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THE COURSE CHART

The AP World History course is divided among six different time periods. This PERIODIZATION is essential for
contextualizing information and understanding change and continuity over time. Since the World History course covers
over 10,000 years of history, it is essential students understand the framework of history. The course chart is one
interpretation of the six periods that are outlined in the course description. It acts as a vocabulary timeline that can be
“unpacked.” This chart also assists in acting as the schema through which students can understand the course.

Period Dates Beginning Middle End

River Valley 3000 BCE Cities Complex Institutions Indo-European Nomads
Civilization Writing Mandate of Heaven Iron Metallurgy
600 BCE Code of Hammurabi
Classical 600 BCE Axial Age Han, Rome, Gupta (LPEs) Huns
Period of Warring States Silk Roads Fall of Empires
600 CE Christianity Byzantine
Post-Classical 600 CE Islam Silk, Sand, & Sea Mongols and Turks
Caliphates Sui/Tang/Song Aztec/Inca
1450 CE Feudalism Swahili/Mali Exploration/Renaissance
Crusades
Early Modern 1450 CE Gunpowder Empires Columbian Exchange Asian Isolation
New World Silver/Sugar Enlightenment
1750 CE Mercantilism Scientific Revolution Capitalism
Protestant Reformation
Long 19th 1750 CE Industrial Revolution Core/periphery POWRR-B
Century Atlantic Revolution Abolition Indentured Servitude
1900 CE
Modern 1900 CE M.A.I.N. Decolonization Green Revolution
World Wars Cold War Semi-Periphery
present Communism United Nations Neo-colonization
Consumerism Proxy Wars Economic Liberalism

Course Themes

Theme Subsets
Interaction between Humans and the Demography and disease Patterns of Settlement
Environment Migration Technology
Development and Interaction of Religions Science and Technology Arts
Culture Belief Systems, Philosophies and Ideologies Architecture

State-Building, Expansion and Political Structures Forms of Governance Empires

Conflict; Political Nations and Nationalism Revolts and Revolutions
Regional, Trans-regional and Global Structures and Organizations
Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Agricultural and Pastoral production Trade and Commerce
Economic Systems Labor Systems Industrialization Capitalism and Socialism

Development and Transformation of Gender Roles and Relations Family and Kinship
Social Structures Racial and Ethnic Constructions Social and Economic Classes
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The Course Chart: Overview in Brief

There are two major events in world history before the chart date of 3,000 BCE. First, humans migrated out of Africa populating and settling most
of the globe, including Polynesia/Oceania and the Americas. Second, and more significantly, was the Neolithic Revolution, or the First Agricultural
Revolution. This occurred, initially, around 10,000 BCE and was a slow, trial-and-error process that led to major developments in world history. Around
roughly 5,000 BCE, major urban centers began developing as a result of the settlement patters of the Neolithic societies (1st row of the chart). Writing and
other systems of record keeping helped develop even greater complex institutions in culture, government, economics and society. Political ideas such as the
Mandate of Heaven and the Code of Hammurabi became fundamental political philosophies in their respective cultural centers. Eventually, for various
reasons, all of the early civilizations declined, were conquered, or were transformed. Beginning around 1000 BCE, the Indo-European nomadic migrations
spread numerous languages and cultural traits, including the development and knowledge of iron technology and weaponry.
The transition to the Classical Period (2nd row of the chart) is marked by the political decentralization of many societies along with the development
and codification of religious and philosophical systems throughout Eurasia. Over time, these cultural traditions became intertwined with the emerging
empires, such as the Han Dynasty, the Roman Empire and the Gupta Empire. These large, centralized, bureaucratic empires also created economic structures
and institutions including massive road systems that facilitated long-distance trade over the Eurasian Silk Roads. However, over time, these empires began to
crumble from the inside thus becoming vulnerable to outside invasions, most notably the Huns from Central Asia. While the Han and Gupta became
decentralized areas, a portion of the Roman Empire was able to shift its focus to the east at Constantinople and survive in the form of the Byzantine Empire
(while the western portion collapsed into decentralized rule).
While Eastern Europe continued the Roman traditions under the Byzantine, Western Europe, as well as Japan, developed a decentralized, warring
feudal system based on social and political hierarchies and relationships (3 rd row of the chart). Additionally, in the middle of the 7 th century, Islam emerged in
the Middle East and expanded rapidly. The building of the Islamic Caliphates, centered in the Middle East, facilitated the expansion of Islam. The Islamic
world’s positive disposition towards trade led to massive expansions in trade networks in the Silk Roads, Sea (Indian Ocean and Mediterranean) and across
Sand in the Sahara Desert. This helped create diasporic communities and trade relationships among elites, accelerating the already massive Afro-Eurasian
trade network. The Mali Empire across the Sahara and the East African Swahili city-states, along with the Sui, Tang and Song Dynasty in China, further
facilitated technological development, cultural diffusion and commercial exchange. Around the 12th century, Western European Catholic Crusaders began
fighting Muslims over the “Holy Land” in Palestine, which greatly aided in bringing Western Europe back into the Old World trade networks. In the 13 th
century, the Central Asian Mongols conquered most of Asia and revitalized the Silk Roads trade and technological/cultural diffusion but also facilitated the
spread of the Black Death/Bubonic Plague. In the Americas, the Aztec and the Inca also built large empires in the 13 th and 14th centuries. As exploration
increased, Europeans began searching for sea routes to South and East Asia, while the Renaissance (rebirth of Greco-Roman culture and ideas) was becoming
a major cultural force on the European continent.
As Gunpowder technology developed (4th row of the chart), empires (sea and land based) led by powerful monarchs, began to consolidate power,
reorganize bureaucracies, and control the noble class. Spanish and Portuguese explorations led to the “discovery” and conquest of the New World in the 15th
and 16th century, sparking the massive biological exchange known as the Columbian Exchange (people, plants, animals and diseases). The sea-based empires
used mercantilist policies to exploit their colonial holdings throughout the world. These colonies provided raw materials to the mother countries, most
importantly the mining of silver and the production of sugar, which facilitated the development of the African slave trade as demand for more laborers in the
New World increased and Native populations died out. As European countries continued to expand, by the 17th century, many Asian countries began to isolate
themselves culturally from European encroachment, particularly against Christianity. Internally, Europe underwent major changes, including the Protestant
Reformation against Catholicism, the Scientific Revolution emphasizing the use of empirical evidence and the scientific method, and the Enlightenment
which criticized the unchecked power of many monarchs of the period. Additionally, capitalism emerged as a more efficient economic system allowing for
greater specialization and division of labor.
The development of capitalism led to the Industrial Revolution (5th row of the chart) in Europe, from which it then spread to North America, and
later, Japan. This industrial process demanded more raw materials in order to sustain the higher amounts of manufacturing occurring. This led to the
core/periphery relationship between industrial countries (core) and the areas they exploited and extracted resources from (periphery), leading to a new wave of
empire building (imperialism). Consequently, many areas resisted this new imperialism through rebellions, or sought to reform their governments to improve
economically as an alternative means of resistance. POWRR-B is a useful acronym to categorize the late 19th century reactions to imperialism. P is for the
Perry Expedition to Japan, the OW is for the Chinese Opium Wars, one R is for the many rebellions by periphery countries against imperialism, the other R is
for reforms (such as the Ottoman, Chinese, Japanese and Russian empires attempts to improve their economies in the face of European imperialism). Finally
the B is for the Berlin Conference that led to the division of Africa into European colonies, known as the Scramble for Africa. Beginning in the late 18th
century, the Atlantic Revolutions used Enlightenment ideas to change political structures in the European colonies in the Americas and to gain independence
from Europe. Additionally the Enlightenment principles led to the abolition the slave trade and eventually the institution of slavery itself, which increased the
demand for new labor sources in the form of indentured servitude, made up primarily of Eastern and Southern Asians.
Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism and Nationalism (M.A.I.N) all led to massive global conflicts known as the World Wars (6 th row of the chart).
These major conflicts, fueled by the German and British imperial rivalry, had tremendous effects on civilian populations. While many industrialized countries
experienced the culture of mass consumption (consumerism), other countries, particularly agrarian societies, used left-wing socialist/communist ideologies to
transform their political, social and economic systems (Russia, China, Cuba, Mexico). The destruction of Europe by the World Wars created a political and
economic vacuum that was filled with the power struggle between the US and the Communist USSR known as the Cold War. In the midst of the Cold War,
many former colonies of European countries were struggling to gain independence and create stability in their new countries. This often led to proxy wars
within countries caught between dealing with independence and the economic influences of the US and the USSR. The United Nations was developed to
prevent further global conflicts and address human rights abuses with arguable success. Since 1970, several other developments have had major impacts on
society. The Green Revolution created GMOs which significantly increased food production and a massive rise in the global population. Former colonies
were stuck in economic imperialism (Neo-colonization) under the IMF and World Bank, while some former periphery countries industrialized at a massive
rate, producing manufactured goods (semi-periphery), while former core countries deindustrialized, leading to service based economies. Additionally,
economic liberalism has allowed multinational corporations to spread throughout the world and act as a major player in economic, cultural and social changes.
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AP World History Geographic Regions and Labels

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Period 1 – Technological and Environmental Transformations, to 600 BCE.

River Valley 3000 BCE Cities Complex Institutions Indo-European Nomads
Civilization Writing Mandate of Heaven Iron Metallurgy
600 BCE Code of Hammurabi

SUMMARY OF PERIOD 1
This period focuses on three major topics. The first deals with Big Geography and the peopling of the earth. Big
Geography is used throughout the course to remind students that the geography of each region and the globe have played
a major impact on patterns of human settlement, cultural habits, migration patterns and many other facets of life. While
social, political, economic, and cultural factors often gain the most attention of historians, geography has played an
enduring role, from what people eat to the clothes people wear and the religious philosophies to which people adhere. The
peopling of the earth is, put simply, how people migrated and populated the earth. As best anthropologists and
archeologists can tell through interpretations of archeological evidence, humans began migrating out of Eastern Africa
(the Great Rift Valley) as far back as 100,000 Years Before Present (YBP). From that point, humans continued to move
and populate nearly all of the areas of the globe, including Australia, Polynesia and the Americas. As they moved, they
adopted to their environment with fire and clothing and various other tools. Throughout this process of peopling the earth,
humans lived and migrated in small kinship-based groups, from 20-50 people. These small kinship groups based on a
hunting-gathering (foraging) lifestyle were highly mobile, as they were in the constant search for food.
The second focus of the period deals with the Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies. Around
10,000 YBP, the last major ice age began to end, and some groups of people began adapting to the resulting climate
changes in new ways. While some humans remained foragers, others experimented with domesticating animals as
pastoralists, while still other groups domesticated various plant species becoming agriculturalists. This process of
domesticating plants and animals, and the ensuing sedentary lifestyle some groups thus adopted became known as the
Neolithic Revolution. Also known as the Agricultural Revolution, these changes in food production led to more reliable
food sources and allowed people to settle into larger groups (population increase). The agricultural surplus created by the
new methods of food production (farming) allowed for job specialization, because not everyone’s labor was required for
food. This job specialization allowed for technological advancements in various areas, thus creating a more complex
society. The technological developments led to new notions of wealth and created a more stratified/hierarchal society. The
illustration below shows the changes brought by the Neolithic Revolution:
Agr. Surplus  Job Specialization  Technological Development  Wealth  Social Stratification
Finally, the period deals with the development and interactions of early agricultural, pastoral and urban societies.
This is when the term civilization is first introduced into world history. While historically used to assert the dominance
and superiority of settled agricultural societies (i.e. “the Romans were civilized and the Mongols were barbarians”), today
this term is simply used to categorize particular aspects of many settled societies. Civilizations share similarities, most
notably cities and powerful states. They are agricultural; have a method of record keeping (writing) have specialization of
labor; and develop complex institutions, such as bureaucracies, armies and religious hierarchies. Additionally, social
divisions, such as class and patriarchy (typically), intensified and were often codified into the laws (Code of
Hammurabi) and political traditions (Mandate of Heaven) of these early civilizations. Commercial and cultural
exchanges between the early civilizations also intensified as long-distance trade between settled societies and pastoralists
increased over time. The most notable early civilizations were centered in river valleys, due to the accessibility of
essential water sources, irrigation opportunities, and the temperate climate. The four major River Valley Civilizations
were in Mesopotamia on the Tigris and Euphrates in modern-day Iraq, in Egypt on the Nile, in Harappa and Mohenjo
Daro on the Indus River, and in China - the Xia and Shang Dynasties on the Yellow (Huang He) River. In Mesoamerica,
the Olmec developed, but was less concentrated around a single river (sufficient rainfall for farming) and the Chavin
developed in the Andes Mountains and laid the foundations for Andean culture. Most of the complexity of the River
Valley Civilizations was a result of the development of systems of record keeping and writing. Ultimately, the
development of iron metallurgy by some groups, most notably the Indo-European nomads, allowed for the disruption
of these early civilizations and paved the way for larger institutions that eventually developed in the classical period.
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Key Concept 1.1. Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth
Big Picture: The term Big Geography draws attention to the global nature of world history. Throughout the
Paleolithic period, humans migrated from Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas. Early humans were
mobile and creative in adapting to different geographical settings from savanna to desert to Ice Age tundra. By
making an analogy with modern hunter-forager societies, (such as the African Bushman, comprised of various
groups including the San, Kung, Khwe residing in the areas of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Mozambique,
Swaziland, Botswana, Namibia and Angola,) anthropologists infer that these bands were relatively egalitarian.
“Egalitarian” means relatively equal. Typically, when societies have less stuff, such as with foraging groups,
they tend to share more of their possessions and be more equal in terms of class and gender structures. Humans
also developed varied and sophisticated technologies.

I. Archeological evidence indicates that during the Paleolithic era, hunting-foraging bands of
humans gradually migrated from their origin in East Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas,
adapting their technology and cultures to new climate regions. The Paleolithic Era, literally “Old Stone
Age,” is characterized by these migrations of foraging societies.
The approximate dates of the major early human migrations are listed in the chart below:
Migration Approximate Date
African Exodus 100,000 YBP
Into South and East Asia 70,000 YBP
Into Australia 50,000 YBP
Into Europe 40,000 YBP
Into the Americas 15000-12000 YBP
Into Polynesia/Oceania 3000-1000 YBP

The leading theory on human migration into the Americas is that people of Asiatic descent migrated
across the Bering Land Bridge during the last major Ice Age. During the Ice Age, sea levels were lower,
therefore exposing more land, and thus a “land-bridge” (sometimes known as Beringia) between what is now
Eastern Russia and Alaska existed. Additionally, the Polynesian migrations were aided by the technological
development of the canoe and were therefore able to maintain contacts between different islands and peoples.

Here is a useful map of early human migrations:

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A. Humans used fire in new ways: to aid hunting and foraging, to protect against predators, and to adapt to
cold environments. Self-explanatory Humans developed a wider range of tools specially adapted to different
environments from tropics to tundra. An example of these new tools is the sewing needle, developed from
animal bones to aid in clothing/textile production ~15000 YBP

B. People lived in small groups, or family-based hierarchies, that structured social, economic and political
activity groups of hunting- foraging bands that could make what they needed to survive. These bands
exchanged people, ideas, and goods. Some forager groups engaged in trade for items they could not create
themselves and/or for newer family members (exchange of sons and daughters to introduce new marriage
partners to the group). Nuclear family sizes were small because it was inconvenient to have to carry multiple
children when migrating.

Key Concept 1.2. The Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies

Big Picture: In response to warming climates at the end of the last Ice Age, from about 10,000 years ago, some
groups adapted to the environment in new ways, while others remained hunter-foragers. Settled agriculture
appeared in several different parts of the world (see map below). The switch to agriculture created a more
reliable, but not necessarily more diversified, food supply. Agriculturalists also had a massive impact on the
environment through intensive cultivation of selected plants to the exclusion of others, through the construction
of irrigation systems, and through the use of domesticated animals for food and for labor (beasts of burden).
Populations increased, due to the reliability and greater supply of food; family groups gave way to village life
and, later, to urban life with all its complexity. Patriarchy, a male-dominated society, and forced labor systems
developed, giving elite (upper class) men concentrated power over most of the other people in their societies.
Pastoralism emerged in parts of Africa and Eurasia. Pastoral peoples domesticated animals and led their herds
around grazing ranges. Like agriculturalists, pastoralists tended to be more socially stratified than hunter-
foragers. Because pastoralists were mobile, they rarely accumulated large amounts of material possessions,
which would have been a hindrance when they changed grazing areas. The pastoralists’ mobility allowed them
to become an important conduit (medium or “go-between”) for technological change as they interacted with
settled populations.
Map of the origins of agriculture: Map of the world showing
approximate centers of origin of
agriculture and its spread in
Eastern US Fertile prehistory:
Crescent
 the Fertile Crescent (11,000 YBP)
Sub-Saharan Yangtze and  the Yangtze and Yellow River
Africa Yellow basins (9000 YBP)
River basins
Central  the New Guinea Highlands (9000–
Mexico 6000 YBP),
 Central Mexico (5000–4000 YBP)
Northern  Northern South America (5000–
South
America New Guinea 4000 YBP)
Highlands
 Sub-Saharan Africa (5000–4000
YBP, exact location unknown),
 Eastern USA (4000–3000 YBP).

I. Beginning about 10,000 years ago, the Neolithic Revolution led to the development of new and
more complex economic and social systems. It is essential to remember that the Neolithic Revolution was a
slow, evolving process. This process took place over a 7000-year period at different times in different
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places. Moreover, some groups experimented with farming for a while, then returned to foraging, or simply
switched back and forth between the two methods of obtaining food. While historians call this process a
“revolution” because it was a process that led to dramatic changes, the changes were not necessarily evident to
the people that lived during that time, as the process was, in reality, too slow to notice. However the result is
quite evident to historians, hence the term “revolution” is applied to identify the development of food
production through the domestication of plants and/or animals.

A. Possibly as a response to climatic change, permanent agricultural villages emerged first in the lands of
the eastern Mediterranean. Agriculture emerged at different times in Mesopotamia, the Nile River Valley and
Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River Valley, the Yellow River or Huang He Valley, Papua New Guinea,
Mesoamerica, and the Andes (see map and key above for location and approximate dates).

B. People in each region domesticated locally available plants and animals. An important note about the
domestication of animals (fauna) to remember is that there were no large animals to be used for beasts of
burden in the Americas or Sub-Saharan Africa. While llamas and alpacas were domesticated, there were never
used in the agricultural process. In Sub-Saharan Africa, large animals were often too “skittish” to be tamed or
domesticated (zebras, giraffes, etc…). On the other hand, Eurasia had numerous beasts of burden and other
domesticated animals, such as cattle, horses, oxen, camels, goats, etc. Some scholars, most notably Jared
Diamond, have argued that this unequal geographic distribution of certain flora and fauna provided advantages
to certain societies and has contributed significantly to the development of the inequality that exists across the
globe today (more on that later).

Area Flora (Plants) – Domesticated

Fertile Crescent Wheat, barley, flax
Yellow and Yangtze River Millet and later rice
Sub-Saharan Africa Sorghum, Rice, Yams
Mesoamerica Maize, Squash
Eastern US Sunflowers, Sumpweed
South America Potatoes and Manioc
Papua New Guinea Taro, Bananas, Sugar

C. Pastoralism developed at various sites in the grasslands of Afro- Eurasia, negatively affecting the
environment when lands were overgrazed. Pastoralism, also known as herding (herders) or animal husbandry, is
the domestication of animal groups. Due to the mobility of the animals that require new pastures to graze, these
groups of people are semi-nomadic and so must migrate seasonally to find new food sources (for their herds of
animals). Pastoralist groups were vital to interactions between sedentary groups, as they required trade in order
to gain the technological developments of the settled Neolithic groups. Pastoralists were also an important
vehicle for cultural and biological exchanges because they were basically the “middle-men” between sedentary
societies. On the other hand, pastoral groups often fought with settled societies due to the strains on resources
and the natural conflict between settled societies that put up walls and farmed in communities (the pastoralists
wanted open access to land and mobility). One example of a region of grasslands “popular” among pastoralists
would be the steppes of Central Asia.

D. Agricultural communities had to work cooperatively to clear land and create the water control
systems needed for crop production. “Water control systems” means irrigation and the process of maintaining
agricultural fields. Early agricultural communities constantly needed to maintain these fields in order to be
productive. Consequently, social groups emerged that became unequal, as sometimes the labor to maintain the
“water systems” was forced/coerced labor. Also, some historians theorize that the origin of settled, socially
stratified civilization began with the need to manage water and agriculture (hydraulic theory of civilization).
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These agricultural practices drastically impacted environmental diversity. This impact on diversity most notably
deals with the selective use of certain flora and fauna that were more advantageous than others. Certain plant
species provided more calories than others, which led to these less productive ones being bred out. The impact
on animal species was very similar. Certain traits in animals were preferred, therefore the animals/species with
those traits were bred at higher rates, marginalizing and at times eliminated other varieties. Pastoralists also
affected the environment by grazing large numbers of animals on fragile grasslands, leading to erosion when
overgrazed. Self-explanatory.

II. Agriculture and pastoralism began to transform human societies. The quick guide to the changes:
 Socially – development of social hierarchy of class and gender divisions and patriarchy
 Economics – agriculture is the economic change; cities became centers for trade; specialized workers
emerged; coercive forms/systems of labor developed
 Cultural – animism and polytheism persisted; deities often based around explanations for natural forces
 Environmental – domestication of plants and animals; loss of genetic diversity; damage from farming
 Demographics – increased population; sedentary/settled populations in agricultural areas; increase
disease exposure; migratory foraging groups still existed; migratory pastoralists existed
 Political – development of states and empires in settled civilizations; conflict between settled and
pastoral people; leaders controlled people for organized labor

A. Pastoralism and agriculture led to more reliable and abundant food supplies, which increased the
population. This is one of the important concepts to remember in world history. Whenever there is a greater
food supply, population will increase. Families could now grow larger (more children), and in agricultural
communities, large families worked as an economic unit and children became part of the labor force, therefore
there was an incentive to have more children. Surpluses of food and other goods led to specialization of labor,
including new classes of artisans (craftsmen, tradesmen, those people working to improve technology with a
particular craft, such as blacksmith, potters, carpenters, etc.) and warriors, (to protect the newly settled areas and
the larger supply of goods and wealth in the society), and the development of elites (upper class individuals who
typically owned large tracts of land. Historically, land was most often the backbone/definition of wealth).

B. Technological innovations, led by the craft industry, or artisans, led to improvements in agricultural
production, trade, and transportation. Required examples of
improvements in agricultural production, trade, and
transportation:

• Pottery – pottery was one of the earliest craft

industries. Neolithic societies required containers to
store the surplus food being produced. Malleable clay
could be transformed to the desired shape and then fire-
hardened, waterproof pottery. Designs on the pottery
were also reflections of cultural values of the first
agricultural societies that provide archaeologists with
evidence of those early values.
• Plows – plows for tilling the soil for Neolithic
communities also greatly increased the efficiency of
farming, therefore decreasing the demand for human labor and leading to even greater specialization.
•Woven textiles – selective breeding of certain plants and animals for fibers led to the production of
woven textiles, most notably for clothing. This was probably an essential economic function for women,
because these were productive activities they could perform in the home as they cared for the increased number
of children.
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•Wheels and wheeled vehicles – developed probably around 3500 BCE, but notably by the Sumerians in
Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE, wheels and wheeled vehicles allowed for hauling more goods, which increased
trade and transportation, and within a few centuries became the standard means of overland transportation.
• Metallurgy – the most significant early metallurgy process occurred with copper. Initially copper was
used to make jewelry or simple tools (because of its malleability). Eventually the use of smelting or melting it
down in furnaces, and then casting it into shapes allowed for much greater refinement of metallurgical processes and
the crafting of knives, axes, hoes and other weapons began. Eventually this knowledge would help develop the
expertise in the working of other metals such as gold, bronze, and iron.

D. Patriarchal forms of social organization developed in both pastoralist and agrarian societies. There are lots of
theories as to why these transformations occurred, but we are going to keep it relatively simple here. As there
was a greater amount of wealth in the society, due to technological developments and surplus of goods, some
individuals, families or groups were able to accumulate more wealth than others. Often this accumulation of
wealth led to political power, which helped political leaders further solidify their wealth through property laws
and other means of protecting (and increasing) their wealth. Additionally, as men dominated the public sphere
and women were increasingly confined to the home, mostly due to the increased production of children and
domestic economic activities, patriarchal systems of social structure became more and more solidified, through
legal means, cultural values, gender roles and economic functions.

Key Concept 1.3. The Development and Interactions of Early Agricultural,

Pastoral, and Urban Societies
Big Picture: From about 5,000 years ago, urban societies (cities) developed, laying the foundations for the first
civilizations. The term civilization is normally used to designate large societies with cities and powerful states.
While there were many differences between civilizations, they also shared important features. They all
produced agricultural surpluses that permitted significant specialization of labor. All civilizations contained
cities and generated complex institutions, such as political bureaucracies (bureaucracies are all of the people
that help govern the state. This can be in the form of tax collectors, military leaders, administrators, governors,
advisors, and anyone else the government employs to help administer the state), armies, and religious
hierarchies. They also featured clearly stratified social hierarchies and organized long-distance trading
relationships. Economic exchanges intensified within and between civilizations, as well as with nomadic
pastoralists. This collective term of civilization is essential to understanding complex societies and their
institutions in world history. These complex institutions are what you are expected to understand for the entire
year and how they change, continue, and develop over time. The bolded words in this paragraph, with the
addition of record keeping, are known collectively as the apparatus of civilization: this is how historians
understand the changes that societies underwent as they transitioned from simple Neolithic societies to more
complex civilizations.
As populations grew, competition for surplus resources, especially food, led to greater social
stratification, specialization of labor, increased trade, more complex systems of government and religion, and
the development of record keeping. As civilizations expanded, they had to balance their need for more
resources with environmental constraints such as the danger of undermining soil fertility (notice the importance
of geography here). Finally, the accumulation of wealth in settled communities spurred warfare between
communities and/or with pastoralists; this violence drove the development of new technologies of war and
urban defense.
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I. Core and foundational civilizations developed in a variety of geographical and environmental settings
where agriculture flourished.
Students should be able to identify the location of all of the following required examples of core and
foundational civilizations: You should be able to locate and recognize these on a map.
 Mesopotamia in the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys – Modern-day Iraq. Mesopotamia was the
Greek term for the region, but numerous city-states and empires rose and fell in this region.
 Egypt in the Nile River Valley – Modern-day Egypt centered on the Nile and the Nile Delta on the
Mediterranean Sea.
 Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in the Indus River Valley - Modern-day Pakistan/NW India. Mohenjo-Daro
and Harappa are two major cities states located on the Indus River.
 Shang in the Yellow River (or Huang He) Valley – Modern-day China.
 Olmecs in Mesoamerica – Modern-day Mexico
 Chavín in Andean South America – Modern-day Peru and along the Andes Mountains

Map of Afro-Eurasian Civilizations Map of Early American Civilizations

II. The first states emerged within core civilizations in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley.

A. States were powerful new systems of rule that mobilized surplus labor and resources over large areas.
Defining the term “state” in world history is important to establish early on. “State”, today, refers to a sovereign
political entity, most notably in the form of a country. This is the same as ancient “states;” because residency
meant you were a member of that state, not necessarily part of kinship ties (a significant change from
Paleolithic societies). Secondly, states have a political authority, a leader, or some set of laws that govern the
residents. These laws applied to everyone, although they may not treat residents equally under the law. Finally,
these states had to mobilize labor forces, most importantly for irrigation and flood control, and secondly for
military service. The “first states” refers to the formation of city-states (like Sumer or Ur in Mesopotamia) or
empires (like the Egyptian empires or the Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia). City-state simply means the
city functioned as its own sovereign political unit, whereas empire means it controlled a much larger area than
just one city but with a central political control. (Much more on Empires in Period 2).
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Rulers of early states often claimed divine connections to power. Rulers also often enjoyed military support.
There are three really good examples of this:
 Ancient Egypt – PHARAOHS. Pharaohs were the centralized rulers of the Egyptian people. The
Pharaoh was seen as (and claimed to be) a living god on earth. The pharaoh was considered a “human
sun,” overseeing the affairs on the earth, often depicted with symbols from Horus or Amon, gods in the
Egyptian pantheon. This is an example of very centralized political control.
 Ancient China – the Zhou Dynasty – THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN – This is a really significant
concept in Chinese history. The earliest evidence of Chinese society is the Shang Dynasty on the
Yellow River (the earlier Xia Dynasty is still disputed). When the Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang
Dynasty, they used the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule over the Chinese people. In
this case, the Emperor of China was seen as the middleman between the earthly affairs of the Chinese
people and the heavens. The Emperor was seen as having the Mandate if he ruled well, people were
happy, and society was functioning well. However, when things were not going so well, such as in
times of famine, floods, rebellions, etc., these disasters were seen as signs to the Chinese people that the
gods/heavens had lost confidence in the ruler. However, it is important to remember that the new
dynasty simply used the Mandate of Heaven as justification for its overthrow of the previous ruling
family, and as normalcy returned, that was further evidence that the gods were once again pleased.
 Ancient Mesopotamia – WARRIOR-KINGS – as the name implies, the rulers of Mesopotamian city-
states, and later empires, were first and foremost warlords, and not necessarily seen as divine, but had
massive support from the military. They often were seen as having the support of the gods/heavens.
B. As states grew and competed for land and resources, the more
favorably situated — including the Hittites, who had access to iron (by
1000 BCE, iron metallurgy had begun to replace bronze as the superior
weaponry in metallurgy. Another major development by the Hittites was
the use of chariots in battle, which granted greater speed in
battle. Additionally, they could use bows and arrows from the platform of
the chariot.) — had greater access to resources, produced more surplus
food, and experienced growing populations, enabling them to undertake
territorial expansion and conquer surrounding states. This statement is
vague, but it is important to remember that population pressure and
resource scarcity drove states to expand. At times, this meant expansion in
the form of empire-building, incorporating conquered groups of people and
resources into the existing state.

C. Early regions of state expansion or empire building were Mesopotamia,

Babylonia, and the Nile Valley. The region of Mesopotamia experienced a
succession of large empires including the Sumerians, the Akkadians, the
Babylonians, the Assyrians, and the Neo-Babylonians (Chaldean Empire).
Additionally, the Egyptians were able to unite Upper and Lower Egypt. Some
people are easily confused by the geography of Egypt, so the map to the right is
an attempt to illustrate and clarify some of those issues: As the picture
illustrates, Lower Egypt is in the North, while Upper Egypt is in the South. This is
due to the geography. The Nile River flows north to the Mediterranean Sea
because the highlands are in the south and the river meanders north to the sea. It is
not uphill; it simply flows downhill, northward. To the Egyptians, Upper Egypt
simply meant the “Egypt Upriver.” Another noteworthy piece of this map is the
location of Nubia, also known as Kush. This is a major trading corridor along the
Nile. The Cataracts in the image are the nearly impassible areas of the Nile with rapids and shallow waters.
 12

D. Pastoralists were often the developers and disseminators of new weapons and modes of transportation
that transformed warfare in agrarian civilizations. As stated before, pastoralists very often acted as a conduit
between settled societies; and, while warfare was common, the benefits of trade, cultural, and technological
exchange provided numerous benefits to the settled societies with which the pastoralists were often at war. The
most notable early group responsible for large-scale dissemination of weaponry and transportation were the
Indo-European nomads. This large group of people originating in the Caucuses mountains shared a common
language (at least at some point in the distant past). The Aryans and Hittites are specific examples of pastoralist
groups that migrated in the Late River Valley Period. Here is a map:

Indo-European Migration Map

Hearth

The Hittites moved throughout modern-day Turkey and Mesopotamia, while the Aryans moved into Southern
Asia, overcoming the early Indus society (more on them later).

NEW WEAPONS - Developed and disseminated.

 Composite bow – the composite bow is a bow made with multiple parts of wood. Most importantly the
part on the back half is less flexible than the front half, so when it is fired, the pressure released is
greater. This technology was developed and disseminated by Central Asian pastoralists due to their
extensive use of horseback warfare.
 Iron weapons – Most notably, the Indo-European Hittites (originally pastoralists) developed iron
metallurgy into weapons around 1500 BCE. Iron replaced bronze as the most durable and powerful
metal for weapons. As the Hittite Empire collapse around 1200 BCE, the diffusion of this metallurgical
process increased significantly throughout Eurasia. It is important to note that iron metallurgy also
developed independently in Sub-Saharan Africa and was diffused by the Bantu Migrations from 2000
BCE to 1000 CE. (More on this later.)
NEW MODES OF TRANSPORTATION - Developed and disseminated
 Chariots – Chariots were most expertly developed and used and disseminated by the Hittites, much like
the iron weapons. The horse-drawn chariots allowed the Hittites to move quickly into and out of battle,
and this became the standard of many states and empires to come.
 Horseback Riding – Central Asian pastoralists and the Hittites both diffused this technology.
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III. Culture played a significant role in unifying states through laws, language, literature, religion, myths,
and monumental art.

A. Early civilizations developed monumental architecture and urban planning. These items served two
purposes for early civilizations. One, it unified the people under cultural traditions. Two, it provided legitimacy
for religious and political rulers and required significant mobilization of labor forces to create them.
Additionally, these physical structures now allow archaeologists to draw greater generalizations about the
culture in which it was created as a whole.
Examples of Monumental Architecture and Urban Planning:
 Ziggurats – These were Mesopotamian temples built to honor local deities. They were step-shaped pyramids
in which the people of a particular city-state would sacrifice and/or pray to a local god. It is important to
think of polytheism much differently than many world religions today. Most cities were devotees to one
particular god/deity, but they acknowledged the existence of the other ones as well. Gods from multiple
religions could be incorporated into each other seamlessly (or sometimes violently following a conquest).
Most people simply followed one or a few, or prayed to/sacrificed to/worshiped different ones based on
different circumstances.
 Pyramids – Egyptian pyramids. These pyramids, most notably the three at Giza, served as tombs of
pharaohs and well as symbols of political authority and legitimacy.
 Temples – This is the generic term for religious sites for deities that do not have a particular
archeological/historical name. Temples were where religious ceremonies would be performed; devotees
would gather to pray or sacrifice and often served as cultural centers of a society or civilization.
 Defensive Walls – Cities or states often needed defensive walls to protect against the pastoral peoples (or
neighboring states) that might attack when peaceful exchange and trade broke down. Shang China and
Mesopotamia built massive walled cities that required mobilized labor, and centralized urban planning.
 Streets and Roads – All states build roads. A major reason for the construction of roads is derived from the
need to move mobilized labor and military. Additionally, roads provide economic integration of societies so
goods and services can move more easily over longer distances. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are two of the
earliest examples of planned urban grid patterns, but Hammurabi in Babylon (Mesopotamia) and the early
Chinese dynasties also instituted grid patterns of roads and streets.
 Sewage and Water Systems – Surprisingly (and disgustingly?) most early states/cities did not have sewage
systems. However, the Indus River Valley developed one that was so advanced, it would rival those created
in the 20th century. This is important in disposal of human and animal waste and required central planning.
NOT EXPLICILY IN NEW FRAMEWORK BUT STILL WORTH KNOWING

Elites, both political and religious, promoted arts and artisanship. Once again, political and religious leaders
promoted the arts to help solidify or justify their position or to worship deities. Additionally, the arts provided a
means of creating a popular culture for the state. Artifacts found by archeologists have indicated tremendous
amounts of information about the culture of ancient civilizations based on content, medium and variety.
Examples of Arts and Artisanship
 Sculpture – often in the form of figurines, vases or pottery, sculpture reflects the cultural values of societies,
such as polytheism, warlike-culture, ancestor veneration, etc.
 Painting – Egyptians would paint on papyrus, but painting also happened on walls, vases, etc.
 Wall Decorations – Egyptian wall paintings are quite famous with their elaborate hieroglyphs, but
Mesopotamia, Indus and China used pictographic writing and wall paintings on temples, tombs, and other
surfaces to celebrate and express cultural values.
 Elaborate Weaving – Early Egyptian weaving was particularly artistic and the basket-making was of
particular fine work.
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B. Systems of record keeping arose independently in all early civilizations and subsequently were diffused.
This component of early civilizations was absolutely essential. Record keeping, particularly in the form of
writing allowed for MUCH greater specialization and complexity in state institutions. Where writing existed, so
did complex civilizations.
Examples of Systems of Record Keeping
 Cuneiform – This was the Mesopotamian (particularly early Sumerian) record keeping system. Like much
of Mesopotamia, it was made of clay. Wedge-shaped marks were etched into the clay, the tablets were
baked into bricks and they could be preserved. Not alphabetic. Pictographic. Mostly for tax purposes.
 Hieroglyphics – This was the Egyptian writing system. This was a pictographic writing system. Egyptians
could write on papyrus and developed a very elaborate bureaucracy because of it. Hieroglyphics were
deciphered in the 19th century due to the discovery and study of the Rosetta stone.
 Pictographs – This is the generic term for writing systems/record keeping that used symbols or pictures to
represent words or ideas. Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform in their earliest form were both pictographic. The
undeciphered (unreadable) Indus language and the ancient Chinese found on oracle bones along with
Mesoamerican writing of the Olmecs were also pictographic.
 Alphabets – The first evidence of an alphabetic writing system was developed by the Phoenicians. These
Phoenicians were initially from the Eastern Mediterranean (modern Lebanon), built a seafaring trade empire
throughout the Mediterranean and diffused the knowledge of the alphabetic writing system. The alphabet
differs from pictographic writing in that the alphabet system uses symbols to represent sounds. Combining
those sounds (or phonics – from Phoenicians) to create a word that then has meaning. This greatly increased
the efficiency of writing and was adopted by nearly every society.
 Quipu – Quipu was by far the most different record keeping system among early civilizations. This was not
a writing system at all, but a system of knotted ropes on a string that provided a system of records to those
that understood the system. Quipu was developed by the early Andean Societies, but most remaining
evidence comes from the later Incan society.

C. States developed legal codes, including the Code of Hammurabi, which reflected existing hierarchies
and facilitated the rule of governments over people. All states developed sources of political power and
developed legal/law codes to help establish stability and legitimacy in the state. Most of these have been lost,
but the Code of Hammurabi, developed by the Babylonian ruler Hammurabi is the most notable that still exists.
Traditionally seen as the lex talionis, or “law of retaliation”, the harsh punishments handed out have been
characterized as “an eye for an eye.” However, this is not entirely accurate. Hammurabi’s Code had significant
distinctions built into it based on the class and gender of the person committing the crime as well as of the
victim of the crime. For instance, one noble could be put to death for killing another noble, however if a noble
killed a slave, he would only need to pay the owner for a new slave. Thus, the law codes demonstrate that social
inequalities existed and were applied to the laws across the empire.

D. New religious beliefs developed in this period continued to have strong influences in later periods.
 The Vedic religion – The Vedic tradition was an oral tradition brought into the Indus River Valley and
South Asia by the Aryans (Indo-Europeans). This Vedic tradition consisted of polytheism, veneration of
cattle due to their pastoral roots, and the slow introduction of the caste system. While the theories on the
origins of the caste system are conflicting, a leading idea is that as the lighter skinned Aryans migrated into
the Indus River Valley, the darker-skinned Dravidians were subjected to Aryan rule and forced into the
lower social rungs of society. (More on the caste system later.)
 Hebrew monotheism – (later became Judaism) Hebrew monotheism began in Mesopotamia with the
Covenant between Abraham, father of the Jewish people, and Yahweh, the single, omnipotent, Creator God.
Early writings in the Torah became the fundamental texts of the Jewish communities. “Noah and the flood”
and “Moses and the Exodus,” and the “10 Commandments” are notable stories that show significant overlap
between early Jewish communities and Mesopotamian society overall. For example, the traditional
Mesopotamian story, “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, also contains a flood story very similar to Noah’s.
 15

 Zoroastrianism – Zoroastrianism is a religion developed in Persia under the teachings of Zoroaster

(Zarathustra). Similar to Judaism, it presents the cosmic world in terms of constant struggle between the
forces of good vs. evil with a god representing both sides. The good is represented by Ahura Mazda and the
evil by Angra Mainyu. It advocated moderation of worldly pleasures, as they were seen as the fruits of
Ahura Mazda and did not have the same emphasis on retraining earthly desires. While it is important to
recognize this early Persian faith and its universal teachings during the River Valley era, it played a
significant role in the development of the Judaic-Christian worldview that emerged during the later Classical
Era in terms of good vs. evil (heaven and hell, God vs. Satan) and the idea of monotheism.
E. Trade expanded throughout this period from local to regional to interregional with civilizations
exchanging goods, cultural ideas, and technology.
Required examples of trade expansion from local to regional and Transregional:
 Between Mesopotamia and Egypt – Egyptian elites often imported luxury goods from Mesopotamia, but the
economic connection often led to cultural and technological exchange. Writing systems, precious stones and
other goods also moved along that corridor.
 Between Egypt and Nubia – Egyptian geography, while ideal for agriculture, was fairly sparse in terms of
other natural resources and tradable goods. Nubia, to the South, was an ideal trade partner, as the Nile
presented a direct route between them. East African goods, such as ivory, ebony, leopard skins, ostrich
feathers, gemstones, gold and slaves were exchanged for Egyptian goods such as pottery, wine, honey, linen
textiles and ornamental objects. This created large cultural overlaps between the two areas.
 Between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley – Indians would trade copper, ivory, beads, and semi-precious
stones for Sumerian wool, leather, and olive oil. Some of that trade may have gone by land over the Iranian
plateau, but most of it probably traveled by ships that followed the coastline of the Arabian Sea between the
mouth of the Indus River and the Persian Gulf.
F. Social hierarchies, including patriarchy, intensified as states expanded and cities multiplied. At this
point, social and gender hierarchies reflected those that developed during the Neolithic Revolution. As societies
grew and increased in size and wealth, the disparities between people increased. Some people continued to have
more thorough consolidation of wealth and resources, while others were increasingly left out. Debtor’s slavery
increased as well as patriarchy. Elites were able to continue to consolidate wealth, and men’s role in the public
sphere allowed them to intensify and codify their role and control over women.

NOT EXPLICILY IN NEW FRAMEWORK BUT STILL WORTH KNOWING

Literature was also a reflection of culture. Context matters. When people write things, they write within the context of
their surrounding conditions. Military events, cultural values, forms of leadership, social structures, political values, and
trade goods they have access to influence the literary traditions and creations of societies. Pieces of literature give
historians insight into the values of the societies who wrote the literature, whether religious, cultural, economic, social, or
political as well as to the intellectual and ethical questions they explore for the societies in which they were created.
 The “Epic of Gilgamesh” – Considered the first piece of epic world literature, this Mesopotamian story tells the life of
the legendary king of Uruk, Gilgamesh and his friend/competitor Enkidu. Containing a major flood story and the
quest for immortality, this story highlights Mesopotamian values, as well as notions of friendship, relations between
humans and gods and the meaning of life and death.

 Rig Veda – Part of the Vedic tradition brought into Southern Asia by the Aryans. While there are four Vedas, the
earliest and most important is the Rig Veda, a collection of hymns addressed to the Aryan gods. These works reflect
the upheaval in society between the migrating Aryans and the South Asian Dravidians, as well as laying out some of
the Indian heroes, such as Indra, establishing the Vedic Age.

 Book of the Dead – this ancient Egyptian funerary text sheds light on the cultural beliefs about life and death in
Ancient Egypt. The trip to the underworld/afterlife, the process to ensure safe passage, and the role of the people and
gods gives considerable insight into the Egyptian ideas of life, death, polytheism, and the role of the gods.
 16

Images from Period 1

Mesopotamian Ziggurat Egyptian Pyramids at Giza

Early Andean culture Quipu

Chinese oracle bone (Shang Cuneiform

Dynasty)

Egyptian Hieroglyphics

Catal Huyuk, a Neolithic settlement