1

MEDIUM ALTITUDE, LONG RANGE TURBO PROP

POWERED MILITARY CARGO AIRCRAFT

Submitted by

DEVI.G (14UEAE007)
KM FARHA NAAZ (14UEAE022)

DIVYA YADAV(14UEAE009)

BAKARAM BHAVANI(14UEAE005)

In fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

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BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “MEDIUM ALTITUDE

MEDIUM RANGE TURBO PROP POWERED MILITARY CARGO AIRCRAFT”
submitted by DEVI.G(14UEAE0007),KM FARHA NAAZ(14UEAE0022),DIVYA
YADAV(14UEAE0009) and BAKARAM BHAVANI(14UEAE0005)in partial fulfilment for
the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Aeronautical
Engineering is an authentic work carried out by them under my supervision and guidance.

To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in the project report has not been
submitted to any other University/Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Signature of Head of the Department Signature of Guide

submitted for the partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology In
Aeronautical Engineering from VEL TECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
#42, Avadi- Vel Tech Road, Chennai – 600 062.

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Certificate of Evaluation

University: Vel Tech Dr. RR & Dr.SR Technical University

Branch : Aeronautical Engineering SEM: VII

SNO VTU REGISTER NAME OF TITLE NAME OF THE

NO NO THE OF PROJECT SUPERVISOR
STUDENT WITH
WHO HAVE DESIGNATION
DONE THE
PROJECT
1 4726 14UEAE0007 DEVI.G MEDIUM
2 5762 14UEAE0022 FARHA ALTITUDE
NAAZ MEDIUM
3 4937 14UEAE0009 DIVYA RANGE MR.KANNAN
YADAV TURBO PROP
4 5531 14UEAE0005 BAKARAM POWERED
BHAVANI MILITARY
CARGO
AIRCRAFT

The report of the project work submitted by the above students in partial fulfilment for the
award of Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Aeronautical Engineering of Vel Tech Dr.
RR & Dr. SR Technical University was evaluated and confirmed to be the report of the
work done by the above student.

This project report was submitted for VIVA VOICE held on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . at

VELTECH Dr. RR & Dr. SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, AVADI

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Date ……………

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We offer our special thanks to our FOUNDER-PRESIDENT Col.Prof.Dr.R.RANGARAJAN B.E

(Elect), B.E (Mech), M.S (Auto), D.Sc. and our FOUNDERS-VICECHAIRMAN Dr.SAGUNTHALA
RANGARAJAN M.B.B.S, for providing us ambient learning experience at our institution.

We are greatly thankful to our CHAIRPERSON and MANAGING TRUSTEE Dr. RANGARAJAN
MAHALAKSHMI B.E (I.E), MBA (UK), Ph.D., and VICE PRESIDENT Mr. K.V.D KISHORE KUMAR
B.E, MBA, for their encouragement and valuable academic support in all aspects.

We thank our vice chancellor Dr. BEELA SATYANARAYANA B.E (Mech), M.E (M.D), M.E (I.E),
M.Tech (CSE), Ph.D. (IIT). Who had always served as an inspiration for us to perform well. We
thank our Pro Vice Chancellor Dr. U CHANDRASHEKAR Ph.D., for his patronage towards our
project.

We thank our Registrar Dr. E. KANNAN M.E., Ph.D., help us at each and every phase of our
programme. We thank our Director of Academics Dr. A.KOTESHWAR RAO Ph.D., for his
continuous encouragement and valuable academic support in all aspects. I would like to
thank Dr. A.T.Ravichandran Dean School of Mechanical for his Constant support.

We would like to express our faithful thanks to our head of the department, I would also like
to express my deepest gratitude to Mr. JAGAN RAJ Head of the Department (Aeronautical
Department) for his valuable suggestions. Finally I would like to express my deepest
gratitude to KANNAN. G Asst. Professor for helping me throughout the project and sharing
his valuable knowledge.

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ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to design and conceptualize a light military cargo aircraft with
medium range (4000 KM) transport characteristics with desired subsonic velocity (M= 0.7)
and medium altitude (10000 ft.) for safe and fast service.

Usually in light weight military cargo aircrafts, they have 2 engines. In our aircraft design, we
implemented 4 engines for better performance.

Usually light military cargo aircrafts carry military objects like airborne troops and it usually
consists of 6 pallets. Usually they provide a very huge take-off load capacity but they also
take long runway and the range of the cargo ships is comparatively less. As the take-off or
load taking capacity increase, the range usually decreases because of performance issues and
fuel consumptions.

Our main aim for this project is to conceptualize the design parameters in such a way that, it
will give very high take-off weight capacity with medium range. We are looking forward to
reduce the take-off distance as much as possible in order to provide flexibility in landing on
various short and long runways capable of taking the landing impact for light military cargo.

Other main parameters which we are keeping in mind are the operational expenses and the
ease of the maintenance. Our another main objective is to make the design as simple as
possible avoiding complex systems which makes the manufacturing very difficult, time
consuming and making it costly as well. Simple configuration makes the maintenance easy
and simple without much knowledge of technical expertise.

Our design will be optimized for having the moderate subsonic velocity possible for the
cargo. This is our last design aim which we need to fulfil by optimizing the whole aircraft
with proper configuration to have a safe, efficient, flexible operation in any kind of situation
by providing a cost efficient, easy to maintain and handle military troops.

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LIST OF SYMBOLS:

AR Aspect ratio

B Span

C Chord

CG Centre of Gravity

CD Coefficient of Drag

CL Coefficient of Lift

D Drag

L Lift

M Mach number

R Range

S Surface area of wing

T Thrust

U Velocity

W Weight

Sg Take off Distance

P power

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1. INTRODUCTION

2. V-n DIAGRAM

3. GUST LOAD DIAGRAM

4. COMBINED GUST AND V-N DIAGRAM

5. SCHRENK’S CURVE

6. LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING

7. C.G CALCULATION

8. DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUTS

9. MATERIAL SELECTION

10. THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

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CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

MILITARY CARGO AIRCRAFT:

Military transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft are
typically fixed and rotary wing cargo aircraft which are used to deliver troops, weapons and
other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the
surface of the planet, usually outside of the commercial flight rout esin uncontrolled
airspace. Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for delivering
airborne forces during the Second World Warand towing military gliders. Some
military transport aircraft are tasked to perform multi-role duties such as aerial refueling
and, tactical, operational and strategic airlifts onto unprepared runways, or those constructed
by engineers.

CLASSIFICATION OF MILITARY TRANSPORTS

 Fixed wing transport aircraft

 Transport Helicopters

What is an Airlift?
An airlift is the organized delivery of supplies or personnel primarily
via aircraft. Airlifting consists of two distinct types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically,
strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances (such as across or off the continent
or theater), whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources and material into a
specific location with high precision. Depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be
delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered
secure, the aircraft will land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on
the ground. When landing the craft, or distributing the supplies to a certain area from a
landing zone by surface transportation is not an option, the cargo aircraft can drop them
in mid-flight using parachutes attached to the supply containers in question. When there is a
broad area available where the intended receivers have control without fear of the enemy
interfering with collection and/or stealing the goods, the planes can maintain a normal flight
altitude and simply drop the supplies down and let them parachute to the ground. However,
when the area is too small for this method, as with an isolated base, and/or is too dangerous to
land in, a Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System drop is used

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CLASSIFICATIONOFAIRLIFTS

 STRATEGIC AIRLIFT

 TACTICAL AIRLIFT

STRATEGIC AIRLIFT:
Strategic airlift is the use of cargo aircraft to transport materiel, weaponry,or
personnel over long distances. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between
two airbases which are not in the same vicinity. This allows commanders to bring items into a
combat from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this
role are considered strategic airlifters.
This contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules, which can normally
only move supplies within a given the of operations.
EXAMPLE: Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, Antonov An-12

TACTICAL AIRLIFT
Tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies
and equipment within a theatre of operations (in contrast to strategic airlift). Aircraft which
perform this role are referred to as tactical airlifters
. These are typically turboprop aircraft, and feature short landing and take-off distances and
low-pressure tires allowing operations from small or poorly-prepared airstrips. While they
lack the speed and range of strategic airlifters (which are typically jet-
powered), these capabilities are invaluable within war zones. Larger helicopters such as the
CH-47 Chinook and Mil Mi-26 can also be used to airlift men and equipment. Helicopters
have the advantage that they do not require a landing strip and that equipment can often be
suspended below the aircraft allowing it to be delivered without landing but are highly
inefficient. Tactical airlift aircraft are designed to be manoeuvrable, allowing low-altitude
flight to avoid detection by radar and for the airdropping of supplies. Most are fitted with
defensive aids systems to protect them from attack by surface-to-air missiles.

EXAMPLE: Hercules C-130, Lockheed C-141 Star lifter

DESIGN OF AN AIRPLANE
Airplane design is both an art and a science. It is the
intellectual engineering process of creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying
machine to meet certain specifications and requirements established by potential users (or as
perceived by the manufacturer) and pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology. The design
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process is indeed an intellectual activity that is rather specified one that is tempered by good
intuition developed via by attention paid to successful airplane designs that have been used in
the past, and by (generally proprietary)design procedure and databases (hand books etc) that
are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that
are carried out in sequence. They are
 Conceptual design
 Preliminary design
 Detailed design

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements)for a
new airplane, or much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement some
pioneering, innovative new ideas and technology. In either case, there is a rather concrete
good towards which the designers are aiming. The first steps towards achieving that goal
constitute the conceptual design phase. Here, within a certain somewhat fuzzy latitude, the
overall shape, size, weight and performance of the new design are determined. The product of
the conceptual design phase is a layout on a paper or on a computer screen) of the airplane
configuration. But one has to visualize this drawing as one with flexible lines, capable of
being slightly changed during
the preliminary design phase. However the conceptual design phase determinessuch
fundamental aspects as the shape of the wings (swept back, swept forward or straight), the
location of the wings related to the fuselage, the shape and location of the horizontal and
vertical tail, the use of a engine size
and placement etc, the major drivers during the conceptual design process areaerodynamics,
propulsion and flight performance. Structural and context system considerations are not dealt
with in any detail. However they are not totally absent. During the conceptual design phase
the designer is influenced by such qualitative as the increased structural load simposed by a
high horizontal tail location trough the fuselage and the difficulties associated with cut outs in
the wing structure if the landing gear are to be retracted into the wing rather than the fuselage
or engine nacelle. No part of the design is ever carried out in a total vacuum unrelated to the
other parts.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN
In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration layout (indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase, the
conceptual design process have been actually flawed to begin with. It is in the preliminary
design phase that serious structural and control system analysis and design take place. During
this phase also, substantial wind tunnel testing will be carried out and major computational
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fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations of the computer flow fluid over the airplane configurations
are done. Its possible that the wind tunnel tests the CFD calculations will in cover some
undesirable aerodynamic interference or some unexpected stability problems which will
promote change to the configuration layout.
of preliminary design phase the airplane configuration is frozen and preciouslydefined. The
drawing process called lofting is carried out which mathematically models the precise shape
of the outside skin of the airplane making certain that all sections of the aircraft property fit
together .The end of the preliminary design phase brings a major concept to commit the
manufacture of the airplane or not. The importance of this decision point for modern aircraft
manufacturers cannot be understated, considering the tremendous costs involved in the design
and manufacture of a new airplane.

DETAIL DESIGN
The detail design phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of airplane
design. The aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control analysis have
all been finished with the preliminary design phase. The airplane is now simply a machine to
be fabricated. The pressure design of each individual rib ,spar and section of skin now take
place. The size of number and location off astness are determined. At this stage, flight
simulators for the airplane are developed. And these are just a few of the many detailed
requirements during the detail design phase. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to
be fabricated.

Parameters taken from aircraft design project 1: Parameters Values

MISSION REQUIREMENTS:

PARAMETERS VALUES
CREW 4 (twopilots, navigator
and flight engineer)
ROLE Military cargo
PAYLOAD 42,000
TYPE OF PAYLOAD Missiles and other military
equipments

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CONFIGURATION:

PARAMETERS SHAPES
FUSELAGE Conventional
WING anhedral wing
TAIL T- Tail
LANDING GEAR Conventional
ENGINE Turbo prop engine

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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:

PARAMETERS VALUES
MAXIMUM SPEED 0.8 mach
CRUISE SPEED 290 m/s
SERVICE CEILING 12000 m
RATE OF CLIMB 24.9 m/s

SPECIFICATION OF DESIGNED AIRCRAFT:

DESIGN POINT PARAMETERS VALUES

Overall Weight 66000kg

Empty Weight 42000 kg

Fuel Weight 1200 kg

Payload Weight 47000 kg

Weight
Cruise speed 290 m/s

Maximum Speed 262 m/s

Performance
Range 3000 m

Thrust Required 3756 kw

Wetted surface Area 162.79 m2

Wing Span 40.3 m

Root Chord 16.67 ft

Tip Chord 1.67 ft

Aerofoil NACA 23021

Joukowsky 18.2 %

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CHAPTER II

V-n DIAGRAM

INTRODUCTION

Flight regime of any aircraft includes all permissible combinations of speeds, altitudes,
weights, centers of gravity, and configurations. This regime is shaped by aerodynamics,
propulsion, structure, and dynamics of aircraft. The borders of this flight regime are called flight
envelope or maneuvering envelope. The safety of human onboard is guaranteed by aircraft
designer and manufacturer. Pilots are always trained and warned through flight instruction
manual not to fly out of flight envelope, since the aircraft is not stable, or not controllable or not
structurally strong enough outside the boundaries of flight envelope. A mishap or crash is
expected, if an aircraft is flown outside flight envelope.

The flight envelope has various types; each of which is usually the allowable variations
of one flight parameter versus another parameter. These envelopes are calculated and plotted by
flight mechanics engineers and employed by pilots and flight crews. For instance, the load
masters of a cargo aircraft must pay extra caution to the center of gravity location whenever they
distribute various loads on the aircraft. There are several crashes and mishaps that safety board's
report indicated that load master are responsible, since they deployed more loads than allowed,
or misplaced the load before take-off. Nose heavy and tail heavy are two flight concepts that
pilots are familiar and experienced with, and are trained to deal with them safely.

Pilots are using several graphs and charts in their flight operations. Four important envelopes are
as follows:

1. Diagram of variations of aircraft lift coefficient versus Mach number (CL – M)

2. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus altitude (V – h)

3. Diagram of variations of center of gravity versus aircraft weight (Xcg – W)

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4. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n).One of the most important
diagrams is referred to as flight envelope.

This envelope demonstrates the variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n). In
another word, it depicts the aircraft limit load factor as a function of airspeed. One of the primary
reasons that this diagram is highly important is that, the maximum load factor; that is extracted
from this graph; is a reference number in aircraft structural design.If the maximum load factor is
under-calculated, the aircraft cannot withstand flight load safely. For this reason, it is
recommended to structural engineers to recalculate the V-n diagram on their own as a safety
factor.

In this section, details of the technique to plot the V- n diagram in introduced. Figure 9.10
shows a typical V-n diagram for a GA aircraft. This diagram is, in fact, a combination of two
diagrams: 1. The V-n diagram without consideration of gust, 2. The V-n diagram on the effect of
gust. In this section, we first have another look on the load factor and then present new concepts
on load factor. Then the phenomena of gust and gust load are described. At the end of this
section, the technique to plot V – n diagram is completely described. This description is
supported by a solved example.

LOAD FACTOR

The load to the aircraft on the ground is naturally produced by the gravity (i.e. 1 times
g). But, there are other sources of load to the aircraft during flight; one of which is the acceleration
load. This load is usually normalized through load factor (i.e. "n" times g). In another word, aircraft
load is expressed as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81

m/sec2 = 32.17 ft/sec2).

n = 𝒂 /g+1

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A Typical V-n Diagram for a GA Aircraft.

In some instances of flight such as turn and pull-up, the aircraft must
generate a lift force such that it is more than weight. For instance, load factor in a pull-up from
equation 9.86 can be re-written Where "a" is the centrifugal acceleration (V2/R). As this
acceleration increases; i.e. airspeed increases or radius of turn decreases; the load factor will
increase too. For other flight operations, similar expressions can be drawn. In some instances;
especially for missiles; this load factor may get as high as 30. As the table 2.2 illustrates, a low load
factor fighter may end up getting targeted by a high load factor missile.

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Load factor for various types of aircraft:

S.NO AIRCRAFT TYPE MAXIMUM MAXIMUM

POSITIVE LOAD NEGATIVE LOAD
FACTOR FACTOR
1 Normal (non-acrobatic) 2.5 – 3.8 -1 to -1.5

2 Utility (semi-acrobatic) 4.4 -1.8

3 Acrobatic 6 -3

4 Homebuilt 5 -2

5 Transport 3–4 -1 to -2

V – N DIAGRAM WITHOUT GUST EFFECT

2𝑛𝑚𝑔
𝑽𝒔𝒕 = √𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥

As figure 9.10 shows, V-n diagram is an envelope that indicates the limits of load factor and speed
for a safe flight. It is usually composed of two curves plus few lines. The two curves on the left
hand side represent the aerodynamic limit on load factor imposed by stall (CL max). The expression
for the top curve is extracted from stall equation in turn (i.e. equation 9.10) as follows, The point A
is then called the maneuver point.

𝑽𝑨= √𝒏𝑴𝒂𝒙𝑽𝒔

At this point, both lift coefficient and load factor are simultaneously at their highest possible values.
The corner velocity is an interesting velocity for fighter pilots. At speeds less than V*, it is not
possible to structurally damage the aircraft due to generation of load factor less than nmax. However,
the bank angle is not high enough for a tight turn. In contrast, at speeds greater than V*,
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maneuverability decreases, since the speed is too high. Thus fighter pilots are recommended to select
this speed for much of their maneuvering missions. For majority of the cases; and according to the
discussions presented in sections 2.3 and 2.4; this point simultaneously corresponds to the tightest
turn and fastest turn of an aircraft. Typical corner velocities of current advanced fighters are around
300 to 350 KEAS.

CALCULATION:
240000
n+ ≥2.1 +𝑤+10000

240000
≥2.1 +70676+10000 = 2.397

Maximum negative limit factor= -1.2

Wing loading w/s=436.03

 stall speed Vs
 design manuvering speed Va
 design diving speed Vd

stall velocity=87.380 m/s

CNmax=1.1*Clmax =0.10153

Stall velocity at negative =93.85 m/s

CNmax=1.1*Clmax =0.088

DESIGN MANUVERING SPEED:

Va=135.28m/s

Vbneg= 102.81 m/s

Cruise speed: Vc=290 m/s

Diving speed Vd=362. m/s

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Load factor (positive)= 1.30968*10-4 V2

Load factor(neg)=1.135*10-4 V2

Points to be plotted on graph:

At 0(0,0)

At A (1,87.380)

At B(3,135.28)

At c (3,362.5)

At D(-1.2,362.5)

At E(-1.2,93.85)

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V-n DIAGRAM

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CHAPTER III

GUST LOAD DIAGRAM

DESCRIPTION

The atmosphere is a dynamic system that encompasses variety of phenomena. Some of

these phenomena include turbulence, gust, wind shear, jet stream, mountain wave and thermal
flow. In this section, we concentrate on only gust, since it is not predictable, but is happening
during most high altitude flights. When an aircraft experiences a gust, the immediate effect is an
increase or decrease in the angle of attack. Figure 9.11 shows the geometry of an upward gust.
When an upward gust with a velocity of Vg, hits under the nose of an aircraft with the velocity of

V, the instantaneous change (increase) in the angle of attack (∆��), is determined

through
There are various models for gust prepared by various researchers. Here, we refer

to for the gust modeling. According to FAR 232, a GA aircraft must be able to

withstand gust with a velocity of 50 ft/sec from sea level up to 20,000 ft. From 20,000 ft

to 50,000 ft the gust velocity decreases linearly to 25 ft/sec. an aircraft must safely fly at

maneuver speed when encounters a gust with the velocity of 66 ft/sec. The aircraft must

carry gust load during dive speed, if the gust speed is 25 ft/sec. These data are

employed to plot the gust V-n diagram. FAR recommends using the following

equation for modeling the "gust induced load factor" as a function of gust

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CALCULATION:

CONSTRUCTION OF GUST LOAD FACTOR LINES:

1±(𝐾𝑔 𝑈𝑔 𝑉𝑐𝑙 𝜌)
n= 2 𝑊/𝑆

Kg=0.88ug\5.3+ug

Where , Kg=gust altveriation factor

Ug=derived gust velocity

Ub =design speed for maximum gust intensity

Vc=design diving velocity

CL= overall lift curve slope

C=wing mean geometric chord

Wing loading,w/s=436.06 kg/m2

ρ=1.225 kg/m2

c=5.434 m
2∗436.06
𝜇𝑔 = 1.225∗5.434∗10.31=13.060

0.88∗13.61
Kg=5.3+13.060=0.62596

Construction of gust load factor line for speed:

Vb =87.38 m3

1. Take Ug=20.11m/s

+n=1.1773

-n=0.8227

2. Vc=135.34 m/s

Vg=40 m/s
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+n=2.1925 -n=-0.193

3. Take Ug=15.24 m/s for Vc=290 m/s

+n=3.5574

-n=1.557

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GUST LOAD
DIAGRAM

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CHAPTER IV

COMBINED GUST AND V-N DIAGRAM

CRITICAL LOADING PERFORANCE:

Section 2.1 technique to plot the basic V-n diagram is introduced. In Section 9.6.3, the
technique to plot the gust V-n diagram is presented. This section is about combination technique
of basic V-n diagram with gust V-n diagram. Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story,
aircraft designers must predict the gust load and add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver
load), to have a safe and strong structure in flight operations.

The maximum combined load factor is usually higher than separate load factor in each
diagram. A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft is illustrated in figure 9.13.

The V-n diagram is unique for each aircraft, and pilots and flight crew are required to fly and
operate inside this flight envelope. The following example demonstrates details of the technique
to plot the combined V-n diagram for an acrobatic aircraft.

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Figure 4.1A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft

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CHAPTER V

SCHRENK’S CURVE

WING DESCRIPTION

Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of attack and sweep along
the span. Schrenk’s curve defines this lift distribution over the wing span of an aircraft, also called
simply as Lift Distribution Curve.

Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Where 𝒀 = 𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 /𝟐

y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1

y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2

5.2 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

lift at root:
𝜌𝑉2𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 1.225 𝑋 61.73297282 𝑋 3.2 𝑋 5.081016 2
𝐿𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 = 2
= 2

𝑳𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕 = 6974.83 (𝑵 /m )
= 𝜌𝑉2𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝐿𝑇𝑖𝑝 2

1.225 𝑋 61.73297282 𝑋 3.2 𝑋 0.5090 2

= =1528.7 (𝑵 /m )
2

By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the wing

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ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight .

Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get,

𝑳 𝟐=𝑾 𝟐=𝝅𝒂𝒃𝟏/ 𝟒

Where b1- is Actual lift at root And a- is wing semi span

Lift at tip

𝒃𝟏 = 𝟒𝑾/ 𝟐𝝅𝒂

𝒃𝟏 =(𝟒𝑿𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟒𝟕𝟐𝟔) /(𝟐𝝅 𝑿 𝟓.𝟕𝟎𝟕𝟑) = 11.223

EQUATION OF ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE:

Schrenk’s Curve is given by

2𝑏1
𝒀𝟐 = √(𝒂𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐)

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Elliptic Lift distribution table along semi spanCONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE:

Schrenk’s Curve is given by = 𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 /𝟐

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X Y1 Y2 Y
0 6974.83 2245.1 4609.96
0.28 7455.83 2245.7 4850.78
0.57 7954.02 2245.2 5099.89
0.85 7971.24 2244.2 5107.92
1.14 8933.22 2244.2 5588.71
1.42 9411.2 2243.7 5827.45
1.71 9912.4 2243.6 6078.00
1.9 110891.6 2242.6 7013.26
3.4 11784.91 2241.5 7524.01

2.8 12816.6 2240.8 7524.1

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CHAPTER VI

LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING

DESCRIPTION:

The solution methods which follow Euler’s beam bending theory

(σ/y=M/I=E/R) use the bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a
particular section of the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads
in the transverse direction. Most engineering solution methods for structural mechanics
problems (both exact and approximate methods) use the shear force and bending moment
equations to determine the deflection and slope at a particular section of the beam.
Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as
analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment produced here is
about the longitudinal axis .

LOADS ACTING ON WING:

As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first.There are
threenprimary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause
considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:
· Lift force (given by Schrenk’s curve)
· Self-weight of the wing
· Weight of the power plant
· Weight of the fuel in the wing

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS DUE TO LOADS

ALONG TRANSVERSE DIRECTION AT CRUISE CONDITION:

Lift Force given by Schrenk’s Curve:

𝒀 = 𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐/2
LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION (TRAPEZIUM):

𝑌1 = −(5983.653)𝑥 + 37952.46532

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Linear Variation of Lift along wing span

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Elliptical Variation of Lift along Wing Semi Span

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SELF-WEIGHT OF WING (𝒀𝟑):

Self-weight of the wing:
Wwing / wo=0.25
Wwing =0.25*359331*9.81

Wportwing= -440629N (Acting downwords)

Wstarboard= -440629N(Acing downwords)

Assuming parabolic weight distribution :

-440629= ^2 dx
K= -12.3325
Y3= -12.3325(x-35)^2
Where, x=0 ( Root location)
X=b (Tip location )

Fuel weight in the wing: This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of
the fuel in one wing.

Wfuel wing/2= 1040.78l/2

Wfuel wing=5105.050N
This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the fuel in one wing.

Yf=1185.18x-39775.92

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Self weight of wing:

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Fuel weight in wing;

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Loads simplified as point loads:

Reaction force and Bending moment calculations;

The wing is fixed at one end and free at other end

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SHEAR FORCE:
SFBC=∫ ( 1+𝑌2 2 − 𝑌3) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑉𝐴

SFBC=
∫ ( [−238.0158x1+3587.38]+539.195√5.0242+x 2 2 + 9.59 (x − 5.024) 2) dx − 19026.2647
SFBC =
-59.50 x 2 + 1793.69 x 1+ 269.5975[x 1√5.0242 − x 2 + 25.24sin−1 x 5.024] + 9.59 [ x 3 3 −
5.024x 2 + 25.24x]-19026.2647

SFCD= SFBC+∫ Yfdx SFCD= SFBC+∫(1072x − 3000) dx

SFCD= SFBC+[536x2 − 3000x]
SFDE= SFCD+(536x 2 − 3000x 1 ) + 931.95
By using the corresponding values of x in appropriate equations we get the plot of
shear

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BENDING MOMENT:
BMBC=
∬ {[ [−238.0158x+3587.38]+539.195√5.0242−x 2 2 + 959(x − 5.024) 2 ] dx −
19026.2647} dx 2 + 52396.98589
BMBC=
∫ [−59.50x 2 + 1793.69x + 269.5975 [x√5.0242 − x 2 + 25.24 sin−1 x 5.024] + 9.59 [ x 3 3
− 5.024x 2 + 25.24x] − 19026.2647] dx + 52396.98589

BMBC=
−19026.2647𝑥 − 79.33𝑥 3 + 1793.69𝑥 2 + 134.79875 [(𝑥√5.0242 − 𝑥 2) + 25.224 sin−1
𝑥 5.024] + 45.77(25.24 − 𝑥 2 ) 1.5 − 9.59 [ 𝑥 4 12 + 12.62𝑥 2 − 1.67467𝑥 3 ] +
52396.98589 BMCD= ∬ {( 𝑌1−𝑌2 2 − 𝑌3) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑉𝐴} 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑀

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CHAPTER VII
C.G CALCULATION

The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and dropping
off / release of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the amount of fuel carried
by the airplane may vary from flight to flight. These factors lead to change in the location
of the Centre of gravity (c.g.) of the airplane.

The shift in the c.g location affects the stability and controllability of the airplane.
Hence, this chapter deals with the methods to obtain the weights of various
components of the airplane and calculation of the c.g location under various operating
conditions. The weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and
useful load.

The empty weight can be further subdivided into

weights of: (i) Structures group.

(ii) Propulsion group and

(iii) Equipment group.

The weights in the above three groups can be further subdivided as follows.

1) The structures group consists of the following components.

 wing
 horizontal tail /canard
 vertical tail
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 fuselage
 landing gear (main and nose/tail wheel)

2) The propulsion group consists of the following components:

o engine as installed; reduction gear for turboprop engine

o propeller for piston and turboprop engines
o exhaust system
o cooling provisions
o engine controls
o starting system
o fuel system and tanks

3) The equipment group consists of the following items:

o flight controls
o auxiliary power unit (APU) instruments
o hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-
icing and other systems

4) The useful load consists of :

 Crew
 Fuel (usable and trapped)
 Oil
 Payload ( passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane)
 Ammunition, expendable weapons and other items in military airplanes

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Component weights and c.g values of various aircrafts

TRANSPORTS
AND BOMBERS GENERAL APPROXIMATE
ITEM FIGHTERS AVIATION MULTIPLIER C.G LOCATION

WING 44 49 12 Sexposed m2 40 % MAC

HORIZONTAL
TAIL 20 27 10 Sexposed m2 40 % MAC

VERTICAL
TAIL 26 27 10 Sexposed m2 40 % MAC

40-50 %
FUSELAGE 23 24 7 Swetted m2 LENGTH

0.033

LANDING
GEAR 0.045 0.043 0.057 TOGW -

INSTALLED ENGINE
ENGINE 1.3 1.3 1.4 WEIGHT -
NAVY
ALL ELSE 40-50 %
EMPTY 0.17 0.17 0.10 TOGW LENGTH

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Component weights and c.g values of the aircraft

ITEM WEIGHT C.G LOCATION W.x

FUSELAGE GROUP (W) (kg)

15987 (x)
10.8(m) (kg.m)
1726596
WING GROUP 12820 19.6 251272
INSTALLED 1408
1408 -
ENGINE
HORIZONTAL TAIL 4367 10.8 47163.6
VERTICAL TAIL 2700 10.8 29160
ALL ELSE EMPTY 4200 0.0315 131.3
LANDING GEAR 2826.16 - 2826.16
ARMAMENTS
∑W = 44308 ∑x = 52.0315 ∑W.x = 504671.66

𝛴𝑊𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇.𝐶𝑂𝐺𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝛴𝑊𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝐺 = 𝛴𝑊𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇

504621.66
= 44306.16

𝐶𝑂𝐺 = 11.389 m

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CHAPTER VIII

DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUTS

FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURE:

The primary functions of an aircraft‟s structure can be basically broken down into the

following:

o To transmit and resist applied loads.

o To provide and maintain aerodynamic shape.
o To protect its crew, passenger, payload, systems, etc.

For the vast majority of aircraft, this leads to use of a semi-monocoque design (i.e. a
thin, stressed outer shell with additional stiffening members) for the wing, fuselage &
empennage. These notes will discuss the structural layout possibilities for each of these main
areas, i.e. wing, fuselage & empennage.

WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT:

Specific Roles of Wing (Main wing) Structure:

The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:

 To transmit:
 wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
 Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main beam.
 Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the main
beam.

 To react against:
o Landing loads at attachment points
o Loads from pylons/stores
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o Wing drag and thrust loads

 To provide:
o Fuel tank age space
o Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
 To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
 Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
 Chord wise members(ribs)
 A covering skin
 Stringers

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

The structural functions of each of these types of members may be

considered independently as:

SPARS
o Form the main span wise beam
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o Transmit bending and torsional loads

o Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.

In particular:
o Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
o Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.

SKIN:

 To form impermeable aerodynamics surface

 Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
 Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
 React axial bending loads (with stringers).

STRINGERS:

 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
 React axial bending loads

RIBS:

o Maintain the aerodynamic shape

o Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
o Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress
around any discontinuities
o Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint
o Increase the skin panel buckling strength.

SPARS:

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These usually comprise thin aluminium alloy webs and flanges, sometimes with
separate vertical stiffeners riveted on to the webs.

Types of spars:

In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should be located as
far forward as possible to maximize the wing box size, though this is subject to there being:

 Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads.

 Adequate nose space for LE devices, de-icing
equipment, etc.

This generally results in the front spar being located at 12% to 18% of the chord length.
For a single spar D-nose layout, the spar will usually located at the maximum thickness position
of the aerofoil section (typically between 30% & 40% along the chord length)

For the standard box beam layout, the rear spar will be located as for aft as possible,
once again to maximize the wing box size, but positioning will be limited by various space
requirements for flaps, control surfaces, spoilers etc. This usually results in a location
somewhere between about 55%and 70% of the chord length. If any intermediate spars are
used, they would tend to be spaced uniformly unless there are specific pick-up point
requirements.

FUSELAGE STRUCTURE:

The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide an envelope to

support the payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the power-plant. Furthermore, it
must react against the in-flight maneuver, pressurization and gust loads; also the landing gear
and possibly any power-plant loads. It must be also be able to transmit control and trimming
loads from the stability and control surfaces throughout the rest of the structure

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Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important
structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing
components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes
the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically all equipment,
accessories and systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of
equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the
fuselage for access and inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage
design being more complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design.

As a common member to which other components are attached, thereby transmitting

the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the
wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the respective
attachment points. The balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by
the weight of the fuselage structure and the various components inside the fuselage. These
reaction forces are distributed all along the length of the fuselage, though need not be
uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is
much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical
loading. The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on
the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of
both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams .produced in
each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the
respective member..

FUSELAGE LAYOUT CONCEPTS:

There are two main categories of layout concept in common use;

 Mass boom and longeron layout

 Semi-monocoque layout
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MASS BOOM & LONGERON LAYOUT

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept discussed in

previous section. It is used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or when there
are extensive cut-outs in the shell. The concept comprises four or more continuous heavy
booms (longeron), reacting against any direct stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral
bending loads. Frames or solid section

SEMI-MONOCOQUE LAYOUT

The semi-monocoque is the most often used construction for modern, high-performance
aircraft. Semi-monocoqueliterally means half a single shell. Here, internal braces as well as the
skin itself carry the stress. The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads,
frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for
concentrated loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach
other units, such as the wings and stabilizers.

Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several
points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as
stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The stringers are
smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins.

They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin.
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers
hold the stringers. All of these join together to form a rigid fuselage framework.
Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the

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fuselage. The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members and
carries part of the load.

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CHAPTER IX

MATERIAL SELECTION

DESCRIPTION:

Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one dimension, the
length, is much larger than the others - width or height. For example, the span of the wing
and tail spars is much longer than their width and depth; the ribs have a much larger chord
length than height and/or width; a whole wing has a span that is larger than its chords or
thickness; and the fuselage is much longer than it is wide or high. Even a propeller has a
diameter much larger than its blade width and thickness, etc.... For this simple reason, a
designer chooses to use unidirectional material when designing for an efficient strength to
weight structure.

Unidirectional materials are basically composed of thin, relatively flexible, long fibers
which are very strong in tension (like a thread, a rope, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.). An
aircraft structure is also very close to a symmetrical structure. Those mean the up and
down loads are almost equal to each other. The tail loads may be down or up depending on the
pilot raising or dipping the nose of the aircraft by pulling or pushing the pitch control; the
rudder may be deflected to the right as well as to the left (side loads on the fuselage). The gusts
hitting the wing may be positive or negative, giving the up or down loads which the occupant
experiences by being pushed down in the seat or hanging in the belt.

Because of these factors, the designer has to use a structural material that can
withstand both tension and compression. Unidirectional fibers may be excellent in tension, but
due to their small cross section, they have very little inertia (we will explain inertia another
time) and cannot take much compression. They will escape the load by bucking away. As in the
illustration, you cannot load a string, or wire, or chain in compression.

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In order to make thin fibers strong in compression, they are "glued together" with some
kind of an "embedding". In this way we can take advantage of their tension strength and are no
longer penalized by their individual compressionweakness because, as a whole, they become
compression resistant as they help each other to not buckle away. The embedding is usually a
lighter, softer "resin" holding the fibers together and enabling them to take the required
compression loads. This is a very good structural material.

WOOD:

Historically, wood has been used as the first unidirectional structural raw material. They
have to be tall and straight and their wood must be strong and light. The dark bands (late
wood) contain many fibers, whereas the light bands (early wood) contain much more "resin".
Thus the wider the dark bands, the stronger and heavier the wood. If the dark bands are very
narrow and the light bands quite wide, the wood is light but not very strong. To get the
most efficient strength to weight ratio for wood we need a definite numbers of bands per inch.
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Some of our aircraft structures are two-dimensional (length and width are large with
respect to thickness). Plywood is often used for such structures. Several thin boards (foils) are
glued together so that the fibers of the various layers cross over at different angles (usually 90
degrees today years back you could get them at 30 and 45 degrees as well). Plywood makes
excellent "shear webs" if the designer knows how to use plywood efficiently. (We will learn the
basis of stress analysis sometime later.)

Today good aircraft wood is very hard to come by. Instead of using one good board for
our spars, we have to use laminations because large pieces of wood are practically unavailable,
and we no longer can trust the wood quality. From an availability point of view, we simply
need a substitute for what nature has supplied us with until now.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:

So, since wood may not be as available as it was before, we look at another
material which is strong, light and easily available at a reasonable price (there's no point in
discussing Titanium - it's simply too expensive). Aluminum alloys are certainly one answer.
We will discuss the properties of those alloys which are used in light plane construction in more
detail later. For the time being we will look at Aluminum as a construction material.

EXTRUDED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:

Due to the manufacturing process for Aluminum we get a unidirectional material quite
a bit stronger in the lengthwise direction than across. And even better, it is not only strong in
tension but also in compression. Comparing extrusions to wood, the tension and compression
characteristics are practically the same for aluminum alloys so that the linear stress analysis
applies. Wood, on the other hand, has a tensile strength about twice as great as its compression
strength; accordingly, special stress analysis methods must be used and a good understanding of
wood under stress is essential if stress concentrations are to be avoided

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Aluminium alloys, in thin sheets (.016 to .125 of an inch) provide an excellent

two dimensional material used extensively as shear webs - with or without stiffeners - and also as
tension/compression members when suitably formed (bent).It is worthwhile to remember that
aluminium is an artificial metal. There is no aluminium ore in nature. Aluminium is
manufactured by applying electric power to bauxite (aluminium oxide) to obtain the metal,
which is then mixed with various strength-giving additives. (In a later article, we will see which
additives are used, and why and how we can increase aluminum’s strength by cold work
hardening or by tempering.) All the commonly used aluminium alloys are available from the
shelf of dealers. When requested with the purchase, you can obtain a "mill test report" that
guarantees the chemical and physical properties as tested to accepted specifications.

As a rule of thumb, aluminium is three times heavier, but also three times stronger than
wood. Steel is again three times heavier and stronger than aluminium.

STEEL:

The next material to be considered for aircraft structure will thus be steel, which has the same
weight-to-strength ratio of wood or aluminium.

Apart from mild steel which is used for brackets needing little strength, we are mainly
using a chrome-molybdenum alloy called AISI 413ON or 4140. The common raw materials
available are tubes and sheet metal. Steel, due to its high density, is not used as shear webs like
aluminium sheets or plywood. Where we would need, say.100" plywood, a .032 inch aluminium
sheet would be required, but only a .010 steel sheet would be required, which is just too thin
to handle with any hope of a nice finish. That is why a steel fuselage uses tubes also as
diagonals to carry the shear in compression or tension and the whole structure is then
covered with fabric (light weight) to give it the required aerodynamic shape or desired look. It
must be noted that this method involves two techniques: steel work and fabric covering. .

COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

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The designer of composite aircraft simply uses fibers in the desired direction exactly
where and in the amount required. The fibers are embedded in resin to hold them in place and
provide the required support against buckling. Instead of plywood or sheet metal which allows
single curvature only, the composite designer uses cloth where the fibers are laid in two
directions .(the woven thread and weft) also embedded in resin.This has the advantage of
freedom of shape in double curvature as required by optimum aerodynamic shapes and for
very appealing look (importance of aesthetics).

Today's fibers (glass, nylon, Kevlar, carbon, whiskers or single crystal fibers of
various chemical compositions) are very strong, thus the structure becomes very light. The
drawback is very little stiffness. The structure needs stiffening which is achieved either by the
usual discreet stiffeners, -or more elegantly with a sandwich structure: two layers of thin uni- or
bi-directional fibers are held apart by a lightweight core (foam or "honeycomb"). This allows the
designer to achieve the required inertia or stiffness.

From an engineering standpoint, this method is very attractive and supported by

many authorities because it allows new developments which are required in case of war.
But this method also has its drawbacks for homebuilding: A mold is needed, and very
strict quality control is a must for the right amount of fibers and resin and for good adhesion
between both to prevent too "dry" or "wet" a structure. Also the curing of the resin is quite
sensitive to temperature, humidity and pressure. Finally, the resins are active chemicals which
will not only produce the well-known allergies but also the chemicals that attack our body
(especially the eyes and lungs) and they have the unfortunate property of being cumulatively
damaging and the result (in particular deterioration of the eye) shows up only years after initial
contact.

Another disadvantage of the resins is their limited shelf life, i.e., if the resin is not used
within the specified time lapse after manufacturing, the results may be unsatisfactory and
unsafe.

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HEAVY AIRCRAFT RAW MATERIALS:

o MAGNESIUM: An expensive material. Castings are the only readily available

forms.

Special precaution must be taken when machining magnesium because this metal burns when
hot.

o TITANIUM: A very expensive material. Very tough material and difficult to

machine.

o CARBON FIBERS: Still very expensive materials.

o KEVLAR FIBERS: Very expensive and also critical to work with because it is hard to

"soak" in the resin.

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CHAPTER X

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

FRONT VIEW:

SIDE VIEW:

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TOP VIEW:

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CHAPTER XI

CONCLUSION:
The Conceptual Design phase of an aircraft is probably the most interesting
and intriguing phase of aircraft design. It is a clear indication of the compromise that has to be
made between various divisions of an Aircraft design center, and yet satisfy an incredible number
of real-world constraints and design specifications. Aircraft design involves a variety of the field of
Aerospace engineering like structures, performance, aerodynamics, stability etc. Among this we
went through the structure part in this project which has enabled us to get a taste of what it is to
design a real aircraft. The fantasies of the flying world seem to be much more than what we
thought. With this design project as the base, we will strive to progress in the field of airplane
design and maintenance. We convey our heartfelt gratitude to all of them who have provided
their helping hand in the completion of this project.

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REFERENCE:-

1. The Airplane: A History of Its Technology, by John D. Anderson

2. Next Generation More-Electric Aircraft: A Potential Application for HTS
Superconductors; Cesar A. Luongo, Senior Member, IEEE, Philippe J. Masson, Senior
Member, IEEE, Taewoo Nam, Dimitri Mavris, Hyun D. Kim, Gerald V. Brown, Mark
Waters, and David Hall; IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 19, NO. 3, JUNE 2009.
3. High Power Density Superconducting Motor for All-Electric Aircraft Propulsion;
Philippe J. Masson, Cesar A. Luongo; IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, JULY 2005.
4. HTS Motors in Aircraft Propulsion: Design Considerations; Philippe J. Masson,
Danielle S. Soban, Eric Upton, Jules E. Pienkos, and Cesar A. Luongo ; IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 15, NO. 2, JUNE
2005.
5. High Power Density Superconducting Motor for All-Electric Aircraft Propulsion,
Philippe J. Masson and Cesar A. Luongo; IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 15, NO. 2, JUNE 2005.
6. Turboelectric Distributed Propulsion Engine Cycle Analysis for Hybrid-Wing-Body
Aircraft, James L. Felder, Hyun Dae Kim and Gerald V. Brown, NASA Glenn.
Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics.
7. Experiment Design for Complex VTOL Aircraft with Distributed Propulsion and Tilt
Wing, Patrick C. Murphy, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton; Drew Land man
Old Dominion University, Department of Aerospace Engineering; American Institute
of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
8. Electric Motor & Power Source Selection for Small Aircraft Propulsion, Jeremy
Fehren batcher, David L. Stanley, Mary E. Johnson, Dr. Jeffrey Hatchel; Purdue
University.
9. Electric Flight – Potential and Limitations, Martin Hepperle ; German Aerospace
Center Institute of Aerodynamics and Flow Technology.
10. Introduction to Flight; by John. D Anderson.
Aircraft Propulsion and Engine Performance; Ahameed

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