
Your littlehands were never made
To tear each other's eyes."
''Shine with such lustre as the tear that flows
Down Virtue's manly cheek for others' woes."
" 24. Where two or more nouns in the possessive

case are connected by and, and refer to the same
noun, the sign of the possessive

is annexed to the
last one only; as,
"John and Eliza'sbooks."
"This was my mother, and uncle's advice.**
father,
"
Men, women, and children's shoes for sale here."
"The Farmers and Mechanics' Bank."
''Henryand William's teacher is a man of more than
leaniiiig
James's or Andrew's."
But where a word

disjunctive or words are used,the
signmust be annexed to each word ; as,
"
They are John's or Eliza'shooks."
the
She had thiephysician's, as well
surgeon's, the ecary's
apoth-
* '
as
assistance."
"They relieve neither the boy'sTior the distress."
girl's
"Without any impedimentbut his own, his parents',or his
will."
guardian's
THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 23
"Where two nouns are in apposition,

or constitute a
signis annexed
the possessive
title, to the last ; as,
"For David my servant's sake."

"Give me John the head."
Baptist's
**
It is the Queen of England'sprerogative.'"
"The Mayor of Boston's address."
" 25. In some cases, having a peculiarsignification

the possessive signmay be used after the objective
case
and the possessive of; as,

"
It discoveryof Dr. Franklin's."
was a
"
This picture of my friend's."
"A subjectof the emperor's."
"A fiiend of General Grant's."
Meaning,
"
It was one of Dr. Franklin's discoveries."
"This picturebelongingto my friend."
"
One of the emperor'ssubjects."
~
"
One of General Grant's friends."
" 26. The signof the possessive

is often omitted in
cases like the following : "
*'A lens
photographic of seven vMihes aperture and thirty-
seven mckcs focus was procured."
"
They arrived weary and after a twenty 'milts walk."
fatigued
Either the apostropheshould be used in these cases,
or the expressionvaried so as to put the Italicized
words in the objectivecase.
" 27. Anybody else^sis often seen in print; it should

be "anybody'selse." We might as well say, "any
bird else's nest,""any boy else's hat," etc.
For the incorrect use of the article before the sessive
pos-
case, see ante, pages 11, 12. "
The use of the before

possessive the is
participle
shown infra,pages 45, 46.
CHAPTER IV.
THE OBJECTIVE CASE.
" 28. Errors in the case of the

pronoun are often
made which cannot occur in the noun, the nominative
and objective
cases in pronouns havingdifferent forms.
E.g.: "
"Through the those two,

ensuingdialogue, no matter who
spoke,or whom [who]was looked
addressed, at each other." "
Dickens.
"Let the sea roar, and the fulness thereof;the world,and
they[them]that dwell therein." " Psalm xcviii.7.
**
This lifehas you and / [me],
joys for
And joysthat riches ne'er could buy." " Bums.
"It was not the work of so eminent an author as him [he]to
whom it was imputed."
"
For the benefit of those whom [who]he thoughtwere his
friends."
"
"
Who [whom] should I see but my old friend !
**Thou [Thee], Nature,partial Nature,I arraign."Burns. "
"
Between you and /[me]."
"
He can read better than me [I]."ceuvi. "^^'*'
"
It was him [he]."
" "
Whom [who]do you think I am ?
" "
W?u) [whom] do you take me for ?
"
I saw a ladywhom I supposedto be she [lier]."
**
It might have been him [he]who did it."
"
Let ?ie [him]who made thee answer that." Byron. "
"
,
Let they[them]who raise the spell beware the fiend."
It must be remembered that the neuter verb has the
same case it,and that the imperative
after as before
mood the objective
requires case after it.
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 25
CHAPTER V.
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT.
" 29. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in

gender,number, and person. Consequently a plural
pronoun cannot agree with a singularantecedent,nor
a singularpronoun with a pluralantecedent. The
following examplesare accordingly incorrect : "
"No one will answer, as if I were their [his]friend or panion."

com-
"Everybody nowadays publishesinemoirs;everybodyhas

recollectionswhich theythink [hethinks]worthy of recording."
"Every Colony has snch pecaliarities
of their [its]
own that
theyare [itis]so fond of,that,if we had numbers and wealth
the Colonies would
sufficient, never unite."
"
There is flatcontradiction here between the narrative of the
Jesuit and contemporary Englishwriters." (Put the
those of
narratives for those.)
"The Council suggest that the action of the New York
Society be iipitated by those [the Societies]of Boston and
Baltimore."
"
But if a customer wishes you to Injuretheir [his]foot,or
to it,you
disfigure are to refuse tlieir[his]
pleasure." Rnskin. "
"She studied his countenance like an and

Inscription, ciphere
de-
each that crossed it,and stored them, [it]
raptexpression
in her memory."
"30. "There should not be a mixture of *thou'
and 'you' in the same passage. Thus Thackeray:
'
So, as thy sun rises over the'humble house-tops round
about your home, shall you wake many a day to duty
and labor.* So Cooper: *Tkou hast both master and

26 MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGMSH.
mistress: you have told us of the but

latter, we
would know something of the former. Who is thy

miasterr"^
" 31. Where the antecedent consists of two or more
nouns in the singular

number, whether connected by
and or not,the pronoun must be in the plural.As,
**
Did ever Proteus,Merlin,any witch,
"
Transform themselves
strangely as the rich ?
so
**
Faith,justice, heaven itself,
now quittheir hold."
**Both minister and magistrate are compelledto choose be^
tween his [their] duty and his [their] reputation."
Such unconunon
'*
generosityand goodnesswas [were] in iJts
[their]nature liable to misconstruction, and we accordinglyfind
U has [they have]been misconstrued."
But where the two or more nouns the
constituting
antecedent refer to the same person or the
subject,
pronoun must be singular.As,
"This and
great philosopher statesman continued in public
lifetillhis eightieth
year."
"The said deed and conveyance is now recorded in the try
regis-
of deeds,and at the time it was recorded,"
etc.
" 32. A pluralantecedent, or one consistingof two

or more nouns, if qualified
by eachêvery^ noy or not^
requires a pronoun in the singular.
"
Each of them, in their [his]turn, received the reward to
which theywere [hewas]entitled."
"
Every plantand every tree othera
produces after their [its]
kind."
"Both sisters were uncomfortable;each felt for the other,
and of course for (AewweZfe* [herself]."
"No policeman,no employee,and no citizen dared to lift
their hand."
[his]
"Not officer,
an not a soldier, and not a camp-follower
caped
es-
permanent injuryto their [his]health."
1 Bain^s CompositionGrammar.
" 33. Where an antecedent consists of two or more
nounsseparatedby or, vxiVy as well as, or any other

the pronoun
disjunctive, must be singular.As,
*'
When you press a watch,or pulla clock,they answer [it
answers]your questionwith precision."
"Neither Venice nor Genoa retain [retains]
the rank they[it]
once held."
"There is no evidence that either Charles I. or Charles II.
deemed it worth while
[his] their to consult the happiness
of
their [his]subjects."
"
When do we ever find a well-educated Englishmanor man
French-
embarrassed by an ignoranceof the grammar of their [his]
languages? They
respective first learn it and
practically erringly
un-
; and then theychose [choose]

if to look back and smile
at the idea of havingproceeded by a number of rules, without
knowing one of them by heart,or beingconscious that theyhad
any rule at all,this is a philosophical

amusement ; but who ever
thinks of learningthe grammar of their [his]

own tongue before
"
they are [he is a] very good grammarians [grammarian]
? "
Sydney Smith.
" 34. Where an antecedent is collective noun, or

a
noun of
multitude, the pronoun must be pluralor gular
sin-
accordingto the sense intended to be conveyed.
In many cases, either the singular or pluralmay be
employed,but both cannot properly be used together.
A report of a committee is hardlyever made without
violation of this rule. E. g. : "
"A board of selectmen

[is]not required
to keeprecords,
are
and their [its] clerk,if theyappoint[itappoints]one, is not a

certifying officer."
"
The
Council desireîn the name of the Institute,to express
its [their]
gratitudeto the individual subscribers for their gen-
erous
gifts.'*
**
If theinvesting in violation
committee leaves to an officer,
of the duty imposed upon them [it],the authority to make vestment
in-
etc.
" 35. The use of a pronoun without any properly

expressedantecedent is a very common error ; as,
**
postponethe formality
I desired him of a resignation
to till
I should return to America ; which was then,and has been ever
since,expected to take placevery soon." For I should return," **
read my return.
"Nor will anythingfurther than the I have
preparations
mentioned be resolved upon before Parliament meets, }ohichis
now fixed for the 4th of January." For "Parliament meets,"
read the meeting of Parliament.
"The man opposedme, which was anticipated."
"Be attentive,without which you will learn nothing."
"
A tremendous fallof snow rendered his departureimpossible
for days. When the roads
more than ten began to become a
littlepracticable, received
they successively news of the retreat
of the Chevalier into Scotland,then that he had abandoned the
frontiers,"
etc.
quotationfrom Scott's Waverley,"the his

In this "
in the firstsentence correctly refers to Waverley in the

precedingsentence ; the he in the last clause stands
correctly for the Chevalier ; but thephas no antecedent
whatever. Read news was successively received,
for they "
successively received news."
"When Germanicus proposedto Tiberius to subjugatetjler-

many, he was and
right, the Emperor was wrong in opposingit,'*
" "
Here it has no antecedent ; change to subjugateto ^ stcbju-
gationof.
"The filledthe blank in the certificate,
purchaser and sent it
to the demandingthat the transfer be recorded and
corporation,
a new certificatebe whicJi
issued, was refused." For "demand-
ing,"
read vrith a demxi7id.
"
Governor Winthrop tellsus of
visiting
Agawam, and ing
spend-
the Sabbath with t?iem [whom?],as they were without a
minister."
" 36. Sentences are often so constructed that the

antecedent of a pronoun is doubtful,
or so that the
pronoun grammatically refers to an antecedent not
intended by the writer. As,

"He
[i.e. Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher
[i.e. Aristotle]in terms polite and flattering,begging of him
to come and undertake his [Alexander's]education, and bestow
on hirn. those useful lessons of magnanimity and virtue which
every man ought to possess, and which his [i.e. Philip's]nu-

merous associations rendered impossible for him [Philip]." "
Goldsmith, History of Chreece,
"Montcalm had passed a troubled night. . . .

Troops lined
the intrenchments till day, while the Genei-al walked the field
that adjoined his till
head-qua]:;ters one in the morning, panied
accom-
by the Chevalier Johnstone and Colonel Poulariez.

Johnstone says that lie [Montcalm] was in great agitation,and
took no rest all night. At daybreak he heard the sound of
cannon," etc.
Here he grammatically refers to Johnstone, though it

is evidently intended to stand for Montcalm.
"Mr. Smith consulted the spirits,and they rapped out the
answer that he must make the best settlement he could with

Mr. Ingalls,or he would infalliblylose all his fine estate, " not
only that which Mr. Ingalls had originally held, and which he
[Mr. Smith] had obtained for almost nothing from the heirs of
Benjamin Pai'sons, "

but also the adjoining parcel, for which
he had paid its full value.*'
Here the Italicized he grammatically refers to Mr.
Ingalls, and would be so understood by the reader
taking the sentence by itself; but from the whole

article in which the sentence appears, it is evident
that he is meant to refer to Mr. Smith.
CHAPTER VI.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
" 37. Where

future contingency,or
a doubt or in-
decisio
the verb should be in
or a wish,is expressed,
the subjunctivemood; as,

**
Od condition that he [come],I will consent to stay."
comes
"*
We may live happily, thoughour possessions small."
are [be]
**
And so would I, if I was [were]he."
A certain ladywhom I could name if it vxls [were]necessary."
He will not be pardoned, unless he reperUs[repent]."
**The word *
heirs* appears to have been used by the tor
testa-
as if it was [were]a generalword."
**
I wish that he were here."
"
"
Would that it might be so !
But where a conditional circumstance which is not

future is the
expressed, verb should be in the indica-
tive;
as,
**
[knows]the way, he does not need a guide."
If he know
If art become [becomes]
"
apx)arent, the reader."
it disgusts
Whether
**
the translation loere [was]ever published, I am
whollyignorant"
**
If a man have [has] built a house,the house is his."
" 38. The verb in connected clauses should not be

put in dififerentmoods; as,
**
If there be but it is [will
body of legislators,
one be] no
better than a tyranny; if there are [be]only two, there will
want a castingvoice."
"
But \fî|.climb, hands,
wijhyour assisting
The Tt^îÎînd in the citystaiids"
""" "*" "*
Dryden'sTiT^.
THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 31
CHAPTER VII.
THE INFINITIVE MOOD.
" 39. The particleto, as the sign of the infinitive

mood^ is often improperly omitted ; as,
**
It is necessary to act with more vigoror with greatermod-
eration,
" to conciliate them completely,or [to]subdae them
altogether."
Please [to]
'*
insert points
so as to make sense.'*
*'
But it would tend to obscure,rather than [to]elucidate the
subject."
"So as neither to embarrass weaken
nor^[to] the sentence."
**
He was[to]believe that neither the king's
made death nor
imprisonment would helphim."
"
It is necessary for the lawyerto have a clear conception of
the governingrules of law, and [to]be able to presentdecisive
authority or [to]give satisfactory reasons the
for establishing
rules."
The sign,however,is properlyomitted in sentences

like the following: "
^
*'
Of me the Roman peoplehave many which
pledges, I must
strive with my utmost endeavors to preserve, defend,confirm,
and redeem."
''Many authors expectthe printer to point, spell,and digest
their copy, so that it may be intelligible
to the reader."
"To shake the head, relent, and sigh, and yield."
"The most accomplished way of using books at presentis,
to serve them as some do lords, le^m their titles, "and then
brag of their acquaintance."
The active verbs see, and
hidfdare,feel, some otheis,
take
usually the infinitive
after them without the to; as,
"If he bade thee how
depart, darest thou stay?"
The to is erroneously
used in the following
examples
wherever it is Italicized
: "
**I dare not to proceedso hastily, lest I should giveoffence."

'*
I dare to say he has not got home yet." '
"
I felta chillingsensation to creep over me."
'*
It cannot but be a delightful spectacle, to see a person be-
sieged
by temptationson every side to acquithimself gloriously,
and to hold out against
resolutely the most violent assaults."
**
Who bade the mud from Dives' wheel
To spurn the rays of Lazarus ? "
" 40. The particle

to should not be separatedfrom
the verbby any intervening
word, as in the following
examples: "
"
The student must not expectto alvmysfind[always
to find]
studyagreeable."
"A sufficientnumber and of
variety cases to fullyillustrate
[fullyto illustrate] the rule."
"It seems probable that this portionwas filledwith some
substance to better adapt [thebetter to adapt]it to the hand."
"A rightto exclusively [exclusivelyto]make and sell an
articlerests,"
etc.
"
To to]cleanse
thoroughly[Thoroughly and purifygarments
without injury,"
etc.
"But to point out only one example of this dog-

English, some of our latelywriters have
to ill- taken
using our neat and compact verb by ramming an
adverb into its midst. They will say, *to apprecia-
tively
drink bottled stout'; *to energetically walk
to Paddington'; *to incessantly think'; *to ably
reason.' Where was this dog-Englishwhelped1 You
should say, *to think incessantly'; *to reason ably.'
Let us suppose that
*
bow-wow '
means to drink. Do
you ever hear your dog say, *Bovv "

wagging my
tail " wow?"'i
1 Jean pp. 211,212.

Ingelow,John Jerome,(Boston,1886,)
THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 33
This order,however, is sometimes changed in poetry

for the sake of rhythm ; as,
**
Who dared to nobly stem tyrannicpride." " Barns.
" 41. The infinitive cannot properly be understood

by the sign to at the end of a sentence, referring
to a
foregoingverb in the sentence. E. g. : "
**
He has not done it,nor is he likelyto [do it]."
'*
Can a man arrive at excellence who has no [do so]?"
desire to
**
I have not written, and I do not intend to [write]."
"
When an auxiliary,or efo,is used with an ellipsis,
or instead of the verb, care should be taken that it is
such as can properlybe used with the form of the verb
elsewhere given."^
"
I did not say, as some have done [said]."
'*I surprised that
am he should leave things as he has
done [leftthtm]."
**
These relations cannot be pictured. All attempts to do so
[soto picturethem] upon a false foundation."

rest
"The reduction of unrelated phenomena to order is pleasing;

the inability
to do so [aoto reduce them] is displeasing."
" 42. Such
expressionsas Try and think," Try " "
and make," Try and do it,"etc. are erroneous.

"
Say,
"
Try to think,'* Try to make," "
Try to do it,"etc. "
1 L. R. Williston,Manual prepai*edfor a Private School^ (Cam-

bridge,
1865,)p. 17.
8
CHAPTER VIII.
TENSE, OR TIME.
" 43. Errors are very common in the tense,or time,

of the verb. E. g. : "
"
[drank]
I drunk his health."
**
I begun [began]to feel sleepy."
"You done well." Say,"You did well,"or "You have
done welL"
**
I saw him when he done
[did]it."
"
I intended to have written [write]to him on the subject."
"I feared that I should have lost [lose]it before I arrived at
the city."
"
Remember that you mig?U [may]fail."
**
I will not speakof it,even if I shvuld [shall]
be asked."
^''ôhave prevented[prevent] their depreciation,
the proper
course, it is would
affirmed, have been to have made [make]a
valuation of all the confiscated property."
**
an annuityupon
By charging the specific
property,he has
shown an intent that the annuitant should [shall]receive it
whenever it amid [can]be realized therefrom."
"
No sooner met their doom in the Wars of
had the nobility
the Roses,and the hands of royalty were [hadbeen]untied,
than a determined effort was made to uproot every national
Uberty."
"
Had writing
we for the English
been public,we would give
[shouldhave given] it but a paragraph ; and the quotation from
Macaulaygiven below would constitute [haveconstituted] the
substance of what we said [should have said]."
The witness testifiedthat he vjos [hadbeen]chairman of
"
the selectmen since 1880."

"The generalconclusions of the judgeare correct,and the
k
TENSE, OR TIME. 35
only error
therein consisted [consists] in the improper use of the
**
tenn *
trade-mark.'
'*One who should make [had made] a study of him at that
time would ^crfic^ Qiave predicted] a steady, not swift growth."

"It would have been worth while to have heard [hear]
your
them."
"The act granting the pension was not passed until long
after the war was over and the service rendered [had been
rendered]."
" 44. The imperfect tense or preterite, in irregular

verbs, is ollben erroneously used for the perfect ticiple.
par-
As,
"When an interesting story is hroke [broken] off in tlie
middle."
"
He hath bore [borne] witness to his faithful servants."
"
Philosophers have often mistook [mistaken] the source of
true happiness."
"
I have chose [chosen] to follow the common arrangement."
"
They were verses torote [written] on glass."
"
He is uovf forsook [forsaken] by every
one."
"I have shook [shaken] off the regal thoughts wherewith I
reigned."
"And it would become to contradict one day what
necessary
I had u?rote [written] on the other."
CHAPTER IX.
SHALL AND WILL, SHOULD AND WOULD.
" 45. The fundamental distinction between shall and

will is that shaU indicates what is involuntary^
or pulsory,
com-
and wiU what is volwitaryy

or the result of
the will.
^'
Shall means 'owe, be under obligation';
originally
and toillmeans wish,resolve,determine.* The phrases
*
really signify,then, I owe, am bound or obligated

*
to,
'
the act of giving; and I intend,am determined on,
*
giving.' Out of this difference in the originalmeaning

of the words has grown a diflferencebetween the form
in the firstperson on the one
of the future expression
hand, and the second and third persons on the other
hand. To denote simply somethingthat is going to
take place,we ordinarilyuse shall in the firstperson,
and wiU in the others."*
"
The diflferencebetween should and "w"mZ^ is in eral
gen-
the same as that between shall and mil, and they
in like manner ^
are confused by inaccurate speakers."
Will in the firstperson expresses assent or a promise,
or a determination ; as,
"
I will go "'
(ifit is asked of me).
"
"
I will go (whatever
may oppose).
^
Whitney'sEssentials of EnglishGrammar, page 119.
s
Ibid.,
page 121.
SHALL AND WILL, SHOULD AND WOULD. 37
Will in the second person foretells

; as, "
If you come you will find

at twelve o'clock, at
"
me
home."
"
You will soon be twenty."
Sometimes it expresses a command ; as,
"
You will learn the next lesson to-morrow."
"
On of this,
receipt you will immediatelyreportat
head-quarters."
In questionsin the second person, mil expresses a
wish or desire on the part of the speaker; as,

"
Will you go to-morrow r* = "
I wish you to go to-
morrow.
"
WiU you let me know if you can come 1"
Will in the third person simply foretellswhat is

known or thoughtby the speaker;as,
"
He will be at home to-morrow."
"
I think it will rain
to-day."
"We i.e.
will have dinner at six o'clock," "We will
order it to be readyat six o'clock."
In in
questions the third person, tvillinquires
con-
cerning
the pui'pose of another, or asks what the
speakerhas no means of knowing; as,

Will they be willing
"
to receive us ?"
"
When will our troubles be at an endl"
Shall in the firstperson expresses a determination,

or merelyannounces future action ; as,
"
I shall go to town to-morrow."
"
We shall set out and shall try to
early, arrive by
noon."
"
We shall have dinner at six i.e.
o'clock," "
Dinner
is to be readyat six o'clock."
Shall in
interrogative
sentences in the first person
asks permission,
or inquiresas to the intention or
opinionof another;as,
"
Shall I go with you T" =
"
Do you wish me to go
"
with you 1
"
"
When shall we seeyou again?
"
"
When shall we get there %
ShaU in the second or third person expresses a ise,
prom-
a determination,
a command, or a threat ; as,
"
You shaU have these hooks to-morrow."
"
He shall go,"= "
I promisethat he shall go.'*
"
He shaU go/*i. e. whether he wishes to go or not
"
Thou Shalt not steal."
"
You shall he punishedfor this."
In the third person it is sometimes also used condi-
tionally;
as,
"
If he shall obey,it will be well for him."
" 46. The differencebetween tooidd,which should and

are the pastforms of sliaU and tvill,
is mainly the same
as in the presentforms ; would referring
to an exercise
of wiU, and should implyingcontingent, dependentac-tion,
or obligation. E. g. : "
^'
I would as do
readily it myselfas another
persuade
to do it."
"I should like to go to town, and would go if I
could."
"
I hoped that I should not be leftalone."
"
I know I should dislike the country."
Shotdd and would are both often used to express a
conditional assertion ; as,

"
I should go, if I could get away."
"
He would give, if he had the means."
"
If he should come, you would see him."
**
I should not do so, if I were in your place."
"
I would not do so, if I were in your place."
"Should they not agree to* the what
proposals, am I
todol"
Would is often used to express a wish; as,
"
Would I were home again! "
"
I would have you think of these things."
"Would God I had died for thee,0 Absalom !"
"
Would thou hadst hearkened to my words 1 "
Also to express a custom ; as,
"
He would often talk about these things."
"
She would weep all day."
Would also sometimes expresses determination ; as^

He would go, I could not stop him."
"
"He would persist in his course, in spiteof all I

could say."
Should often has the meaning of ought,
and expresses
duty; as,
"
Heshould go by all means, but he will not."
"
You should not allow such conduct in school."
" 47. The following

are examplesof the correct use
of these words : "
**
They that fear the Lord will seek that which is well ing
pleas-
unto him ; and they that love him shall be filledwith the
law." " Ecclus, ii. 16.
"
He that honoreth his father shall have a longlife; and he
that is obedient unto the Lord shall be a comfort to his mother.
He that feareth the Lord will honor his father and will do ser-
vice untohis parents,as to his mastera." " Ecclus, iii.6, 7.

*Mf I might see you at my honse,it should go hard but I
would have a bottle of wine and a pipe of tobacco for you." "
Beaumont and Fletcher.

"
If she love me, then believe
I will die ere she shall grieve." "
George"Wither.
"If she hate me, then believe
She shall die ere I will grieve." B^n Jonson. "
"This child I to myselfwill take :

She shall be mine, and I will make
A ladyof my own.
Myselfwill to darlingbe my
Both law and impulse; and with me
The girl, in rock and plain.
In earth and heaven,in gladeand bower,
Shall feel an overseeingpower
To kindle or restrain."
Wordsworth,Toems of hnagiMdwa^ X.
"And at the end or determination of this lease shall and will

deliver up the premisesunto the lessor,"
etc. " Modem Lease.
" 48. The words Italicizedin the examples

following
are erroneous : "
"
We
toill issue this paper as occasion demands. The next
edition will be issued earlyin the spring. The size of the sheet
will be very much enlai^d,and we vrUl circulate between fifteen
and twenty thousand copies. We will have considerable adver-
tising
space, which will be allotted to i;hebusiness men of this
vicinity on very reasonable terms." Newspaper Prospectus. "
**
If we found such a system of writing history we would pro-
nounce
the division of labor in it unnatural."
"We wUl soon be able to answer this question."
pertinent
"
Unless
theycan intervene to preserve the credit of the mark,
shall soon
all faith in its integrity be destroyed."
"An order was made
supplemental mails to all European
that
steamers vnll be despatched to the steamer from the main office
after the close of the regular mail."
"
Were we writing for the Englishpublic, we would giveit
but a paragraph."
"Compel me to retire, and I shall be fallen indeed ; I would
feel myselfblighted in the eyes of all my acquaintance ; I would
''vermore liftui" my face in society ; I would burymyselfin the
oblivion of shame and solitude I would hide me fix"m the world

; ;
I would be overpowered by the feelings of own disgrace the

my ;
torments of self-reflection would me.*' Chalmers.'

pursue "
**
Perchance I will be there as soon as you." "
Com, oj
Errors, iv. 1.
'*
I tDill sooner have beard on the palm of hand
a grow my
than he shall get one on his cheek." "
.2 Henry IV,, i. 2.
'*But if we look into the English comedies above mentioned,
we would [should] think they were formed upon quite a contrary

maxim." "
Addison.
**
If this passion were simply painful, we would [should] shun
with the greatest care all

persons and places that could excite
such a passion." "

Burke.
'^
Let us, then, should we make a slip, possess our
souls in patience, and not bewail ourselves that we are
utterly lost to English idiom. For he must be an sufficient

in-
informed critic of English literature who
does not know that even the most thorough-bred lish

Eng-
writers themselves have not always been able to
use shall and tmU, and particularly skotild and would^

*
without some shilly-shallying between them."
1 Richai-d Grant White, Every-Day English, pp. 357, 358.

CHAPTER X.
LIE AND LAY." SET AND SIT.
" 49. In order to understand the proper use of these

verbs,the form of their principal partsshould firstof
all be thoroughly learned.
In lie and /ay these are as follows,
viz. : "
The main thingto be borne in mind is that lay (in

every sense in which it can be misunderstood)
is a sitive
tran-
or active verb,and lie is an intransitive or neuter
verb. What adds to the confusion between the words
is that the of
imperfect lieis lay.
Present
"I lie down to sle^p." "A book lies upon the

table.'* "Guilt lies heavy on his mind." "The sea
lies between the two countries."

"
I laymyselfdown to sleep." I laya book upon "
the table." We laya foundation."

"
The rain lays "
the dust."
Imperfect,
"
I lay down to sleep." "
A book lay upon the
table." "Guilt lay heavy on his mind." "The sea
y between the two countries."

LIE AND LAY. " SET AND SIT. .
43
**
I laid myselfdown to I laid a book upon
sleep." "
the table." "

We laid the foundation." "
Tlie rain
laid the dust."
Present Participle,
"
A book is lyingupon the table." "
Guilt is lying
heavy on his mind."
We are layingthe foundation."
** "
The rain is lay-
ing
the dust." "
Perfect
Participle,
"I had lain down to sleep." "A book had lain
upon the table." "The sea had once lain between

the two countries."
"
I had laid myself down to sleep." "
I had laid
the book upon the table."
"
We lie down
to-night,we lay down yesterday, our
studies have lain in certain directions; but we lay a

book down io-night, we laid it down yesterday, we
have laid aside our studies. A shipliesto,not laysto.

The same distinction applies to compounds ; as, to un-
derlie,
to overlayy ^
" 50. The partsof

principal set and sit are as lows
fol-
: "
PRES. PART. PERF. PART.
Setting Set
Sitting Sat
Set is in most sigiiifications

an active verb; but we
say, The sun sets,"

"
and The tide sets." "
We set about,set apart,set aside,anything.

We set out on a journey, set down in writing.
1 Hill's
pp. 54, 55.
of Rhetoric,
Principles
.
Sit is in most senses n neuter verb. It is active,
however, in the expression, " A man

sits a
horse."
We sit down in a chair, we sit late at night.

up
We sit for a portrait. A coat sits welL
Congress or a court sits.
We set a hen, but a

hen sits on We should
eggs.
say, therefore, "

a sitting hen," not "
a setting hen."
We sit in "
a sitting-room," and not in "
a setting-
room."
USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 45
CHAPTER XI.
USE OF THE PARTICIPLE.
" 51. Where the articleis used before a presentpar-

ticiple,
the of is
preposition after it ; but in
necessary
many cases either the omission of both articleand prep-
osition,
or the substitution of a noun of equivalent
is better.
signification, E. g. : "
"
An act for the better [of]government
regulating in Massa-
chusetts."
'*
An act for better government in Massachusetts."
regulating
"
An act for the of government,"
better regulation etc.
**
To the introducing [of] such an order of things."
**
To introducing such an order of things."
**
To the introduction of such an order of things."
**
By th" establishing [of]good laws,we secure our peace."
"
By estabUshing good laws,we secure our peace."
'*
By the establishment of good laws,"etc.
" 52. But o/ should not be used after the participle,
where the articleis not used before it. It should there-
fore
be omitted in the following
examples: "
"
From
calling ^ names theyproceededto blows."
"In formingq/* his sentences he was very exact."
**
In breakingof bread from house to house."
"They set about repairing o/thewalls."
**
Teachingo/ children is a pleasant employment."
" 53. The participle the possessive
requires case fore
be-
it where the noun itselfis the active agent; but
if the noun is a subject,
peissive the possessiveshould
not be used. E. g. : "
"Lady Macbeth [Macbeth's]

walkingin her sleepis an dent
inci-
full of tragichorror."
"Much will depend on the pupil [pupil's]
composing fi'e-
quently."
"
Tîe
event of Maria
lovingher brother."
[Maria's]
The fact of Jaines [James's]
**
placinghimself on his side."
**The paper then discusses the probableresult of England
[England's]following the policy
indicated by Mr. Chamberlain's
speeches."
When theyspeakof a monosyllable* s [monosyllable
**
or mono-
syllable
as]havingthe grave or the acute accent."

The dailyinstances of men*s [men]dyingaround us."
**
" 54. The use of the active, participle

in Englishin a
passivesense established, is well

and cannot be ques-
tioned,
as in the followingexamples: The house is "
building,""Wheat is selling,""The work is now

publishing,"
etc. Many writers have contended that
this form is erroneous, and that the passive
form should
always be used instead;while others have as strenu-
ously
maintained that the form
passive should never be
used, and that the activeform is the only correct one.
But there is that in many
no doubt cases the passive
form better than the
is decidedly active;as in the
following
examples: "
**For those who are beingeducated in our seminaries." "
Southey.
**
It beinguttered."
wfis Coleridge. "
"
It signifies though in uncouth English,
properly, one wlio
is being beaten." Whately. "
*'
The foundation was beinglaid."
In the followingpassage it must be admitted that

the form would be infinitely
passive preferable
: "
'*I saw one into light,

dragging[beingdragged] as passed I
by the ruins. . . .
Whether she was taking [beingtaken]to
'^count by some votary, I will not pretendto
disappointed
AVer."
USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 47
In the following example, on the contrary, the active
form is certainly better : "
"The law is annulled in the act of its being made

very
[making]."
" 55. The passive participle is sometimes imprbperly

and awkwardly used instead of the active or impersonal
form. As,
**
But soon as the whole body is attempted to he carved^ a
gs
disproportion between its various parts results, which is most
disagreeable to the eye."

Correct so as to read, ^*
But as soon as an attempt is made to
carve the whole body," etc.
'*
The offence attempted to be charged should be alleged under
another section of the statute."
Correct, **The offence which it is attempted to charge," etc.
"
The seeds of the umbrella pine, which previous to his visit
had been difficult to be obtained^ he procured in great quantities."

Correct to "it had been difficult to obtain."
"
The storm was unfortunate in selecting a district poorly resented
rep-
by observers, and thus lost the opportunity of being

carefully observed."
Correct, "The storm unfortunately occurred in a district
poorly represented by observers, and thus the opportunity for
its careful observation was lost."

CHAPTER XII.
ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
" 56. Adjectivesimplyingunity or plurality must
agree in number with the nouns which they qualify.

The following examplesare therefore erroneous : -*-
Tfiese sort of fellows are very numerous."

**
**
This twenty years have I been with thee."
**
thoughttJiesekind of excesses indicativeof greatness."
He
"
The standard beingmore than two footabove it."
**
Three pound of goldwent to one shekel."
**
Most of the churches had one or more elder [elders]."
ruling
'*The nature of that [those] riches and [that] is
long-suifeiiug
to lead to repentance."
**
By reflecting on that which is myselfnow, and that which
was myselftwenty yeai-s ago, I discern that they are not two,
but one and the same self." " Butler's Analogy, (Insert
"selves" after two.)
**For this among other reasons the contract was executed."
(Correct, For this reason, among others,"etc.)
**
**
In this and most of our largecities." (Insert "city" after
this.)
"Between the fourth and ninth day [days]."Or, "
Between
the fourth and the ninth ^
day."
"From the fifteenth up to the nineteenth centuries tury]."
[cen-
An
adjective
pronoun in the plural, however, may
sometimes be properlyassociated with a singularnoun ;
as, our desire,"your intention,"their resignation,'
" " "
etc.
1 See ante, page 12.

ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 49
As meam may be either singular

or plural,
the two
following
examplesare correct: "
*'He lived and

temperately, by this means preservedhis
health."
**The scholars were attentive,
industrious,
and obedient to
their teachers,
and by these means acquired
knowledge."
For "
By some means or another" put By "
one means
^
or another,"or "By some means or other."
" 57. The expression each other must be used if only

two subjectsare spokenof,one another if more than two.
The following are examplesof erroneous use : "
"
Two in Englishdestroy
iie"::atives 07ie another j or are lent
equiva-
"
to an affirmative. "
Murray s Rule XVI,
ChramrruvTy
**Both orators take greatlibertieswith mie another,'*
"Teachers like to see their pupilspolite to each other**
"In of
the classification words,almost all writera differfrom
each other.**
* *
A strobileis a made
pericarp up of scales which overlie each
otJier"
"Prayers,masses, and confessions followed each other with
an edifying
regularity."
" 58. After otherôtherwise,else,

or in
any adjective
the comparativedegree, than is usuallyrequired.As,
* *
The mind no sooner entertains any but [than]
])roposition it
hastens
presently to some to bottom it upon."
hyi"othesis
**No other resource this was
but [than] allowed him."
"My has,I fear,been the death of a man who had
behavior
no other fault hit [than]that of lovingme too much."
**
A metaphor is nothingelse but [than] a shoit comparison."
"
Architecture and gardeningcannot otherwise entertain the
mind but certain agreeable
[than]by raising emotions or feel-
ings."
"The contained no other

-jwlicy reference to an assignment
the following."
except[than]
1 See ante, page 18.

4
"
He was tickets for
selling two other railroads in addUicni to
[than]those before mentioned."
"This is none other hiU [than]the house of God, and this is
the gateof heaven."
After elseand other the besides is

preposition times
some-
"
used ; other than "
. . .
is exclusive of those
mentioned,whereas "other . . .
besides" is inclusive of
those mentioned. E. g. : "
**
Other words besides the preceding
may beginwith capitals."
"Other materials besides lead are used in the house service."
**
Pain must here signify
somethingelse besides warning."
" 59. Where comparisonsare made, care must be
taken to exclude from and include in both terms cisely
pre-
what by the
is intended, use or omission of otiier,
or an word.
equivalent As,
**
Iron is more useful than all the metals."
[other]
"A fondness for show is of all other follies the most lous."
ridicu-
**
[other]
No writings whatever so abound with bold and ani-
mated
figures as the sacred books."
This was less his case than any [other]
**
man's that ever wrote."
"The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any
[other] in New Sxmin."
"Of all other beings, man has certainlythe greatestreason
for gratitude."
It Is of all others [things]
"
that which most moves us."
"I think it superior to any [other] work of that nature we
have yet had."
"No [other]
sovereign
was ever so much beloved by the
people."
Nothing [else]
"
delights
me so much as the works of nature."
"He celebrates the Church of England as the nearest tion
perfec-
of all otliers[churches]."
" 60. Either and neither, " These words were merly
for-
considered to applyproperlyonly to two persons
r thingstaken and to signify
separately, one or the
other,and that is strictly their trae usage. But good

authority has established the use of both words in rela-
tion
to any indefinite number. As,
**
Either of several provinces."
"
Our alphabethas no letter to either of five simple
represent
consonant sounds."
"
Wonis not reducible to either of the three
heads."
preceding
**Dryden,Pope,and Wordsworth have not scrupledto laya
profanehand upon Chaucer, a mightiergeniusthan either."

"
"
GeorgeP. Marsh.
"Neither of these fiveverbs can be neuter."
"Neither of the ten was there."
" 61. One as the antecedent of his

ought to : "One
know his own mind." It has been contended by many
"
that this construction is wrong, and contraryto English

idiom. It seems to me, however, to be right,both logi-
cally
and grammatically; it is more euphoniousthan
using one^s for Aw, is sanctioned by good usage, and is
correct according to the principle by which the mascu-
line
pronoun is used where the antecedent is indefinite

as to gender; as,
"
A person can never do anythingat
variance with his own nature." This sentence,and
*'
others like it,would be
equallycorrect if "
One were
substituted for "A person."

" 62. NonCy althoughliterally
meaning no one, may
be used with a plural verb,having the signification
of
a noun of multitude. As,
"
In at this gatenone pass the vigilancehere placed.""Milton.
**
Terms of peace were none vouchsafed." " Ibi"l.
"None that go unto her return again." " Prov. ii. 19.
"None of their productions are extant." " Blair.
"
None of them are varied to express the gender."
" 63. The adjectives whole and less are properlyap-
plied
in relation to quantity;all q.u^fewer,in relation
to number. The following

are examplesof erroneous
usage : "
"Almost the whole [all

the]inhahltants were present."
"The Red cross Knightruns throughtliewhole [allthe]steps
of the Christian life."
"There are no less [fewer]
than twenty diphthongs
in the
Englishlanguage."
"There were not less [fewer]than fifty
or sixtypersons
present."
All is sometimes incorrectly
used for the whole,and
sometimes for onlt/
; as,
"
The disease
spreadover all the [thewhole]country."
"
Cynthiaand Mary were all the [theonly]children of their
parents."
" 64. The first,
use of two
three last, etc.,for first "
two," last three,"

"
etc.,is incorrect. As,
"The two last [last
two]chapters will not be found deficient
in this respect."
"The books of the Êneid
six first are exceedingly beautiful."
"The nine of the Book
firstchapters of Proverbs are highly
poetical."
Notes on
"Analytical the First and TTiree Last of the Minor
Prophets.By the Rev. \Vm. Randolph,M. A. Cambridge."
attemptedto defend the usage of two
It has been "
first,"etc.,by authority.But every error in grammar

might be established if frequent usage or the occasional
slipsof good authors are to be accepted as final author-
ity.
Goold Brown says, "The ordinal adjectives ^r"^,
sjecond, may qualify
next, last, the cardinal numbers,but
they cannot very properly be qualified by them,'*and
the weight of authority is overwhelmingly in support
of this statement.
The ordinals second,third,etc. should not be used

~''
adverbs,for secondly, etc.;and first,
thirdly, as an
êrb,is preferable
to firstly.
" 65. Adjectivesare often used where adverbs are
Tequired;as,
**
Agreeable[Agreeably] to my promise,I now write."
"He acted in this businessbolder [more boldly] than was
expected."
**
I can never think[meanly]of him."
so very mean
**
How remarkable [remarkably]heavy it is ! "
*"
He was exceeding [exceedingly]kind to me."
**
I called on his lordshipprevious^to my leavingEngland."
"Endeavor to live hereafter suitable [suitably]
to your
station in life."
In like manner, adverbs are sometimes used for ad-

jective
as,
"The arrows of calumny fall hamdessly [harmless]
at the
feet of virtue." .
"This construction sounds rather harshly[harsh]."

"The returns of the officialor
election, otherwimy are now
all in."
" ^Q, "

There is sometimes a questionwhether to
use adjective
an or an adverb after certain verbs. The
principle seems to be, that when the limiting word ex-
presses
a quality or state of the subject or the object,

rather than the manner of the action,an adjective is
proper. This construction takes placewith the verbs

he, look,taste,smell,feel,seem, etc."^ Briefly, if the
verb is intended to be qualified, the adverb should be
used ; if the noun is intended to be qualified, the
adjective.Kg.: "
"
The berrytastes sour." "
The flower smells sweet."
"
The man felt bad about it."
"The woman looked beautiful."
"
She looks cold." "
He feelswarm."
*
Although this use of previousiov previouslyis objectedto by
grammarians,yet it has been used by many good writers.
2 Tweed's for Common
Grammar Schools,page 111.
In the followingexamplesthe adverb is correctly

used ; as,
**
She looks coldlyon him."
**He feels warmly the liisultyffered
to him."
Then and now are sometimes made

improperly to
serve as adjectives;
as,
**Even rigorousciimate and other hard condi-
in the then tions
of Europe." (Omit then, and insert at that time after
"Europe.")
The then King of France was
**
engaged in waging war with
England."
The now
"
or present]
[existing copiesof the original
text are
entire."
" 67. Where only two persons or subjects

are pared,
com-
the adjective
must be in the comparative degree,
not, as is often the case, in the ; but if more
superlative
than two are included in the comparison,the superla-
tive
must be used. E. g. : "
"This is the best [better]

of the two."
"Her mother seemed the younrfcd [younger]
of the two."
"Of two evils choose the lecist[lesser]."
" 68. Former and latter,

beingadjectives
of the parative
com-
degree,should not be used for firstand last,

after a of three
specitication or more different subjects
or persons ; as,
"The tvx) latter [last
two] localitiesare much older than the
pueblosof Cholula."
"The court-yardis forme"l hy two decayed mounds, the
mound of worship,and a hill,the latter [last]
of which is a
regularterrace."
"Our road lay by Lou vain,Thirlemont,Liege,Aix-la-Cha-
pelle,and Juliers, to the Rhine. The former [first]of these
towns," etc. J. Fenimore Cooper.
"
" 69. When the adjective

pronouns this and that,or
these and refer to contrasted antecedent terms,this
those,
or these should represent the latter, and that or those the
former term as,

;
**
And reason mise o'er instinct as you can,
In this 't is God directs, in that *t is man." "

Pope.
**
Farewell friends ! farewell my foes !
my
"
My with these, love with those ! Bums.
peace my "
The that is often omitted where it is

pronoun sary
neces-
to show reference to an antecedent term ; as,
**
If the corporation was carrying on its operations under the
charter of 1792, or [that] of 1794, the argument would be clusive."

con-
**
Notice the difference between the effect of this volatile acid
and [that] of a strong fixed acid when both are equally dilute."
"
He certainly preceded the coming of the tribes that formed
the valley confederacy, as well as [that] of the later tribes of
Tlascala."
" 70. Other errors are the vulgar use of them for
tJiose; and also the application of degrees of son

compari-
to adjectives which are superlative in primary nificati
sig-
as cJiief, extreine, perfectf riglU, universal,
etc. It is incorrect to ""o perfect," ""o
supreme, say
universal," etc.; but we can say, "nearer perfection,"

a
nearer right," **less extreme," "less perfect," etc.
CHAPTER XIII.
ADVERBS.
" 71. Adverbs are frequentl}^

givena wrong position
in the sentence. No absolute rule can be laid down
for their proper position.They should generally be
placedbefore the words theyqualify
; sometimes,how-
ever,
after verbs, or between the auxiliary
and the
verb, but never between to and the infinitive.^ The
adverb only is especially
apt to be misplaced. The
following
are examples of wrong position: "
**
We must not expectto find studyagreeable
always [always
agreeable]."
**
Instead of lookingcmiteinpttwuslydozen [down contemptu-
ously]
on the crooked in mind or body,we should look up thank-
fully
to God, who has made us better." *
**
Everythingfavored by goml usage is not on that accoimt to
be retained." (Place not at the beginning of the sentence. )
**
By hastycomposition we shall acquirecertainly [certAinly
acquire] a very bad style."
The comparisons
*'
are short,touchingon one pointonly [only
on one point]of resemblance."
'*
Having had once [oncehad] some prominentobjectset be-fore
lis."
**
The positive
seems called
improperlyto 6e [tobe improperly]
a de"rree."
'*In some is]
phrasesthe genitiveis only [onlythe genitive "
used."
1 See ante, " 40.

* Jiorrects "look
Murray tip thankfully"to "thankfully look
"
up ; but I think the order of the firstclause as corrected," looking

down contemptuously,"should be followed in the second one.
ADVERBS. 57
**
This blunder is said actuallyto have [tohave actually]
curred."
oc-
*'
But every man is not called James, nor every woman Mary.'*
(Place7Mrf after "But.")
**
Most men dream, but all do not [notall]."
**
"We have often[oftenhave]occasion to speakof time."
"The words must be generally[generallybe]separatedfrom
the context."
"But it is only so [soonly]when the expression
can be verted
con-
into the foim."

regular
"
For sinners also lend to sinners to receive a^ much again
as much]."
[again
"
about to go on, when he perceived
He was from her quiver-
ing
eye and pallid c heek that nothing less than imposturewas
intended." Scott,Old Mortality. (Say, nothingwas lessin-
"
**
tended
than imposture.")
"Meister is brought to realize thai he is not only [notonly
that he is]a social and moral capableof
being,ând development
as such,but that he is also a being."
religious
" 72. The adverb should
unnecessarilyduced
intro- not be
in the middle of a clause at the beginning of a
sentence,thus multiplyingpauses, but should be placed
at the end of the clause ; as, 0
"It remains,then,undecided,[undecided, then,] whether the

effectof heredityis to transmit these characteristics."
"We define, the cause
therefore,
may of a phenomenon to be
the antecedent,
on which it is invariably consequent."(Put
"therefore" after "phenomenon.")
For the erroneous placingof the adverb between the
to and
particle the infinitivey
see ante, " 40.
" 73. Misuse of adverbs is very frequent.Some of

the more common cases are the following.
"
^Like I did,'is a gross Western and Southern garism
vul-
*
for *
as I did.'"
1 Mathews*8 "Words, their Use and Abuse."

This use of like for as is of

peculiarity by uo lueane a
the South and West. I have known Englishmenwho

constantly used the expression,and the following
ex-
amples,
which might be multipliedindefinitely,are
taken from recent Englishworks: "
**
It mustbe very jolly
to travel like he does." "
Hagh way,
Con-
Living and Dead,
**
So few are placedlike I was, that my audience who would
understand and enter into ray feelings
must be too limited to
trouble about." "
Ibid.,and so^mm..
*'It is like it was to be king when
struggledamong
a men
themselves who should be a king." Anthony TroUope. "
'*
And sometimes, passingthrough the ground-floor passage,
he would see her ironing,/iX;ethat firsttime." Vernon Lee, "
Miss Brown,
Such is often improperlyused for the adverb so,
E. g.: "
*'
In such a [so]mild and fruitful [a]region."
**
With all due deference to such a high[sohighan]authority
on siicti a [so]very important[a]matter." Moon, Dean's "
English,
**Such a [so]lovely[a]woman," **
Sucli a [so]beautiful [a]
flower,"
etc.
^^
Quite should be used in the sense of *
entirely,'
"
never for rather or
*
very.'} ' *
**
Wounded quite[very]
severely."
**
Mr. John Redman flatteredhimself he was quitethe gentle-
man."
Say, "a perfect
gentleman."
''The conclusions drawn from a casual view are frequently
quitedifferentfrom the results of a completeinvestifi^tion."
**
The of the
acquisition power of speechis in all probability
a quiterecent occurrence."
Equallyas tffell
is often used for "
equallywell,"or
"
a.s well."
1 Hill's Principles
of Rhetoric,
p. 58.
ADVERBS. 59
How should not be used before "

that," or instead of
it ; nor for "

lest." E. g. : "
"He said how [that] he would go."

"Ye see hoyr that not many wise men are called." (Omit
that.)
"Be cautious how [lest]you offend him."
"
No is often used improperly for "
not as,
;
"
1 do not know whether they are out or no." " Byron.
"
Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not." "
John ix. 25.
"Can I make men live, whethej they will or mo?"

"
I shall not ask Jean Jaques Rousseau
If birds confabulate or no" " Cowper.

Ever and never are very often confused ; as,
"
In some parts of the country, it seldom or ever [never] rains."
"We seldom or ever [never] see those forsaken who trust in
God." (Or correct to "seldom if ever."]
Many grammarians consider expressions like **

never
so good," "never so well," "never so wisely," as roneous,

er-
and that never should be ever in such pbmses.

But Professor Hill, speaking of "never so good," and
some other expressions, says,

"
Whether easy to parse'
not, they are to understand, and are facts in
or easy
language."
Most for almost is a common barbarism ; as,

"
The
work is most done."

GO MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGLISH.
CHAPTER XIV.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
" 74. Who, whose, and whom apply only to persons

or to things personified; which applies to irrationalani-
mals
or to inanimate objects ; and that applies to either
persons, animals,or things.

That, either by reason of its applicability to both
persons and things, or because it is required after same

or an adjectivein the superlative, should be used in
the followingsentences in placeof who or which,
**Ke instructed and fed the crowds w?u) [that]surrounded
him."
*'
Among nations wJio [that]
are in the first and rude periods
of society."
**
The crowd who [that]
was going up the street was veiy derly."
or-
**An only child is one w?io [that]has neither hrother nor
sister."
"
He of the
spokelargely men and he
thingswhich [that] had
seen."
The second person denotes the person
**
or thingwhich [that]
is spokento."
**
This is the most useful art which
[that]men possess."
''The same proportionslohich [that]
are in a model
agreeahle
are in a largebuilding."
not agreeahle
Who, whose,and whom are often misused for whichy

as also which for whom, E. g. : "
"Frequentedby every fowl wTiovi [which]nature has taught

iipthe wing in water." Johnson. "
KELATIVE PRONOUNS. 61
"
Exactlylike so many puppets,who [which]are moved by
wires."
"They are my servants,which [whom] 1 broughtforth out of
the laud of Egypt."
''They being the agents to which [whom] this thing was
intrusted."
away under a knotted veil,whose flaps[theflaps
Hidden of
"
which]fallon either side of her brightround throat"

'*
The method is to transfer each ingredient
to some new bination
com-
which can be formed without loss, and whose compost'

tion [thecomposition of which]is kiiowu."
**
Weigh in a vial a quantityof sulphuricacid whose specific
has
gravity been ascertained."
previously
His character,
"
wh"ose weightand dignity were onlypartially
expressedby his modest motto, gave the church lustre." (Cor-
rect
to "
the weightand dignityof which.")
Whose is givenas the possessiveof which in both of
our American Dictionaries, and its use as such has be-
come
common; yet the best authorities condemn the
usage, and deem it an error.
" 75. The word and cannot properlybe used before

which or who, unless there has been a precedingwhich
or who in the same sentence and in the same tion.
construc-
E. g. : "
"The more importantrules,definitions,

and observations,
and which are therefore the most proper to be committed to
memory, are larger wUh

printed
type." MurraxfsOraminar.
a "
" "
Corrected in Moon's Bad English as follows : The rules, **
and observations which are the more

definitions, important,and
which are therefore the most proper to be committed to memoiy,
are printedin larger type."
"But we have duplicates of each, agreeingin movement
though differing in measure, atid which make differentimpres-
sions
on the ear: an opulencepeculiar to our language, and
which may be the source of a boundless variety." Murray's "
Orammar. (Omit the and before which in both places.)

"This layerconsists of small cellswhose exposedouter walls
are rounded,arid which contain the pigmentscharacteristic of

the group.'.' (Correctto "cells the exposed outer walls of
which," etc.)
**
We think of the roadside life seen by Parson Adams or
Humphry Clinker,and of which Mr. Borrow caught the last

glimpsewhile dwellingin the tents of the Romany." (Omit
aiid.)
**
approachof a party,sent for the purpose of compelling
The
the countrypeopleto bury their dead,and who had already sembled
as-
several peasantsfor that purpose, now obligedEdward

to rejoinhis guide." (Insert**who had been" immediately
"
after party," and the sentence is connect)
For the use of which without an antecedent,see
ante, " 35.
For the misuse of who and whom, see arUe, " 28.
" 76. Adverbs are used
frequently where a tion
preposi-
and relative pronoun would much better express
the sense ; as,
**
They framed a w?iere [inwhich]theyrepeated
protestation,
their claim."
"
They are not such in the languagewhence [fromwhich]they
are derived."
express the cause why or the manner
**
By prepositions we
?iow [inwhich]a thingis done."

"And curse the battle where [inwhich]their fathers fell."
There is no rule given?iow [bywhich]truth may be found
*'
out."
" 77. The relative should be so placedas to prevent

ambiguity, and as near as possibleto the antecedent.
E. g.: "
"It gives a meaning to ioords [towords a meaning] which

theywould not have."
"
For he hath made who
him to be sin for \is, knew no sin."
" **
(Put "
who knew no sin after him.")
**
Take that of me, my who have the power
friend,
To seal the accuser's lips."
tftkethat of me."
Correct,"My friend,
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 63
" 78. The relative pronoun is often omitted where it
should be expressed. E. g. : "
**
The next error [that] I shall mention is a capital one."
*'
[that]we know
It is little of the divine perfections."
"This is the worat thing [that] could happen."
"I'here were several thiugs [which] brought it upon me."
**
We speak that [which] we do know, and testifythat [which]
we have seen." "
John iii. 11.
**
Almost all the in
irregularities the construction of any guage
lan-
have arisen from the ellipsisof some words which were
originallyinserted in the sentence and [which] made it regu-
lai'." " Murray* s Graminar,
78a, That restrictive. Bain, in his "Higher lish

Eng-
Grammar," says :
**
That is the proper restrictive,
explicative,limiting, or defining relative." But Prof.
W. D. Whitney, in his "

Essentials of English mar,"
Gram-
says: "
**
Some authorities hold that wJw and which are to be used
as co-ordinating or simply descriptive relatives, but that as
limiting or restrictive ; thus, *

this soldier, wh^ was recently
wounded*; 'clouds, which are bodies of vapor'; but *the diers
sol-
thrtt were wounded were left' ; *a cloud th"at lay near the
'
horizon ; and so on. But the best English usage by no means
requires such a distinction."
Neither Worcester nor Webster gives any such clusive

ex-
definition of that, and it is certainly inappli-

cable
where no real limitation is intended or desired,
as on the title-pageof this book :
**
For the Use of all
who teach, write, or speak the Language."

CHAPTER XV.
DOUBLE NEGATIVES.
" 79. "

Two
negativesin Englishdestroy one other/
an-
or are equivalentto an affirmative." Such com-

mon
barbarisms as I don't want nothing,** and I " "
have n't got none,"would never be used by a respect-

able
writer. But authors frequently violate the fore-
going
rule,althoughthe mistake is not so apparent.
E.g.: "
''Give not me counsel,Nor [and]let no comforter delight

mine ear." " Mvdih Ado,
"I pray you bear with me; I canrwt go no further." " As
You, Like It,
**
I never did repentfor doinggood,nor [and]shall not now."
" Merchant of Venice, '
"*
There can be no rules laid down, nor [and]na manner ommended."
rec-
" Sheridan.
''
I cannot [can]
stop to tellyou hardlyany of the adventures
that befellTheseus on the way to Athens." Hawthorne. "
*'
The facultiesare called into no exercise by doinga thing
merelybecause others do it,no [any]more than by believing
a
thingonlybecause others believe it." " Geo. P. Marsh.

"
No one elsebut the had
petitioners any interestin the mat-
ter."
(Omit else,)
**
Now let us examine the and decide whether or
cited, case
not there was not a mistake made in the name." (Omit the
second not,)
*'
We [and]do not,confine the purposes of God."
need not,nor
"I cannot by no [any]
means allow him what his argument
must prove." (Or, I can by no means allow,"etc. ) "
1 See anUf page 49.

DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 65
"There is nothing more admirable, nor [or] more

useful."
**
No skill could obviate, nor [and] no remedy dispel the rible
ter-
infection."
'*
Which do not continue, nor [and] are not binding/'
"The train will not stop only when the bell rings." (Omit
710^ or change only to **
except.")
"
For part I love him not, nor [and] hate him not,"
ray
"
I have not had a
moment's time hardly since I received
letter." (Omit not.)

your
66 MISTAKES IN WBITINQ "NQUSH.
CHAPTER XVI.
COBBELATIYES.
" 80. Certain adverbs and conjunctions requirecer-

tain
others to correspond with thera,in comparison or
antithesis,which are called correlatives. The princi-

pal
words of this sort are the following: "
as , . , ctSyso, so, such . , , "is, ilicU,

both . . .
ajid, though . . . yet.
if , . .
then, when . . .
tlien,
either , , .
or, wliere . . .
there,
f neiUter . . .
nor, whether . , .
or,
not onlyor n^t merely .... but,hut also,hid even.
*'
As thy days,so shall thy strengthhe."
**Lawn as white as driven snow."
**
I am dehtor hoth to the Greeks and to the both
harbarians,
to the wise and to the unwise.*'
"
If I then
speakfalse, perish.*' may my father
Either he must leave,or I shall go."
**
"
Neither this man sinned,nor his parents."
**
not of prudencemerely,
These are questions, but of morals
also."
*'
Smugglingand piracywere deemed not onlynot infamous,
but even honorable."
absolutely
**
No lamb was e*er so mild as he."
poor that he could not make restitution."
"
No man was so
'*
The difference is of such a nature that it is easily
seen."
"
Though he slayme, yet will I trust in him."
"When the heart beats no more, then the lifeends."
"
Where the bee sucks, there suck I."
**
Whether of a publicor of a privatenature."
CORRELATIVES. 67
" 81. Mistakes are made in the use of or

frequently
and nor as the of either and neither,
correspondents and
of not onlywithout its proper correlative but or but also.
They are not so common with the other

correlatives,
though they sometimes occur. The following
are amples
ex-
of erroneous usage: "
*'
or [nor]
He ueither cut, stored, sold ice at Worcester."
**
Upon the decease of either said Cynthiaaiid [or]Mary,
leavingchildren,"
etc.
"The instraraent should be a bar,both in law. or equity,
to
any claim that can be made." (Changeboth to either,

or or to
"Neither one, or [nor]the other has the least chance of

success."
"
It shall not be him, neither
forgiven in this world,neither
[nor]
in the world to come."
**
Not onlyhis estate,his reputationtoo [but also Ids reputa-
tion]
has suffered by his misconduct."
**
His work is not yet as [so]
accurate and as much simpli-
[so] fied
as it may be."
"Still so much of it is retained as [thatit]greatly
injures
the uniformity of the work."
**A8 [So]far as I am the
able to judge, book is well written."
"i)^Chancer was accustomed to say that he took possession
of whatever he found directed to no greatpoet need
him, so [then]
hesitate over any material at hand."
" 82. As in comparisons ("59),care must be taken

to placethese correlativesso as to exclude and include
preciselywhat is intended. The following are examples
of wrong position : "
"I remember that I am not here as a censor either of [of

either]
manners or morals." " R, G. White, Every-Day English,
"He comes either from [from either]Ohio or Indiana."^
Ayres,Verbalist.
"
Oswald only communicated
not [communicated not only]a
copy of and a let-

his commission,but a partof his instructions, ter
from the of
Secretary State." "
GeorgeBancroft.
" I neither estimated myself highly nor lowly." "

J. S. Mill.
(Put neither after myself, )
"He would neither give [give neitlier] wiue, nor oil, nor
money." "
Thackei-ay.
**
He neither attempted to excite
anger, nor ridicule, nor miration.*'
ad-
(Say, "attempted to excite neither auger.")
"He would Twt only [not only would] be put to the

expense
of I'epixxlucing them, but would be obliged to postpone the use
of them until new ones were

made."
"I will not dispute about what can neither be [be neither]
proved nor disproved."
"
It is a good which neither depends [depends neither] on the
will of others, nor on

the affluence of external fortune."
"The division affected not only [not only affected] tions

institu-
and the forms of society, but entered the household, fied

modi-
the beliefs, and marked off the whole structure of society."

CONJUNCTIONS. 69
CHAPTER XVII.
CONJUNCTIONS.
" 83. Beginningparagraphsor sentences with junctions

con-
should be avoided. The

conjunctions and,
nor, or, and others strictlyconnective,
are often need-
lessly
thus made to begin a sentence,more especially
and. In many cases, the and is useless and may be
omitted, and where it is necessary the sentence can
often be joinedwith the precedingone. A disjunctive,
like hut,may sometimes be necessary at the beginning
of the sentence,and in an animated or easy,styleit is
perhapsunobjectionable to begin one with and. It is
not easy to giveexamples, without takingup too much
space, as whole sentences would be requiredto show

the connection. Any one can find plentyof examples
in his every-dayreading, and can judge for himself as
to their propriety
or impropriety.
" 84. The words reason and becavse should 'not be

used together, the word because meaning for that rea-
son,"
"
and thus beingredundant ; as,

**
Because [That]Rousseau had giren an equallybeautiful
picture
was no reason why Goethe should not repeatit."
**
The other will not for any apparent reason
fail, but because
[except
that]the one loves the child from the beginning."
'*
The reasons of appealwere the consent
becatcse [that] of the
parentshad not been obtained."
"The reason I ask you to do this is because [that]
you can
do it 60 much better than I."

" 85. other common errors in the use of tions

conjunc-
are the following.
WithotU for btU/or; as,
unless,
[Unless]
"WUhotU the grammatical form of .a word can be
at a glance,
recognized littleprogress can be made in readingthe
language."
You will never
**
live to my age wUhotU you keep yourselfin
"
breath with exercise.
"
This veteran fortycampaignswould have fallen into the
of
enemy's hands without [but for]a vigorouseffort of the first

legion."
Onli/or but for except E. g. : "
"It has the well-known form of the cube, only [but]with

this difference."
**
The photograph was taken in similar manner,
a only [ex-
cept
that]a greaternumber of exposures were made."
"
First of white men biU [except]
the Friar Le Caron, Cham-
plainbeheld the fresh-water sea of the Hurons."
"iU what for but that, E. g. : "
"
Tliink no man so hut
perfect whcU [butthat]
he may err."
**
He would not believe btU what 1 was joking." (Say, that **
I was not joking.")

But is often unnecessarily used after words ing
express-
doubt,or for that ot if, E. g. : "
"There is no doubt but that the settlement there had ceased

to be occupiedbefore the Conquest."
"
He never doubts but that he knows their intention."
"
I should not wonder but that
[if] was the case."
**
I have no doubt but [that]
he will cx"rae to-night."
For the use of hut for than after other and the parative
com-
degree,see ante, " 58.

" 86. The conjunctiontha"t is often repeated,
after
an clause,before the clause with which
intervening
^;he first that was intended to connect. In each of
CONJUNCTIONS. 71
the followingsentences one Italicized that should be

omitted.
**To us it seems clear that if the parableof the prodigal

son
"is to 136 taken as the feelingof God towards every sinner,thaJt

every sinner must at least be broughtback by the mighty power
of His redeeminglove."
**
It does not seem to easy to say, that if cases of unliqui-
me dated
damages may be treated as debts l)ecause theyend in the
ascertainment of a fixed sum of money, that we are at liberty
to
say that the doctrine equally is not

applicable
to all cases of liquidated
un-
damages." Judge Story. "
**
I have noted tliatwhen you wish to touch on many ent
differ-
that
details, you fare better if you adoptrapidinterrogation."
"The Master held that if,in dyeing,the
of the Rolls had
colora were so effected that whiteness could not be predicatedof
the and
selvage, that the twisted thread was mottled, red and
white,that as particular
matter of law the
trade-mark was not
infringed, had no remedy.'^

and that therefore the plaintiff
"The counsel contended, that, if the jury found that the
facts were as claimed by the plaintiff,and amounted to a war-
ranty,
"
thcU such warranty was a partof the contract.
"
I wished
show, by your own
to writings, Uiai so far were
you fix"m being competent to teach others Englishcomposition,

that you had need yourselfto study its firstprinciples."Moon, "
DearCs English.
" 87. That is also often omitted in cases where it is

essentialto the sense. E. g. : "
"
After years of labor there
he felt [that] wasvery strong
a
contrast between the of his

insignificance performanceand the
greatness of his project."
"
Is there not prevalent
too an opinion[that]
there must be
"
fixed classes in society
?
"
Though the instances are numerous, it is hoped [that]
they
will not be found too many."
**Hb [that]
told he would proceedimmediately."
me
**It is manifestly
impos-sibleto apply the principle
to such
judgmentsas [that] A is greaterthan B."
72 MlSTAKJiS IN WKITING ENGUSH.*
CHAPTER XVIII.
PREPOSITIONS.
" 88. The endingof a sentence with a preposition is

generally considered at the presentday to be a perfectly
legitimate Englishidiom, and entirely accordant with
the usages of the language,though it was formerly
objectedto by many writers. Hence originated the
familiar jestconcerning the grammarian who gave as
a rule,"A preposition is a very bad word to end a
sentence with." This usage of the preposition, ever,
how-
is indispensable in a free and flowingstyle.
" 89. Prepositions are often misused,and there is

some difference of opinionamong writers as to the
proper preposition to be used with certain words ; but

the following are a few specimenexamples, if not of
at least of inelegant ^
erroneous, usage. E g. : "
**
The trust refeiTed to by [in]the letter is not used in the
will."
"
that is givento
To rise beyond[above] a few."
**
Alike independent on [of] another."
"
How differentto [from] this is the lifeof Fulvia ! "
"This is very different to [from]what was expected."

"
The wisest powers
need not think it any diminution to [of]
or derogation their sufficiency."
to [from]
"
In pursuance to [of]the provisions
of their charter."
1 For the
a completesynopsisof prepositions, and a list giving
the proper ones to be used with certain words, see Mr. Loomis D.
"
^bell's exceUent Handbook of Synonyms and Prepositions.'*
PREPOSITIONS. 73
'*His residence is "m [in]BerkeleyStreet,and his office"m

[in]State Street.
*'He conceived a plan for the
enlivening courage of the
company, a little dashed of late wiih [by] misgivingsand
forebodings."
''But codfish must stillbe'had for the faithful on [in]Lent
and [on]fast days."
"And there on dry sands half hidden wi"k [by]the tufted
wire-grass,"
etc.
**
The indolent child is one that has a strongaversion /rom [to]
action of auy sort."
**
Nouns thus circumstanced are said to be in apposition
to [with] each other." Murrmfs Orammar,"
'*The goods were generally delivered on to [upon]railroad

cars, but sometimes upon wagons sent by purchasers."
A personal
**
friend of the king,from [with]whom he had the
misfortune to differin religious opinion."
He estimated the value of wheat compared to [with]
'*
silver
to have been enhanced."
*'She assumed a tone in their intercourse most flatteringly
dissimilar/rom [to]that of the other pupils."
"
there is a
In general greatdifferenceof [in]persons in [asto]
to this influence."
sensibility
**
When Israel of the Lord beloved
Out the
o/[from] land of bondagecame."
" 90. Betiveen can be properly used onlyin relation
to two subjects, either of which,however,may be plu-
ral
; where more than two are spoken of,among must
be used,and should be substituted for beltffeefi
in the
following examples; "
' '
The courts will not recognizethe association,
either as tween
be-
its members
againstthird parties."
or
"The court fullyrecognized the general

rule of law, that the
contract between the members of a corporation
cannot be altered
by the majority."
"We regardtheir interaction as takingplace between a
series of psychical functions,rather than between logical ceptions,"
con-
But we use the expression*'

read between the lines,"
and the fanner "
ploughsbetween the rows of corn."
" 91. Prepositions are often omitted which are cessary
ne-
to the correct grammatical construction of the

sentence. E. g. : "
"This would have been less worthy [of]

notice."
"It was of about fortyfeet [in]diameter at the base,and of
about twelve feet [in]
altitude."
"
Then he
broughtme back [by]the way of the gateof the
outward sanctuary."
"
The army must of necessitybe the school, not of honor,but
[of]effeminacy."
I might be excused [from]taking
"
any more notice of it."
"Watch, therefore,
for ye know not [at]what hour your
Lord doth come."
"The laws of the censors have banished him [from]the
forum."
"
The act creating
militarysettlements was passed[in]the
"
same year,and it is stillin force.
"
Washingtonwas inaugurated President [on]April30,1789,
and retired to private
life[on]March 4, 1797."
"They stimulate the oiganization both of the mollusk and
[of]the creatures which form its food."
Where three or more words in the objective

case in
the same construction
requirethe same preposition,the
at all,
if repeated
preposition, must be used in every
case; as,
*'
Simplesensations are said to be distinguished in quality,
[in]intensity,and in time."
"
We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt,
of merit or
[of]demerit."
"She has been assisted by Miss Smitli,Miss Brown, and by
Miss Robinson, as well as by Messrs. Jones and Thompson."
(Omit the Italicizedby.)
" 92. Prepositions are often inserted needlessly,

pecially
es-
by the older Englishwriters. In the following

PREPOSITIONS. 75
examples the Italicized prepositions are erroneously terposed

in-
: "
**
And the apostles and elders came together/or to consider of
this matter."
**
This first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the dental,
acci-
instead of by the necessary antecedent."

**
Notwithstanding o/"the numerous panegyrics on the ancient
English liberty."
"
I will encounter loith Andronicus."
Inserting of after a//, before a word already governed

by another preposition, is especiallycommon ; as,
"
During all of this period, the same forces were at work."
**
He was informed of all of the conditions of the agreement."
**
In all 0/ these cases, the mind works by methods of its own
invention."
" 93. Double prepositions are often used where but
a single one is necessary; as, of of, on to, up above,

etc. E. g. : "
"The wall with the fence on top extended up above the tops
of the first-storywindows." (Omit up,)
**
Its stock then sold at and occasionally,at about that
par,
time, at a small premium." (Omit a/.)
"Leap in with me into this angry flood."
The expressions /rom hence, from thence,from whence,

are frequently used ; but as the adverbs hence, thence,
and whence include the idea of from, the expressions
are tautologous.
CHAPTER XIX. .
CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.
" 94. In a sentence containing

two or more words,
or two or more each of which
clauses, requires
a ferent
dif-
particle properly to connect it with the conchi-
sion of the sentence,the appropriate connecting particle
must he used after each word or clause. The violation
of this rule is one of the most common, and one of the
grossest,sins against Englishgrammar. In the follow-
ing
examples, the words inserted in brackets are neces-
sary
to make the sense complete. E. g. : "
"So he, as much [asj,and perhapsmore than, any of his

townsmen, feels the burden of
heavy taxes. Thus we see tliat
it is not a few, but all,[of]the peoplewho must bear the
burden."
**Beak about thelength[of], -or a littlelonger[than], and
twice as broad as the cuspidate scale." Botany. "
Those shares were

**
purchasedby a person who had been in-structed
to bid as high[as], but no higherthan,forty dollai*3per
share."
**
He has made alterations [in]and additions to the work."
**The firstproposal
was essentially and
different [from] rior
infe-
to the second."
**
Will it be urgedthat the four Gospels
are as old [as]
or even
"
older than tradition?
**He was more beloved but
[than], not so much admired as
Cynthia."
**Ho was guidedby interests alwaysdifferent [from], times
some-
contraryto, those of the community."

**
So far as these are private
property, the State has the same
ower [as], and no greaterthan,over other private property."
CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 77
" "Elegance prohibitsan arrangement that

95.
throws the emphasison, and thus causes a suspension
of the sense at, a particle or other unimportantword
(as in this sentence)."^

This,whether in the familiar or the solemn style,
"
is
alwaysinelegant, and should generally be avoided. In

forms of law, and the like,where fulness and exactness
of expression must take placeof every other consider-
ation,
*
it may be admitted."
In accordance with this the foregoing
principle, sen-
tence
from Hill's Ehetorio should be transposed as
follows : "
Eleganceprohibits
'*
an arrangement of the sentence
that throws the emphasis on a particle, or other un-
important
word, and there causes a suspensionof the

sense.**
The
examples in the precedingsection would all be
improved,therefore,
if likewise transposed
: "
"
So he as much as any of his townsmen feelsthe bnrden of
heavytaxes, and perhapsmore so. Thus we see that it is not a
few of the ])eople who must hear this burden, but all of them."
"Beak about the lengthof the cuspidate scale,or a little
longer, and twice as broad."
Those shares were
'*
purchasedby a person who had been instructed
to bid as highas fortydollars per share,but no higher."
"
He has made
alterations in the work, and additions to it."
"
Will it be urgedthat the four Gospelsare older than tradi-
tion,
or even as old?"
''He was more beloved than Cynthia,but not so much mired."
ad-
"
He guidedby interests always different from
was those of
the community, and sometimes contrary to them."
1 Hiirs of Rhetoric,page 139.

Principles
2
Mun*ay'sGrammar, under Rule XVII.
CHAPTER XX.
TAUTOLOGICAL AND SUPERFLUOUS WORDS.
" 96. The

superfluous use of
words, or of words
which are either impliedin another word already used
or in the sentence is very general "There
itself,
are,"or "There is,'*is especially common at the be-
ginning
of a sentence where it is useless or worse than
useless;stillthere are cases wh^re it givesa special
emphasisto a statement or a remark. The Italicized
words in the following sentences are all tautological
or
redundant,and should be omitted : "
**
We walked
usually ahead of the canoes, wading from one
side of the stream to the other,and back, accordingas either
shore offered the better footing."
**
One legof his trousers had become badlytattered,and, the
other beinglittlebetter, he had cut them both off at the knee."
"Give me both 0/ those books."
**
Mv brother called on me, and we both took a walk."
"Our actual life compels us to connect these ideas togetker
very often."
"They invited me to enter in."
"He combined these facts together"
higherup, in a recess, there were remains of similar
"Still
line with the lower ones."
step",but not in a straight
"There are on it now many rabbits and snakes,and in some
placesthere are now fieldsof maize ; and on the top there is a
small,ancient temple."
"
The layalone by themselves,
skulls and no other bones nor
any other objectswere aloiigwith them."

"The discriminated objectsare set apartby themaelves"
TAUTOLOGICAL AND SUPERFLUOUS WORDS. 79
'*
He had the candor to abandon at once his when
position Jie
was convinced that he was in error."
''At the extreme northern pointthere towers aloft the peak
of Mt. Athos."
**
Tfiere are certain features of monastic lifewhich are common
to all the monasteries.**
"A settlement of considerable had
proportions grown up
about and around it."
"
The government could show the entire history
of the fraud
from
perpetrated, firstconception the
of the scheme to its^Tta^
consummation. It is apparent from these lettersthat the
...
accused had combined togetherto carry out the fraud."

"
I shall have finished by the laUer end of the week."
"
"They soughthim throughoutthe whole country."
"
Greenhouse men m%u^ prefer
to sow seeds in Januaryrather
than in December."
"
" 97. The prefix re of itselfin many words indicates

repetitionor iteration,and such words are often re- dundantly
used with another word signifying the same

thing. Kg.: "
"There is not the ground for supposingit ever

slightest appears
re-
again"
**
We dangerof repeating
are in again the old folly of divid-
ing
our peopleinto two hostile camps."
**
Returningagain to the subject of our discussion."
"They returned inick again to the cityfrom whence they
came forth."
**
Whether he can recover back the sum thus paidis not the
questionbefore us."
"Return again,and take an oath with thee."
"
He restored it back to the owner."
" 98. The fUl fvU and fiJdup

expressions are wise
like-
redundant ; as,
"
Fi]l a basin /mZZ o/[with]water."
**FiU a glasshalf /uW of wine." (Say,"Half filla glass '
with wine.")
"
Fill up the pitwith stones."
80 MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGUSH.
"
"
The l"rn was filled full of hay.
*'The canal was filled up to the level of the sarroimdiog
surface/*
" 99. So the expression have got is frequently used

as in the following examples^, where got is fluous
super-
: "
**
I have got a cold."
''They have got an excellent assortment 'of silks at their

establishment."
"
1 have got to leave for Washington this evening.*'
"
In the following examples, however, the "
have got
is correct: "
"
I have got a better education than yoa have, because I have
worked harder for it.**
*'
Who can say,
'
I have got through learning my mother
' "
tongue, and my work is done ?
" 100. A great many tautologicalexpressions are in
common use, the absurdity of some of which is very
evident ; in others, however, it is not quite so obvious,

from their great familiarity. E. g. : "
"Rules and regulations/* "prominent and leading citizens,**

"usual and ordinary occurrence,'* "bold aud audacious bery,**
rob-
"a man of truth and veracity,**"sylvan forest,**"false

misrepresentations,** "subject matter,** "trifling minutise,'*
"
meet together,** "follow after,*'"most unbounded,** "very
incessant."
For the use of reason with hecatise,see ante^ " 84.
For double prepositions,etc.,see ante^ " 93.

MISCELLANEOUS WORDS AND PHRASES, 81
CHAPTER XXI.
MISCELLANEOUS WORDS AND PHRASES.
This
chaptercontains remarks on some words and
phraseswhich have not been mentioned in the fore-
going
pages, but which require notice on account of

their misuse or abuse,or for other reasons. They are
given without regardto order or subject.

Employ^ for Employee. The absurd use of the "
French employe for the clear and coiTect Englishemr

ployeeis one of the most wonderful perversities of the
American press. Webster's Dictionary, in the edition
of 1864, under the word emvphye^says: "The word
employee^ thoughperfectly conformable to analogy, and
thereforeperfectly legitimate,is not sanctioned by good
writers." Mr. Bryant,however,long ago, when editor
of the New York EveningPost,disallowed the use of
the French emphyS,and of the whole class of French
words, rdUy dSbutârtiMe,cort^gej etc.,*so constantly
used, for which we have perfect Englishequivalents.
The reason why Englishwriters did not use employee
undoubtedlyis that employeeswere alwaystermed ser-
1 This proclivity of newspaper writers to use French,words of

the meaning of which they have a very vague idea is shown in a
paper publishedin one England cities,

of our which said,not
New
all the iclat of
very longago, "At the Mayor'sl"cee last evening,
"
the.citywere present, undoubtedlymeaningelite. Another paper
"
'' **
a short time since spoke of a strike among the female employes
in a certain establishment.
6
82 MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGLISE.
vants or laborers. But at the

presenttime there is an
for the word, which would justify
absolute necessity its
if
coinage, it did not
alreadyexist. It is the proper
and necessary correlative of employer and is justas cor-rect
^
as are payee^ indorsee, dssignee,and other words of

tlie same class. It is givenin the Supplementto Wor-cester's
Dictionary, publishedfive years ago, is used by
the judgesof our Supreme Court in the Massachusetts
Keports, is found in many law books,and is in constant

use by many of our best newspapers, like the New York
Nation and the Boston Evening Transcript.There is
no objection whatever to employeewhich does not apply
equally to employe(especially when printedwithout the
finale). One wiseacre proposes to substitute worhmmi.
But the word employeeis far more comprehensive, can
be used for every gradeof employment,from the agent

of a corporation down, and appliesto persons of any
age or of either sex. The antipathy which some ple
peo-
have had to the word is astonishing. There is no
reason, however, why Americans at least should not
use it.
jyibriB. " This is one of the few French words which

have Englishequivalent,
no and it should be adopted
into the languageas a necessity.In that case it might
properlybe written debris, without the accent, like
depotSLudfete,
^ Allude. " the most

This is perhaps misused word in
the languageat the presentday. Its only proper sig-
nifica
is to refer to a person or thingwithout actu-
ally
mentioningthe name, " to hint at. Yet we
often read of a speechin which it is said that the

oeaker alluded to several when
subjects, in fact they
MISCELLANEOUS WORDS AND PHRASES. 83
constituted its whole substance. In a reportfrom a
branch of institution,
collegiate
a the writer states of
certain mattera that they have been alluded to in former
reports,when in fact they had been elaborately cussed.
dis-
A recent writer says, "And here it is proper
to allude to a method which has recentlybeen adopted'' ;
and then goes on to givea full and elaborate account of
it. There is hardlya newspaper printedwithout simi-
lar
misuse of this word.
Drive or lUde. " The. Englishcustom of usingride

exclusively for ridingon horseback,and drive for rid- ing
in a carriage, is the fashion in England,and un- doubtedly
correct enough because the fashion there.

This is not New England usage, however,and is not
warranted by our Dictionaries. Where a person does
actually driveît is proper to say that he takes a drive ;
but a person who goes with him does not drive^ but
rides. No says he drives when
one he rides in a street
car or a railroad car, and neither does he drive when
he rides in closed carriage.A farmer may say, " I will
a
drive you to the railroad station,"

as he intends actually
to drive ; but if he should overtake you walkingon tlie
road,he would ask you to ride,and not to drive.
Oh! and O. Oh! is properly

inteqection
"
onlyofan
pain,grief,
surprise, sorrow, or anxiety.It was formerly
employedalso for the expression of a wish,and is so
used in our versions of the Bible : but the best mod-
em writers
generallyreject this last usage of the word,
and employ only 0 for that purpose. This distinction
is made by Professors Crosby and Goodwin, by Goold
Brown, and by Prof. W. D. Whitney, in their Gram- mars,
and by most of the best authors.
0 is used for the

sign of address,or the vocative
case; for the expressionof a wish; to introduce an
exclamatoryphrase;and also,colloquially, as an meaning
un-
introduction or addition to a sentence,where

it might be omitted without at all affecting
the sense.
Oh I requiresthe exclamation after

pointimmediately
it,but 0 never should have it.
The following
are correct examplesof the use of both
words : -^
"
But oh ! as to embrace me she I waked."
inclined, " Miltmi,
**
But she is in her grave, and oh !
"
The difference to me ! Wordsioorth. "
**Oli! I am spoiled,
undone by villains." " Othello,
"
Oh ! I die,Horatio." " Hamlet.
**
How amiable thou art, 0 virtue ! "-
'*
0 for a lodgein some vast wilderness,
Some boundless contiguity
of shade." "
Covoptr,
**
O for the voice of that wild horn,
On Fontarabian echos borne ! " " ScotL
**
0 that this too, too solid flesh would melt,
"
Thaw, and resolve itselfinto a dew ! " Hamlet,
"I hope we have reformed that iQdiiferently
with us. -^0,
reform it altogether." Hamlet, "
"Remuneration! O, that's the Latin word for three far-

things.
" Love's Labor Lost,
"Catch, then,0, catch the transient hour.

Improve each moment as it flies." Johnstm, "
Mistake. Although the use of this verb in phrases

"
like "You are mistaken,"**I was mistaken,"etc.,is

given in the Dictionaries of Worcester,Webster, and
Richardson, as havingtwo precisely opposite meanings;
yet,as precision should alwaysbe preferred, it is better
to limit words to their primary signification, and say,
"You mistake," and **I mistook,"when that is what is
tended.
Mistaken, however,as an adjective, is unobjection-

able,
and the authority for it is abundant. We find
expressionslike mistaken ideas,''mistaken reports,"
*' '*
etc.,used by standard writers;and the hymn begin-

ning,
"Mistaken souls,who dream of heaven,"

is well known.
No mistake, for without
fail^certainly^ is a slang
used
phrase, but not often seen
colloquially, in print
Farther and Further. "
Although these words are
used indiscriminately
by many writers,yet fartheris
more appropriatelyapplicableto distance only; while
furtheris used in the sense of something to come,
moreover; as, "I will say further,"

etc.
Jeopardize. " This is a useless neologismfor the \

old Englishjeopard. We might as well use hazardize*
for hazard.
Almost no or nothing. "
"
*The Duke of Sutherland
has got almoist no rent for his salmon fisheries for the
last four years.'The writer should have said soarcdy
any rent^
^ His wages for that periodwere
"
almost
7iothinyJ'* Say scarcely anything."

"**
Elder and Older. "

^^
Elder and eldestare appliedto
to the best usage, onlyin com-
persons, and, according paring
members of the same family, thus: *An elder

brother *
;
*
the eldest sister.' But older and oldest ai-e
appliedto persons of different families,

and also to
things. Hence we say, Franklin was older than *
Washington*; 'Harvard is the oldest collegein the

United States.'""
1
p. 138.
Peabody*sConversatioD,
"
Ibid.,p. 112.
" ^*Had as had better,

liefy had best,
had like,
had as good,liad rather,are sometimes criticised; but
they are idioms which have been in use from early
times, and are abundantlysupportedby the best thorities.
au-
and would rather

Would as lief are also used
by good writers."^
Than whom. " admitted
It is generally at the pres-
ent
that usage has sanctioned
time this expression
as
and it has been used

good English, by many standard
writers besides Milton.
Transpire. " This word happen, in the sense of to

come to pass, is very common both in America and Eng-
land,
but is condemned by all good authority.The
true meaning of the word, according to Websfer, is:
"
1. To exhale ; to pass off in insensible perspiration ;
as, Fluids transpire
*
from the human body.* 2. To
escape from secrecy ; to become ; as, The pro-
*
public ceedings
"
of the council have not yet transpired.'
Quantity /br Number. "

speakingof a collection
In
or mass, we should use quantity;but in speakingof
individualobjects,
we must use the yvord number, "A
quantityof wheat,"or a quantityof wood," is correct,
"
but a quantity
"
of books,'*or a quantity of birds," is "
wrong.
Peas, Pease. " Peas is used for seeds or plantsof
the pea, when spoken of by number; pease, for the
seeds in bulk, or by quantity.
Taste of, Smellof in these expressions
of. " is The
redundant,and should not be used. We taste a thing,
or smell a thing,
but do not taste or smell ofit.
1 Tweed's Grammar, p. 106.

"
Differ from or with. " Worcester says,

"
Diflfertdth
a person in opinion; from a person thing;n some
or
"
quality; and this distinction is made by many of the
best writers. But there is good authorityfor differ "
"
from in and
opinion, its use must be left to individual
taste.
Different to. " This

is very often used nowa* form
from ; but it is a decided vulgarism,
days for different
and should not be tolerated.
Different than. " This is another expression for dif-

ferent
from, as bad as the foregoing.E. g. : The paper "
has become the organ of different men than [from]

those
who once determined its policy."
Gradtiated or fashion is very

was graduated. " A
prevalentof using the latter of these two forms in
speakingof a graduateof a university or college.
Why, it is hard to say, as gradiiate as an intransitive
verb is given in all the Dictionaries. He graduated "
at Oxford." " Todd.
Brothers, Brethren. " Brothers is used for male

children of the same parent; brethren is now used only
for members of a or charitable body.
religious
Zieam for Teach. " This
is very common error
among children and iinlettered people.To teach is to

instruct4 to learriyto receive instruction. "I shall be
glad to learn,if you will teach me."
Relative. " This word is much better than relation
to express kindred,and is now commonly used.
Meter and Gram. Although orthography

" does not
come within the provinceof this work, attention is
called to the in spelling
discrepancy metre, millimetre,
and other measures of the metric system, in close nection

con-
with diameter thermometer^ barometer or with

, ,
hexameter, dimeter, etc., all derived from the same
Greek word. It is altogether better to spell the itive

prim-
word, and all the French terms of the metric
system, in accordance with the great number of other
compound words made from it which have the nation

termi-
er.
The same reasoning applies to from which we

^ram,
have diagram, telegram, and the

anagram, monogram,
metric system weights, which should be spelled gram,

milli-
kilogram, etc. The only other word belonging
to this class not so spelled is and this

programme,
should be written which is an

old English
program,
word, long since introduced, and now used by many
writers.
APPENDIX I.
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
1. The regularpluralof nouns is formed by the ad-

dition
of 8 to the singular
; as,
book, books ; Nero, Neix)s ; motto, mottos ; rabbi,rabbis ;
eye, eyes ; halo,halos ; handful,handfuls ; muff,muffs ;
straw, straws ; hero,heros ; alkali,alkalis ; proof,proofs;
pen, pens ; folio,
folios; Miami, Miamis ; strife,
strifes.
2. If thesingularends with ", shych soft,or a?, the

pluralis formed by the addition of es, and makes an
additional syllable;
as,
omnibus, omnibuses ; lash,lashes ; fox,foxes ;
mass, masses ; church, churches ; James, Jameses.
3.Monosyllables ending in o also form the pluralby
adding es, except when the o is precededby another
vowel, when 8 alone is added; as,
no, noes ; wo, woes ; two, twos.
4. Nouns ending in y precededby a consonant or by

qî form the plural
by changingy into ies;as,
lady,ladies ; mercy, mercies ; body,bodies ; colloquy,
colloquies.
But if the y is precededby a vowel, a only is added for
the plural ; as,
boy,boys ; day,days; valley,
valleys
; hut ay, ayes.
Proper names ending in y simplyadd s for the ral;

plu-
as,
Henry, Henrys ; Tully,Tullys;
Willoughby,Willoughbys; Ptolemy,Ptolemys.
90 APPENDIX.
5. The third person singularof verbs is formed from

the first person in accordance
singular, with the fore-
going
rules. E. g. : "
ride,rides 5 push,pushes; woo, woos ;

make, makes ; march, marches ; comply,complies
;
break,breaks ; annex, annexes ; pray, prays ;
echo,echoB ; do, does ; buy,buys ;
professes
profess, ; go, goes ; buoy,buoys.
Compounds of do and go follow the ritlefor the tive
primi-
word ; as,
foregoes
forego, ; overdo,overdoes ;
undergo,undergoes; undo, undoes.
6. The reasons for the
foregoingchangesin the rules
for the formation of the pluralas they have heretofore
been laid down, are explained in the followingnication
commu-
to the Boston Evening Transcript : "
"To THE Editor of the Transcript: "
"
There are practical
some reforms which can stillbe
made in Englishby the droppingof useless silent letters.
Many such reforms have already been made within
the past fifty years, as the droppingof the useless silent
u in words ending in ouTy and the e after dg in words
like abridgmentand jttdgmerU, both of which reforms
are now universally acceptedin America. Both for
simplicity and uniformity I propose that the useless e
in formingthe plural of nouns enHing in i and 0, and
also the third person singular of verbs of like ending,
be droppedin all words except monosyllables. Words
like no, wo, go, and do would look very awkward if writ-
ten
without the es as b, termination. But the omission
of e in all such words of syllable
more than
would one
hardlybe noticed,and I will venture to say that,with

respectto more than half of th6 words ciiding in 0, no
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 91
one say without looking

can into the how the
dictionary
should be written.
plural
"
Of endingin ^, the more common
nouns are mainly
Oriental,chiefly Arabic,or else the names of Indian

tribes or nations,like Abnakis, Miamis, Mississippis,
the plurals of which are now almost always written
without the e. The most common noun endingin i is
alkali,an Arabic word. Other such words are cadiy
mufti,maravedi,and rabbi,all of which are as often
written without the e in the pluralas with it.
"
As to words
ending in o, still
the discrepancies
are
more perplexing.Thus, memento, canto, grotto,piano,

and many others,take simplyan s for the plural
; while
motto, mosquito,volcano,and many more, without any
apparent reason, take es in the plural. Now I re-
spectfully
submit that the useless and e be

perplexing
dropped in forming the pluralof the whole list of
wôrds ending with i and o, except in monosyllables.
It can make no difference with the pronunciation, and
from all doubt as to
will relieve the writer and printer
the correct spelling, by simply extendingthe regular
rule for the formation of the pluralto all this large
class of words.
"Cambridge,March 15, 1886."
This changehas received the commendation of Rev.
A. P. Peabody and Prof. F. W. Child of Harvard versity,
Uni-
of Prof. W. D. Whitney of Yale of
College, Mr.
W. J. Rolfe,the editor of Shakespeare, and of other
scholars. Prof. J. P. Cooke has also adoptedthe spell-
ing
of alkalis in hispublishedtext-book, De-
recently scriptiv "
List of Chemical Experiments."

7. The following nouns ending in / or fe form the
pluralby changingthe forfe into ves, viz. beef,calf.
92 APPENDIX
half,knife,
elf^ leaf life,
loafselfsheafshelfwharf
wife,SLudioolf;
as,
cilf,calves ; knife,knives ; wolf,wolves wharf,wharves.
;
Staff written staves

\^ usually in the plural.All other
nouns endingin/,/e,or ^ form the plural
regularly.
8. The pluralof the following.words is made by
changingthe vowel sound of the singular;as,
man, men ; woman,foot,feet; tooth,teeth,
women ;
brethren ^ ; goose, geese ;
brother, louse,lice; mouse, mice.
Compounds of these words form the plural in the same
way; as,
foeman,foemen ; needlewoman,needlewomen.
Northman, Northmen. dormouse,dormicf.
But the syllable
man at the end of a word doos not
always follow this rule;as,
German, Germans; Mussulman, Mussulmans;
Norman, Normans ; talismans.
talisman,
The of
plural ox is oxen ; of children.
child,
Many words derived from the classicalor other
9.
foreignlanguagesretain the pluralform of the lan-
guage
from which theyare taken. But many of them
have also the regular
Englishplural; as,
focus,foci; larva,larvae; h3rpotheses
hypothesis, ;
radius,radii; crisis,
crises; criteria;
criterion,
-
genus, genera; matrix,matrices; phenomenon,-nomena;

formula,formulse or formulas ; stigma,
stigmata
or stigmas
;
memorandum, -da (yr -dnms ; appendix,
-dices or -dixes;
bean,beaux or beans ; bandit,banditti or bandits ;
cherub,cherubim'cr cherubs ; seraphimor eeraphs.
seraph,
10. Inabbreviating measures of capacity, weight,
distance,or time,it is unnecessary to add an s for the
; as, gal,for gallonor gallons
plural ; Ih, for pound or
pounds ; yd,for yard or yards; yr, for year or years.
1 See anteypage 87.
APPENDIX II.
COMPOUND WORDS.
1. Words should not be compounded where separate

words will convey the justas well ; and
signification
separatesimplewords should always be united when
they are in common use, and when the words selves
them-
are accented as singlewords.
2. The number of words
formerlycompounded, or
written as two words, which are now written
generally
as one, is largeand constantly increasing;
as,
byword,anything,anybody,
railroad,steamboat,slaveholder,
everybody,^
everything, roughhew,heartache,
raindrop,
teardrop,
forevermore.
nowadays,forever,
3. So, many words
frequently which
seen are now
compounded,or written as two words, may be found

written as one by Spenser,Shakespeare,Milton, or
and should now
other old authors, be so written ; as,
wellnigh,erelong,bygone, alehouse,schoolboy,spellbound,
awestrnck,downtrodden, selfsame.
4. Where a noun is used as an a useless
adjective,
compound word should not be made; as,
top,Sunday school,supper table,slave trade,coffee
mountain
trade,minute hand, multiplication table,journeyman printer,
peasantwoman, cabbageleaf,sister cit}^brother minister,apple
tree, fellow student.
1
Many peopleeven go so far now as to write any one and every
one words.
as single But these are justas distinctly pronounced and
accented as two words as any man and every man.
94 APPENDIX.
5. The following and nouns, as well

adjectives as
many others,
are sometimes needlessly
compounded: "
law,law merchant,common
common sense, ill health,good
will,
free will,grandjury,North American (Review),New York
South Boston (Biidge),
(Directory), Washington Street (omnibus).
Also phraseslike the following

: "
good by,good morning,ever to be remembered (event), well

laid out (grounds),longlooked for (retuni),inside out, uncalled
for (remarks),by and by, attorneyat law,the pulHngdown, the
carrying away, the blottingout, etc.
6. The
following rules are givenfor various classes of
words,in accordance with these generalprinciples.
7. Titles like the following are compounded : "
ex-president, vice-
ex-governor, rear-admiml,vice-president,
chancellor,
etc. ; but viceroy,vicegei'ent, words.
are single
Titles like the followingare often compounded, but

are as and better,
frequently, written as two words : "
chiefjustice, solicitor
attorneygeneral,governor geneitd,
lieutenant colonel,
general, second lieutenant,
etc.
8. Words kindred
expressing are compounded ; as,
step-mother, etc., greatgrandfather,
step-daughter, great-
grandson, grand-uncle,
etc. grand-aunt great-aunt,
,
o r etc.
But the hyphen is needless in others,which are
compounded;as,
frequently
father in law, brother in law,son in law,etc., cousin german,
second cousin,etc.,foster brother, foster son, etc.
9. The following pointsof the compass should be

written as singlewords: "
northeast, southeast,
northwest, southwest.
But the followhig
are compounded : "
north-northeast,
west-southwest,
etc.
10. Fractions like the when

following, written out,
"'ihouldnot be compounded : "
one half, five eighths,

two thirds, ten thousandths.
COMPOUND WORDS. 95
"
Another class are compounded as follows : " '
one twenty-fifth, fiftieths,

forty-nine hundredths,
ninety-uine
thirteen ten-thousandths,
etc.
Numbers like the following

are also compounded : "
twenty-five, twenty-fifth,
forty-nine, forty-second,
etc.
11. Compounds of
halfor qimrter (whethera fraction
like the following

or from quarters) are usuallyprinted
with a hyphen : "
half-crown, half-barrel,
half-dollar, half-way, witted,
half-
half-past,
half-price,
half-yearly, quarter-barrel,
quarter-day,
ter-face,
quar-
etc.; hut quartermaster.
quarter-deck,
12. The words /oW, scctrey penny y
and pence^ united
with numbers of one syllable,
are written as single
words; but with numbers of more than one syllable
they are compounded or written as two words : "
twofold,tenfold,twenty-fold, hundred-fold,two hundred-fold ;
twenty score, a hundred score ; halfpenny,

fourscore, twopenny,
tenpenny,halfpence, fourpence, tenpence,fifteen-penny, fifteen
pence.
13. Ordinal numbers compounded with the word rate
or hand are usuallywritten with a hyphen ; as,
first-rate, second-hand,fouith-hand,
fifth-rate; etc.
14. Numerals arecompounded with words of various

meaning,which explainthemselves : "
one-eyed,
one-armed,two-handed, two-headed,three-legged,
four-story,
four-footed,
etc.
Numerals are also combined with a noun to form an
adjective
as follows : "
two-foot rule,ten-mile run, one-horse chaise,twenty-foot

pole,etc.
15. Compound nouns endingwith man or woman are
written as one word ; as,

Eiiorlishman,
workman, oysterman,goodman; needlewoman,
Frencliwoman, market woman, etc.
96 APPENDIX.
16. Compounds endingwith holder , monger, are ally

usu-
written as one word ; as,

landholder,slaveholder;
bondholder,stockholder, horough-
monger, cheesemonger,ironmonger.
Compounds ending with hoot,hook,drop,light
17. ,
house, room, side,or yard are made singlewords if

the first part of the compound is of onlyone syllable,
but are joinedby a hyphen if it is of more than one,
or written as two words; as,
longboat, canal-boat ; handbook, daybook,common-
sailboat, place-book
; dewdrop,raindrop, water-drop ; daylight,

sunlight,
candle-light
; alehouse,boathouse,warehouse,greenhouse,* ing-house,
meet-
dwelling-house
; bedroom,greenroom, (a^so
anteroom,)
dining-room, bedside,
dressing-room; fireside,
hillside,
river-side,
mountain-side ; churchyard,farmyard,courtyard, timber-yard,
marble-yard.
18.Compounds endingwith work are usually written
as words,unless the combination is unusual ; as,
single
groundwork,network, framework, needlework,brickwork,
ironwork,stonework ; biU mason-work,carpeut"r-work.
19. Compounds of and bush
tree,leaf, are frequently
made; but this seems unnecessary. Such words are
in the Oxford
alwaysprintedse|)arately Bibles.
20. Compounds endingwith like are written as one
word, unless derived from a proper name, or unusual

combinations, when they take the hyphen; as,
childlike, womanlike,workmanlike,fishlike; Argus-
lifelike, like,
Bedouin-like,
business-like,
miniatu^-like.
21. Compounds beginningwith eye are written as
one word; as,

eyebrow,eyeglass,
eyelash, eyewitness.
22. Compounds beginningwith school are written as
one word, except when made with a participle

(school-
bred,school-teaching);
as,
COMPOUND WORDS. 97
schoolmate,
schoolboy, schoolfellow,
schooldame,
schoolhouse,
schoolmistress.
schoolmaster, ^
But the following

are better as separatewords : "
school days,school district,

school committee,school teacher,
school children,
etc.
23. The word fellowis frequently

compounded with
another noun, as fellow-citizen^ etc.;but
felloiv-traveUer,
there seems to be no better reason for this than for
compoundingany of the pairsof words givenin graph
para-
4, above.
Compounds of a noun in the possessive
24. case with
another noun, and having a peculiar signification,
are
not infrequent;as,
bird's-eye,
king's-evil, bear's-foot,
crow's-nest, jew's-harp,
etc.
But many like words have become consolidated;
as,
beeswax,ratsbane,townspeople,
etc.
25.Compounds of a presentparticiplewith a noun

or adjective
are connected by the hyphen; as,
generally
dining-table,
printing-office, composing-room;
good-looking,
cloud-compelling,
etc.
In a few pages of
Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors
occur the compounds of this class:
following "
"always wind-obeyingdeep,""well-dealing countrymen,"

" "
dark- workingsorceress,"soul-killing
witches,""fool-begged
patience," "sap-consumingwinter."
Compoundsof words expressing
26. color,like brown-
ish
white,need not be written with a
yellowor yellowish
hyphen; but where a noun is used with an adjective
expressing the hyphen should be used ; as,
color,
lemon-yellow,
iron-gray, emerald-green
silver-gray,
iron-red, j
also,red-hot.
27. The selfis united with numerous
word words
of variouspartsof speech, formingcompounds which
7
98 APPENDIX.
are self-explaining. The hyphen is used in all words
beginningwith ulfêxceptingselfhood, selfsame, and

selfishwith its derivatives. Selfis also compounded
with pronouns as a termination,and the compound
written as one word; as, himself, myself,itself, etc.
Some writers use oneself for on^s self,but its use is
not well established.
28. compound personalepithets

Many are in con-
stant
use, which are usuallywritten with a hyphen

and explainthemselves;as,
blue-eyed,
light-haired, broad-shouldered,
sharp-uosed, long-
legged,
etc.
29. Compounds of adverbs like above,ill,well,so,

(butnot endingin
of adverbs ly,)with a participleor
participial adjective,to form an epithet,

are sometimes
written with a hyphenwhen theyprecede the noun they
qualify, but it is quiteas well to make them separate
words in all cases ; as,
"the well known author," ^*theso called sjielling
reform,"
"
this illadvised proceeding," the **
above named parties."
Compound adverbs should be written as single
words; as,
meanwhile,awhile,meantime,everywhere,anywhere,forever,
forevermore,
moreover, howsoever,
wheresoever,
hereinbefore.
30. Compounds of all with an adjective

or parti-
ciple
a
are very common, and are written with a hyphen ;

as,
all-conscious,
all-wise,all-knowing,
all-commanding,all-
seeing,all-honored,
all-informing,
all-mighty
{contracted
to
almighty).
31. Compounds made with
prefixesare very perplex-
ing
as to the use of the hyphen,and are given in the
Dictionaries and used by authors both with and with-
COMPOUND WORDS. 99
out it. Those made from or adverbs,like

prepositions
ovevy under, after, out, cross, or counter, with words of
one syllable,are generally made one word,and sometimes
with words of more than one syllable.But the prac-
tice
is so variable,and the difference of the Dictionaries
so great,that the matter must be left to the taste and
discretion of the writer. All words should be consoli-
dated
that it is possible
to consolidate.
Many of these compounds given in the Dictionaries,

however, would be much better written as separate
words; as,
under lip,overanxious,over cunning,over burdensome,after
age, after part,cross section, cross reference,
counter revolution,
counter influence.
32. Compounds made from prefixes like demi,semi,

non, sub,inter,intro,
intra,extra, etc.,or like deutero,
pseudo,sutpho,ikermo,etc.,are often made and
electro,
written as singlewords,althoughusage is -unsettled.
33. Where the

prefixco-, re-, or pre- occurs before a
word which beginswith the vowel of the prefix, or
where before a consonant the prefixmakes a word similar

in form with another of different signification, a
hyphen should be used after the prefix ; as,

re-examine, re-creation,
co-operate,co-ordinate,pre-exist,
re-formation.
re-collect,
34. It is not claimed that the rules
foregoing are
perfect,and usage is so variant that it cannot be ex-

pected
theywill be universally adopted,as the matter is
dependenton taste as well as custom. But the main
pointis to make compound words only where theywill

helpthe reader to understand the writer^smeaning.
u .
"*
-5 V
,
APPENDIX III.
SOME TYPOGRAPHICAL MATTERS.
1. Correcting Proofs. " In

correctingproofs, espe-
cially
where they are sent to a distance,by mail or
otherwise,authors should not use a lead pencil, as the
marks are very likely to become illegible. Either ink
or a crayon pencilshould be used.
2. When a query is made on the proof-sheet, if the
author desires the correction to be made, he should
erase the ? or Qy, If he does not wish the change
made, the correction and query should both be distinctly
marked through. Queriesshould never he rubbed
otU vntk an eraser. This practice givesmuch trouble
to proof-readers, who are at a loss what to do, as the
queriesoften relate to discrepancies in the manu-
script,
or to other matters which they cannot readily

decide. When duplicate proofsare sent to an author,
the one marked by the proof-reader should invariably be
returnedâs otherwise errors marked by him may pass

without being discovered.
3. Dates and Numbers. " A short dash is used be-
tween
two numbers to representthat they are a series,
includingthe numbers given and all the intervening
ones. Also to show that a part of two or more secutive,
con-
years isvincluded in a certain term. Also,

wher^tSitea':^''
#xen between the 1st of January and
the 25th' of March from the time of the adoptionof
SOME TYPOGRAPHICAL MATTERS. 101
the New Styleby the Catholic Church in 1582 to the

time of its adoptionby the English Parliament in
1752,*to show that accordingto Old Style it is in
one year, and accordingto New Style in the other;
as, January 10, 1641-2; March 18, 1724-5.^
4. In quotingpages or numbers the full figures should
be used; as, pp. 245-253, Nos. 124-129; not 245-53,
1 24-9. But in giving dates the figuresrepresenting the
century may be dropped; as, 1634-35, not 1634-5;
1713-15, not 1713-5; 1875-79, not 1875-9; otherwise,
it might sometimes appear to stand for a date in
Old and New Style.
5. Dates are much better in figures than printed
in full, althoughin legaldocuments they are written
out to preventmistake,or ûd by tbe alteration of a
figure.It is better to write out the month, either in
narrative matter or in the date of a letter, instead of
abbreviating; as, the 24th of December, 1880; or, De-cember
24, 1880 ; instead of Dec. 24, 1880. But where
dates are frequent, in statisticalor other matter, they
may be abbreviated to save space. Write 2d, 3d, not

2nd, 3rd.
6. Parentheses. " Parentheses are used to enclose an
explanation, 'defii^tion,
authority, reference,translation,
or other matter not belongingto the sentence. They
are now seldom used except for this purpose.
1 On the 16th of
March, 27 Eiiz. 1584-5,a bill was read the first
time,in the House of Lords,entitled " An Act givingher Majesty
authorityto alter and new make a Calendar,accordingto the Calen-
dar
used in other countries." Sir Harris Nicolas. But the change
"
was not made till the year 1752. The Old Style is stillretained
in Russia and Greece,and is now twelve days behind the regular
calendar.
2 Sometimes Written 172|,
or 1724/5.
102 APPENDIX.
7. Brackets. " The use of brackets is the same as
that ofparentheses, but is restricted to interpolations
notes, or explanations
corrections, made by authors in
quotationsfrom others, or by editors in editingworks.
8. Quotations. " Marks of quotation(" ") are used
to indicate a passage taken from another author, or
what is said by a when
speaker, it is given in his own
words. But the marks are not used when the substance
onlyof passage is given,
a or when a speechis not given
in the first person. Double marks are generally used
for ; but
quotation
a where one quotationoccurs within
another,single
marks are used.
9. Inquotations from books or letters, if the quo-

tation
is long,"
it is usual to begin it with a paragraph.
If the quotationdoes not begina paragraph, none should
be made before its close.
Every paragraphshould have the commencing
10.
quotationmarks, but no close should be used except
at the end of the last-quotedparagraph. If there is a
break in the quotation,three or four periods
are ally
gener-
used to indicate the omission.
11. Titles ofbooks, pictures,or newspapers, etc.,

when formallygiven,are usuallyquoted; but where
the title of a book is well known, as the Iliad, the "
Odyssey,the Êneid, or Paradise Lost, or is abbrevi-

ated, "
or is frequently repeated,quotingis unnecessary.

12. Inquotingstanzas of poetry, the commencing
quotationmark should stand outside of the stanza,so
that the lines themselves will appear precisely
as in the
original.The mistake should not be made of allowing

the quotationmarks belongingto the stanza itself to
stand outside of the lines.
SOME TYPOGRAPHICAL MATTERS. 103
13. The names of vessels are sometimes quoted. But

this seems to be
quiteas unnecessary generally
as quofcj
ing the names of streets,churches,or anythingelse ;

especiallyin any work where constant repetition
of the
names of vessels occurs.
14. Italics. " All words from foreign languages
writ-
ten
with our which
alphabet have not been Anglicized
should be Italicizedwhenever they occur in an English
sentence. But the common Latin abbreviations e. g.,
i. e., etc.,viz.,
are as well,or better,printedin Eoman.
In such phrasesas in loco parentis,in statu quo, etc.,
the in should not be in Roman when the rest of the
phraseis Italic,
as the in is Latin,not English.
15. Abbreviations. " In narrative matter very few
abbreviations are used in
English. Those allowed are
titleslike Mr., Messrs.,Mrs.,Dr.,Hon.,Eev.,and hon-orary
degreesand titles, or initial letters indicating
membership of a society ; as, LL. D., D. D., Esq.,Kt.,
K. C. B., M. P., S. J.,A. A. S., etc. The Latin e. g.,
i.e., viz.,
and etc. are also very common.
16. Military when

titles, frequently occurring,may
be properlyabbreviated, and also the title Professor.
Nothing is gained,however, by abbreviating short
titles like Captain or Colonel,although in lists of
names they should be so written. A long title like
Professor or Major-General should not be written in
full when only initialsof the name are given.
17. Where sovereigns of a country designated by
numbers are mentioned incidentally, the number is
usuallywritten in full;as, Henry the Eighth,Louis
the Sixteenth. But in works where such names occur
often,they may be written with Roman numerals ; as,

Henry VIIL, Louis XVI.
104 APPENDIX.
18. In numbers, roand

printing sums are usually
out, and
spelled numbers smaller than one hundred;
but where statisticsare should
given,figures be used,
however small the numbers may be. Sums of money,
also,are better given in figures
where odd numbers
occur, or where dollars and cents are b^th to be pressed,

ex-
as they are mucheasilyapprehended.

more
19. Accented Letters. The Englishlanguagehas

"
no universally recognized accentual or diacritical

marks,
exceptthe long(-)and short (^),which are never used
in general works,and the diaeresis( ). Even this last ..
is used in and dictionaries for a

spelling-books purpose
totallydifferentfrom its proper use. All other accents
on vowels in Englishhave therefore meaning; no fixed
end it is useless for writers to undertake to show by the
use of such letters the pronunciation of a foreign word
to a mere Englishreader.
20. Foreign Names. In usingFrench titlesbefore
"
names in English, the barbarism of using an English

noun with a French preposition should be avoided;
either make both French or both English. Write Due
d'Orleans, or Duke of Orleans ; Due de la Kochefoucauld,
or Duke of La Rochefoucauld ; Comte d'Artois, or
Count of Artois;Duchesse de Perpignan, or Duchess

of Perpignan. Not Duke d'0rl6ans, Duke de la Roche-
foucauld,
Count d'Artois, Duchess de Perpignan.
21. Names from foreignlanguages, precededby a
preposition without a title or Christian name, as "
Van in Dutch, Von in German, De or D' in French,

or Da, Bella,or Di in Italian, when given in Eng- "
lish,
should be written with a capital for the preposition ;
as. Van Tromp, Von Humboldt, Von Moltke,De Thou,

D*Alembert,Da Ponte, Delia Crusca,Di Cesnola,etc.
SOME TYPOGRAPHICAL MATTERS. .
105
22. The
practice of writingthe preposition in such
names as these with a small letter prevails
to some tent.
ex-
This is not only an innovation on established

Englishcustom, but is as much of an absurdity as it
would be to write Mr. with a small m. If any change
is made, the name should be written as a single word,
as Vantromp, Dethou.
23. Indexes. " The number of books written for

instruction publishedwithout an index,^ or with a poor
one, is very large ; in fact, a book with a good index
is an exception. Some indexes are a mere catalogue
of the proper names in the book, whether anythingis
told about
the persons named or not, and even when
merelyoccurringin a list of names of importance
no
whatever. Sometimes an index is merelya transcript

of headingsin a book, or in a biographya mere list
of in the order of the pages ; in either case
occurrences
the table of contents would answer the same purpose.

Again,indexes are sometimes made by firstgiv-
24. ing
a name or a subject, and then arranging the items
under it alphabetically, without reference to order of
subject or to chronology.If possible, this is worse than
following the exact order of the book.
25. An index should be made for the purpose of
1 As an instance ofthis,Groold Brown's "Grammar of English

Grammars" may be mentioned, a work of "
over one thousand tavo
oc-
pages printedin small type and containing

an immense amount
of valuable information, " which is rendered almost totally
useless
for reference by its lack of an index. I have sometimes hunted
for hours for somethingI was certain of havingseen in the- book,
and hunted in vain,till by accident I stumbled upon the passage
"
searched for. Bain's **
CompositionGrammar likewise has no in-
dex,
althoughthe remedied by
fault is partially an elaborate table
of contents.
106 APPENDIX.
informing those who consult it what there is in the
book relating to the subjects which they wish to

may
consult it for. In a biography, therefore, the logical

chrono-
order should be followed; where a biography

begins, as is often the case,
with a mention of the death
of the subject, immediately followed by an account of
his birth and early life, it appears somewhat absurd if
arranged in that order in the index.
26. Every subject on which there is aiiy information
to be given should have a place in the index, and

every
page mentioned where anything concerning it occurs;
so that looking for that subject be able to

any one may
find all there is in the book in relation to it. sary

Unneces-
inversion should be avoided, and the regular order
of words followed as closely as possible.
27. It is impossible to give anything more definite
on the subject af indexes. An author or editor ought
to know what is important, and make his index ingly

accord-
but keeping in mind that it is not worth while

;
to fill an index with useless references to nothing, and
that the bulk of an index is no test of its value.

INDEX.
9-12, both and, 66, 67.

A or an,
Abbreviations, 19, 103, 104.
. .
Brackets, 102.
.
Accented Letters,104. brothers,brethren, 87, 92. ./

acquaintancey19. but,66, 67, 69, 70.
Adjectives,48"55. For Adverbs,
53, 54. cherubims, 19, 92.
Adjective Pronouns, 48-55. Collective Noun, 16, 17, 27, 51.

Adverbs, 56-59. For Adjectives, Compound Words, 93-4^. less
Use-
53, 54. Position of, 32, 56, 57. Compounds, 93, 94, 96, 97.
For Relative Pronouns, 62. Construction of Sentences, 14, 23,
alf,51, 52. att of, 75. 28, 29, 32, 45, 50, 56, 57, 67, 69,
allude,82. 72, 76, 77.
almost no, 85. CorrectingProofs, 100.
alternative,20. Correlatives,
66-68.
among, 73.
an, 9-12. dare, 31, 32.

and, beginning sentence, 69. DateA, 100, 101.
and .
both, 66,
. .
67. debris^ 82.
and which or who, 61, 62. Decimal Numbers not plural,12.
any^ 64. from, or with.
differ 87.
any one, 93. "^ differentthan^ 87.

anybody else's, 23. differentto, 72, 87.
are for is,14, 16, 18, 27. dilemma, 20.
Article,Uses of,9-12. Indefinite, do^ done, 33.
9, 10. Definite, 10. Omission Double Negatives, 64, 65.
of, 10, 11. Inserted ously,
errone- Double Prepositions,75.
11. drive or ride, 83.
as, so, 66, 67.
each, 15, 26.
because after reason, 69. each other 49.
^
being,46, 47. effluvia,

19.
besides,50. either^ pron., 50, 51.

between, 73, 74. either . . . or, 66, 67.
bid, 31, 32. elder,85.
108 INDEX.
the thatij
. .49,50.
. \jeopardize,
85.
employeor employee^81,82.
as wellj
equally 58. last, 54.
eceVy never, 59. last three,52.

every, 15, 26. latter, 54.
every one, 93. and îe,

/aj^ 42, 43.
learn for feacA,87.
85.
farther, 51,52.
less,
/ee/,81,32,53,54. /ie and lay,42,43.
Jtllow,compounds of,97. /iê for as, 57, 58.
fewer,51, 52. 2iA;e,
compounds of,96.
or up, 79, 80.
Jillf'aXl
firstly,
Jirat, 52,54. means, 18, 49.
^r""two, 52. meter, 87.
folks,19.
folk, 94,103.
MilitaryTitles,
ForeignNames, 104,105. Miss,Misses,19.
former,54. mistake,
84.
Fractions,compomided,94,95. mistaken,85.
French words in 81,82, Money, sum of,in plural,
"nglish, requires
104. singularv erb,18.
from, 72,73. most for almost,

59.
from hence,thence 75. Mr.,pi.Messieurs,19.
further,85. Mrs.,pi.Mesdames, 19.
Mtusulmen, 19.
got,80.
graduatedor smu 87.
graduated, 104, 105.
Names, Foreign,
âm, 88. Double,64, 65.
Negatives,
neither,pron., 49.
AoJ /"^
a" AcK? better,
etc.,86. neither . . . nor, 66-68.
Aa{/*,
compounds of,95. Neuter Verb has same Case after
have got, 80. as before it,17,18, 24.
Aoto ^to, 59. never, ever, 59.
New Style, 101.
if, so, 67.
, ,
no, 15,26, 58, 64,65, 85.
(/*...then,66, 67. no mistake^ 85.
Imperative Mood requires
tive
Objec- Nominative Case and the Verb,
Case,24. 13-19.
ImperfectTense,35. none, 51.
in, 73. nor, 64-66, 68, 69.
Indexes,105. not, 15, 26,64, 65.
Infinitive Mood, 31-33. sion
Omis- not only . . . but,66, 68.
of to,31. of to,32.
Misuse nothingafter almost^85.
is for are, 14,16,17, 18, 22. Nouns of Multitude, 16, 17, 27,
~^lic8, 103. 51.
INDEX. 109
noWf as adj.,54. Preterite for

Participle,35.
number for quantity
^
86. previously53.
prttAouSy y
Numbers, how
written,92,94,95, programme^ 88.
100,101, 103,104. Pronoun and Antecedent,
24-29.
Numerals, compounded,95. Pronouns,Possessive Case of,22.
ObjectiveCase of, 24. Adjec-
tive,
0 and oh ! 83, S4. 48-55.
Rehitive,
60-63.
ObjectiveCase, 24. Proofs,correcting,
100.
""/;19,45, 72-75.
oh I and 0, 83, 84. quantity for number^86.
Old and New 101.
Style, quitefor very, 58.
oêr, 86. Quotations,
102,103.
on iGt in,73.
one, one*8f51. re-. Prefix,79, 99.
one another y
49. reason because^
. .
69..
onlyfor excq"t^70. Redundant Words, 69, 75, 78-80.

or, 65, 66, 67,69. relative lot relation^
19, 87.
othery49,50. Relative Pronouns,60-63.
other bendeSf50.
" " . ride or drive,
83.
otAer than,50.
. . .
otherwise,
49. Sciences,
names of,Singular,
18.
secondjsecondly,
52.
/"a"n", 18. "ee, 31, 32.

101.
Parentheses, Sentences, Construction of, 14,
Preterite
Participle, 36.
used for, 23,28,29, 32, 45,50, 56, 57,67,
Use of the,44-47. Possessive 69,72, 76, 77.
Case with, 45, 46. Active for seraphimSf19,92.
Passive,46,-47. Awkward use set and sit,
43, 44.
of Passive,47. shall and will,36-41.
peasand pease,, 86. should and would,86-41.
Plural,of Nouns, 13-20, 89-92. sitand set,43,44.
19. Of Decimals,19.
Of Titles, hen, 44.
sitting
Of Pronouns, 25-27. Of Verbs, 44.
sitting-room,
13-20, 25-27, 89-92. Of eign
For- smell,53.
Words, 92. Of Abbrevia-
tions, smeU of,86.
92. Formation of,89-92. so, such, as, that,
66, 67.
, . .
Possessive Case, 21-24. With matter^ 80.

subject
45, 46.
Participle, Mood,
Subjunctive 30.
Prefix re-, 79, 99. such for so, 58.
Prefixes,compounds with,98, 99. Words, 69,75,78-80.
Superfluous
Prepositions,
72-76. At end of sylvan
forest,
80.
sentence, 72. Misuse of, 72,
73. Omission of,74. Needless toMe, 53.
use of,74,75. Double,76. taste of,86.
110 INDEX.
TaatologicalWords,69,7b,78-80. Verb,Nominative Case and, 13-

teach and learn,
87. 19.
Tense, or Time, 34,35. Verb,Neater,has same Case after
than whom, 86. as before it,
17, 18, 24.
that,adj.pron., 48,54,55. very, 58.
that,rel. pron., 60, 63. veryincessant,
80.
that,conj.,66, 70, 71. Vessels,
quotingnames of,103.
them for those,55.
then,as adj.,54. was for were, 13, 26, 30.
then .when,66.
, .
was graduated, 87.
there where,66.
. . . were for was, 14,16,17, 26, 30.
these,those,54,55. when . . . then,66.
third,thirdly^52. where there,66. . . .
fAu,that,48, 54,55. whereahouts,

19.
Mote and yo", 25, 26. whether ... or, 66.
though . . . yet,66. which,28,60-63.
Oiree last,52. whole,51, 52.
Time, or Tense,34, 35. toAo,whose,whom, 24,60-68f'^
Titles,of Individuals,19, 103. tot7/and shall,
36-41.
Military,94, 103. Of Books, but for,70.
loithout for unless,
etc.,102. Foreign, 104,105. ttôttMand should,36-41.
to (signof Infinitive),
31-33. would as 86.
Uef,would rather,
transpire,
86.
minuiics,
trifling 80. yet , . " though,66.
try and, 33. you was, 13.
two 52.
first, yotfand thou,25, 26.
TTniversltyPresi*. Cambridge : John WUsoii nnd Son.

HandbooK of Punctuation.
Mctnation anilder Matters.

Typoioiipliical
For the Printers,
use Authors of iTettehei^, and Scholars*
By MABSMAIilt T. BIGEJLOW, Corrector at the Uni'
versity BrettSs Camhridge. SmaU 4to. CLOTH, S9
CENTS.
Lenox Library, Neva York, Aug. 19, 1881.

Deab Mb. BiGiiiiOW. "
I sent for your
" Punctuation and other
"
Typographical Matters (having long groaned over bad pointing in
autnora and printers), and was glad to find an excellent manual
which will contribute to the comfort of many. I cordially recom*
mend it to all authors, printers, men and of letters.
Faithfully yours,
AlUbone'8 Dictionary of Awthort, I. Austin Allibonb.
**
Mr. Bigelow's book is
praf.tical treatment
a of the subject, and
enlarges the reading public's jations to him."
obli " Atlantic Monthly,
** It is intended for the use of teachers, while
authors and business
men who have occasion to print circulars, advertisements, etc., can
hardly afford to be without a copy of it for reference." " Schenectady

Daily Union.
Mistakes
inWriting How toATOidTbim
anil
Englisli,
Wor the Use of all who Teach, Write, or Speak the Lan^
guage. By MABSHAXL T, BIGELOW, author of
**
Punctuation and other Typogrttphical Matters,^'
CLOTH, SO CENTS.
** This is an admirable little work ; the more admirable for the use
of busy people, because it is little,dnce it is also clear and
compre-
hensive.
The errors pointed out are those to which nearly all writors
are liable. . . .
We commend it as the most convenient little manual
of which we have knowledge." " Christian Herald,
*'
This is a valuable little volume. It is not a
grammar, with rules
and definitions ; but it takes up words and parts of speech, and shows,
generally by example, their correct use. It is arranged cally,
systemati-
and is adapted to the use of the home and the school." " The
Ctir^nt.
** The matter is well arranged, and the points ux"on which ^nstruc
tion Is desired can be readily found." "
Cfhrittian Union.
**
This is a useful book. A careful study of the several cliapters
would be of advantage
great to all who have to do mu"h or little
"Mak*n^ er writing. "" Ooepel Banner*
THE BiaST WOBD IV THE UOBI FLAO".
CAMPBELL'S
Handbook of English Synonyms
WITH AN APPSNDIX.
8HOWINO
The Correct Uses of Prepositions.
160 pa"pei. Heat olotii Undingf 50 oti.
This oompaot little Tolnme contains about 40,000 synonymoidl

words, printed in clear, distinct type.
It 18 a work which will substantially aid speakers, writers,

teachers and students " in fact all who would gain a more oopioua
vocabulary and increase their power of expression.
It includfs the really important matter of the more bulky toI*
umes which are eommonly sold for two dollars or more.
A great choice of words is here placed at the service of tha
writer and the speaker.
The Appendix, containing **

Prepositions Compared and Dia-
eriminated," and *'A List showing what Prepositions to use after
certain Words," is a trustworthy guide in a great number of cases
of doubtful usage. A writer's knowledge of EngUsh Idiom and
his style ara best iôwn by his use of these littla hinges of the
languaize.

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MISTAKES

AND HOW TO AVOID THEM.

FOR THE TJS" OF ALL WHO TEACH, WRITE, OR SPEAK

John Wilson and Son, Cambbidoe.

WRITER in Blackwood once said that, *'with

celebrated author of this day who has written two

pages consecutively without some flagrant impropri-

statement, nevertheless it is very near the

truth in reference to the present time.

While mere slavish following of the rules of mar

does not necessarily constitute elegant English,

own, it must be admitted that no writer, however

brilliant, should be excused for grammatical errors

that might be avoided.

It be sufficient reason for publishing other

work on a subject on which so much has been

written, to say that the object of it is entirely differ-

from that of most works which have appeared

It is hoped that this work may be of use to the

the errors to which the best writers of

Englishare liable. It is so arrangedthat any ular

that a full knowledge of all the pointstreated may

mere vulgarismswhich every one with any claim to

education is supposed to know and avoid,but such

all authors have received attention.

by their writers before the works in which

they occurred were published. Others have been

my purpose. It must be borne in mind, that,in

and in many cases should undoubtedlybe entirely

In the examples cited,all the words printedin

fluous. The words inserted in brackets are to take

added to make the sentence correct.

Where an author's name is given for an erroneous

sentence,it is done for the purpose of showing that

writingmodem Englishwe are not to follow archaic

The short chapter entitled "Construction of Sen-

might lead one to expect more than is there

given; but as that is the

In the Appendix are given rules for the formation

change which this

given some rules as to with

authors ought to be acquainted.

Besides the Grammars of Murray, Goold Brown,

Professors Whitney and Tweed, and others, I have

made frequent use

of Rhetoric," Prof. A. P. Peabody's "Conversation,

its Faults and its Graces," the various publications of

Mr. Richard Grant White, and Professor Mathews's

"Words, their Use and Abuse," and to all these

works I am greatly indebted.

Cambridge, October 5, 1886.

I. Use of ths Abticlb "

II. The Nominative Case akd the Verb 13

III. The Possessite Case 21

IV. The Objective Case 24

VI. " The Subjunctive Mood 30

VII: The Infinitive Mood 31

VIII. Tense, or Time 34

IX. Shall and Will, Should and Would . .

X. Lie and Lay. " Set and Sit 42

XI. Use Op the Participle 45

XII. Adjectives and Adjective Pronouns . .

XIV. Relative Pronouns 60