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Museum

Vol XXVI, n° 3/4, 1974

Museum architecture
museum
Mtcsetcm, successor to Mouseion, is published
by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris.
Mastam serves as a quarterly survey of
activities and means of research in the field
of museography.
Opinions expressed by individual
contributors are not necessarily those of
Unesco.

EDITORS

Chief Editor : Conrad Wise


Associate Editor : Anne Erdös

ADVISORY BOARD

Om Prakash Agrawal, India


Sid Ahmed Baghli, Algeria
Raymonde Frin, France
Jan Jelinek, Czechoslovakia
iMichael Kustow, United Kingdom
Grace L. McCann Morley, Director,
ICOM Agency for South-East Asia
Georges Henri Rivitre, Permanent Adviser
of ICOM
Mario Viisquez, Mexico
The Secretary-General of ICOM, ex o@cio

Mz~ceiimquarterly review is available in


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Editorial and publishing offices:
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization,
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0Unesco 1975
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Museum
architecture

~ ~

' Editorial 127


Glossary 128
Manfred Lehmbruck Introduction 129
Policy Commissioning authority and master builder I 3I

Siting. Study and choice of the site I3 5

Sociology. Social context and place of action I5 7

Physiology. Factors affecting the visitor I 73

Psychology. Perception and behaviour 191


Conservation. Physiochemistry of the objects 205

Functions. Space and circulation 22-1

Technology. Flexibility, extensibility 23 7


Aesthetics. Laws of form and semantics 25 I

Conclusion 267

Appendixes
I Programming and planning the construction of a museum (Georges Henri
Rivière) 268
II Climate and museum architecture in South and South-East Asia (O. P. Agrawal
and Smita J. Bas) 269
III -New museums in the U.S.S.R. (Irina Antonova and V. Revyakin) 274

IV The building starts with a programme-but where does the programme end?
(J. Carter Brown) 2-77
Bibliographical notes 2-80
I 26

I
MUSEO
CAPITOLINO,
Rome.
Opened in 1734,the Capitol Museum was
the first museum of modern Europe.
It was founded by Pope Clement XII
to house his collection of Roman
antiquities and to make Romans aware of
the value of their heritage, already
threatened by the great collectors of the
Renaissance. Architect: Michelangelo
Buonarrotti.
Ed.¡to ria I

Museum and Architecture: For some time now it has been our intention to
devote a special number to this subject which has always been one of vital
c0ncern.l
Large numbers of museums are indeed being built throughout the world,
while others are taking up their abode in historic monuments that no longer
serve their original purpose, arresting their decline and giving them new
significance. Yet others, which can barely be classified as museums in the
ordinary sense and in fact prefer to be called parks, are occupying sites where
nature has been tamed by man or still reigns supreme, and here, the architect’s
role is to introduce system and order into the area that is to be visited, a task
requiring the utmost tact and sensitivity.
One number would not be sufficient to investigate all the different aspects
of such a vast and fascinating subject. We have chosen to begin with a particu-
larly urgent topic-the new museum. Our writer is Manfred Lehmbruck,
himself an architect and builder of museums.
Professor Lehmbrucls has given us a well-balanced mixture of theory and
practice, explaining the why and the wherefore, without neglecting the impor-
tant question of how. Where necessary, to give his text more clarity and
directness, he has enlisted the aid of ingenious pictorial symbols.
In his desire to make his contribution more relevant and up to date, the
author undertook a world study tour, financed partly by himself and partly
by the John D. Rockefeller III Foundation. He was thus able to inspect new
types of museums at first hand and discuss them with their creators and their
users. would like to thank both the foundation which supported his
journey and those who were his hosts.
Contributions from other authors are given at the end of the number, each
extending the scope of the inquiry in its own way, whether dealing with a
different region of the world or a different field of specialization.
If, as a result of this number, fewer museums were to be dreamt up without
a programme or knocked together without a plan, something would have
been accomplished, and something all the more useful in that we should owe
it to a collaborator who is already working actively to this end.

I. This subject has already been brought up several


times in Miueiírn. See, in particular: ‘Museum
Architecture’, Vol. XVII, No. I, 1964; ‘Museum
Architecture: Projects and Recent Achievements’,
Vol. XVII, No. 3, 1964; section entitled ‘The Building’
in ‘Exchange of Views of a Group of Experts’,
Vol. XXTV, No. I, r g p .
128

'Real things' (Man-made objects, ((Chose réelle)) (objet issu de l'homme, Objekt (von Menschenhand);
Specimens of nature) spécimen issu de la nature) Specimen (von Natur geschaffen)

Viewer Individu (visiteur) Individuum

Space utilization (for example, intensity Utilisation de l'espace Besondere Raumnutzungen


of supplementary information) (par exemple, densité de l'information (z.B. Dichte ergänzender Information)
~~~
complémentaire)
Lower intensitv Densité plus faible Rel. Dichte 1. Grades
Higher intensity Densité plus forte Rel. Dichte 2. Grades
Quality of the building (for example, Qualification des surfaces Besondere Flächenqualitäten (2.B.
complexity of the air-conditioning (par exemple, complexité des mesures Dichte der Klimatisations maßnahmen)
..........................
........
........................................................
system) de climatisation)
.......................
..................
%....I..Z asa...!
. .
Lower c o m ~ l e x i t v Premier degré de complexité Rel. Dichte I . Grades
Higher complexity - de comdexité
Deuxième dearé Rel. Dichte 2. Grades usw.
Limits of areas (for example, walls, Délimitation des espaces (par exemple, Raumbegrenzungen (z.B. Wände,
partitions, optics, acoustics) murs, cloisons ou moyens optiques Raumteiler Oder optische
et acoustiques) und akustische Mittel)
Existing limits Délimitation existante Bestehend Begrenzung
--- , - , Solid, non-transparent Massive, opaque Massiv, opak
Transparent (for example,glass) Transparente (par exemple, verre) Transparent (Z.B. Glas)

---------
- -- - - - - - -
Extension
Solid, non-transparent
Transparent (for example,glass)
Extension
Massive, opaque
Transparente (par exemple, verre)
Erweiterung
Massiv, opak
Transparent (z.B. Glas)
Limits of planning zones (for example, Délimitation conceptuelle ldeelle Begrenzungen Oder
space) (par exemple, espace) Konstruktionsachsen
I-.-.-.-.-.-
II-.-.-.-.-.-
Ill--.--.-.-.-.-
IV--.--.--.--.--.-

e 0,
Public
Semi-public
Semi-private
Private
Circulation
Visitors
Public
Semi-public
Semi-privé
Privé
Circulation
Visiteur
öffentlicher

halb interner
interner
Wegespuren
Besucher
I
halböffentlicher Museums-
bereich

1
3
o o o OD
0 0 OD
Staff
Material
Personnel
Matériel
Personal
Material
Air-lock, transition (Light, Climate, Sas, zone d'adaptation (optique, Schleusen, Übergänge (Licht,
Psychological, etc.) climatique, psychologique ...) Klima, psychologisch usw.)
Technique Technique Technik
Air-duct Gaine de climatisation Klimakanal
Incident light and reflected light Lumière incidente Lichteinfall + Lichtreflexion
et lumière réfléchie
NV North light Lumière du nord
(Das Gegenteil auf
the reverse in the l'inverse dans
\I/
I

-,o- South light


Southern Hemisphere
Lumière du sud
l'hémisphère sud
Siicllicht
der südlichen Halbkugel)

Angle of vision, visual contact Angle visuel, contact optique Blickwinkel, Sichtbeziehung

Lift, elevator, Ascenseur, monte-charge Aufzug- Personen, Aufzug- Frachten


goods-lift, freight elevator -

Circulation area Surface de circulation Verkehrsraum


Usable area Surface utile N utzraum
Raw work: basic building structure Gros Oeuvre Rohbau
Light work; mechanical, electrical Second ceuvre Ausbau
installations and finishes
Client, commissioning authority Maitre d'ouvrage Bauherr
Master builder Maître d'œuvre Baubeauftragter
architect, design consultant team
Contractor Entrepreneur Bauausführender
Introduction

The relationship between the museum and architecture is an extremely com- Manfred Lehmbruck
plex subject which can only be considered in a relatively short essay on con-
dition that discussion is limited to common factors and specific problems, and
at risk of misunderstandings arising from incompleteness and simplification.
Museum work embraces such a wide variety of purposes, approaches and
achievements that the common basis could only be satisfactorily defined in a
very detailed and Comprehensive survey. We shall therefore concentrate on
a few questions which are central to the problems facing museums today.
One feature of modern museum work is a pluralistic approach both to the
visitors and to the exhibits. Having traditionally sought their stay and succour
in a like environment, men and exhibits must now find their way to a new and
constantly redefined relationship with one another. The danger of exhibits
becoming mere objects unconnected with the observer, which is built into the
Western concept of museum work, must be countered by discovering a con-
necting link of which architecture forms part.
Another feature of museum work today is the dynamic approach. The
exhibits have not been brought together so that they can occupy a quiet little
niche in the museum for the rest of time but to begin a new life among new
companions, whether these be museum visitors or the other exhibits. Archi-
tecture must create condkions which will make it possible to overcome, or,
more precisely, sublate, the unfortunate separation of past from present, of
the ‘living’ from the ‘dead’.
Both problems arise with varying degrees of intensity in all museums,
providing material for conflict and being solved with varying degrees of
success. The considerations which follow have therefore been written with
particular reference to these two features of modern museum work. Mention
may also be made here of a number of other points which will help to indicate
the scope and subject-matter of the present essay more precisely. First, the
different types of museum are not examined systematically as this was impos-
sible within such a restricted framework: the museum is examined as a species
rather than each individual museum being taken separately. Secondly, the
special problems of open-air museums, nature reserves, historic buildings or
the reconstruction of towns were considered too complex and far-ranging to
be dealt with in this essay. Thirdly, problems of a specialized or detailed nature
are discussed only when relevant to the general concept. Lastly, special areas
such as teaching and lecture rooms, laboratories and offices, to which other
architectural criteria apply, are considered only in relation to the whole and
not discussed in detail; on the other hand, museum areas set within structures
I ?O Introduction

mainly used for other purposes are discussed in detail, as are cultural activities
of every kind designed to further the museum’s work.
As regards the second element in the relationship, namely architecture, this
is here understood as comprising the creation and organization of space by
static architectural methods, and also the organization of time by the analysis
of operational sequences following a pre-arranged pattern. In other words
what we are concerned with is the identification and assessment of the different
factors affecting the building’s final appearance rather than individual plans
and solutions.
The subject-matter is therefore further restricted in the sense that we offer
no architectural typology of museums, nor do we enumerate details of con-
struction, interior planning and furnishing or technical details unless they form
a vital part of the over-all plan. On the other hand, we do present relevant
materials and analyses concerning the basic decisions of principle that have to
be taken before a museum is built.
Both museology and architecture are highly academic subjects which never-
theless involve emotional judgements over a wide field: personality, freedom,
spontaneity and numerous other imponderables are essential components of
the general picture. But in spite of the similarity of their fundamental premises
they are substantially different and self-contained systems: transfer of know-
ledge from one to the other cannot be taken for granted. We have therefore
tried in this essay to take our stance neither on the one nor on the other, but
on the, as it were, neutral territory afforded by the basic general disciplines.
From here our investigations will lead us in both directions but it may sorne-
times be possible to subsume them under a single head. The advantage of this
approach is that both aspects can be related to a common scientifically estab-
lished denominator. Our treatment will thus be centred on the fields of socio-
logy, psychology or physics for example, striking out from here on either side
in the direction of museology and architecture.
By briefly defining, for each field in turn, the main points at issue, the
complexity of the museological and architectural factors is made less formi-
dable. As everything is linked together, considerations relating to particular
points have to be brought within an over-all view so as not to get out of
perspective. The dialectical polarization of attitudes inherent in any purely
theoretical discussions is avoided by seeking solutions at a practical level where
an additional dimension, the reality of time and space, can be introduced.
Study of alternatives and contrasting approaches serves to stimulate discussion
and facilitate the solution of problems connected with space.
The chapter order leads from consideration of man as an individual and as
a member of society by way of the exhibit with its physical qualities to the
building and the functional and technological laws to which it is subject. The
discussion then comes full circle with a study of aesthetics as relating to
buildings.
Our aim is to throw light on the conflicts which arise in the sphere of
museum building and to provide a basis for discussion. An account of the
problems involved is all that can be expected at this level, not a collection of
formulas for instant application.
As the visual often has a more direct impact than the verbal, a few sketches
have been included, reducing superficially complex problems to bare essentials
and providing a useful adjunct to the theories outlined in the text. Other
diagrams are intended to indicate the kind of specific situation in which the
museum architect will be faced with particular types of problem, though here
it is not possible entirely to rule out the danger of extraneous factors influencing
the decision. This consideration also led us to exclude general descriptions of
individual projects or completed buildings. Where examples are given they
have been chosen for their relevance to a particular problem rather than for
their position on a general scale of values. An effort was made to refer mainly
to museums built during the last few years.
Policy

Commissioning authority and master builder

The planning and construction of a museum, as of any other building of


public importance, is bound to take on political dimensions. The many inter-
ested parties, which each view the problem from a different angle, must be
organized and their views co-ordinated. However, as those connected with
museum work express their views on this subject in detail in the Appendixes
we shall concentrate here on the architect’s view of the problem in his capacity
of master builder.
First a short definition of the sense in which the very broad term ‘architect’
is to be used in this essay may be in order. It may be used to refer to an indi-
vidual or a team, to one or more private architects or to an administrative body.
In every case it designates a viable organizational unit, known as the master
builder, capable of entering into agreements, and responsible for planning and
carrying out a specific building project. As building projects have become
more complex and wide-ranging some of the responsibilities of the architect 2
have developed upon new, more specialized professions, such as that of the Plan of relationships between the different
specialized groups in the creation of a
‘co-ordinator’ or the ‘programmer’, which are generally interposed between museum. The work of all groups up to
the building owner and the architect or between the architect and the con- and including that of the planning
committee must be problem-oriented,
tractor. Some of their activities will be referred to in this essay. whereas design and construction work
There are many different schools of thought regarding the distribution of should be centred on the collection.
Co-ordination between the different
the tasks involved in planning and building a museum, but in the main the stages by means of over-all supervision
architect is held responsible for producing a coherent plan based on all the or feed-back is essential.
132 Policy

different requirements, studies and views expressed. This effectively brings


him into the ‘corridors of power’. He may be only a small cog in the administra-
tive wheel but his role can vary from that of a technical assistant carrying out
other people’s decisions to that of a personality in his own right, and a genuine
partner. Good building can only be done when there is a healthy working
relationship between building owner and architect, with the modicum of
freedom needed for give and take on both sides.
Public building authorities are often commissioned as master builder as
they have the advantage of prior information. But, as we shall see, museum
design requires particularly intensive specialized training and a special awareness
of the problems involved. If public authorities are made responsible for
museum planning these conditions must be fulfilled and complete independ-
ence guaranteed.
Although the legal relationship between the customer and the architect may
take different forms there are certain rules which should always be observed if
the relationship is to be a fruitful one. First, it is desirable that the customer
should speak with one voice, at least towards the outside, and assume his
responsibilities. Anonymous bodies with no cut-and-dried machinery for
reaching decisions have a tendency to compromise which makes it difficult to
find a satisfactory architectural solution. Secondly, the customer should have
power to push through unpopular decisions as well as justifiable demands. In
museum planning it is particularly important that the customer should be able
to stand up against entrenched positions and selfish interests. Lastly, he should
be so involved in museum planning that it no longer presents any problems to
him. However, it is always advisable to consult museologists, museum admin-
istrators, etc.
Although there is a distinction to be drawn between States where all ini-
tiative and authority stems from the centre and those where political resolves
are dependent on majority decisions, the laws of modern technology ensure
that very similar procedures are followed in museum planning and building
everywhere. The final result is bound to be affected by the extent to which
individuals, groups or larger sections of the population are consulted, although
how effective their influence will be will depend on the general level of educa-
tion and public awareness. The participation of the public is particularly
valuable in the elaboration of objectives but hardly feasible when plans are
already being put into operation.
In general collaboration between all involved in the building process should
begin as -soon as possible. Apart from all the organizational and practical
reasons for taking expert knowledge into account at the appropriate stage it
should never be forgotten that the final objective is the creation of a building
of bricks and mortar. It generally falls to the architect to translate words and
theories into visual terms. It has therefore proved useful for the architect to
convert ‘ideas’ into concrete plans from the beginning, thus establishing the
possibilities and limitations of the three-dimensional immediately. Otherwise
there is a danger of being saddled with verbal specifications or formulae which
give rise to seemingly unending or even insuperable difficulties.
The working party should first work out a general programme in which the
underlying objectives of the project are defined. Expert assistance should be
enlisted to establish the background of area planning, educational structures,
town planning, population structure, economic capacity, etc., against which
the museum is to be set.
Some States have had model plans drawn up at national level by bodies on
which are represented the various professional and ‘consumer’ groups involved,
including not only government departments, museum directors and architects
but also a large number of official bodies and private associations as well as
independent experts. This model plan lays down guidelines regarding the
2. See Appendix I, ‘Programming and Planning the
nature, scope, purpose, special features, site, etc., of existing and future
Construction of a Museum’, by Georges Henri Rivière. mUSeUmS.
Commissioning authority and master builder I33

These prescriptions and recommendations should be neither too vague nor


too detailed in order to allow the individual museum scope to express and
establish its own personality. It would doubtless be desirable in the future
to strive also for international co-ordination and establishment of a world-
wide plan, but this can only be decided at the political level.
Where a model plan is available, it will be useful at the next stage, wlich
consists in drawing up a detailed programme laying down specific objectives,
determining the amount of space required and describing its characteristics.
The working party to which this task is assigned will work on the lines laid
down by the general programme and concentrate on the practical construction
problems involved. The optimum requirements laid down in the general pro-
gramme will have to be adjusted in the light of practical considerations when
the various experts concerned bring their specialized knowledge and experience
to bear on the discussion. This is the only way to prevent apparently trivial
. specialist problems from being left aside at this stage only to cause serious
prejudice to the project as a whole at a later stage.
The specifications and formulae contained in the detailed programme,
although clear, should be as broad as possible to allow adequate scope for the
creativity of the architect. A programme drawn up on too narrow a basis will
increase the risk of a sterile or stereotyped design. The architect should always
assist is drawing up this programme or, if the choice of architect is to be made
on the basis of a competition, the interest of the architect eventually chosen
should be represented by the person who is to judge the competition.
The design stage follows. This is based on the detailed programme and on
all other available information, whether obtained from inside or outside the
planning machinery. The broader the analytical basis the more comprehensive
the resulting synthesis is likely to be. But as the number of possible solutions is
theoretically well-nigh unlimited, the design will ultimately depend on the
power of the individual imagination.
At the plan preparation stage the basic idea is developed, its implications
checked and the project worked out in detail as a single operation, the out-
standing feature of which must be continuous contact and consultation
between all the planners and advisers involved. At the implementation stage
the architect is usually the co-ordinator as he is responsible for bringing all the
problems into a single focus. He must therefore be given the customer’s com-
plete confidence and full power to make decisions if he is to be able to put the
original idea into practice. All the collaborators and advisers must be in general
agreement on this point, which is the key to all successful team-work. Only
too often a variety of influences all pulling in different directions reduces the
impact of the original scheme and spoils what was originally a good design.
It is always advisable to draw up a ‘master plan’ which looks beyond current
requirements to future developments, since later extensions may be seriously
hampered or even precluded as a result of short-sighted planning.
Execution of the project itself will require the closest supervision as high
aesthetic standards are set for museums and special materials and orders are
often necessary. Subsequent alterations to the structure are very seldom
possible. For large-scale projects it is important that the building owner and
architect should follow the original concept through to its conclusion, even if
this takes a long time.
Just as continuous feedback is necessary during the planning stage, it is
advisable to refer back to the original expectations once the building is com-
plete. After a reasonable length of time the functions of a museum should be
examined, a survey made of visitors, costs compared with original estimates
and the results of these and other surveys made available to a wide range of
interested parties. These surveys should not be restricted to objective data but
should also analyse and assess the more intangible but all the more important
sociological, psychological and aesthetic aspects of the museum’s work.
3
MUSEUM OF MODERN ART,New York.
Amid the agitation and tension of urban life,
the museum may be considered a haven
of tranquillity. Here, the inner courtyard.
Sculptures by Calder and Moore and
in the background one of the old
entrances to the Paris Métropolitain. In the
background neighbouring buildings.
Architect: Philip Johnson.
I3

Siting )

Study and choice of the site3

In the past the sites of museums were generally chosen with an eye to the most
impressive location, the final decision often being made by the local prince or
municipality. Today the museum has acquired a new importance in society
as the level of education has steadily increased. It can now exercise considerable
influence on the individual consciousness, provided it is given opportunity to
do so. This means, among other things, that a new approach must be adopted
to the siting of museums with a view to attracting those who unti1 now have
never stepped across their threshold.
Figure 4, ‘General criteria to be borne in mind when choosing the site of
a museum’, shows that apart from the interest of a particular subject there are
only two ways of attracting ‘potential visitors’ to a museum (and here we have
in mind the individual visitor rather than groups of tourists, school outings,
etc.): by the installation of additional attractions; by the positioning and layout
of the museum (Fig. j).
We shall consider the positioning of a museum in the urban or in the rural
area from the point of view of enabling it to carry out its internal and external
functions as well as possible. After classifying the various sites which are
theoretically possible we shall set out in tabular form criteria for the choice of
a ‘macro-site’ (i.e. where there is a choice between different districts, regions
or provinces) and of a ‘micro-site’ (where there is a choice between different
individual sites or plots).
We shall also indicate two practical methods of quantitative assessment
that can be used for comparing different plots.

Siting of museums in urban areas


Most museums are to be found in the centre of cities. Owing to continuous
urban spread older museums which were originally built on the edge of the
town are now part of the city centre and new museums also tend to be estab-
lished in central areas.
The question of siting museums in city centres must be considered in con-
junction with the provision of other amenities connected with culture, educa-
tion, science and economic activities with a view to enabling the museum to
influence, whether directly or indirectly, as many areas of human activity as
possible. The risk of erecting barriers, whether mental or physical, between 3. Co-author: Ing. Bernd Rautenstrauch,
the museum and the population in general will then be avoided. assistant to Professor Lehmbruck at the Gebaudelehre
u. Entwerfen Institute, Technische Universität,
.A museum in a city centre, surrounded by office blocks, can hardly expect to Brunswick.
136 Siting

have many visitors, as there is a mass exodus of ofice workers at j p.m. which
is in any case the time at which most museums close.
The more one-sided the activities of the city centre, the poorer the mix of
offices with living accommodation, shops and cultural activities, the more
desolate it becomes and the less justification there is for the existence of a
museum in such an area (Fig. 6).
As long as these factors are borne in mind a site in the city centre can never-
theless offer opportunities for the most varied types of communication: open
discussions, lectures in rooms attached to the museum, adult education a t
evening or day courses, further education in the museum library, music even-
ings, art ‘happenings’, refreshment in museum restaurants or cafés, child-
minding services providing painting and other classes including a carefully
planned introduction to museum facilities, together with many other arrange-
ments for leisure activities. It should also be borne in mind that city-dwellers
avail themselves of leisure facilities offered by the city most intensively on
weekdays and then in the main in the evenings. If it is to survive the museum
must induce city-dwellers to use the whole range of its facilities. For this
4 purpose, a ‘micro-siting’ study can be very useful in eliminating, on the basis
General criteria to be borne in mind
when chosing the site of a museum. of a list of criteria, sites or plots which are in one way or another unsuitable.

lnternal f u n c t i o n s External functions


Preservation of cultural Presentation of exhibits
objects for future generations: - - and relationship between them:
I.Collection 1. Exhibition
2. Research (interpretation) 2. Publication
3. Conservation 3 . Social and educational functions

Discharge o f museum‘s functions

Proximity to university

Availability o f scientific
personnel and equipment for discharge of

(section ot the public


which feels little inclination
t o visit museums)

[Exhibitions designed t o attract visitors


4
Study and choice of the site

r
~

Museums in urban areas

1. Installed in a terrace house


2. On a town square
3. Next to a park .
useum 4. In a park
5. With a cultural centre
6. Museum in a city area

Museums in the countryside

1. Museum with no accessory


activities
2. Museum with facilities for
recreation and leisure activities

Museums attached
t o a particular site
I I II I

J
The main categories of museum sites.

Apart from the opportunities afforded by a site in the city for communica-
tion at various levels and the advantage of being readily accessible for visits
undertaken on the spur of the moment, the structure of the city itself offers
little encouragement for the creation of leisure and recreation facilities around
a museum. Shortage of space or the high price which it commands in a city
makes it impossible except in very rare cases to allow a museum the extra space
it needs for many purposes, unless technical devices such as roof terraces or
sunken basements are used as a last resort.

Siting of museums in rural areas


Alongside the tendency to establish museums in city centres there is a trend
which could be described as ‘back to nature’. The city with its restless activity
is left behind and another type of museum emerges outside the town-often,
if a choice is available, in a scenically attractive area popular for holidays and
other leisure activities. The transfer of such an important cultural facility as a
museum leaves the town still further impoverished, and the museum itself
138 Siting

may suffer too as it risks being divorced from other cultural and educational
facilities and becoming a victim of its own ‘splendid isolation’, particularly if
the site chosen is a long way from the city. But in Europe and America at least
the advent of the motorcar has made it possible to speak of a mobile society
for which distance is of little consequence. Indeed it is often welcomed as an
excuse to drive out to the countryside at weekends. A museum in a rural area
will therefore receive most of its visitors at weekends and public holidays in
general. In addition to its traditional functions, such a museum must also
endeavour to preserve an atmosphere of informality and give the visitor a
feeling of freedom, at least from the routine and stress of everyday life. It
must offer the harassed city-dweller mental and spiritual recreation and renewal.
It could even induce the individual man-in-the-street to become a pilgrim for
the sake of art, seeking out a place where he will not be surrounded by city
traffic or need to be supplied with artificial air and light. In the countryside,
where peace and stability reign and the sun’s rays are not filtered through a
haze of exhaust fumes, an encounter between man and art can take place which
will enable man to rediscover his own true nature.
Modern man sees recreation as an escape or respite from the strains and
stresses of everyday life and work, a means of countering the tension they
generate by doing the opposite of what he is obliged to do in his daily round.
In short, he tends to cultivate whatever faculties and skills are furthest removed
from those he uses in his everyday environment in the course of a normal day
or year. This would all seem to indicate that some distance should separate
the museum from the town. A survey carried out in the Fedeml Republic of
Germany has shown that the average motorized city-dweller is looking for an
easily accessible area within a radius of 50 kilometres. Once this distance is
exceeded enthusiasm rapidly declines. Factors quoted as encouraging a visit
were good traffic connexions, a good road network, scenery of exceptional
beauty and recreational facilities. These factors should therefore be taken into
consideration when choosing a museum site in a rural area.

The third type of museum is one which is linked with a particular site. It may
have been built in the area in which the exhibits originated (for example on the
site of excavations) or be linked by its nature with a particular area or town
(for example a salt museum in a salt-mining area).
Valuable ‘finds’ are often kept on the site of the excavations in order that
they should be made accessible to the public in their original surroundings.
The visitor will then be able to view them in their context and, by his seeing
where they originally came from or were used, his imagination will be stimu-
lated to fill out the visual impressions he receives.
A museum linked with a particular site may be built in a locality where there
are no built-up areas nearby. This facilitates the building process as there are
no legal or technical difficulties to be overcome, though there may be some
problems connected with the preservation of nature and the landscape.
The main problem is, then, to attract visitors to such an isolated site. This
can be done: by making the museum easily accessible to traffic; by presenting
unusual exhibits; by exceptionally beautiful natural surroundings; by adjoining
facilities for recreation and leisure.

The objectives of a comparative study


0% museum sites

The founding of a new museum, like that of all major scientific or cultural
Study and choice of the site I39

establishments, calls for an appreciable outlay of funds, and the subsequent


upkeep of the museum is always a considerable burden on the public finances.
It is therefore the duty of those responsible for museums to ensure that the
smallest possible outlay of funds secures the optimum operating conditions,
which means discovering a site which meets these basic requirements.
The ‘macro-site’, that is the town or rural area in which the museum is to be
situated, should be in every respect suited for the purpose and should afford a
basis on which the museum can discharge its internal and external functions
satisfactorily.
When a new museum is to be built which is not linked by virtue of the
nature of its collections to a particular site or area a ‘macro-siting’ survey
should be carried out.
Vital matters such as the powers of the local authorities should be checked
on first. It is also important to determine the financial situation of the region,
that is the revenue which it derives from rates and taxes, as the running costs
of a museum will be an extra burden on the rate and tax-payer. New roads may
have to be built and new püblic transport services arranged and thought should
also be given to the question of earmarking adjacent land for possible extension.
The cultural interests of the inhabitants of the potential ‘macro-site’ and the
cultural and intellectual outlets already available to them should also be
investigated. An area which offers a wide range of facilities with secondary
schools and possibly a university forms a very favourable background for a
museum. Those attending such institutions are likely to be favourably disposed
towards museums and the university’s scientific equipment and facilities could
greatly assist the research work in which all museums engage.
The opposite approach is to establish a museum in a part of the town which
hitherto has been educationally and culturally deprived. In such cases the social
and educational role of the museum comes to the fore. ‘Neighbourhood’
museums of this kind have been founded in the United States by the Smith-
sonian Institution which provides the fund and the educational expertise
r e q ~ i r e d .Their
~ task is to work with and alongside the inhabitants of the
district as an integrating force, assembling a kaleidoscope of activities, enrich-
ing the cultural life of the neighbourhood and encouraging a rational use of
the leisuretime with which shorter working hours have endowed our society. 2
The museum can turn the flight from urban areas to its own advantage if it
chooses a site in the countryside, possibly connected with a recreation centre.
Another important factor is the cost of the project. The nature of the site,
in conjunction with the cost of purchasing it and of any necessary improve-
ments to reduce existing limitations on its use, can give a rough idea of the
probable cost.
To sum up, the proposed study should seek to elucidate the following
points:
I . Decision: town or countryside.
2. Choice of basic objective: (a) to raise the cultural and educational level of
an area; (b) to be a centre for research and publication; (c) to be a centre for
leisure activities.
3. The best possible technical conditions for the work of the museum.
4. The best possible set-up within the urban or rural area.
5 . Determination of the population structure.
6. Minimum expenditure.
In comparing different sites, precise quantifiable data (type of soil, climate,
traffic, etc.) are considered together with more nebulous factors which will
also determine the future ‘image’ of a museum and its ability to attract visitors.
But since the response of the visitor is determined partly by the building itself
and as neither internal organization nor the relationship established between
visitor and exhibit enters into a comparison of sites, the final result can only 4, See: John R. and Nighbert, ‘The
be considered as a guide. Anacostia Neighborhood Museum, Smithsonian
Institution, \Vashington, D.C.’, in: A h e w n ,
When seeking the best site it is important to examine the basic requirements VOL XXIV, NO. 2, 1972. P. 103-9.
Id0 Siting

and the different conditions separately before applying a single method of


optimization to both spheres.
Some factors, however, resist exact quantification by statistical or mathe-
matical analysis. To take but one example, a museum’s decision to adopt an
educational approach to its work has an effect upon the visitor which it is
impossible to measure or even to demonstrate with any degree of certainty.
The factors which help to put a museum in the ‘top division’ for productivity
are very difficult to determine and they can perhaps only be identified by
comparative analysis of existing museums-in so far as a museum’s ‘output’
is indeed capable of clear definition (Fig. 7).

aero-siting‘ survey f o r 8 museum in 8118 urban area


The town in which the museum is situated must be capable of providing a
sound basis upon which the museum can carry out its activities and its inhab-
itants must be able to supply the necessary encouragement for its work. A
macro-survey will be needed only in the case of large museums covering more
than one region (e.g. national museums) or museums which are not tied to a
particular area (Table I).
A basic requirement is that the ‘macro-site’ should have the economic and
financial resources necessary to support a museum, and the administrative
status of the town or region is also important, as it determines the speed with
which administrative decisions can be reached. The closer at hand the com-
petent authorities are, the keener they will be to give both direct and indirect
support and to follow up matters of general concern to the museum. The
simplest way to assess an area’s suitability in this respect is to take the popula-
tion figures as a guide.

F I N A N C I A L CAPACITY

The cost of building a reasonably-sized museum, although often met partly


or wholly from outside the region (by the State or by a private benefactor), can
be a severe strain on a local authority’s budget. This is quite apart from the
question of running costs, among which the cost of maintenance must be
counted a permanent item of expenditure. Non-recurring expenditure involved
in road construction, and development, land purchase and the alteration or
extension of local public transport systems must also be financed.

E C O N OM Y

The economic resources of an area are directly dependent on its financial


resources, if they do not determine them. In order to finance unscheduled
purchases or research missions museums are often obliged to turn for assist-
ance to outside organizations, the most affluent of which are obviously most
likely to be found in heavily populated industrial areas. The best guide to an
area’s economic resources is the gross product per head of population.

P O P U L A T I O N S T R U CTU-RE

In the first place the age structure of the population and movement of families
in and out of the area should be thoroughly investigated. It is important to
know, for example, whether the population is composed mainly of industrial
workers, of office and administrative staff or of retired people. The level of
education as ascertained by a statistical survey of school-leavers will also be a
good guide to the possible number of visitors and careful questioning of
visitors to other museums could give an indication of the number of visits to be
expected from the different socio-occupational groups. The younger generation
Study and choice of the site 141

TABLE
I . ‘Macro-siting’ survey for a museum in an urban area

~~

Type of criteria Criteria Factors to be taken into account Characteristics of the ‘macro-site’

General factors Administration Influence on or remote- Population


ness of the responsible Powers of the local
authorities, speed of authorities
their decision-making,
ability t o take inde-
pendent decisions
Finance Assessment of the finan- Annual budget
cia1 resources of the Taxable capacity
town (or region) from Debts
the point of view of
supporting the cost
of founding and
running a museum
Economy Assessment of economic Average total product
resources (directly per inhabitant
dependent on revenue
from rates and taxes)
Population Inclination to Determination of social Self-employed
structure visit muse- strata (or attitude Academic
ums towards museums) as Office workers
an indication of num- Manual workers
ber of potential visitors Schoolchildren and
students
Unemployed
(housewives and
pensioners)
Age structure of
population
Tourists
Supporting Cul ture Assessment of cultural Type of facility
facilities facilities available in the Number
region; evaluation of Capacity
local authorities’ Frequency of cultural
willingness t o spend ‘events’
money on culture Public expenditure on
culture per
inhabitant
Education School visits organized Type of institution
on a regular basis now Number of institutions
accounting for a large Future outlook
proportion of museum
visitors, educational
institutions must be
taken into consideration
Science Scientific institutions in Type of institution
the surrounding area, Number of institutions
seen partly as a pool of Future prospects
potential visitors and Further scientific
partly as assisting the centres at the plan-
museum’s research work ning stage
142 Siting

---I-- Museum installed

Residential area

Museum next to a park

6
Siting of museums in urban areas.

7
Block diagram of micro-siting survey
operations within the context of over-all
town-planning.
Study and choice of the site Id?

(aged 16 to 3 j ) would seem to show most interest in museums, and


tourists, whether from abroad or from the home country, should not be for-
gotten, although their support will depend on the other attractions offered by
the surrounding area.

SUPPORTING FACILITIES

Czdtaral. These embrace theatres and concert halls and also museums, as the case
for establishing another museum in an area already well provided with such
institutions must be very carefully weighed. A museum may on the other hand
be a very welcome addition to a range of other types of cultural institution.
The seating capacity of the theatres and the frequency of performances, the
number of concerts and of performances by visiting artistesall provide numerical
data which can usefully be brought together and interpreted in this connexion.
Another important factor is per capit'z public expenditure on culture, which will
demonstrate the authorities' willingness to spend money on cultural activities.

Museum planning Town plan

t ~ ~~

General goals of museum General goals of urban


planning, over-all plan or regional planning
for the museum

Specific aims on
+
Analysis of Analysis of
+ f
Specific aims of
the 'micro-site' --t the region space +- town planning on
utilization the 'macro-site'

Formulation of aims in local


1
Formulation of aims
4
museum planning in local town planning

t t
I Harmonization of the interests of the various parties involved I

Museologists Town planners Visitors


I l
+
I

Preliminary selection of 'micro-sites'


1

1.
Evaluation of sites on basis
of various criteria
4
Comparison of sites
and recommendation
1

Review of criteria and goals-possible


modification of recommendation

Final decision
I44 Siting

Editcational. As all schools, whether primary, secondary or technical, organise


compulsory visits to museums and as young visitors form the largest propor-
tion of those who visit museums on their own initiative, the number of schools
in the area must also be determined.

Scientijìc. As almost all museums have a very active research department, a


nearby university with all its scientific equipment and facilities can be very
useful and a brisk exchange of staff and expertise may ensue. Modern research
work offers many opportunities for division of labour and particular aspects
or stages of a research project are often farmed out to different specialized
i institutes. This makes for greater sophistication and refinement of research
methods. The best results are obtained when communications between the
different research institutes are good, and particularly if research programmes
can be co-ordinated. When one considers the opportunities offered by such
co-operation the advantages of siting a museum close to other scientific
establishments, such as institutes, libraries or archives centres, become obvious.

Macro-survey dos a ~ U S B in
M a~ rural area
The competent authorities must first decide whether the museum should be
established in a rural or an urban area, basing their decision on the specific
problems involved. The two possibilities should be considered equally valid
as it is almost impossible to find a rational justification for preferring a rural to
an urban area, or vice versa. This is a case where irrational factors which can-
not be assessed either on a qualitative or on a quantitative basis play a very
important part. If it is decided to establish the museum in a rural area the next
step should always be a macro-survey, which will have to be followed by a
micro-survey where alternative sites are available within the area chosen.

Goals Criteria for Evaluation Correction phase


evaI u ation phase

r
r-!
ICorrectionl
OP 2 by 4

and revision

i
c
of goa Is
I-----

Evaluation of site
-
R
Method of constructing a ‘micro-siting’
survey.
Study a n d choice of the site 141

TABLE
2. ‘Macro-siting’ survey for a museum in a rural area

Type of criteria Criteria Factors t o be taken into account Characteristics of the ‘macro-site’

Scenic Adjacent t o Visitors will be attracted Extent of adjoining


woods and ‘ b y a varied landscape woodland and
water containing woods and seashore or lake-
stretches of water or riverside
Use of space The site is analysed in Uses to which the land
order t o establish the is or can be put
different possibilities it
affords for leisure activ-
ities. Determination of
the different types of
ground cover, wooded
areas and open spaces
Relief The suitability of an area Differences in altitude
for leisure activities is
also related to the
irregularity of the
terrain
Climate The effect of climatic Atmospheric analysis
conditions on the Sunshine
exhibits and general Temperature range
assessment of the (and retentive
climate from the point capacity)
of view of rest and Rainfall
recreation (days per annum)
Supporting Cultural The concentration of Type of cultural
facilities tourist traffic in areas attraction
of cultural interest Number
Distribution
Image
Number of visitors
Timing of visits
Future outlook
Leisure and Location of main centres Type of facility
recreation for leisure and recrea- Number
tion in relation to the Distribution
‘macro-site’ Number of visitors
Timing of visits
Future outlook
Pattern of Population Location of heavily popu- Number of housing
settlement centres lated areas or develop- units
and future ment areas Density
outloolr Future outlook
Inhabitants Profile of the leisure-time Number of short
and weekend activities excursions
of the local population Distance covered
Preferred time for
excursions
Siting

ASSESSMENT O F T H E S C E N I C QUALITIES O F T H E AREA

Emotional descriptions such as beautiful, interesting or ‘wild’ should not be


the only criteria used to determine the attractiveness of an area. A quantitative
assessment of the area’s features must also be made.
It would of course be impossible to draw up a complete inventory of the
qualities of any landscape as this would involve consideration not only of its
configuration but also of its external appearance. In order to avoid becoming
too bogged down only the most important features should be taken into
consideration at the preliminary stage (see Table 2 ) .
The area’s major assets must, basically, be identified and assessed. For
example, if an area is to attract large numbers of visitors factors connected
with recreation and leisure activities will be decisive.
The extent of adjacent forests and lake- or riverside could be measured and
compared as one way of gauging the relative attractiveness of the different
areas under consideration. Another method would be to draw up and compare
schedules showing different ways in which the land is or could be used.
The impression conveyed by a landscape also depends to a large extent on
its relief.
Vegetation and relief together give a fairly clear picture of the landscape and
of its effect on visitors.
It is also important to decide whether or not the climate is suitable for a
museum. A survey of climatic factors, including atmospheric analysis, should
therefore be the next step, and areas judged unsuitable on climatic grounds
will be eliminated or special counter-measures envisaged for incorporation
in the design.

SUPPORTING FACILITIES

The area under consideration may already contain a number of centres of


interest. A distinction should however be drawn between centres of cultural
and historical interest such as castles, palaces, historic towns and villages and
centres for such activities as winter sports, sailing and swimming or fell-
walking, camp sites and villages popular for holidays and weekend excursions.
Surveys conducted among museum visitors have shown that often more
than half are tourists. Museums sited in holiday areas can therefore expect
large numbers of visitors in the holiday season, if at no other time.

VISITORS

If such centres of interest are not to be found in the area the analysis of potential
visitors will have to concentrate on neighbouring towns and villages. Surveys
carried out in the Netherlands indicate that those in search of leisure at week-
ends are seldom prepared to travel more than 3 0 kilometres, while German
motorists will not willingly drive for over three-quarters of an hour. In view
of the unattractiyeness of public transport over short distances, private trans-
port is generally used for short holidays and weekend excursions.
The annual holiday is of course another matter: it is almost impossible here
to set any limit on the distance people are willing to travel.
There are therefore two possibilities if a museum is to be sited in the country-
side and expect a reasonable flow of visitors: (a) the edge of a large industrial
area; (b) a holiday or recreation area.

DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

Development trends for the area under consideration must be ascertained, as


rhe future growth of towns and villages will affect the accessibility of certain
areas. Plans for recreation and leisure areas must also be obtained in good time
Study and choice of the site I47

so that museum planning can be integrated with the over-all plans for the area.
In the same way plans for the development or extension of recreation areas
already in existence should also be taken into consideration.
The landscape, the distribution of visitors, the climate and development
plans are all considerations of a more general nature. But each individual
recreation area has its own peculiar qualities and attractions which will have
to be assessed by means of a ‘micro-survey’ so as to determine the advantages
and disadvantages of the actual site and also the ‘image’ of the immediate
surroundings (Fig. 8, Table 3).

3. Over-all goals and criteria for the evaluation of a museum site


TABLE

Goals Category and criteria for evaluation

A Optimum conditions for carrying out I Criteria relating to the internal


internal functions activities of a museum
B Optimum conditions for carrying out II Criteria relating to activities
external functions directed towards the public
C Optimum position and layout for III Criteria relating to positioning
reaching the public and layout
D Study of the attitude of inhabitants IV Criteria relating to the structure
towards visiting the museum of the population
E Minimum costs of implementing the V Criteria relating to implementation
project of the project

EvaIuat ion
To determine the site of a museum, a large number of rational and irrational
factors have to be identified, examined and taken into account. Consequently
a siting survey must be regarded as a problem of optimization rather than an
exercise in maximization (see Table 4).

Characteristics of t h e site
Site specifications must be formulated; in the ideal case these requirements will
correspond to the characteristics of the site. In other words:
I. For the optimum site there exists only one set of relationships which is the
product of the sum total of requirements for the museum under considera-
tion.
2. These optimum requirements can now be considered in isolation from the
geographical location and expressed as an as yet unknown mathematical
function, for which the geometrical representation will be sought. What
must be found is the sum of conditions which will yield the optimum set
of relationships.
3. We cannot exclude the possibility that, in the absence of a ‘best fit’ between
requirements and conditions, several sites will offer similar conditions, with
the result that several optimum sites are available. This would make it
necessary to repeat once again the optimization process under more rigorous
conditions or to draw up more detailed requirements for the site.
Since it is impossible to quantify precisely all the factors determining the
choice of a site, the optimum requirements corresponding to the goal: ‘Where
can a museum best fulhl its task?’ must be formulated in more general terms.
On no account should it be expected that conditions and requirements will
match perfectly; consequently we can rule out the possibility of an absolute
148 Siting

TABLE
4.Investigation of the ‘micro-site’ for a museum in relation to over-all goals

Group of criteria Criteria Factors to be taken into account Characteristics. of the site

Pvailable Urban site Space requirements, etc. Size


surface Rural site Shape
Museum Building plot
attached t o a Vegetation
particular Legal restriction on use
site

lestrictions Environmental Environmental conditions Climate


on use dangers must suit the nature of Noise
the collection, its Vibration
restoration and con- Atmospheric pollution
servation Smells

Building Functional and archi- Architect’s specifica-


technique tectural constraints tions
Gradient Building plot
Building category Gradient

H
Provision of Constraints limiting the Existing amenities
amenities provision of suitable Present use
2
M
amenities Estimated delay for
8 completion of the
9 amenities
Restrictions on use

Co-ordi- With scientific Relations with scientific Number of institutions


nation institutions institutions of all kinds Type
(frequency, propinquity, Capacity
etc.) Development potential
Distance by public
transport
Accessibility for
pedestrians

Environ- Influen 2 on Possible u of the Topography


ment design environment to the Neighbouring uses
architectural design for Agricultural factors
the arrangement of Industrial factors
open spaces for the Risk of spoiling the
museum view for other
residential areas

With cultural Distance (accessibility) or Number of institutions


ins titutions connexion with cultural Type
institutions Capacity
Distance
Travel time:
by public transport
on foot
Future development

With leisure Relations with such Number of facilities


and facilities TYPe
recreational (accessibility, frequency, Capacity
facilities etc.), maximum avail- Distance
ability in the immediate Number of visitors
vicinity of the ‘micro- Possibility of develop-
site’ ing amenities

Influence of Effect of nuisance factors Climate


ment nuisance on the attractiveness of Noise
factors the ‘micro-site’ to Dirt
visitors Smells
Vibration
S t u d y a n d choice of the site I49

Group of criteria Criteria Factors t o be taken into account Characteristics of the site

Environ- Unfavourable Factors which do not Industrial zone


ment factors encourage visitors, Railway
which are unattractive Airport
Cemetery

Urban Accessibility Evaluation of the ‘micro- Street site


situation t o visitors site’ from the stand- Park site
point of attracting Pedestrian flow
visitors most effectively Traffic flow
to the museum Neighbouring build-
ings
Image

Co-ordi- With central Relations between central Number of institutions


nation institutions institutions of the Type
‘macro-site’ and the Attractiveness
proposed ‘micro-site’ Proximity t o the centre
Travel time:
by public transport
on foot
~

Amenities
Catchment Boundaries Present boundaries of the Hills
area potential catchment Rivers
area of the ‘micro-site’ Rail connexions
Miscellaneous

Population Possibility of defining a Educational level of


catchment area by inhabitants
analysing the popula- . Purchasing power
tion structure in order Number of inhabitants
to ascertain public Age structure
willingness t o visit the Housing density
museum Social stratification
Image
Cultural interests
Leisure activities
Development trends
With Relations with schools Number of institutions
educational and other educational Type of ownership
institutions institutions (frequency, Capacity
distance, etc.) Age structure
Distance from ‘micro-
’ site’:
by public transport
on foot

Estimation of the time Number of owners


required t o free the site Type of ownership
Present use
Natural constraints on
use
Legal constraints on
use
cost Calculation of costs Purchase cost
Cost of freeing the site
Cost of providing
amenities
Building costs as a
function of the spe-
cific features of the
site
Other subsequent costs
150 Siting

optimum and make do with the formula: ‘The optimum site for a museum
may be defined as the set of relationships which, in the light of the assigned
goals, offers the closest possible match between site conditions and site require-
ments.’

Collection of d a t a
To determine the optimum site for a museum, the largest possible amount of
relevant information is required. An effort must also be made to ensure the
closest possible correlation between long-term requirements and conditions.
For this purpose a siting survey involving investigation of the present context
is insufficient; on the basis of the present context, research must produce pro-
jections for the future.
An exhaustive siting survey implies both theoretical and practical knowledge
of development planning methods and specialized knowledge of the
different aspects of museum management. The quantitative diversity, quali-
tative multiplicity and vaied goals of a given type of museum’s activities
require the siting survey to be as rational, thorough and methodical as possible.
To determine the optimum site, factors and conditions must be compared,
with the result that in collecting data the need for both types of information
must be taken into account.
The siting survey will begin with the establishment of a vast ‘data field’.
Since the collection of data on relevant site factors may present difficulties,
systematic recourse must be had to all appropriate sources, for example,
official statistics, surveys by research institutes, communications in specialized
reviews, architectural planning and surveying departments, cultural organixa-
tions, museum associations or institutes, housing services, building regulation
offices, architects, estatk agents, municipal authorities and so on.

Bart ici patiow


For the investigation of requirements the same list can be used as that employed
by museum specialists, architects, town planners, sociologists and ordinary
users. Thus, in addition to specialists, the general public is consulted and hence
laymen participate in the decision-making process.
Participation means taking part in, rather than initiating, a process. Parti-
cipation begins only when a planning process is under way and when it may
be anticipated that people will be so deeply affected by the consequences of the
process that they will take action to protect themselves against any adverse
consequences.
The meaning of participation must be to exert a moderating influence on a
process in cases where decisions have to be taken or converted into action.

The factors which determine the choice of a site are too heterogeneous to be
uniformly expressed by the same mathematical quantities.
Many factors can hardly be quantified at all, but only expressed qualitatively:
for instance, good-will, attractiveness to visitors, the quality of staff, the grace
of the architecture, that is the over-all design (on which the optimization of the
site has no influence).
It must also be borne in mind that site factors never operate in isolation but
have a combined effect, which again stands in the way of a precise mathe-
matical quantification, particularly as there is often no logical connexion
between the various factors.
Study and choice of the site 151

The fact that these quantities cannot be precisely determined might lead to
the conclusion that no scientifically indisputable solution can be found and
that the search for an optimum site should be abandoned as unattainable. A
subjective evaluation, based on no firm evidence, would take its place.
It is impossible to undertake a mathematically precise deduction on the basis
of a single scale calibrated in whole numbers. Therefore suitable auxiliary
scales must be developed, so as to arrive, by means of secondary values, at
comparable numerical material from which site decisions can nevertheless
be derived.

Methods
A siting survey method based on a points system, in which five levels (o to 4,
4 being the highest) are distinguished, has proved its worth for higher edu-
cational establishments in the Federal Republic of Germany. A higher degree
of differentiation might give an illusion of precision which cannot in fact be
attained.
Each separate characteristic of the site is classified on a five-level scale in
order to obtain comparable values for each characteristic. In view of the great
diversity of the various characteristics the process of obtaining an aggregate
value by simply adding the points together is certainly open to question, but
it does provide something to go on for evaluating the sites under considera-
tion, particularly when the scatter is pronounced. Table j illustrates the
application of the method in four stages.

The polarity prof ¡le


Another method, which avoids most of the difficulties attached to the first
two, uses a similar procedure which once again has as its basis a comprehen-
sive list of characteristics comprising the absolute value of all factors (or
related characteristics) present on the site in question. These absolute numeri-
cal values can then be converted by means of a polarity profile into values
which can first be used to assess whatever characteristic is being considered but
can also be used as a basis for other calculations.
T o use this method one proceeds as follows: A pair of antitheses is postulated
for each characteristic of the site, for example:

Fuctor: Ground. Characteristic: Firmness. Antitheses: good-poor.

The scope of the attribute under consideration is then defined in such a way
as to ensure that the absolute value, once its position on a graduated scale has
been established, clearly reflects the importance of the characteristicin question
in relation to that of other aspects of a site. The antitheses are then entered in
the polarity profile with the negative-positive gradation leading from left
to right.
This method makes it possible to take the time factor into consideration
as well. Instead of the values merely representing the situation at a single
moment of time, a trend towards improvement of a particular aspect could be
expressed by pushing the corresponding value up the scale, while the reverse
action would be taken if a change for the worse were anticipated. However,
this expedient .should be used with great discretion and values altered only
when the changes are relatively certain to take place, for example on the basis
of traffic plans, municipal development plans, changes in population struc-
ture, etc.
TABLE
5 . Imaginary example showing the use of a point system in assessing alternative sites for a museum

First stage: Evaluation of individual characteristics Third stage: Calculation of aggregate index for a given category
of criteria by summing the indices for the relevant groups of
Category of criteria: III criteria.
" <

Group of criteria: urban situation


Characteristic: distance from city centre. Category of criteria: I to V Site

A B C D E
-.
4 points Easily accessible on foot (I 5 minutes walk)
3 points Accessible on foot (15-30 minutes walk) Group of criteria I 0.37 0.28 0.70 1.00 0.72
2 points Easily accessible by local transport (I I minutes drive) Group of criteria 2 0.30 0.20 1.00 0.80 0.45
I point Accessible by local transport (15-30 minutes drive) Group of criteria 3 0.23 0.74 1.00 0.78 0.11
Group of criteria 4 0.37 1.00 0.44 0.g8 0.22
o points Over 3 0 minutes drive
site A B C D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Score I O 3 2 Group of criteria
Sum of the indices 1.27 2.22 3.34 3.16 1.50
Ranking J 3 I 2 4

Second stage: Calculation of total score gained in a given group Fourth stage: Calculation of aggregate index for all categories
of criteria and establishment of an order of precedence on the of criteria so as t o give a final ranking.
basis of index figures. For comparison of the various sites on
the basis of their different qualities the points awarded in site
whole numbers are converted t o index figures, the highest A B C D E
score counting as 1.0 and the others expressed as fractions.
~ Category of criteria I 7.18 22.13 14.30 34.12 17.28
Category of criteria: I to V Site
Category of criteria II 25.60 33.40 28.40 24.13 22.16
Group of criteria : I to n A B C D E Category of criteria III 14.88 12.73 17.40 15.15 12.07
Category of criteria I V 22.16 24.80 21.14 18.70 14.13
Characteristic I O 2 2 4 o Category of criteriaV 8.14 7.13 7.30 6.40 4.18
Characteristic 2 I I 3 2 I Sum of the indices 77.76 100.17 90.j4 78.50 69.82
Characteristic 3 I I 2 3 I Final ranking 4 I 3 2 J
Characteristic 4 3 4 O 2 I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . This method of assessing the different sites available enables
the most suitable site t o be identified by establishing a series
Characteristic n of index figures after systematic comparison of the alternatives.
Score J 8 7 11 3 I t does not: permit the determination of site requirements (to be
Index rating 0.45 0.73 0.63 1.00 0.27 compared with the results obtained at a later stage).
Study and choice of the site 153

ESTABLISHMENT O F A SCALE

The absolute values obtained in this way for the different characteristics are
converted into ordinal numbers and plotted on a scale rising in whole numbers
from one to seven. Each characteristic of the site under consideration has been
given a rating which can be read off the scale of polarity as an ordinal number,
and a profile of the site in question can be obtained by joining up all the
individual points.
According to its importance, each factor has a different number of charac-
teristics associated with it which indicate its valence within the general struc-
ture of the site. The number of characteristics associated with each factor will
also affect the results when different profiles are compared at a later stage.
The purpose of establishing a scale is to make it possible to compare the
value of the different characteristics and use them as a basis for arithmetical
calculations, for if they are left as ordinal numbers there is no way of comparing
their content.

METHOD

We shall now attempt to illustrate the method without going into the detail
involved in taking a practical example (see Table 6 and Fig. 9).
The profile makes it possible to show graphically whether or not the require-
ments laid down in respect of each characteristic have been met. A first approxi-
mative choice can be made on the basis of the totals, as profile X (requirements)
represents a minimum beneath which profiles A, By etc., should not drop.
Only sites for which the sum of the conditions is equal to or higher than the
sum of the requirements can be expected to be found satisfactory.
This method provides a fairly rough assessment of the site.
We do not intend to describe the general method of calculation in detail,
for all mathematicians and statisticians are familiar with it and it can be looked
up in any handbook of statistics. Graphic representation of the polarity profile
has the advantage of showing the score awarded for each characteristic in
relation to the minimum requirement.
It also makes it possible to see at a glance the general outline of the profile
of minimum requirements (profile X) in relation to the profile of conditions
(profiles A, By Cy etc.), and to contrast those areas where minimum require-
ments are exceeded with those where they are not met.

Concluding remarks
Once the site offering the optimum conditions has been mathematically
determined, it is time to consider whether an even closer correlation between
requirements and conditions can be attained either by dropping some of the
requirements or by scaling them down. If the survey indicates, for instance,
that a noteworthy shift away from young couples is taking place in the age
structure of the town or area, this will have repercussions on the museum’s
action programme. If it reveals that the building plot is of poor quality,
expensive foundations will be necessary, the high cost of which will affect other
budget lines and possibly lead to a reduction in the over-all size of the building.
Thus the whole set of site requirements must be most thoroughly checked and
if necessary revised.
In practice, the optimum museum site will always be a compromise. How-
ever many specialists are called upon, each with masses of data, factors and
determining quantities, there are too many influences and interdependences,
with the result that only those partial relationships which manifest themselves
fairly clearly can enter into the forecast.
114 Siting

TABLE 6. Imaginary example showing the use of a polarity profile in assessing


alternative sites for a museum. First stage: Examination and assessment of the
different characteristics of the site.

Category of criteria: III


Group of criteria: urban situation
Characteristic: Number of pedestrians passing a site in the central area of the town
from 4 to 7 p.m. Monday t o Friday

7 points More than 1,700 passers-by


6 points 1,300 to 1,700 passers-by
j points 1,000 to 1,300 passers-by
4 pofnts 750 to 1,000 passers-by
3 points joo to 7 j o passers-by
2 points 2 5 0 to joo passers-by
I point Less than zjo passers-by
Site A B C D E F
Passers-by 400 600 1,400 900 600 I,jOO
Score 2 3 6 4 3 6
Interpolation is possible but it is doubtful whether much is t o be gained by such
accuracy.

1 -
9
Imaginary example showing the use of a
polarity profile in assessing alternative sites
.-.wa, vlinimum Maximum
u)
-ow High
for a museum. (See also Table 6.) Lc
O
.-wo
> - <
\legative Positive
jhort-term Long-term
.-
u)
'oor Good
.I-
t
o
2
m
L:
c) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-
-
I 1 %afile X (minimum Profile A: conditions
2 at Site A
3
4
1
2
3
1
2
3
II 1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
III 1

I
2
1
2
3
1

n
-
Jn
Study and choice of the site 15 5

Moreover, provided one is not blinded by figures, the methods used for
site investigation allow adequate scope for intuitive judgement. Since the data
governing the choice of site cannot be fully quantified, there are consequently
no ‘objective probabilities’ that expectations will be fulfilled, so that decisions
concerning sites are necessarily taken to some extent on faith. In view of the
importance of the site for the museum’s future, the choice made may properly
be termed a ‘management decision’. Even so, a rigorous siting survey must
always precede the decision, for a museum that is not fully self-supporting is
an institution living on charity, whic:l, once it is established, can hardly change
sites for the next fifty years.

IO
MUSÉEDES CIVILISATIONS NÈGRO-
AFRICAINES, Dakar.
This museum programme, which is at
present in the project stage, was initiated
~
by the President of the Republic of Senegal.
The museum will be part of a cultural
complex to be constructed on a
magnificent site overlooking the sea.
Architects: Pedro Ramirez Vaquez,
Jorge Carnpuzano and Thierry Melot.
Museologist: Jean Gabus.
II
MUSÉEDE L’HORLOGERIE, La Chaux-de-
Fonds.
In one of the underground rooms of this
museum of man and time, the public
watches a team of experts repairing cloclrs
and watches.
Ij7

Sociology

Social context and place of action

Sociological questions today lie at the heart of intellectual debate; they influ-
ence and modify the museum’s view of itself and consequently its architectural
structure.
The museum is ,particularly well suited to serve as an experimental socio-
logical model, since it is, on the one hand, a place where individuals develop an
awareness of self and society, a feeling of togetherness, while on the other it
exerts a three-dimensional effect within a verifiable and limited framework.
It can also serve as a sociological model because in a society regulated by the
division of labour it is one of the last free spheres of existence.
Since sociology deals with all human relationships, which are almost as
difficult to grasp in their complexity as reality itself, all we can attempt to do
is to formulate a few major points sufficient to trace the outline of pragmatic
spatial models. A familiar difficulty arises here since the sociologist speaks a
generalizing analytical language while the architect speaks a pragmatic lanl
guage incorporating spatial and material images, which means that specific
scientific concepts have to be accommodated within an over-all conception
forming a representational whole.
As stated earlier, this paper will deal with the complex web of problems
surrounding the modern museum largely owing to its pluralistic nature-as
regards both the content of the collection and the sociological composition of
visitors. It stands to reason that the smaller, more homogeneous and special-
ized a museum is, the easier it will be to solve the problem of co-ordination,
even though it thereby loses something of its specific character.
The museum’s position in relation to the public can be defined as an inter-
action between sociological self-representation and self-realization. The
museum curator here acts as a catalyst.
He and his few fellow-workers have to cope with a phenomenon of extreme
and baffling complexity.
It is therefore desirable that, whenever a museum is built, a systematic
sociological study should be carried out, including an analysis of structures and
trends and the formulation of value systems, leading to scientifically based
forecasts. The most difficult part of this task-the preparation of pragmatic
models-can be accomplished only by an interdisciplinary team which is
capable of evaluating accurately and sufficiently far in advance the repercus-
sions on the spatial representation.
The starting-point will be an analysis of the circle of people participating in
the museum-event. On account of his paramount importance, the visitor will
be the main object of discussion here, museum workers, scientists and so on
158 Sociology

being mentioned only in so far as they enter into contact with the visitor, as
informants or guides for instance.
From the sociological point of view a distinction can be drawn between
actual and potential visitors. Statistics should be collected on both groups,
including demographic characteristics, origin, occupation, education and eco-
logical data. The question of catchment area should be studied in detail, for,
unlike schools and hospitals, a museum does not cater mainly for local users
but for widely-scattered groups, including tourists merely passing through.
Equally, a museum will not have the same features in an industrial society as
in an agricultural society. If the latter is progressing towards an industrial
society, its future sociological development must be thoroughly studied.
Research into potential visitors has an important part to play whenever a
new museum is built, giving rise to theories, hypotheses and forecasts. How-
ever desirable it may be to attract the largest possible number of people (in
theory, everyone) to the museum, the task of the sociologist consists in
recognizing limits and defining the circle of people who are likely to be
involved in view of their capabilities, attitudes or geographical circumstances.
In addition to determining the sociological set-up it is also necessary to carry
out an inquiry into the needs of visitors, who could, for example, be questioned
on the following points:
I . Interests and level of awareness.
2. Premises and expectations in regard to education.
3. Personal activities and self-discovery.
4.Human relations: (a) with groups of visitors or (b) with the museum worker.
j . Emotional needs.
6. Attitude to the environment.
It is extremely dificult to make a scientific evaluation of these needs, since
surveys are highly problematical (‘No man can see himself objectively’) (see
Cameron) and must as far as possible be worked in such a way as to transcend the
conventional museum framework and be valid irrespective of any precon-
ceived and known models.
It is, however, possible to site museums in their present-day setting empiri-
cally or on the basis of the development of knowledge and to deduce the
sociological trend to the point where this can be expressed in the form of
theses. On the assumption that these are widely accepted, they will not be
discussed further but are merely listed as follows:
I. The museum event is no longer regarded as the antithesis of everyday life,
but is integrated in the social and urban structure. As far as possible the
dividing barriers will be broken down.
2. The areas of contact will be extended in relation to the sociological and
museum event. The extent to which they induce communication depends
on individual readiness and appreciation. They should give rise to produc-
tive rather than consumer attitudes.
3. Two-way communication should be encouraged: (a) with the content,
through an effective system based on knowledge of the psychology of per-
ception and behaviour; (b) with other persons and groups, who participate
in an intellectual exchange via the language of the object; and (c) with the
museum worker, whose task it is to supply the key to understanding.
The main aspects of relations with the public, which will be briefly illustrated
by means of examples showing how these find concrete expressions in the
architectural environment, are accordingly as follows:

PUBLICITY

Formerly the museum was based on a belief in values, whereas today’s museum
helps in the search for values. It therefore stands open and inviting to the out-
side world, and tries to avoid giving the visitor the impression of crossing a
threshold. This could find concrete expression in the adaptation of existing
Social context and place of action Ij9

buildings, a transparent ‘display-case’ architecture or semantically symbolic


forms.

I N F O RIvI A T I O N

Formerly the museum conveyed information solely through the dumb lan-
guage of the object to educated middle-class citizens prepared to receive it.
Nowadays, the unprepared visitor, who may be from any social group,
expects to be offered information which he can call upon at any time. In con-
crete architectural terms this may mean providing special rooms or additional
space for information purposes. In the extreme case this can develop into a
type of museum which presents information only, and is thus more concerned
with breadth than depth.

INTERPRETATION

. Formerly, the visitor interpreted the object subjectively whereas nowadays the
object comes complete with interpretations ready to hand. Emphasis is placed
on the intellectualviewpoint. The problem lies in the danger of dental maspu-
lation. The architectural expression may consist in the creation of additional
surfaces for libraries, lectures, discussions and audio-visual media.

EVALUATION AND CRITICISM

Since no universally recognized scale of values is available, it is necessary to


focus attention on certain key images, justified on technical or artistic grounds.
These images are presented for debate and ‘judgement’. The individual can
compare, evaluate and assimilate them. The conflicts which arise in the pro-
cess serve to clarify matters and to prevent ‘alienation’. In architectural terms
this can find expression in the various spatial possibilities offered by an ‘agora’.

ACTIVITY

Not only should the individual abandon consumer attitudes and achieve self-
realization through action; the sociological structure of society itself should be
reinforced through communal activity.
Extra experimental rooms and technical workshops, open to the public,
help the individual to identify with his work by their specially designed spatial
qualities. They can also help to bring together the public and the artist in the
creative process.

CONTEMPLATION A N D EMOTION

Whereas in former times the content of the collection tended to be over-


emphasized, the tendency nowadays is to underplay it. Surveys have revealed,
however, that there is still a need for undisturbed dialogue with the object.
This need can be met by, for instance, creating a special circuit with additional
surface qualities and rest areas.

PARTICIPATION

The visitor considers that the museum is his affair and that he has a certain
right to see into its inner workings. This can be given architectural expression
by allowing the visitor a look behind the scenes, at some of the restoration
rooms, laboratories and technical installations, as is done for example at the
Capodimonte museum (overhead lighting design) (Fig. II).
The extent to which these trends can be put into practice, and the form they
will take, must be examined afresh in every case.
I Go Sociology

schitectaasal expression
We have indicated by a small selection of examples the extent to which the
architecture of the museum can give appropriate spatial expression to certain
sociological trends. Further examples of actual spatial situations will be selected
12
as models of sociological behaviour and examined from the point of view of
The visitor-exhibit relationship seen as a the relation between ends and means.
quantitative problem. The smaller the ratio
of visitors to exhibits the more opportunity The point is to achieve the most harmonious balance possible, that is the
for concentration and for each individual greatest possible compatibility, between the architectural environment and the
to enter freely into a relationship with
the exhibit. needs and tendencies of the users.
The actual construction phase brings to light the diametrically opposing
nature of sociological-psychological requirements and of scientific require-
ments in regard to the individual exhibit or object. The realm of sociological-
psychological requirements is characterized by constant evolution and change.
Since man has only a limited capacity to assimilate experience in consciousness,
e t tensions arise in the course of time within the individual and also within
society, for instance in the form of the generation gap. This inherent plasticity .
of the mental realm is fundamentally and irreconcilably opposed to the dura-
bility in the material realm stemming from the inert character of building
materials.
13 It is the task of the architect to take decisions which will harmonize a large
Group viewing an exhibit. Close contact number of contradictory requirements. The sociological position of the
with the exhibit is no longer possible
without disturbing other members of the architect is that of a ‘servant’ of society, who must know his ‘master’ very
group. Visitors must arrange themselves intimately in order to create a proper framework for his peculiarities and
around the exhibit keeping an equal
distance from it. wishes, even though unconscious and inarticulate.
The architectural consequences of the museum’s new ‘open’ character
vis-à-vis society consist in: (a) a need for additional space by comparison with
museums devoted solely to objects; and (b) an ‘open’ architectural structure
which can be more readily modified.
The first is a surface problem, the second a construction problem.
The areas devoted to the sociological presentation of objects can be: (a) dis-
persed throughout the collection; (b) set aside for subsequent use in this way
in the plans; (c) built in as special sections.
The problem consists in integrating these sections in the ‘world of the
object’ without disturbing its specific laws. Divergences in space requirements
are often considerable, depending on such factors as, for instance, optical
14 distraction, acoustic disturbance, security measures, visiting hours, etc.
A large number of visitors viewing an Since these special sections can be included in other types of building not
exhibit. The quality of contact with the
exhibit decreases with each succeeding specifically of museum character, they will be discussed here only to the extent
semi-circle of viewers. The spacing of that they compete with the ‘world of the object’ by virtue of their position, the
exhibits may be determined by the
extent to which the ‘spheres of influence’ purpose they are designed to serve or the technical equipment they necessitate.
of the different exhibits tend to overlap. Attention should also be drawn to the danger of allowing these sociologic-
ally oriented installations to expand to the point where they risk undermining
the original and irreplaceable justification for the museum’s existence as the
guardian of authentic objects.

Exhibition 8

D I IvI E N S I O N S

The so-called ‘open museum’ has introduced new standards of presentation,


which result from the large influx and varied composition of visitors. The
consequences of this situation, whether an individual, a group or a community
takes up position in front of the original, are primarily problems of space. The
necessary space and the distance from the object increase with the number of
Social context and place of action IGI

El
observers, that is the number of visitors per unit of surface area is inversely
proportional to the number of objects.
The individual observer and the small group can come as close to the original
as they wish, in order to study and experience it to the full. The sociological
pre-requisite for effective contact is a high level of culture and awareness, corre-
sponding to an equivalent social attitude. The historical model of private
collections of works of art and curiosities shows that the objects can be crowded
closely together, since it is possible to concentrate attention on the object,
regardless of the surroundings. The psychological importance of a unique
encounter with the original is preserved. The space required can be reduced
to the objects’ own ‘living space’ (Fig. 12). I,.
Division of groups among several
The larger group must stand at a certain distance from the object, which exhibits by means of copies. Copies
makes it more difficult to ‘enter into possession’ of it. Dialogue with the object of the original can be scattered over a
large area and the relationship of a large
is still possible, but has all the advantages and disadvantages of a ‘round- group to the original replaced by the
table’ discussion. The centre of gravity is necessarily displaced from contem- relationship of smaller groups to copies.
The opportunity for closer contact with
plation towards information. Security measures and consequently the separa- the exhibit must be weighed against the
tion of the object from the observer assume greater importance. Viewing fact that the exhibit in question is now
only a copy, the original of which is kept
space and distance from the object increase (Fig. 13). in the museum store.
Large groups visiting as such have no longer virtually any opportunity of
entering into close contact with the original, for the space they occupy is too
large and the restriction of movement makes observation in depth impossible.
The unique character of the encounter with the original is nevertheless still
observable, although noticeably less marked. There is a danger of superficiality
and disappointment, since each individual-of ,whom the mass is composed-
came to the museum in the hope of making personal contact with the original
(Fig. 14).
This is a pressing problem wherever there are large numbers of visitors to
exhibitions or museums, in industrial countries and developing countries alike.
If this trend continues, intensive contact with the original becomes more
and more difficult or else the museum visitor is obliged to adopt an élitist
behaviour. In some countries (China), experiments have been made using 16
excellent copies which cannot be distinguished from the original, and the A way of dealing with the problem of
laige amounts of information and large
original itself is kept in store, where it benefits from optimum conservation numbers of visitors. The exhibits are
conditions. It is possible to regulate psychologically and physiologically the brought to the visitor rather than the
visitor himself moving from one exhibit
contact with the copy substituted for the original, to dispense with security to another. The advantages of presentation
measures and barriers, and to eliminate to a large extent the opposition between of the exhibit with appropriate audio-
visual effects must be weighed against the
consumption and conservation. The question whether such a solution is need to restrict the amount of information
acceptable is a philosophical rather than a technical one, depending on the and the passivity of the viewer.
value which is attributed to the human observer and to the object in all its
uniqueness and on the possibility of reaching a generally binding social con-
sensus on this matter.
This stringent yardstick can only be applied, we would recall, to precious
objects such as belonging mostly to archaeological and fine arts museums
(Fig. I/).
Another proposal must be mentioned in this connexion which has already
been made on several occasions with a view to establishing contact between a
large group of visitors and a single object. In order to obtain satisfactory
viewing, the kinetic man-object relationship is reversed. The object is pre-
sented in dynamic fashion, on a kind of podium, to visitors who remain
immobile in an auditorium. Apart from the fact that in many cases questions
of conservation may arise, mobility of the object often runs counter to the I-

creative intention and what we know from the psychology of perception. l/


Co-ordination of exhibits and
This applies especially to art galleries, whereas such a formula could be con- supplementary information areas.
Parallel arrangement. The exhibits are
sidered for specimens in science and technical museums. In this case archi- accompanied by information areas of
tecture ceases to act as an aid to interpretation (Fig. 16). varying intensity. Exhibits are placed
along the main circuit and information
These considerations lead logically to the use of other communication media areas along a parallel circuit. If this
such as the cinema, television, etc. It would doubtless be an advantage if the arrangement is readily comprehensible
to the visitor it makes for a varied and
main museums had their own television studios where informational activities evenly paced museum visit.
162 Sociology

could be carried on regularly with the collaboration of specialists who have


received scientific training so that their influence may be felt not only inside
but, even more, outside the museum.
As a television studio constitutes a special sector, and as its planning does
not form part of the specific functions of a museum, we shall not pursue the
matter further here.

ARTICULATION
18
The incorporation of information areas in the layout of a museum also raises
:
an architectural problem. The models are based on the assumption that the
layout will be determined by high aesthetic demands. If an arrangement of
objects is to be fully satisfactory as regards the psychology of perception,
much space is required, and it is therefore impossible to apply this formula
to the whole of a large museum’s collection. For the purpose of displaying the
exhibits the museum must be divided into areas of varying density.

Differentiated displq and interpretation areas

A number of points of special interest are thus placed along separate circuits,
to attract groups of visitors with varying tastes. Consequently the architecture
has not only to adapt to the various different spatial qualities, but also to
emphasize these differences. An effort must be made as it were to lead the
visitor on from one area to another (the pleasure of ‘discovery’ must be pre-
served, for example), this having a direct bearing on the extent to which the
architectural structure is of the open type (see Figs. I O I and 119).

Integrated informtion areas

20 This formula is intended to ensure, in accordance with the sociological trend,


an even greater interpenetration between the visitor and the object. The
possibilities which it offers for the co-ordination of the three elements: (a) dis-
play; (b) visit circuit (in the sense of a guiding axis); and (c) information
sectors, are as follows: parallel arrangement (Fig. 17),rhythmic intercalation
(Fig. I¿’), dispersal in relation to the exhibits (Fig. IS) and special sector-in
proximity to the exhibits (Pig. 20).

Reconcilitg the optimam m e of space with the need for information areas

The problem raised by the increased amount of information provided must be


2I
considered in conjunction with the need to make the most economical use of
18 space for technical reasons of conservation as weal as on psychological grounds.
Intercalation of exhibits and information As regards the distribution of space, there is a series of possible variants
areas. The disadvantage is uncertainty
as to whether information should precede according to whether preference is given, in the relationship between display
or follow presentation of the exhibit. and information, to providing information in greater quantity or in greater
The exhibit-information axis is identical
with the main circuit. Difficulty in depth (Fig. 21).
understanding the arrangement of the
subject-matter may, however, oblige the
visitor to retrace his steps.
PROBLEMS OF T H E RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISPLAY
‘9. AND INFORMATION
Dispersal or grouping of exhibits.
Exhibits and information are not arranged
in a systematic way but information is
related to each exhibit separately. The The spatial qualities of the information sectors differ in many ways from those
‘highway’ from one exhibit to the next is of the display sectors. When the requirements in regard to display are very
clearly discernible but there are ‘byways’
through information areas as well. The high-as in the case of archaeological and fine arts museums-the interference
flexibility of this type of arrangement can, caused by information media and their installation are a source of conflict.
however, result in visitors getting in
each other’s way as they follow different
itineraries. I/erbal ilzformation. The difficulty of providing discreet but useful inscrip-
Social context and place of action 163

22

tions is a well-known problem everywhere. Inscriptions take on architectural 20


Linkage and separation of display areas.
dimensions when they are presented in the form of large panels which serve Grouping of exhibits and separation of
as a background to the object or counterbalance it. As the transition from the display and information areas. The path to
be followed by the visitor must be
visual sphere to the intellectual sphere requires a psychological effort, the eye clearly indicated. Under this system the
often sees panels from an aesthetic point of view (that is they must tone in visitor is still free to decide whether or
not he wishes to inspect the information
with the object or, where this is not possible owing to the nature of the object, area.
be set apart).
21
Isolation of information areas. An ‘open
plan’ effect is created and the visitor can be
Three-dimem-ional models. Although these generally remain in the visual sphere sure of not being distracted in the
they must be clearly distinguished from the original and set apart from it. information areas, but the feeling of
continuity is lost. The substantiality of the
information cubicles may indeed have an
Aadio-visual media. Media such as cinema or television require physiological adverse effect on appreciation of the
exhibits.
and psychological adjustment (to darkness, noise, etc.) which may cause
widespread irritation in the display sector. In such cases, separation must be 22
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART,
achieved at the level of perception and measures taken to isolate these sectors New York. Lipchitz Exhibition.
architecturally (cubicles, etc.). Example of integrated audio-visual
information. Art exhibition featuring a
videotape interview with the artist. In a
The installation of integrated information sectors may be an important factor glass booth set in one corner of the
room the visitor can concentrate his
in architectural design, in the form of a fixed spatial element specially attention on the audio-visual information.
The booth does not spoil the over-au
equipped, or an element which may be moved around in the available space effect of the exhibition due to its
(Figs. 22, 23). transparency.
164 Sociology

24.
ROMISCH-GERMANISCHES MUSEUM, Cologne.
Here the audio-visual information is
presented outside the field of vision
containing the works of art and therefore
does not interfere with it. Architect:
Heinz Röcke.

The entrance to a museum is specially significant as a zone of sociological


Original contact. Since it plays an important part in providing a bridge between the
public and the collection, it should be designed as an independent but closely
integrated architectural element, drawing, from a sociological and psycho-
logical standpoint, on the fruits of experience with similar zones of contact in
central urban areas.
A museum should be so organized as to exert the greatest possible influence
on the surrounding community and at the same time afford the public the
freest possible access to it. Following on an analysis of the behavioural motiva-
tions to the community-which vary from case to case-a flow-sheet should be
drawn up indicating successive stages or levels of contact with the museum,
and this in turn will be transposed into a succession of architectural spaces.
In order to determine what this succession in space and time should be, we
A Q can turn first to psychology, which tells us that innovation should be accom-
panied by what is already familiar, that is assimilation is made easier by a blend
Familiar
of old and new (Fig. 24).
24 In this context the three most important stages are:
The form in which information is
presented must strike a balance between I. Enhancing the vicinity of the museum by providing appropriate additional
originality and familiarity. It must teach
the recipient something new without being amenities such as shopping malls, recreational facilities and places for people
so unfamiliar as to be incomprehensible. to meet (not necessarily designed as a single sociological structure but in
Such are the basic dialectics of
communication. (From: Males, Information keeping with the environment).
Tlleoiy a n d Aesthefir Perception.) 2. Exploiting these amenities on behalf of the museum by using psycholo-
Social context and place of action 1%

gically-based techniques to gain wide publicity for, and interest in, the
services of the museum (‘transparency’, action programmes aimed at the
public).
3. Psychological preparation by abolishing distance and gradually changing
the layout into ‘harmonious space’ (Fig. 21).
In country districts (for example, for site museums), the town-planning
approach is replaced by contact with nature, which may have the opposite
psychological effect. Peace and solitude make the museum more attractive; in
other words, the same stages hold good, but in the reverse order.
The way in which not only the immediate vicinity but also the museum
building itself is presented to the psychological perception of the visitor acts
as publicity in spreading information about the works in the collection and
making it widely known to the community. Thus a show window for a tem-
porary exhibition epitomizes the principle of the open museum; on the other

Sorting principle Object


2J.
Collection on show Information Diagram showing the possibilities of
Study collection Contemplation integrating a museum in a town. Strategy
Storehouse
for introducing visitor to museum.
Third transition zone Museum

Temporary exhibition /1 Sorting principle


Special visitors Educational material
Action Conferences

Administration
- Loop

-
Second transition zone

- - - Administration

Action
Wall surfaces (’do-it-yourself‘ -
-
Restaurant
Seated groups
crayons and paints)
Conversation corners -
- -
-
Reception
Information
Day nursery
Painting school - Sale of tickets

First transition zone

Outside advertisement
Liaison with other
Films
cultural institutions
Sculptures

Meeting-point Open area or green space


News-stand for leisure activity
Seated groups
Play area

Access to the park

Shops 0 Activities corresponding


Offices a to the environment

Main street or square -


-
n
Il -
U
O ’Surface of contact‘
with town life

Signs and direction Influence extended on


indicators (in town) wider urban area
Posters
Sculptures
I 66 Sociology

26.
VICTORIA ARTSCENTRE,Melbourne.
The plain façade, set behind a moat
which adds greater mystery, osers no clue
as to the museum’s contents and arouses
curiosity. The opening of the entrance
and the single bridge over the moat create
a suggestive effect. Architects: Roy
Grounds and Alan B. Nelson.

L/
REUCHLINHAUS, Pforzheim.
The entrance and approaches to the
museum complex, which consists of a
number of separate buildings, are designed
to attract the visitor. Note the use of a
variety of materials connected with the
museum’s contents. Architect: Manfred
Lehmbruck.
Social context and place of action 167

hand, a treasure-house locked up on all sides can also be made to tell a story,
provided it is in keeping with its contents.
The use of materials, the choice of proportions and the juxtaposition of
configurations can convey ‘messages’ which are perceived subliminally and
evoke associations with the contents of the museum, before one ever enters
it (Figs. 26, 27).
The same process is repeated in the entrance hall, with a wider range of
indications as to what is on show. Here a system of signs such as the display
of typical works, which convey visual information, is preferable to the use of
written panels or texts (Fig. 28).

Special areas
A
28
A series of attractive vistas in the entrance
hall. Simplified ground-plan. From the
The new trend towards opening up museums vis-à-vis society is aimed at the hall one can see objects represent2tive of
integration of the greatest possible number of activities. But its translation each section.
into terms of architecture produces divergent requirements, which may give
trouble both as regards the space devoted to such activities themselves, and
more specially as regards the relationship between it and the space needed for
display purposes. In most cases -it has proved necessary to adjoin or append
these zones for conservation, study, etc., as special areas so as to ensure that
they are fully designed to meet their purpose (as regards acoustics, technical
equipment, etc.). Frequently too they are so organized as to have a life of their
own (use for several purposes, at different times, etc.), which makes inde-
pendent access desirable.
It is symptomatic of open museums that such areas-which might be des-
cribed as ‘parasitic’ from the point of view of the museum as purely a place for
exhibits-tend to keep on growing. They have however proved to be of great
importance in making museums come alive, provided that their relationship
with the display area remains perfectly clear. Their purpose is to ‘process7the
contents of the collection, in the widest sense of the term, and above all to
experiment with the resulting artistic, scientific or technical possibilities. And
it is not conducive to this purpose if they are used for activities that are no
longer related to the collection itself. For this reason it is desirable that visitors
should be able to move freely around them; easily handled mobile partitions
should be used which can be assembled or dismantled as necessary. A feature
of the architecture of these special areas will be its adaptability.

TEMPORARY E X H I B I T I O N S

Each temporary exhibition forms part of a series of widely differing events,


calling for rapid improvization and the possible use of all available facilities.
The diversity is such that there can be no question of providing different areas
for each event; the only possible solution lies in the direction of maximum
flexibility. The architect must thus give way to the civil engineer. We are no
longer dealing so much with a museum as with a trade fair or exhibition
building, with related but specific requirements such as neutral spaces, areas
clear of pillars, a modular system for the fixed and variable parts, and elements
which can be assembled-all commonplace features of contemporary building
practice.
The dif3culty is that for philosophical and psychological reasons, the museum
must remain as far as possible in natural surroundings. This means that day-
light should also be used flexibly, hence it should ideally be admitted from all
sides under the best possible conditions. The necessary regulating and pro-
tective devices, such as slatted blinds and variable elements, together with
air-conditioning, are typical of the architecture of temporary exhibitions and
distinguish it from that of theatres or department stores, with their artificial
light and ventilation-which are relatively easier to provide.
I68 Sociology

Thus the ‘museum’ type of flexible architecture represents a particular form


which requires a certain financial outlay, but one which can be fully justified
by the philosophy of the museum. Its architectural value can be measured by
the extent to which it succeeds in incorporating the great quantity of technical
equipment required without obtruding on the visitor’s psychological percep-
tion or competing with the exhibits.
For these reasons temporary exhibitions tend to adopt the principle of free
arrangement in three-dimensional space, and are exceptionally well suited to
serve as a ‘show window’ opening onto the outside world (Fig. 29).

AREAS F O R COMMUNICATION A N D ACTION

These areas are designed to free the visitor from a passive consumer role and
encourage creative action. It is here also that a deliberate attempt is made to
come to terms with the conflict inherent in communication. These areas should
enable the visitor to experience this conflict and formulate it.
A salient feature of the architecture is its ‘absence of order’, which should
break down inhibitions and stimuIate ‘participation’.
A special problem is that of ‘artist’s studios’ (Fig. 14j).
In practice, the architecture is much the same as for temporary exhibitions,
but less attention is paid to the requirements of aesthetic perception and more
to the solidity of the construction. Communication is not only visual but also
acoustic and haptic. Sociological surveys and forecasts suggest that the over-
all flexibility of a large area can be replaced by a series of different types of
spaces leading into each other (big-small, light-dark, angular-round, etc.).
These can be used to serve the purpose of studios, stages, play areas or amateur
workshops, as required.
The criterion is the wide range of possibilities and easy adaptability. Depend-
ing on the type of museum, technical equipment will be needed approximating
in part to that found in a television studio (for example a battery of projectors),
in part to that associated with a workshop (a travelling crane, running water,
etc.). A comparison can also be made with a modern experimental theatre,
where the actors intermingle with the audience. Daylight is desirable, less for
aesthetic than for practical reasons; also access to a workshop.
The plans for communication and action areas (as also for temporary
exhibitions) should take into account the need for suitable ‘backstage’ pre-
mises and large store-rooms, which should be located as near as possible to
the scene of action.
Access should also be provided for delivery vans.
Experience has shown the value of separate work-rooms and rooms for
painting, for both adults and children, in this category of premises. Rooms
for conducting experiments are specially worthwhile in technical museums.

EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

While the special areas set aside for communication are oriented towards the
sphere of action and emotion, those designed for education place the emphasis
on analysis and reasoning. The individual contents of the museum are ap-
proached scientifically and transposed into other media (writing, slides, sound);
for instance with an art gallery, vision becomes thought. There is a social
obligation to make accessible to the widest possible public the educational
potentialities which each exhibit possesses, both as a process and as a result.
This determines the location of the education area in the over-all plan, which
should also take account of the various groups of users:
I . Everyday visitors: easy access (lecture and reading rooms).
2. Special visitors, such as schoolchildren, students and research workers:
special classrooms should be provided where possible, with easy access from
the official entrance.
Social context and d a c e of action I Gc,

29
WILIXELM LEHMBRUCK MUSEUM, Duisburg.
Temporary exhibition used as a ‘shop
window’ at the museum entrance (right).
As they approach, visitors have further
3. Outside visitors for activities external to the museum (publicity value). In views of the sculpture section and a
this case a special entrance is desirable. glimpse of the sculpture courtyard.
Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.
The spatial requirements are appreciably different from those of the areas set
apart for exhibits and action, being primarily peace and quiet, with little need
for flexibility (as much as in an office building):
The lecture room is designed in the light of its special functional requirements,
with stepped rows of seats, a projection booth, etc. Putting it to several
different uses gives rise to technical difficulties and is rarely satisfactory.
As it is much in demand for congresses and school activities, daylight is
desirable, in addition to essential lighting and ventilation installations.
The library and reading room are needed equally by the public and research
workers, and this determines their accessibility.
Classrooms and study rooms should not be designed solely with teaching
requirements in mind, but should also be fitted up with some degree of
comfort, so that those who spend some time in the museum may find it an
agreeable experience. For schoolchildren, this will be fundamental for their
subsequent identification with the museum.
The research premises and laboratories are variously designed and equipped
for each individual programme.
The research museum can be defined typologically by the high proportion of
ofices and laboratories. When the great bulk of its work is research, it loses
some of the specific features of a museum, and at the same time has fewer
multipurpose areas of sociological ~ o n t a c t . ~
There is a tendency to make the research function independent, and to regard
the museum as a ‘collection of materials’ belonging to an educational insti-
tution.

ScbooI and zm’versity ?nuseutns

Without going into a detailed study of the problem, it should be noted that in
these cases the museum loses much of its general multipurpose character, and
thus falls outside the scope of this paper. Sociologically speaking it ceases to
be an ‘open museum’, and runs the risk of becoming a special museum for an
élite public. 5 . See Appendix IV, page 277.
170 Sociology

Furthermore, as far as architecture is concerned, classrooms and research


premises come within the category of educational buildings, and are subject to
their special requirements.

n-
The sociological effectiveness of the museum depends on its attractiveness,
that is to a great extent on the well-being of the individual visitor, which can
only be achieved if his physical and mental characteristics are together taken
into account. Hence the museum should physiologically perform the task of
catering for the visitor’s needs, and psychologically extend him an invitation
to linger and enjoy himself. The fact of finding himself ‘at home’ in familiar
everyday surroundings helps him to assimilate the ‘novelty’ of what he en-
counters there (Fig. p i ( b ) ) .
Thus a blend of ‘private’ and ‘public’ should be offered, a place where the
30 visitor forgets both the ego-relationship (of the home) and the feeling of being
FORESTRY MUSEUM, Gävle (Sweden).
The restaurant area is in a central position. lost (of the agora), and is transported to a psychological equilibrium which
It may be used as a meeting-place, a enables him to enter into contact with people and objects.
recreation area within the museum or an
external area. There are several points of In specific architectural terms, these functions may be performed by: rest
contact with the circuit of the display rooms for brief relaxation within the display area (see chapter on physiology),
area. Access is therefore easy and a
variety of possibilities offered. Close refreshment areas (a cafeteria, restaurant, etc.). As the architecture of refresh-
dependence on the museum’s activity. ment areas is not specific to museums, we shall here refer oniy to their location
Underground plan: I. Exhibition area;
2. Cafeteria; 3 . Reserves; 4. Store-rooms; within the museum complex:
j. Corridor; 6. Cloakroom; 7. Unloading I. In the centre of the collection. Here the advantage is that they can be reached
area; 8. Laboratory; 9. Workshops;
IO. Archives; I I . Offices. Architects: quickly from any point of the museum circuit; the drawback is that they are
Sven H.Wraner, Erik Herlöw and closed in on themselves and do not take the visitor out of the museum
Tormod Olesen.
atmosphere. In addition, problems of conservation may arise in the case
of fragile exhibits (Fig. 30).
2. At the entrance. Here the advantage is that these areas constitute an added
attraction and create a lively, sociologically diversified atmosphere; the draw-
back is that usually they can only be visited at the beginning or end of the
tour. The question of access facilities is thus particularly important: whether
these areas should open only on to the outside, for the general public, or be
accessible only from the museum visiting area. The optimum solution is
undoubtedly to provide dual access from both the outside and the inside,
but special attention may then have to be paid to the checking of tickets
(Fig. 344).
It should be possible for tradesmen to have access to the kitchen premises
without going through the museum.

The lofty tone of museums and their disregard of relations with other spheres
of life in the first half of this century made it difficult to extend their action on
the sociological plane. The trend today is to discard the functional separation
typical of the past and to create the largest possible number of ‘surfaces of
contact’ with other fields. As the points of contact with other cultural institu-
tions are specially numerous, it is a short step to the idea of bringing people
together in a (cultural centre’. This somewhat ill-formulated but by now well-
recognized concept should be defined and delimited in this context, as a form
of collaboration on an equal footing between different cultural activities, in
which each activity is represented over its full range, not merely associated
incidentally with another range of functions (for example a small exhibition
in the foyer of a theatre). It thus entails the interpretation of spheres of culture
such as: (a) education, libraries, archives; (b) theatre, cinema, music; and
(c) museums and the visual arts, with their numerous related fields.
Social context and place of action 171

31
LOUISIANA MUSEUM OF FINEARTS
(Denmark).
(a) The restaurant is situated at the end of a
linear circuit and commands a fine view.
Communication with a reading-room
heated by an open fire makes for a
relaxed atmosphere; rest, reflection or
discussion will form the conclusion to the
museum visit. Ground-floor plan:
I. Entrance from pre-existing house;
2. Connecting corridors (side-lit); 3. Two-
storey high gallery; 4.Lantern-lit galleries;
5 . Kitchen; 6. Library; 7. Cafeteria; 8. Sea.
(b) The glass wall eliminates any sense of
separation between the tree outside and the
visitor inside. Children enjoy an
enriching game as they discover the work
of art (Tingndy exhibition). Architects:
Jörgen Boe and Vilhelm Wohlert.
172 Sociology

A distinction should be drawn between organizational and inteuectual


problems. The organizational and functional advantages are numerous: a
common reception point with a large contact area, use of the parking area, a
multifunctional entrance hall with a variety of facilities (serving at the same
time as a foyer), grouped areas for relaxation, catering facilities, conference
rooms and action areas, ofkes, store-rooms, studios, etc. Care will have to be
taken to ensure that the right balance is struck between communal and inde-
pendent facilities: particular attention should be paid to the arranging of time-
tables (day and evening use).
From the intellectual point of view there are also many advantages. Integra-
tion provides both a stimulus and additional possibilities. Understanding can
be developed and extended through the interpretation of other realms of per-
ception. The differing conditions under which the various activities are carried
on do however give rise to problems which call for adjustment of the sensory
faculties and may’cause disturbances, such as noise and other transient factors
which drown the ‘silent language’ of the exhibits, or an undesirable coming
and going, etc. From the sociological point of view the accumulation of con-
tacts makes it possible to reach many different groups and interests, but there
is also the danger that too close an integration of different cultural spheres
may frighten away those who are interested in one sphere alone (Fig. 32).
It will thus be for the architect to find a balanced solution to these problems,
along the following lines:
An advantage of the cultural centre is that cultural activities are given a definite
and identifiable setting in the context of the town. The visitor should be
made fully aware of this by the location and design of the buildings.
The degree of independence of the different sectors and their special connexion
with each other must be worked out in each individual case.
The specific requirements of scientific, visual, acoustic and verbal activities
must be taken into account and integrated with the architecture.
Provision must be made for an adequate number of transition zones, with
‘lock chambers’ permitting physiological and psychological adjustment.
The plan should provide for flexible zones which allow free passage from one
sector to another, though it must be possible to shut them off hermetically
when necessary.
On account of the complex organization involved (control of visitors) it is
recommended for all activities that ‘on stage’ and ‘backstage’ activities
should be clearly separated.
To be successful a cultural centre should therefore leave room for both the
selective differentiation and the integration of activities.
Three models may be envisaged:
I. A system of pavilions. A loose grouping of sectors with the dimensions,
independence and potentialities of an identifiable single-function style of
architecture. Each pavilion can be extended irrespective of the others.
Spatial and functional integration is however practically impossible on
account of the distances involved (Figs. 32,33).
2 . A system of pavilions with a central entrance hall. A central grouping of
largely independent, architecturally identifiable sectors with flexible arrange-
ments for close inter-sector contacts via intermediate zones and limited
possibilities of extension (Fig. 34(a), (b)).
3. A single block building. Limited independence of the different sectors, non-
optimal functional design (public sector), sectors identifiable only by the
interior architecture. The maximum amount of ‘contact surfaces and
flexibility (the type of the ‘information’ museum) (Fig. 3 ~ ) .

BnvoBvemewt w i t h the surrounding area


As already noted more than once, the museum’s new open stance vis-à-vis
society leads naturally to the so-called ‘open museum, and an open-plan
Social context and place of action 173

32
NICOSIACULTURAL CENTRE (Cyprus).
Different cultural activities gradually
merge in a carefully structured central
contact area. Simplified ground-plan.
Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

Theatre

Activity Information 1 I I11 Publicity

33
NICOSIACULTURAL CENTRE (Cyprus).
Pavilion system with central entrance hall..
I. Entrance court; 2. Library; 3. Open-air
exhibition and performing arts;
4. Exhibition gallery; 5 . Theatre. Architect:
Manfred Lehmbruck.
I74 Sociology

34(a)

34(a), ( 6 )
Loose grouping of buildings devoted to
various cultural activities: I. Information:
2. Opera house; 3 . Opera studio;
4.Exhibitions; 5 . Museum; .6. Art gallery;
7. Garden restaurant; 8. Restaurant;
9. Parking. Model of a cultural centre in JI
CENTRE GEORGES-POMPIDOU,
Cairo. Architect: Fritz Bornemann. Paris.
Compact system. Model. Architects:
Piano & Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners.
Social context and place of action 175

architectural structure. As an initial hypothesis it can be assumed that bringing


action areas geographically closer together (or merging them) and breaking
IL
T
down spatial barriers are conducive to social contacts and facilitate the
psychological approach to exhibits. This is so only up to a certain point,
however, since complete openness is bound up with a loss of definition. This in
its turn results in a levelling of scales of value, which may lead to the museum’s
losing some of its drawing power. It is a question of proportion. I

Even if ‘openness’ is a relative concept, it is still at the present time the


justified aim of sociological analysis to sublate distance intellectually and
spatially (‘bring down’ what is ‘too high’) and integrate the museum in the
structure of the town.
Three models are suggested:
I. Elements of street architecture (shops, public and private installations of
all kinds) are brought into the approaches to the museum and intermingle
with or overlay the museum building. This gives a false impression of
integration, even though the museum remains organizationally unaffected
within its own separate climate. The aim is to make people feel at ease, but
the result may be that the museum does not stand far enough back to be

r1
0.aw.e
noticed (Fig. 36).
2. The street passes through the museum, that is a pedestrian way (foot-
path, split-level passage, etc.) is cut through it, climatically apart from it,
in the hope that this wider view of what the museum has to offer will encour-
age the ‘man in the street’ to visit it. The museum itself remains organiza-
tionally intact, but the glimpses passers-by have of it produce a psychological
1 37

effect of publicity. There is, however, a danger of internal disturbances


(Fig. 37).
3. The museum as a street: public spaces and thoroughfares pervade the
museum. The advantages of this solution are operative only if it is possible
to walk through the museum, in other words when there are several entrances
and exits. The problem is a security one, which only a few types of museums
can afford to ignore. Here audio-visual surveillance systems and electro- 1 r L
nically controlled transport facilities (e.g. to and from cloakrooms) offer
new possibilities, though their practical implementation still calls for critical
study. A further matter calling for consideration is whether: (a) visitors and
exhibits can do without air-conditioning; (b) exhibits can be adequately
protected by individual localized air-conditioning (e.g. in showcases); or
(c) general air-conditioning is necessary. In the third case, the chambers
leading into .the air-conditioned areas again detract from the complete
openess which is aimed at (Fig. 38).
36
Combination with other buildings.
Possibilities for integration in the urban
scene. External surfaces may be overlaid
INTEGRATION I N THE STRUCTURE O F THE TOWN with shops or similar urban enterprises and
(PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE) windows set in external walls on the
‘shop-window’ principle.

37
The museum ceases to be a separate building which is more or less on its own, A pedestrian way or bridge through the
and becomes an urban area among others, without any special town-planning museum gives the public a visual
impression of the museum’s attractions
emphasis. Any particularly frequented part of the town structure is used and method of presentation. Problems
temporarily or permanently for the purposes of a museum, and can be changed involved are the positioning of the only
entrance and the co-ordination of museum
at will. Public transport services come right into the district in question, which areas located on different levels.
is identified by flexible architectural ‘furnishings’. Conservation problems are
38
similar to those in 3 above, though even greater. If carried to the extreme, this Extension of public thoroughfares into the
museum implies long opening hours.
conception necessitates either a very effective system of surveillance and con- Security is a problem which can,
servation, or a social order which has abolished material values. How far either however, be overcome technically,
perhaps by taking measures to protect
of these is desirable is a philosophical question. each object individually. The provision of
This prospect is however typical of present trends, and indicates the line cloakroom facilities is another problem
which can only be satisfactorily dealt
of demarcation between intellectual discourse and architectural achievement with by installing automatic transport
(Figs’ 39, ‘fol 4’). systems.
176 Sociology

39
Integration in, the urban environment in a
large modern city. As a general rule
motor transport is allowed to run alongside
the museum. Pedestrian ways can be
integrated into the museum. Entrances Road
will be positioned to exploit the
possibilities of external features such as
underground stations, squares and
footpaths. On a large site individual
town-planning features can be amalgamated
in the internal connexions. The museum
complex can be integrated into the urban Street reserved for pedestrians
scene, provided that its architecture is in
keeping with the character of the town.

40
HISTORY MUSEUM, Amsterdam.
A new street has been given a glass
roof and heating system and can thu s form
parr of the museum as well as being a
public thoroughfare.
Social context and place of action I77

4'
ECOMUSEUM OF THE URBAN COMMUNITY
OF LE CREUSOT-MONTCEAU-LES-MINES.
The fragmented museum covers an entire
region. It inspires various activities in
different places, for example: St Sernin-
du-Bois, 1974-75, field trip; The Forest;
Couches, summer I 972, exhibition-inquiry
Folk A r t and Traditions; and summer 1973,
exhibition-inquiry The T 4 z e and the IVine;
Le Creusot, February-May 1973.
Companions in Bnrgz& and Work and
Invention; June-November 1973, The Tree,
from Prehistoric Tinies t o the Present;
November 1973-February 1974, Fossilsfi-om
the Blanqy Coal Basin; December 1973-
March I 974, The Factory, Work and
Architectnre; January-February I 974,
Mexican Folk A r t ; April-May 1974,
Le Corbzisier; summer I 974, The Dogons,
opening of the evolutive exhibition The
Space of the Urban Comnzmity throtgh the
Ages; first stage of the adult education
programme on housing Lìuing in Le Crensot
in 1974;conservation and development
of one of the large industrial markets
and of the crane and engine construction
shop at Creusot-Loire; and 1975, Children
and Images; Le Breuil, 1975, Restoration of the
Traditional Home; Montcenis, summer 1973,
exhibition-inquiry From Bailliage t o Chief
Coztnt/y Town; Ecuisses, 1974-7 5 , field trip
The Canah Les Bizots, summer 1974,
Donzestìc Animals and their Wild Coil"%
paris; etc.
42
However many great works there are
to be seen, and however splendid the
presentation, the visitor may still feel his
attention and his curiosity waning, and may
eventually begin to suffer from what
the museologists call ‘visitor fatigue’.
I79

Physiology

Factors affecting the visitor

When someone visits a museum, there is tension between the two poles
formed by human nature and the object. While conservation is based on the
creation and stabilization of a state, physiology is aimed at the activation and
variability of life. Nevertheless, since conservation and physiology both raise
unconditional demands, a relationship must be established between them.
Physiology and psychology are closely linked and function according to the
principle of biological balance, manifest in rhythmical wave movements. As
an exact science, physiology comes within the sphere of what is measurable,
whereas psychology leaves greater room for interpretation. For this reason,
despite their close interdependence, they must be considered separately.
The point of departure is the physiological constitution of the visitor which,
in accordance with the pluralistic tendency, may and must show extraordinary
hversity in respect of age, race, sex, state of health (motor handicapped, blind,
étc.). However, the bodily functions of all human beings have a relatively
small margin of fluctuation, if one considers factors such as temperature or
humidity, which may serve as a basis for planning. Differences in capability
and temperament from one group of people to another must also be taken
into account. We shall therefore limit our discussion here to general criteria
based òn the hypotlieses of occupational psychology.

Difference between suitable conditions for visitors


and for objects
The museum demands a high level of concentration and sensitivity which
implies optimum conditions. Psychosomatic factors can only come into play
once 'the body is forgotten'. The stimulus afforded by the heightening of the
awareness and the emotions in a museum exercises a basically vitalizing effect,
but this is often outweighed by physiological phenomena. The latter must
therefore be compensated by an above-average degree of comfort (Fig. 42).
This is where the conflict between the object and the visitor may be seen
most clearly, for other demands for comfort, which the curator must define
with the greatest precision, may be formulated in connexion with the object.
This incompatibility may be more or less pronounced depending on the
ideology of the museum, but it is always present in a latent state. The function
of museum architecture is to help to find a solution through spatial differentia-
tion. Both the visitor and the curator must understand fully that this can only
be a compromise within a certain margin of tolerance.

AIR-CONDITIONING

As geographical and demographic differences are considerable, it is impos-


sible to establish an abstract and generally valid definition of optimum condi-
tions. But the fact that the vasomotor regulation of the human body only
I 80 Physiology

Protective outer covering-humidity/erosion


Ventilation-humidity/heat
I nsulation-heat/oold

Wood covering
Temperature gauge and
air-conditioning control

Hygroscopic balance maintained


by wood covering

43 External rot-protection Internal rot-artificially


Multilayer wall with automatic air
from natural climatic controlled atmosphere
conditioning. factors

covers a range of 2-3' C shows the difficulty of the task. Above this zone of
comfort, the excessive warmth provokes lassitude, and below it the cold
reduces the powers of concentration. Moreover, the appropriate relationship
must be maintained with the hygrometric level which differs according to
climatic area, season, etc. In a museum, special attention should also be given
to the relationship between light and temperature.
The temperature gradient between the outside walls and the centre of the
museum is especially important because fragile objects (paintings, etc.) may be
exhibited on the outside walls. As there is generally a difference in temperature
between the rooms and the connecting partitions, the same room may have a
different value for the object and for the visitor. Differences in temperature due
to radiance (heat or cold) should not exceed 2-3 O C. It is recommended that
outside walls should be of multilayer design (Fig. 43).
Moreover, the renewal of air by the induction of sufficient fresh air and
humidity, which is essential to the human being, is often contrary to con-
servation requirements. Just as the intensity of the lighting and the number of
lux are constantly increasing, there is a tendency in industrialized countries
for the temperature regarded as comfortable to become steadily higher. The
gap between the ambient conditions for the object and for man is constantly
widening.
These few examples are not exhaustive and are only mentioned to give an
idea of the problem.

Effort required f o r the visit


A number of attempts have been made to measure the effort which the
visitor may reasonably be expected to make (total length and duration of the
visit, distance covered per hour). This relationship between distance and time,
based on the study of the place in which the effort is made, cannot be used to
establish the general dimensions of exhibition surfaces in a museum, since the
diversity of the content of collections makes generalization impossible. Accord-
ing to circumstances it is less tiring to cover 3 kilometres in one hour, at a
brisk walk, while visiting an exhibition of sculpture in a park, than to spend
half an hour visiting an exhibition of jewellery which extends over 3 0 metres
and where the visitor is standing still most of the time. The programming of
exhibition buildings would certainly be facilitated if absolute figures could be
Factors affecting the visitor 181

estimated for optimum surface and duration of visit, but this method is impos-
sible to put into practice and must be replaced, for each case, by a calculation
of empirical values. The principle of a straight line being the shortest distance
between two points cannot be applied in a museum; on the other hand, the
waste of energy represented by having to go back over one’s tracks is per-
ceived more or less consciously and is therefore indefensible.
Man does not move continuously like a machine, but with interruptions
which follow a biological rhythm. Long distances in straight lines or in a circle
(regular spirals for example) should therefore be avoided. The standard circuit
demands a sustained effort which makes the visitor less willing to react. Con-
sequently, the architecture should not only offer visual diversity, but should
suggest a rhythmic variation of movement, such as slow and fast walking,
sitting down and, if possible, also lying.
It is doubtful whether the radical proposal involving kinetic presentation of
the object to the visitor who remains immobile6 would bring any real phy-
siological relief. The success of this formula will depend-among many other
factors-on the question of whether the visitor requires movement or rest as
a contrast from normal fatigue.
Vertical movement between two or three floors should present no problem
for visitors in good health. The architectural solution to this problem is,
however, important. It is a demonstrable physiological fact that psychic
stimulation, the cpromisey,reduces the subjective expense of physical energy;
in other words fatigue depends on motivation. A move to another floor
should therefore always take place in stages and a glance at the next floor should
convince the visitor that it is ‘worth the effort’. In museums with two or three
floors it is impossible to prove that lifts-which are necessary for other reasons
-increase the normal visitor’s physiological capacity for assimilation. In the
display area there should be the same effort to consider the visitor’s needs for
vertical movement as in regard to horizontal movement. Ramps provide
favourable conditions in this respect, but their slope should not exceed 6 per
cent, in other words they will, seem intolerably long unless broken by exhibits.

Visual stimuli
DAYLIGHT

In a museum it is the organ of sight which plays the determining role. Through
the epiphysis, visual stimuli exert a deep influence on the vegetative visual
system and consequently on the over-all efficiency and general state. In terms
of museum architecture, this means that the lighting of the exhibition influences
the visitor’s readiness to react and may induce activity or fatigue. Although the
eye has an extraordinary faculty for adjustment, it has been shown that a
rough adjustment from brightness to darkness requires only five minutes,
whereas complete adjustment requires about one hour. This may be taken as
proof of the fact that the physiological effects-intense and rapidly varying
luminous contrasts for example-are very persisent and soon provoke ocular
or nervous fatigue. We shall now examine a few of the innumerable problems
of daylight in museums.
The eye is capable of seeing clearly and selectively in lighting ranging from
a few lux to over IOO,OOO lux. Luminosity is as important here as intensity.
A conflict arises because, on the one hand, a relatively strong light intensity is
desirable in order to bring the exhibits to life but, on the other hand, the eye’s
sensitivity increases rapidly if the intensity of the lighting is reduced. The
luminous interpretation must therefore be chosen in terms of the contents of
the collection (leaving conservation requirements out of account). The level
of general lighting must be such as to avoid excessive contrasts: balance does
not necessarily mean a levelling out but rather a rhythmic modulation avoiding 6. See the chapter on sociology.
I82 Physiology

44
The principle of an entrance-hall air-lock.
Simplified cross-section. ' Collection Entrance hall with air-lock Air trap
Moving door-mat

extremes. The stronger the light intensity, the better the object will stand out.
In the cases where there is a sharp increase OL decrease in lighting, an inter-
mediate adjustment (or transition) zone should be provided so as to enable the
visitor to become accustomed to the new level of illumination as it were in
two stages (Fig. 44).
For physiological reasons preference must be given to daylight wherever
conservation requirements aIIow this (for sculptures for example). In most
cases, however, a device should be interposed so as to subdue the light (e.g.
screens). The question of whether diffused light or moving projected shadows
are acceptable will depend on the aim of the presentation.
Similarly, the direction of the light should be determined first by the object.
Areas of light coming from the side or from above blend with one another
according to the latitude and there is no longer any question of a fundamental
choice, as was the case for many decades (Fig. 41).

\I

41
Incidence of light, Vertical light is
approximately twice as bright as
horizontal light and is generally 'diffused
by means of a special covering suspended
-=
llD

CI
Sunshade
0
beneath and screening the outer roof
covering. Simplified cross-section.

Light which is mainly horizontal may be better controlled from the climatic
point of view if one faces away from the sun. There is a great psychological
advantage in letting the light penetrate the rooms unchanged and unhindered;
care must be taken onIy to avoid reflection from the environment (houses,
trees, etc.).
Vertical light, especially when used to illumine surfaces, must usually be
subdued by sun-blinds, and therefore only reaches the exhibition area as
diffused light. The choice is thus not merely a matter of lighting techniques
and organization, but also evinces a philosophical and aesthetic preference
for simplicity and natural affects. A combination of diffused vertical light, as
basic ambient lighting, and oblique or horizontal light in order to pinpoint the
Factors affecting the visitor 183

object, has proved satisfactory from the physiological point of view since it is
relatively balanced.
The direction of the light has a great influence on the over-all architectural
design. If overhead lighting is chosen, the exhibition' sector can cover only
one floor. When side-lighting is chosen, the depth of the buildi7g from back
to front i s limited and if a north light is preferred it is impossible to avoid a
. stereotyped positioning of the building. From the initial stage onwards,
therefore,'it is necessary to study the content of the collection in order to
examine the various possibilities for lighting techniques.
In this respect, the angle of incidence of the light should be studied. As
a general rule: light directed along the same axis as the line of vision gives
no contrast and makes perception of space more difficult; light coming straight
from above projects heavy shadows and distorts perception; light coming

46
The angle of incidence of light must
he carefully adjusted to the relief of the
exhibit. Simplified cross-section.

obliquely from above and from the side in relation to the line of vision facili-
tates perception. These considerations are valid not only for three-dimensional
objects but also for paintings with a thick surface, and on them depends eye-
strain or fatigue (Fig. 46).
Contrast is necessary for perceiving the environment, but in a museum it
must be subtly regulated. A study of acceptable contrasts of surface luminosity
in the field of vision could serve as a reference point:
I. All objects and surfaces of a certain size, situated in the field of vision must
as far as possible be equally luminous.
2 . In the central areas of the field of vision, the contrasts of luminosity of the
surfaces should not exceed the ratio I : 3.
3. The contrasts between the centre and the periphery of the field of vision,
or between the different parts of its periphery should not exceed the ratio
I : 10.~
4. Contrasts are more inconvenient at the sides and bottom of the visual field
than at the top (Fig. 47). 47
The importance of these questions from the physiological point of view ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ , c k ; I
emerges clearly in extreme cases: rapid repetition of strong contrasts and over- dazzling). (From: Granjean,
dramatic effects induces fatigue, since it obliges the pupil to dilate and contract P~sìo'ogìsc~eArei~sgesta'~~~n~.)
continually and thus suppresses the vitalizing effect which was originally
intended; lack of contrast makes the individual less disposed to react physio-
logically (half-dark).
Dazzling occurs when the illuminated object is eclipsed by the presence of a
more luminous element in the field of vision. It depends on contrast. The eye
tolerates dazzling more easily in daylight than in artificial light, because the
level of lighting is higher in the first case. When it is impossible to remove the
source of dazzling, the general level of lighting must be raised. Eye-strain
through dazzling plays a fatal role in museum architecture. The necessary 7. cf. Grandjean, P ~ ~ i o / o ~ i rArbeilrges/a///og.
rhc
184 Physiology

48
Dazzle from an overhead screen placed
too low.

49
Dazzle from a high side-light. I
JO
Shadow-free overhead lighting (favourable
lighting conditions).

49

JI
Optimum distance of viewer from object
in relation to size of object.
Factors affecting the visitors 185

steps must be taken to avoid it in the initial stage of the design. It may occur J2
Attention should be paid to the colour
not only in relation to the object but also in the architectural space, wherever of reflecting surfaces.
the field of vision presents strong contrasts (Figs. 48, 49, JO). J3
The optimum distance of vision in relation to the object may be measured Skylight in a flat roof. A restricted area
of strong light falling in concentric circles
from the physical point of view in average values. It must be regarded as a of decreasing intensity, reflected light
minimum value, and at the same time constitutes one factor in determining having been eliminated around this pool
of direct light which is surrounded by
the dimensions of the room, though for this purpose account must also be shadows.
taken of whether the object ought to be seen from above or from below
(sculptures, etc.) (Fig. J I ) . gispersal of light by reflection from the
Indirect lighting is provided via surfaces which vary in reflecting power. extremities of a funnel which throws a
large circle of light. Light subdued and
The colour, texture and structure of the reflecting surfaces (the partitions, for dispersed by the so-called ‘light gun’.

/4

JJ
REUCHLINHAUS,
Pforzheim.
Showcases using reflected daylight.
Exhibition wall for different objects,
consisting of an adjustable backboard
system for shelves, mirrors and artificial
lights with ceiling to floor glazing in
front. The glass front is painted with
J3 easily removable black paint leaving clear
areas for display. View and cross-section.
Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

example) critically affect the perception of light and space. A different treat-
ment of surfaces may completely change the visitor’s impression of a space.
It is impossible to make any general recommendation on the reflecting power
of surfaces in a museum; the solution to the problem depends on the collection.
Indirect light plays a most important role in the general lighting of the room,
although if used exclusively it has a psycho-physiologically subduing influence,
the effect of which on the collection should be taken into consideration (in
some cases, it may produce a ‘religious’ atmosphere). Where this effect is not
deliberate, it interferes with the visitor’s viewing.
Daylight is essentially dif€used when it is not in the form of sun-rays. It is
only with discretion, therefore, that it can be concentrated in a beam, includ-
ing cases where it is artificially focused through an optical device. The expres-
sion ‘light gun’, which is often used in connexion with museum architecture,
is inexact in so far as the reflection inside the ‘tube’ only results in dispersion
of light. The reduced effect of contrast or dazzling is less tiring from the
physiological point of view (Figs. JZ, j3, 14).
In a museum, reflection may be used deliberately or else may be a source of
interference. In the first case, light must be reflected with the least possible
loss. Depending on the thickness of the glass, 5 to 7 per cent of light intensity
is absorbed (Fig. 11).
1SG Physiology

16
Rough ground-plan showing distribution
of side light. Reflection from exhibits such
as oil paintings and glass objects should
be avoided. The walls and/or exhibits
should be arranged in such a way as to
ensure that when exhibits are viewed in a
direct line of vision, only unilluminated or
light-absorbing surfaces are contained in
the field of reflection. In modern buildings
with flexible window openings this can be
done by judicious spacing, screening
sources of light, angling walls, etc.
When rows of windows are already in
position a special study by experts is to be
recommended.

I Light-absorbing surfaces Direction of light

The second case will be illustrated by some appropriate architectural


examples:
Plan of a side-lit room, designed so as to reduce the reflections on oil paintings
or pictures under glass (Fig. ~ 6 ) .
Showcases. The glass covers are inclined so that the dark floor or ceiling is
reflected in the field of vision (Fig. ,r7(a), (b)); the inside of the showcase is
noticeably more brightly lit than the rest of the room (Fig. 18).
These details only form a small part of the problems which have to be taken
into account in the early stages of designing a museum lit by daylight, if any
excessive physiological effort is to be avoided.

ARTIFICIAL L I G H T

Technical considerations and conservation problems connected with the use


Light-absorbing surfaces
of artificial light have pushed its physiological aspects into the background.
Its advantages and disadvantages for human beings have not yet been suffi-
17
ciently studied, partly because experience of the matter has not been sufficiently
Light-absorbing surfaces: (a) floor; long.
(b) ceiling.
Additional artificial lighting is installed automatically today, if only for
sociological reasons (use of the premises in the evening, etc.).
In the case of simultaneous use, efforts are made to reproduce the direction
and spectral composition of daylight. However, this is only possible to a
limited extent, as artificial light is obtained from point or linear sources which
do not constitute diffusing surfaces of an intensity comparable to that of day-
light. It is impossible in most cases to mask the dark window panes in the
evening by curtains which reflect the light projected on to them, because of the
high expenditure of energy which this involves. Artificial light can in other
words be used very effectively to supplement daylight, for example at dusk,
but it must be installed according to its own laws.
Parallel use of the two types of lighting must be organized in such a way
as to avoid slipping uncomfortably from one to the other, otherwise com-
parisons between objects placed under a different lighting may occur and
physiological perception may be distorted either favourably or unfavourably
according to the kind of light. Experience shows that a small quantity of
natural light hardly competes with artificial light in an artificially lit exhibition
and vice versa. Care must be taken at the planning stage, therefore, to see that,
in the dark areas of wide buildings for example, partitions and possibly screens
are arranged so as to separate off the sectors lit by daylight, and to apply this
formula systematically throughout the building.
The same is true for partial installation of artificial light, in cases where the
problems of presentation cannot be satisfactorily solved by the use of daylight.
Factors affectinp the visitor I 87

A suitable layout and decoration scheme is needed even when the area involved
is small.
The exclusive use of artificial light presents great advantages: it is possible
to regulate to a large extent the intensity and the spectral composition of the
light; sources of light may be arranged flexibly and made to pinpoint the
objects. The disadvantages of this solution are as follows: monotony, which
deadens the physiological reactions; the difficulty in regard to how contrasts
are to be distributed; the resulting rise in temperature (especially where
incandescent lamps are used).
With regard to intensity, a painting placed under artificial general lighting
of I 50 lux gives rise to very different physiological reactions from a painting
exposed to daylight of the same intensity. In comparison, the artificial light is
insufficient, for the following reasons:
I . The human body is less responsive to artificial light.
2. The distribution of contrasts in the field of vision is unsatisfactory.
3. The general ambient lighting is insufficient. Daylight floods the room with
a diffused or modulated light which can only be reproduced artificially by
very powerful artificial light covering a vast surface. It is therefore necessary
to come back to the lighting of separate objects, which may however tire
the eye by its contrasts with the general lighting.
From this it may be seen that physiological perception of space plays a con-
siderable role in the question whethx to use daylight or artificial light.
Artificial lighting has great advantages for freedom of planning. A study
in depth may make it possible to eliminate causes of discomfort such as dazzling,
reflections, viewing distance, etc.
From the physiologicalpoint of view it must be emphasized that a prolonged
visit in artificially ventilated and lit premises disturbs the biological balance,
as has been shown by many research studies on neuro-hormonal disorders
(stress).
The argument that modern man lives in any case in an artificial environment
is a further reason for refusing to accept this solution for museums. The
museum should be a place of authenticity, with regard both to the objects
and to the environment. The museum should not function according to the
laws of the world of production, but according to those of the natural en-
vironment.
The architectural consequences of the exclusive use of artificial light (build-
ings with several floors, flexibility, etc.) will be examined in another chapter.

We1axat ion
The fact that the visitor to a museum is always in the position of a recipient,
and the limitations imposed on his motor functions, easily lead to physio-
logical constraints. The biological balance which has thus been disturbed must
be re-established by poles of attraction. For this purpose, passive relaxation,
intellectual assimilation and spontaneous activity must be taken into consid-
eration. Theoretically, the psychological process can be distinguished from
the physiological process and bodily fatigue explained by different reasons
4---
from intellectual fatigue, but in practice the interdependence of these pro-
cesses is such that they are inseparable.
/8
The sensory nervous system, represented by the visual organ, is subjected to REUCHLINHAUS,
Pforzheim.
unusually heavy demands. It often happens-not only in the museum-that All-glass showcase set against the wall,
with continuous grooves for holding
general tiredness may be traced to optical effort. As the eye normally leaps from display fitments and shelves in daylight
one object to the other, the fact of concentrating on static forms and colours and artificial light. Wall case, cross-section.
Owing to the use of both natural and
requires an effort which may be measured by the contraction of the pupil. To attifidal light the showcase is more
compensate, the eye must be given the opportunity of moving, according to a brightly lit than the visitor's area and
reflection cannot occur. Architect:
certain rhythm, from near vision, which is fairly tiring, to distant vision, which Manfred Lehmbruck.
I88 Physiology

I?
Diagram of area for relaxation (short
duration). Ground-plan. Area
connecting with the exhibition circuit.

is relaxing, from bright colours to restful neutrality, from light to dark, from
small to large and vice versa.
The motor nervous system registers general fatigue by reducing metabolism
and respiration. Like the sensory apparatus, it requires compensation such as
standinglsitting, walking/lying down, etc., and vice versa. The modern
museum encourages self-expression in areas reserved for activity and in special
sectors. This implies the visitor’s readiness to act, which must be aroused by
physiological stimuli such as empathic shapes, ‘do-it-yourself’paints, music, etc.
Logically, the corresponding rest sector should offer qualities the opposite to,
and no less diverse than, the possibilities of action.
Although the principles governing these relaxation areas are the same as
those governing relaxation areas in general, their installation and design are
matters specifically the responsibility of the museum itself. It is possible to
make a decisive contribution in carrying out this task by constructing judi-
ciously arranged divisions which form a contrast with the collection from the
psycho-physiologicalpoint of view. They may be interposed along the visitor’s
path, following the divisions of the collection. They may also be grouped
together in a relaxation area offering many possibilities, including restaurant
facilities. A solution which brings the visitors into natural surroundings is
particularly advantageous (Fig. ~ 9 ) .

So far, we have considered the visitor who is able to make a normal effort.
But today it is obviops that the weak and the physically handicapped must be
able to enjoy the same possibilities. As these problems have already been dealt
with in detail in specialized publications, they will only be examined here in
relation to the over-all architectural design.
Children should be made familiar with the museum at an early stage. A
children’s centre including a painting school or a handicrafts room, rapidly
accessible from the museum entrance and easily visible, is quite usual today.
Furthermore’ some museums which have been specially designed for children
have proved a success. Their characteristics are as follows: presentation which
takes into account subjects of interest to the child; didactic organization; scale
appropriate to children (easier contact); objects on show which may be handled
(copies which may be touched); possibilities of activity in relation to the
objects; separate play and relaxation areas (sound-proofed).
It may be asked in this connexion whether it is better to integrate the
children’s museum within the museum complex, or whether to build it separ-
Factors affecting the visitor 189

ately on another site. The latter solution makes it possible to meet the above-
mentioned requirements as fully as possible, without let or hindrance, and to
extend freely in all directions. It has the disadvantage, however, of making it
impossible for the museum for adults to use certain installations (painting
class, etc.) as well as making it that much more difficult for children to regard
their museum as a stepping-stone to the main museum. Thus the best solution
is a site in the immediate vicinity which nevertheless affords a large measure
of architectural autonomy (Fig. 60).
The question of the physically handicapped who cannot leave their bed or
wheel-chair, has considerable influence on the general design. There is an
increasing number of physically handicapped as a result of road traffic accidents.
When drawing up the plans, due attention must be given to seeing that the
main levels are accessible by means of lifts with minimum dimensions of
1.3j x 1.3 5 metres or, better still, 1.35 x 2.20 metres, and that ramps with a
slope not exceeding G per cent, or special lifts, are available in order to bridge
minor differences in leveLS 8. See, for example, the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, and
Many museums have a department for the blind situated near the entrance. the Victoria h t s Centre, Melbourne.

60
BROOKLYN CHILDREN’S MUSEUM, New York.
Model.
The museum, situated in Brower Park,
is seen from street level as a group of
individual single-storey pavilions, rest
areas and girders erected on a plateau,
Paths leading to other parts of the park
take the visitor via the plateau or via the
observation bridge where one can look
down on an open-air exhibition space
about twenty feet below.
Psychology

Perception and behaviour

The prime importance of psychology is immediately apparent from the fact 61


GALERIES NATIONALES DU GRAND PALAIS,
that the museum's fundamental tasks are to arouse and sharpen sensitivity. In Paris.
this article we shall deal with two aspects: the psychology of the perception of T h B h and Yehw V o h ? m Space, t h M d i e ~
We Evoke in. Temporary exhibition. Work
objects and that of architecture. Psychosociology and sociopsychology are was carried out by the Académie de France
involved in these two aspects, but should nevertheless not be considered from 1972 to 1974 in R c " on a system
of graphic expression of global space,
separately. It is an established fact that the way one looks at an object is consisting of the construction of images
governed by psychological laws similar to those governing the way one looks by synthesis. The following points are basic
to the study: light gives access to the
at architecture, since both fall into the category of eco-psychology. Further- space containing the perceived forms; the .
more, in the museum the two should merge in a single experience (Fig. 61). work shown attempts a study of the form
in its own construction, implantation and
The museum provides US with an ideal opportunity to study the relationship use; the form is approached with the aid
between the environment and the mind, for its demands-both varied and ofthe Potential d ~ m e of s 'dead angle
spaces', 'passages of transparency' and
lofty-are circumscribed within a limited spatial and temporal framework. 'bodies of light'; these elements constitute
Moreover, there are wide areas in which research of this kind, though highly a plastic language giving infc"tion
on the space as a milieu for evolution;
necessary, is still in its infancy, and the margin of interpretation is great com- considering them as wholes, one can
pared with the measurable values of physiology, for example. In this field, proceed to the creation of a synthetic
image with precise geometric definition;
however, as in others, statistics, questionnaires, the way in which the pupil L~ B / ~jaZNte
~ ~is a covered area
dilates and contracts, and so on, give us clear information about the inter- in which one is í-nade to feel the space
by means of coloured markings on the
dependence between the internal and the external world. Architectural alter- walls. This worlc, shown in Rome in
ations should be carried out step by step, and should be based on scientific June-Jul~1974. can be Seen in Paris
from 15 March to j May 1975 in the
data. It is a matter of urgency
- . that definitive conclusions be drawn from such ~ ~Nationales
l of the
~ Grand ~ Palais.
i ~ ~
research, in order to counterbalance the certainties of the exact sciences and It was also the subject of a paper read
before the Académie des Beaux-Arts of
technology. Indeed, it is in the field of museum architecture that psychological the Institut de F ~Above,~ synthetic
~ ~ ~ .
knowledge should be recognized as providing decisive criteria; it should supply image of IF', facing south.
sound arguments for making the 'conservation machine' work more efficiently.
The following analyses will concentrate on the part played by the uncon-
scious, for its role is central although it seldom receives much attention. The
interaction between consciousness and the psyche-as may be shown, for
example, in the so-called 'reward' test-should form the basis for all archi-
tectural planning.

Human perception obeys the rule of biological equilibrium; in other words,


contradictions are not eliminated, but are maintained in a state of tension and
simultaneously counterbalanced. Furthermore, these contradictions must be
recognizable as such through a structure which contains them.
192 Psychology

The same psychological pattern also governs the museum visitor, who must
find a balance between the drives which urge him on and those which restrain
him-between emotion and criticism. All perceptions are accompanied by
intellectual activities, which may be described as a configuration of forces. The
latter are based on constants, such as direction, size, shape, colour and so forth,
which underlie the visitor’s reaction. One of these surprising constants is the
phenomenon whereby objects, although their retinal image is distorted, are
seen as being approximately their actual physical size (Fig. 62).
The individual’s experience of three-dimensional space is the result of a
62 perception gradient which can be grasped more easily, and with less fatigue,
Continuity of perception ‘completes’
overlapping sectors which cannot be in a clearly structured environment than in a space whose poorly defined con-
objectively perceived and brings them figuration is due to intersecting forms and complicated colour or lighting
together in a clearly structured
consciousness of the area as a whole. effects.
Since the object, and not the space, should be in the foreground, one should
be able without difficulty to gain a clear idea of the space by means of the
surfaces which limit it or by other guidemarks. This is not the case if the cen-
tral point is inadequate to define the space without ambiguity. That is why a
circular space is not satisfactorily grasped when perceived. As long as the
space is not easily perceptible, the visitor will continue to search, albeit un-
consciously. The resulting uneasiness renders contact with the object more
difficult.
The museum is a special kind of space in that, besides the man-space relation-
ship, there is also a complex space-object relationship. Ideally, architecture and
object form a whole, usually such a whole as may have existed at the moment
of creation. In a museum with several different departments this whole cannot
be reconstituted, because the object has been removed from its context. How-
ever, it is quite possible to reproduce the inherent conditions of the environ-
ment of a work of art, for example, when these remain abstract: scale, light,
direction, etc. Only the recognition of the harmony between the object and
the space, inasmuch as this is a discovery of identity, can constitute an aesthetic
experience. Moreover, a display which has been carefully planned down to the
last detail may very well conflict intolerably with the space. For this reason it
is essential to remember that space-object identity strengthens the visitor’s
capabilities from the point of view of the psychology of perception
(Figs. 63, 64).
Behaviour is determined by the fact that the movement-structures latent in
space are mentally grasped one after the other with the speed of lightning. Eye
movements are a pre-programming of the bodily movement which is to follow;
in other words, perception and reaction are connected. A museum, where
optical reactions are relied upon, is the very place in which perception and
behaviour are almost identical, and this means that the exhibits and the space
in which visitors move around must be planned together. The incitements to
movement embodied in the architecture must be made more effective, and
must be perceived by the visitor as a form of subliminal guidance and encour-
agement.

Psychic motives and reactions associated


w i t h movement
The need to move is- an elementary drive in the human being; the pleasure
which he takes in his own abilities generates a feeling of freedom. In space, a
subliminally perceived restriction causes a profound disturbance (cf. experi-
ments carried out on rats). Transposed into the context of museum structure,
this means that the structure should always clearly invite the accomplishment
of an appropriate ‘task‘ and offer a possible satisfaction, which should coincide
with the suggested circuit to be followed.
Perception and behaviour I93

goom lit from overhead with lighting


projected exclusively on to the walls.
Tests have established that in spite of
some technical advantages the over-all
impression on visitors is oppressive and
' off-putting.

. Taking possession should follow curiosity, conquest and assimilation, in


accordance with a psychological gradation consistent with a 'space strategy'.
An opportunity should be provided for the closest possible contact with the
object.
Biological rhythm requires fragmentation and alternation of both the quanti-
tative aspects of perception (pauses) and its qualitative aspects (reading of the
phases of the configuration). Since continual change may give rise to tedious
stereotypes, the psycho-physiological element is a determining factor.
The role of architecture is not only to provide a variety of forms of space &$IvERSIIY ART MUSEUM, Berkeley,
and light (large-small, light-dark, etc.) but also to impose a psychological California.
order on the series by the following means: (a) connexions and focal points; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ u , " h f
~ ~
Architects: Mario J. Ciampi, Richard
~ ~
L. Jorasch, Ronald E. Wagner..
I94 Psychology

(b) use of three-dimensional movement structures throughout the space (Figs.


, The following models are suggested: (a) perpetual motion, biologically
6 ~ 66).
against nature (working of a machine) (Fig. 67); (b) same pattern of movement,
but with biologically desirable breaks in rhythm (Fig. 68); (c) variation for a
small museum (Fig. 69).

Bdentification and pllace of movement


For the well-being of the visitor, it is very important that he should be able
to find his bearings, that he should be able, at any moment, to see where he is
in relation to a known point. Direction-finding is a primary instinct in man,
oome .,*mms WO.. Po** who gradually becomes master of his environment by means of a system of
: : : i : i: : : guidemarks. By its very nature, the museum tends towards the principle of
: : : : g ::o m
: .” : : : : 0 i i
. ‘ t : : ; ; : 0 m t
spreading out (breaking up of the distance to be covered according to direc-
”.:: : : : % O : tion, distance and time) rather than towards that of compression (shortening
bs ;*a*’ L*’ ‘L000. &am.” of the route by technical means such as lifts, escalators, etc.).
6)

f......:...
Ø“.OW.....
:
i i.......
! P:

The importance of psychological identification with the place is clear from


the limiting states which characterize a positive or negative impression:
Negative reaction: agoraphobia (empty, light), claustrophobia (small, dark),
irritation (unexpected, confused).
Positive reaction: euphoria (presence, energy), security (appropriate, har-
monious), surprise (release of impulses).
Space in the museum also oscillates between these extremes according to
whether it is, for example, too high or too low, tidy or untidy, closed or open.
The resulting impressions of pleasure or displeasure are automatically trans-
ferred to the object.
It is a fundamental requirement in museum architecture that the visitor
6J should be able to have an over-all view of the space in which he moves. Nothing
A standard type of museum circuit which
discourages and exhausts the visitor. can take its place, not even electronic guidance devices. Nevertheless, con-
siderable attention should be paid to proportions and to modulation, for the
66
Suggested circuit for a large area. visitor must perceive and decide step by step.
Biologically satisfying variety, broken The requirement that the space in which one moves should be ‘open’ is
rhythm. Organization based on focal
points. derived from a conception that is the opposite of the ‘surprise effect’ which is
sometimes sought after and which can be achieved only through a deliberate
67 lack of visibility. The contents of an exhibition may very well be like a ‘dance
Spiral or rotating circuit involving
biologically unnatural regularity of of the seven veils’. It is of the essence of architectural solutions to enable this
movement (working of a machine).
intellectual contradiction to be removed by spatial means; for instance, a
!!íB ‘diversion’ from the circuit may connect up with the ‘current’ of the over-all
A similar model with biologically desirable
breaks in rhythm and changes oÇ direction. space. It is a matter of the means at one’s disposal and the way in which these
are applied (Fig. 70(a), (b)).
69 We shall now make a brief analysis of a few spatial situations from a direction-
MUSEUM OF FINEARTS,Louisiana
(Denmark). finding point of view:
Plan for the circuit of the visit which
introduces a biologically desirable degree Symmetry is very effective as a factor of order; however, it requires a hier-
of irregularity. archical organization of the collection which is seldom justified (Fig. 71).
Perception and behaviour 19j

70
PREFECTURAL MUSEUM, Utsunomia (Japan).
As he crosses the internal courtyard
before entering the museum, the visitor
gains a charming general impression of the
museum. (a) Ground-plan; (b) view on
arrival at point A. Architect: Kawasaki,
Kyoto.
196 . Psychology

/L
PASADENA ARTMUSEUM, Pasadena.
Symmetrical ground-plan: I. Exhibition
room; 2. Temporary exhibition room;
3 . Books; 4. Meeting room; 5 . Members'
room; 6. Auditorium; 7. Stage; 8. Foyer.
Architects: Ladd Br Kelsey.

72
The fan shape. Too many alternatives may
confuse and discourage the visitor.

73
Rectangle. Although the circuit is freer,
the visitor retains an over-all impression.

<- 71
Circle and curve. The dynamic nature of
the background makes concentration
difficult and makes the visitor uncertain
of his own position.

73
+ 71

The fan shape, symbolizing freedom of choice, can be used only in so far as it
does not make too heavy demands oln the visitor, that is so long as he is not
irritated and discouraged by being offered too much (Fig. 72).
The rectangle is the most easily perceived, with its simple and unambiguous
lines (Fig. 73).
The circle and the curve have no fixed axes, and it is difficult to perceive them
steadily (Fig. 74).
Free forms may be considered unsuitable in a large organized space, but they
may be introduced into a limited space which provides an over-all view
(circuit which encourages strolling) (Fig. 71, 76).
An arrangement in cubicles as a series of inward-looking spaces, deliberately
aims to make the visitor linger in them. A sort of compulsory circuit is
necessary in order to avoid the 'labyrinth complex' (Fig. 77).
Continuity corresponds to what is happening in the museum: (a) Space which
extends horizontally creates many guide-marks which ease the process of
direction-finding; although a certain margin of freedom is perceptible,
judicious arrangement makes it possible to suggest the desired decision
regarding the circuit (Fig. 78). (b) A space which mav be traversed vertically
Perception and behaviour I07

7/ 76

has similar characteristics, which should also reveal the upward development
7/
in its entirety and turn this into an experience (galleries, vistas, etc.) (Fig. 79). Free forms. Complex, difficult to take in
The idea of ‘fluid‘ exhibition space has already been interpreted literally several at a glance.
times, resulting logically in exhibition rooms with curving shapes (no corners, 76
unbroken transition from ceiling to walls and to floor). Here, two psycholo- AQUARIUM, ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN, Basle.
The visitor is stimulated by the large
gical principles are in conflict: polygonal form of the presentation and
I. The visitor’s awáreness of place and sense of direction lose their simplicity soothed psychologically by the clearly
discernible circuit. Architects:
and clarity owing to the interpenetration of shapes. Lacking systematically Burckhardt & Partner.
arranged guidemarks, he is in a state of uncertainty.
2. The blurring of outlines reduces the number of intersections of surfaces,
which are a nuisance. The background is calmer and contemplation of the
object is freed from surrounding optical ‘interference’.
The highly formal treatment of space requires very careful placing of the
object reminiscent of baroque ideas. Thus the collection is the determining
factor: flexibility is almost impossible (Fig. 8 0 ) .

Museum circuit
The visitor’s feet may follow a wide variety of circuits which may be analysed
as psychological seismograms. We shall deal only with movement in a straight

Ii...............
f.

.............................. 4
1
s.
.............. ...... . -
..............
a El
i *‘S..
’............... ***.*.

’.e.. h ;*

.....-........................................
77 78 79
A nest of small cubicles. The obligatory Spaces extending horizontally. The Space traversed vertically.
circuit must be emphasized by formal desired circuit is suggested through the
means so as to compensate psychologically careful arrangement of partitions (opening/
for the maze of small rooms. closing the space) and the objects (visible/
concealed.)
198 Psychology

.. . . ... . ..
3 , . ..

80 line and with a winding track, which are the manifestations of different types
WORLDHOUSE GALLERIES, New York,
'Fluid' shapes necessitating an interpretative of behaviour in response to the environment. Because of haste and lack of
emotional response. Architects: Frederick time, a visitor may follow a straight track in which he gains little from a sen-
J. Kiesler & Bartos.
sory point of view; if he is unpreoccupied and makes real contact with the
exhibits, he will take a winding path, resembling the subtle movement of
animals. Conversely, the circuit traced out by the architecture suggests the
corresponding behaviour.
In the initial stages as in the final stage, the pattern of tracks also has various
SI psychological aspects, which we shall now attempt to describe, setting aside
(a) Circular itinerary ; (b) linear itinerary.
questions of organization:
I . The circular pattern leads back to the entrance, and raises the following
problems: the goal suggested is identical with the point of departure, it is
possible at any moment to estimate approximately the amount of effort
needed to complete the circuit, and a 'return crisis' may occur (Fig. SI(LZ)).
2. The linear pattern has the following advantages: entrance and exit do not
coincide, the amount of effort needed is unknown, and the goal may be
unconsciously considered as genuine 'progress' (Fig. SI@)).
It should also be emphasized that, for reasons of psychological economy, the
visitor should never pass the same way twice.

'Gestalt psychology' of architecture


All visual processes spark off forces in the human brain which tend towards
equilibrium. The experience of three-dimensional space arises from tensions
82 which are primarily the effect of the proportions of the space and which may
MAEGHT FOUNDATION, St Paul de Vence.
Systematic layout of exhibition rooms. be elicited in a twozdimensional structure.
For instance:
Rest Movement
Horizontally: Round shape Oval shape
Square Rectangle
Parallelism Convergence or divergence
Vertically: Same level Variation in level (floor of ceiling)

The psychological intensity of the space is thus defined and articulated in


terms of 'mood', for instance: narrow/broad, oppressive/generous, etc.
For example:
The exhibition rooms are arranged according to a pattern in which rectangular
rooms and rooms that are almost square alternate, with corridors leading
from one to the other; in the highest rooms, opaque walls and overhead
reflected lighting = concentration; in the intermediate low rooms, walls
Perception and behaviour I99

a
open to the courtyard = relaxation and an opportunity to take one’s bear-
ings (Fig. 82).
The position of the entrance to the room determines the spontaneity of the
experience (Fig. 83).
The height of the ceiling may have an oppressive or a liberating effect accord-
ing to its relation to the size of the room.
Non-parallel partitions, seen from point A, produce an optical impression of
depth and, seen from point Bythey have a foreshortening effect. The psycho-
logical quality of the space is not the same at point A as it is at point B.This
lack of uniformity makes it more difficult for those features which do not
vary to be appreciated (Fig. 84).
The variation in the level of the spiral staircase acts as an optical separation
U
84
between the entrance area and that of the cafeteria. The variations in height
create different spatial qualities (Fig. 8 ~ ) .
The relation between figure and background is of particular importance in a
museum, for the architectural form (as an element of space) is not only a 83
(a) The visitor is drawn into the centre of
delimited rational surface which is situated at the ‘top’ of the visual image; the room; (b) the visitor is drawn to the
it also actively affects and impinges on the background. A concave shape right into the centre of the room;
(c) the visitor is inhibited by the difficulty
elicits quite different reactions and associations from a convex shape. The of making a decision.
object must be in harmony with this psychological movement (Fig. 86(a), (b)).
84
Narrowing perspective from point A;
room appears longer. Broadening
perspective from point B; room appears
shorter.

8/
HENIEONSTAD MUSEUM, Oslo.
Variation of level in the entrance hall.
Architects: Jan Eikvar and Sven Erik
Engebretsen.
86
(a) Relation between figure and background.
The aim should be to achieve harmony.
(b) Difference between a background
integrated into the architectural structure of
the building and a background added by
means of decorative techniques at the
Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg.
Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

Space and object


Every object needs space if its qualities are to be brought out. Every visible
form projects itself beyond its limits and to a certain extent invests the ‘empty’
surrounding area with its presence. Only a few of the countless systems of
spatial relationship that it is theoretically possible to construct around each
figure are spontaneously perceived; namely those which give rise to the
simplest conditions for the figure and the observer. Since the spatia1 character-
istics of the environment determine the shape and the position of the visible
object, space must be organized in a way which is in harmony with them.’
From the point of view of the psychology of perception, the object and the
surrounding space must therefore form a whole, the exact definition of which,
however, is constantly changing. Just as man should determine his relations
with what surrounds him, an outstanding object should be regirded as a
200 Psychology

‘living being’ whose environmental conditions should be the best possible in


each case.
In a museum the object exhibited indisputably has pride of place and not the
architecture; but the latter must be regarded as a decisive factor in the environ-
ment, and not merely as a visual ‘accompaniment’. It may be said, however,
that in many cases it is possible to reach a consensus as to whether a display is
good or bad-in other words, psychological dynamics has its own laws which,
unfortunately, have been insufficiently studied hitherto. The relations between
several objects and between objects and space form a constellation of sizes and
shapes, proportions and distances, etc., which is, in principle, subject to the
same criteria of gestalt psychology as a work of art. However, the ‘environ-
mental conditions’, the relative masses and the structures induced are so com-
87
Dynamic equilibrium: into the space the plex that, in general, the goal can only be attained by way of an empirical
human mind projects zones of induction approach (Fig. 87).
and certain requirements concerning
proportions which must be taken into On account of the close interpenetration of the object and the surrounding
account when placing the objects. Here, space, the architecture must obviously be considerably influenced by the
zones of induction and lines of force of a
rectangular space. fundamental spirit and conception of the display if the desired psychological
goal is to be attained. The complexity of the components makes it very difficult
to attain this ideal, which depends partly on whether the structure of the build-
ing is open or closed. In a static museum whose contents are fixed, the con-
structed form may tally directly with the object, but in a museum of a flexible
character this goal can be attained only by means of internal arrangements. In
view of the fact that the visitor perceives their difference at a more or less
subliminal level, the ‘weight’ of the efforts to co-ordinate, and consequently
the result, is not the same.
A display model based on psychological viewpoints shows how the con-
ception of the exhibition may influence the architecture (any other model of
an intellectual or organic kind would have similar effects on construction).
This model is based on the idea that, for the visitor, the museum is an exper-
ience which requires a certain amount of time, somewhat like the theatre, the
concert and so on, and which should consequently obey similar rules. This
results in situations which relate specifically to the art of drama, such as the
prologue, the exposition, the climax, the dézoziement, etc., and which succeed
each other in space. Architecture cannot neglect this; it must and can sustain
the visual ‘drama’ by means of spatial information, accentuate certain passages
and divide the whole into parts. Kevin Lynch‘s ideas on town planning, which
he has set forth in his book The I#zage of the Cio,can be transposed to the
smaller scale of the museum. The power of suggestion obtained by dividing
space into sections serves at the same time to guide the visitor without his
noticing it.
It would, however, be over-simplifying the case to identify the museum
and the stage. The unreality of the performing arts and the reality of the object
and of the environment constructed for it are fundamentally different media
(Fig. 88).

88
‘Staging’ an exhibition in a time and
space sequence. Architecture serves as
scenery and off-stage area.

End
Perception and behaviour 20 I

89
Museum project.
Interior. The architecture is very
simple and deliberately no more than
sketched in. Architect: Mies van der RLohe.
(Museum.fou a Small Ciel, 1942).

Space and time


The time factor is latent in all considerations about space, and is‘inseparable
from the concept of the circuit. As a physiological measurement, it has a
particular significance at the level of aesthetic information. Since information
and behaviour are directly linked in a museum, knowledge about aesthetic
information, confirmed by scientific tests and generally accepted, may serve
as a starting-point for considerations .about space and time. The recording
capacity of human perception is constant, which means that within the com-
pact mass of the present no more than a certain number of items of information
may be integrally recorded. The flow of information that human consciousness
is capable of absorbing is around sixteen bits per second. Of these sixteen bits
which enter the conscious mind every second, only one-thirtieth reaches the
preconscious memory. There cannot be more than 160 bits of information at
the same time in the conscious mind (capacity).
The fact that the capacity of perception is constant has the following con-
sequences for the museum:
I. Time and space requirements depend primarily on the object exhibited.
2. The architectural space may either facilitate this inrush of information or
make it difficult by being non-committal.
3. Since the total number of perceptions per unit of time is constant, they must
be employed with discernment and economically, so as to serve the object
(less is more).
4. The proper relation between the surface area of the rooms, the size of the
walls, etc., on the one hand, and the time to be spent, on the other, cannot
be laid down for all cases. A circuit rapidly and extensively covered may
provide the same information as a circuit slowly and intensively covered.
From the physiological point of view, a large exhibition in which there is a
low degree of density of information may be less tiring than a small exhibi-
tion in which the visitor is mostly on his feet.
j . The quality of the information is enhanced by harmony between the object
and the surrounding space, when the visitor is prepared to receive the
‘messages’, and receives them without agitation (Fig. 89).
It emerges from several surveys that, even in large museums, more than
j o per cent of visitors ‘want to have seen everything’. In reality, this is impos-
sible, and it is in contradiction with the philosophy of the museum, since it is
not possible to increase the amount of information acquired in a given period
of time by quantitatively stepping it up.
202 Psychology

One way is to offer the visitor several circuits which are differently arranged
and ‘staged‘ from the point of view of gestalt psychology, but which, as units
each forming a whole, leave him with the impression of having seen what is
essential. The architecture must be such that these circuits are arranged so that
there are no watertight partitions between them, but, in each case, they con-
stitute a clear spatial whole possessing its own particular qualities.

Light
Over and above the physiological aspect, we shall consider light from the
psychological point of view. Object and architecture ‘live’ on light, which
Picasso described as ‘a measuring instrument in a world of forms’. In a museum,
light must perform a double function, since it must serve for the interpretation
of both the object and the surrounding space. If either one of these tasks is not
fulfilled, unity from the point of view of geJtalt psychology is lost. The danger
lies in partially solving one of the two problems, as well as possible, but without
taking the whole into account.
Light is capable of sending out a large number of ‘messages’ whose effect
may be to guide, inform, separate or bring together, hide or reveal, enlarge or
reduce, produce gladness or sorrow. Whilst it is fairly easy to determine how
the object should be lighted ideally so as to be psychologically satisfying, this
problem raises the greatest difficulties with regard to architecture. The con-
stancy law applies here too, that is to say the human capacity to see things (in
the light) as they are known to be and not as they appear in reality; thus, a
sharp variation in the intensity of light produces either a sudden change of
direction or an abrupt deepening.
If the light is unskilfully deployed, the interpretation of space may be
distorted since, according to the constancy rule, an impression of depth is
associated with each degree of luminosity.
The (psychological) evaluation of the luminosity of a space results from
adaptation and contrast. The light should be evenly distributed, so that the
museum space can be perceived as a whole. Diffused lighting reduces atten-
tion, whereas locally directed lighting increases the force of attraction. One
must of course be careful not to overdo it, for the repetition of a striking
theatrical effect is tiring. Indeed, the museum is the very place where accents
must be discreetly placed. The manipulation of light should not distort the
truth of the original. Similarly, colours should not be altered by the use of
tinted glass, reflective surfaces, etc.

DAYLIGHT

A window is not merely a source of light; it is also a psychological link with


the external world, which functions in two ways: (a) as a physical and mental
respite not calling for any effort of adaptation to the environment; (b) as the
‘placing’ of human internal space within the great cosmic order of horizontals
and verticals. An ordinary, fairly small window always poses a problem in a
museum (unless it is there for some historical reason), since it affords only a
small visual angle and has a pronounced dazzling effect; it does not act as an
opening, but as a rival ‘figure’ on a dark background. The background light-
ing should be provided by an indirect source of light, and highlights can be
produced by direct lighting.
Building techniques have been so much improved that the question today
is not whether one should choose overhead lighting or side lighting, but what
proportion of overhead light should be used. For decades, specialists have
been debating the advantages and disadvantages, and are familiar with them.
As a result of the evolution of modern architecture, the window has lost its
ideological character and has become a glass aperture, just as the wall and the
Perception and behaviour 203

roof (overhead lighting z 'a hole in the head') are no longer regarded as con-
stituting guarantees of shelter. Associations have changed, the problem
centres today on the harmonization of object, space and light from the view-
point of gestalt psychology. Thanks to technological progress, the resources
at our disposal today are so plentiful that a satisfactory solution can be found
for each case. Of course, the lessons derived from experience unconsciously
acquired over the years in this and in other areas of existence with regard to
perception and judgement play a part-and often a decisive one.
The yellow and red part of the spectrum (including summer light) is also of
great psychological significance, for it is keyed to life, and should consequently
be used as extensively as possible in the museum. Formerly, most paintings,
. for instance, were intended for rooms in houses, and were not meant to be
seen in the northern light, which is.appreciated only for its relative consistency
(nor did Rembrandt have a studio facing north).
The quality of daylight should also be regulated in accordance with psycho-
logical considerations; one should use warm colours of the spectrum wherever
one wishes to produce an emotion and cold colours (northern light, for
instance) wherever objective and critical scrutiny is the principal aim. As a
rule, one should always seek to add warm components so as to avoid mono-
tony.
The question of conservation as well as the problem of the choice between
natural and artificial lighting for a museum will be dealt with further on from
a general point of view.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

As artificial light does not correspond to the natural cycle, its ,use has an
entirely different psychological basis. Many studies have shown that percep- *
tion and behaviour are different with artificial light. The biological constant
starts off the mechanisms of nocturnal behaviour. As far as the relationship
with space is concerned, one is not biologically attuned to the cosmos if one is
in a completely closed-off room, and the system of co-ordinates does not
operate.
In general, the intensity of the light is incomparably weaker than that of
daylight. In order approximately to reproduce some of the qualities of natural
light, artificial lighting is organized in two ways: (a) dihsed general lighting,
which is usually dull and monotonous on account of its low intensity; (b) direct
illumination of focal points (objects), which produces an (excessive) theatrical
effects as a result of the low intensity of the light and its lack of effect on the
dark background.
Monotony, like violent contrasts, distorts reality and makes a visit to a
museum something between a dream and a trauma.

Colours
Colours actually play an important psychological role; they are, however, of
secondary importance at the planning stage. The complexity of all the issues
connected with them is such that we cannot examine them here.
90 hand (to left of chart) that the zone of fact that the human subject does not take
Hygrometric chart, correlating tones of comfort extends into regions that are happily to sedentary work at temperatures
comfort and security recommended much too dry for many kinds of inanimate below 20" C, it would be necessary, in this
for different types of museum material. In object, being below 40 per cent RH. case, to provide sedentary staff with suitable
this chart defining conditions of the The answer to this is to condition the local heating.
atmosphere, an attempt is made to correlate museum for the collections rather than for
areas acceptable as zones of comfort with the staff. On the other hand, archives, etc.,
those agreed to be satisfactory for museum can be safely stored under conditions far
purposes. While there is much common outside the zone of comfort (see bottom
ground it should be noticed on the one section of chart). As it is an established
Conservation

Physiochemistry of the objects

The museum as a meeting-place may be considered from either the objective


or the subjective point of view, according as to whether the emphasis is placed
on the social sciences or on the exact sciences of physics and chemistry. T o
deal with the problem, a combination of elements from both these fields of
knowledge should be employed.
The objects in museums may be divided into three groups: (a) real things
created by man or by nature and possessing original value; (b) reproductions,
models or copies which, in certain conditions, may have the same value as the
originals; (c) audio-visual and other aids to interpretation, which are becoming
increasingly important.
The conservation expert’s task is to preserve, with the help of physical
chemistry, objects whose unique character and fragility call for a great variety
of treatments. The greatest care must be taken with originals; the following
remarks in this connexion should make it possible to pinpoint the problems.
The archaeological museum, which calls for strict conservation measures,
serves as a fitting model in this context.
At the present time, faced as we are with a glut of information, original
objects are the only sources of information which are constant and authentic
and which cannot be tampered with. It is for just this reason that they never
cease to afford new possibilities of interpretation. The original is the basis of
the museum, its very raison d’être and the standard by which it is judged.
The science and technology which are involved here in a great variety of
ways make strict demands which can be clearly stated. It is not possible to deal
with all the details in the context of this article. From the point of view of the
architecture, however, one can, proceeding by simplification, reduce the fight
against the ageing process, which in itself is ineluctable, to a common denom-
inator: all conservation work is aimed at protecting the object against the
depredations and the changing conditions of nature and placing it in a wholly
or partly artificial, constant environment.
In the same line of thought, the concept of conservation also extends to
protection against damage and theft, since this has similar architectural
implications.
It is here that we come into seemingly insurmontable conflict with that
trend in the social sciences which calls for the removal of all barriers and
maximum contact with the exhibit, free access from outside and integration
into the environment, free access to all objects inside the museum, open
display (including the problem of maximum capacity) and hence a normal
environment for the object and the visitor, and physical displacement of
, 206 Conservation

objects so as to extend their ‘sphere of influence’, for example lending out for
study purposes, etc. (Fig. 90).
All of this is in complete contradiction with the requirements of conserva-
tion which are based on the idea of there being a closed and constant environ-
ment. The most advanced trends in sociology, in which openness is a key idea,
and the demand of physical chemistry for a closed environment are diametri-
cally opposed. It is therefore not surprising that the fundamental task of con-
servation should be called into question and that the idea of a ‘conservation-
oriented’ museum clashes with that of a ‘consumer-oriented’ museum. In this
controversy, the stakes are high on both sides, but, in one case, the loss is
irreparable. It is usually the exact sciences that win out, as they can offer a
verifiable demonstration of their case, but this demonstration should not take
the form of set formulae and simplifications, but of an intensive study of each
particular case, In the field of social psychology, it is not possible to give such
clear proof of ‘destructions’.
Museum architecture must unquestionably meet both requirements as best
it can, but placing the emphasis on one or the other, depending on the case.
The social and psychological aspects should be considered in relation to con-
servation and vice versa, this dialectical relationship determining the archi-
tecture of the museum. Moreover, building entails an irrevocable decision. It
is thus in the organization of space that the possibility of giving a new dimen-
sion to these irreconcilable principles, and providing, where appropriate, a
three-dimensional solution, is to be sought.
Starting off with total conservation and going on to intermediate adjustable
solutions, we shall present architectural models aimed at showing the different
degrees of priority given to human or material considerations.

In order to get as near as possible to an ideal state of conservation, the objects


are kept in optimum technological conditions:
Hermetic sealing-off from the outside world, with no inlets for heat, cold, etc.
Temperature and humidity automatically maintained at a constant level by
mechanical devices.
Minimum access so as to avoid disturbances caused by the heat or humidity
given off by the human body. Extended visits being scarcely possible, even
for study purposes, special rooms with transition zones (air-locks) must be
installed for the objects.
Exclusion of most natural and artificial light.
Artificial ventilation with filtered air, etc.
When conservation is the chief concern, the architecture of the museum
becomes an essentially scientific problem and the architect an assistant to the
specialized engineer in its solution. Although a project of this nature does not
call for any differentiation in the use of space, as it is all intended for the same
purpose, the architectural implications, especially in relation to the environ-
ment, may be considerable. The various possibilities are usually as follows:
91
Town skyline. A museum (or museum The storage building conceived as a closed and more of less independent unit
store-room) which is closed on all sides is, on the one hand, very important from the point of view of town-planning,
for conservation reasons, does not fit
easily into the urban landscape. but, on the other, it is difficult to translate into formal terms and to express
its function (comparison with the silo) (Fig. 91).
Storage space surrounded by other premises, a solution satisfactory only for
small museums; when there are large stocks, functional deficiencies appear
in the surrounding sectors;
Underground storage rooms, installed beneath the museum or outside it,
cause, from the point of view of town planning, little disturbance to environ-
Physiochemistrv of the obiects 207

ments which may have some general value worth preserving. An inter-
mediate solution consists in placing the storage premises in an accessible
’building with a roof-garden, a children’s playground, etc., which fits into
the landscape (Fig. YZ(LZ), (b)).
If the reserves are placed in a separate building, they can be moved further
away at will (to the suburbs, for instance) since, in any case, transportation
is necessary. Objects should be transported to the museum in air-condi-
tioned, shock-proof containers.
Since objects may require very different conditions for conservation, one thing
that needs to be done is to create separate climatic zones which continue right
into the display sections; this means that if the principles of conservation are 9” (a)
Underground store-room with car parks,
to be systematically respected, climatology will be a dominant factor in the children’s play areas, etc., above. Simplified
organization of the museum, which also has repercussions on the architecture. cross-section:.
It must be granted that neither the idea of establishing an order of priority
within the collection from the point of view of conservation nor the resulting
architecture can be satisfactory and that, in most cases, such solutions have to
be rejected on the grounds that they make the museum a mere ‘machine for

conservation’. The ‘machinery’ of the museum is far too complex to be geared 92 ( 6 )


MUSEUM OF MODERN ART,Brussels.
only to this one function. It works properly only when all the ‘cogs’ are Underground museum in an historic
meshing. Optimum conditions-especially in towns-can be obtained only quarter. Simplified cross-section.
I . Entrance; 2. Reception; 3. Temporary
by employing heavy technical plant at considerable expense. Such technical exhibitions; 4. Patio; >.Collections;
means are, however, burdensome, and for this reason it is to be recommended 6. Museum square; 7. Museum road;
8. New sections; 9. Car park. Architects:
that, as far as possible, only natural means should be employed. Roger Bastin and Leo Beeck; arch. ass.
In the developing countries, research is being carried out into the protection Pierre Lamby and Guy Van Oost.
of museum collections by means of ‘architectural climatology’, that is to say
208 Conservation

3 by applying the simple physical laws of construction so as to cut down the


2
1
need to rely on technology. The simple method practised by Chinese museums,
which consists in showing collections only when the seasonal macroclimate
9
4
--- corresponds to the constant climate required by the exhibits, is not applicable
4
I
6b I-
A
everywhere. Figure 93 shows a museum in which the design emphasizes the

I-/ conservation function.


As has already been suggested, modern museum design for various reasons
calls for transition zones (air-locks), the functions of which are:
93 I. The physical acclimatization of objects when being moved from one cli-
Plan for the ideal museum with
environmental control: buffered core for matic level to another. These spaces are situated mainly in the storage,
optimal environmental control. I. Core administration and workshop sections and, from the architectural point of
(maximum control); 2. Insulating corridor;
3 , Work areas, public areas; 4. Acclima- view, may be simply functional in design.
tization; 5 . Air-lock for main visitor 2. The physiological acclimatization of the visitor to the varying climatic levels
traffic flow; 6. Minimal control: (a) Main
foyer; (b) Shipping and receiving; 7. People; and to the relatively pronounced variations in lighting. The architectural
8. Exhaust effect; 9. Works of art. solution calls for special study and know-how, since the transition must
Simplified ground-plan by Duncan
Cameron (MzisezimNews, May 1968). take place gradually by way of spaces which do not interrupt the tour of the
exhibition but give a certain pattern to it.
A distinction can thus be made between spaces serving to effect a transition
between different degrees of lighting and between different climatic levels;
these two kinds of intermediate space should not be the same. From the
technical point of view, it is difficult to achieve marked differences of climate
within the display section since the phenomenon of condensation, in particular,
has to be reckoned with.

Sections where the main concern is with display


The ‘capital’ constituted by the contents of the museum is of value to mankind
only if it is ‘in circulation’, if it is ‘productive’. To achieve such productivity,
architecture, must overcome the antithesis between conservation and display.
The more extreme the two standpoints are, the more difficult is it to find the
solution, but the more interesting and pleasing will be the result.
Owing to the complexity of the problem, to which we have already drawn
attention, it is necessary, in order to arrive at the right solution, to begin by
studying the objects or groups of objects and determining their optimum
physical parameters. The physical and chemical relationship of three sets of
factors needs to be harmonized: the macro-climate, the micro-climate of the
exhibits, the human micro-climate.
Several combinations are possible depending on the degree of compatibility:
I . The macro-climate cannot be regulated to the artificial conditions created for
human beings and objects, which means that the outer shell of the building
must protect the whole of the interior against heat and cold, damp, dust, etc.
2. The micro-climates required for human beings and objects are not com-
patible and the physical conditions in which the collection is shown affect
the physiological well-being of the visitor or, conversely, the conditions
created for his comfort affect the exhibits. This being the case, a climatic
separation must be created between viewer and object which, for reasons of
presentation, generally consists of a glass screen (Fig. 94(a), (b)).
3. When there does not need to be any difference between the macro-climate
and the internal climatic conditions, one can do without the external climatic
‘shell’ and protect only the exhibits.
4. When there are only slight differences between the macro-climate and the
display area, only the space in which the visitor moves within the museum
may have to be provided with air-conditioning for reasons of comfort.
94 T. When the three climates are almost identical (with material providing a fair
Contact between visitor and exhibit:
(a) direct contact; (b) the ‘glass curtain’ degree of insulation-stone, for instance-in temperate zones), it is pos-
effect. sible to envisage a free layout which avoids many constraints and makes
Physiochemistry of the objects 7-09

9J
HAKONE OPENAIR MUSEUM, Hakone.
Open-air exhibition. Approximate
harmony of conservation and presentation
from the point of view of physical and
direct contact possible, although certain restrictions may need to be imposed physiological requirements.
for security reasons (Fig. 91).
Each of these possible combinations calls for fundamentally different archi-
tectural solutions, the separation of the different types of environment being
a problem of architectural technique. Basically, there are two possible ways of
organizing space:
I . Separate rooms or groups of rooms with independent and diversified air-
conditioning. The collection is exhibited in different sections with technical
installations specially designed for the contents of each. The architecture
must take this arrangement into account at the design stage. One problem
that arises is the need to use the same sections of the building for more or
less the same purpose and to keep the composition of the collections in them
more or less constant.
2 . The system of a space within a space, with air-conditioning for the object

(mini-climate).
In this connexion, a very free approach should be adopted to the use of show-
cases. There are two basic ways in which they can be used.
First, a set of showcases, freely positioned in space, with or without special 96
air-conditioning, may be used. The showcases should be arranged in such a The 'room within a room' system for
separate acclimatization of exhibits.
way as not to be directly exposed to the sun. Similarly, when artificial lighting Macro-, micro-, and mini-climates,
is used, steps must be taken to prevent heat being given off inside (special separate air-conditioning ducts.
Simplified cross-section.
filters for showcases) (Fig. 96).
Secondly, continuous mural showcases, large sections of the exhibition area I
insulated by means of glass panels going right up to the ceiling and provided \ I /
with separate air-conditioning, may be used. The showcases are usually built - 0- Macro-climate ,
,
,,;;,;;,;,::,::.~.~...
against the walls but may also be positioned in such a way as to be approach-
able on all sides. Since they have a greater volume, the air circulates better
'I' ,',,'.I
,,,,.#.

I...,. '..'

inside them and it is easier to control the micro-climate (ceiling ducts, etc.)
(Fig. 97). I Micro-climate

At a very early stage, a choice must be made between air-conditioned rooms


and air-conditioned showcases, and between the set of showcases and the
showcase-room. It should be clearly decided beforehand where the showcases II & I Mini-climate
showcase
I n
o 1 tj

are to be positioned in the rooms and whether they will be connected to the 4 V I 4. I 4 Vlt
floor or to the ceiling.
210 Conservation

97
FEDERSEEMUSEUM, Bad Buchau.
Site museum. The mural showcase extending
up to the ceiling imitates the form of the
window. (a) Interior view. The architectural
space extends right to the back wall of
the showcase. The panes, jutting in and
out alternately, allow the objects to be
seen from different angles. A combination
of natural and artificial light provides the
right intensity of illumination to prevent
reflection. (b) Exterior view. Because
of the very large windows one can
observe the direct relationship between
object and setting in which it was found:
visual transition mini-micro-macro-
climate. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.
Physiochemistry of the objects

The creation of the greatest possible contact between the visitor and the
object depends on the architectural solution adopted and on the technical
characteristics of the dividing elements (transparent or opaque) (Figs. 9 8, 99).

Dual - purpose sections


98
The desire to balance conservation against display, considered to be both of Large display cases forming movable
equal importance, may produce a variety of answers to the organizational and dividing elements. Simplified cross-section.
Air-conditioning of display cases (mini-
constructional problems involved. climate) and of exhibition room (micro-
climate) by means of ceiling ducts.
Flexibility is possible.
PHASING

The objects are normally kept in store-rooms in which optimum conditions


are provided and are shown in succession on a rotation basis for a relatively
short time. Conditions of transportation are assumed to be optimum. It is not
certain that this principle can be systematically applied, for the following
reasons:
I. Climatic conditions in the exhibition area must be the same as in the store-
rooms, and its architecture, which should be adaptable, is thus .fixed once
and for all.
2. Even a very short time spent under different conditions may cause irrepar-
able damage.
3. In spite of every precaution, it is well-nigh impossible to avoid certain types
of damage (in loading and unloading, from the jolts to which they are sub- 99
A circular showcase which can be viewed
ject on the way, abrupt changes in temperature, etc.). from all sides makes possible close
4. The museum can only with great difficulty open itself out, in the socio- contact between visitor and exhibit.,
Simplified ground-plan.
logical and psychological sense: chances of conservation are no better for
fragile objects (the only ones considered here), but the museum cannot
properly fulfil its social function (Fig. 100).

ZONING

Since phasing in this way does not in itself provide a satisfactory solution, the
spatial factor should be exploited to help to limit the dangers to objects and
to achieve a compromise between conservation and display. This results in
intermediate solutions in which now one aspect and now the other is stressed.
-
These considerations lead to certain principles, one of which is the so-called Store
~

Museum
‘filtering’ principle, which opens up to the visitor sections in which conserva-
tion requirements are different. In the course of time, the collection may 100
Objects kept in store in optimum
‘filter’ from one zone to another without any serious risks by passing through conditions are exhibited in rotation.
acclimatization rooms. It is thereby possible to obtain, if need be, several
routes through the collection, the predominant feature varying between con-
servation and display.
In the sections which make less demands on display techniques, it is possible
to accord more attention to the requirements of conservation. This could
result, for instance, in three zones, with: (a) systematic storage of objects close
together in darkened, entirely air-conditioned rooms; (b) less closely arranged
storage in sets of shelves or in showcase-rooms with adjustable micro-climates,
without too much attention to display; (c) widely-spaced display, designed for
the public in accordance with aesthetic and sociological considerations.
The size, the height, the lighting and the arrangement of the premises may
be adapted each time to the required conditions. Nevertheless, great adaptabil-
ity must be ensured within the sections so as to allow for changes of objects.
It is possible, however, on the basis of the same principle to achieve not
only ‘filtering’ but also ‘static zoning’, which means that the collection is
arranged more or less permanently in accordance with the considerations
mentioned above. The advantage of this arrangement is that it makes it
212 Conservation

I ! !
i I ! !
Many HObjects

Few Persons
IOI
Diagram showing a balanced relationship
between numbers of visitors and exhibits
by means of spatial zoning of exhibition
and conservation areas. This principle can Presentation Presentation Conservation
be applied statically or on a phased basis. I II

possible to draw out the various qualities of the space and to harmonize them
in the best way possible with the objects.
These conservation-based models may be compared with public-oriented
models which are concerned with the size and the quality of a given space.
However, there is a conflict with conservation here in that it is just those
objects which most deserve to be on show that have to be exhibited in the
places least favourable to their conservation, although this objection carries a
little less weight now there has been a change of attitude towards masterpieces
considered as ‘star attractions’., The more art is seen in relation to its context,
the broader and more even the basis of the interest in works of art-including
those considered as ‘secondary’. The advantage of dividing the collection into
zones lies rather in the field of organization and social service than in that of
conservation. Most museums, if only for reasons of space, practise some such ,
form of zoning.
When the museum is being built, it is essential to analyse all the possibilities
and their implications in depth (Fig. TOT).

Lighting
We shall examine below a few special matters which relate to the principles of
conservation but which have a profound influence on architectural design.
Strictly speaking, all light is harmful to the object and contributes to its ageing.
The exceptions to this rule are only differences of degree, for example oil
paintings, which do not need to be kept in total darkness. It is necessary to
distinguish between: (a) damage resuIting from direct exposure to the action
of rays and which may vary according to intensity, duration, wavelength
(ultra-violet rays, for instance) and climatological conditions; (b) damage
produced by the effects of lighting on the climate (for instance, raising the
temperature of the rooms).
Scientific measurements show the following values are to be acceptable and
they are accordingly recommended: for organic materials, textiles, graphic
works, maximum of 5 o lux; for oil paintings, maximum of I 5 o lux; for other
objects, a higher or lower number of lux, according to the fragility, the thick-
ness of the surface, the chemical composition, etc.
The reflectance of the objects and the colour temperature must be taken
into account. Ordinary daylight may exceed IOO,OOO Iux, which means that it
nearly always has to be reduced in a museum. The type of lighting and the way
in which it is installed are determined by the limit of tolerance of the object.
This should be scientificallv calculated in each case. thus makine it Dossible to
“ I
9. See also: Robert R. Feller, ‘Control of the
Deteriorating Effects of Light upon Museum Objects’, arrange exhibits in groups according to their t~lerance.~
MllseKm, Vol. XVII, No. z, 1964; and ICOM,
‘La Lumikre et la Protection des obiets et SoCcimens Generally speaking, it may be said that the ‘deflation’ in the degree of con-
ExposCs dans les Musées et Galleries d’Art’: servation contrasts with the mounting ‘inflation’ in the number of lux which
Eclairage dcr CEiurex d’Art, Paris, Association
Française de I’Eclairage, 1971. is to be observed today.
Physiochemistry of the objects

Requirements thus differ not only within one and the same museum, but
also between various types of museums. Thus, the original objects in an
archaeological museum require quite different measures from those called for
by the reproductions and models in a museum of technology. The architectural
typology of the museum is strictly determined by the constructional measures
which have to be taken for the conservation of the collection.
Daylight varies greatly in intensity, direction, wavelength, etc., and is hence
difficult to regulate depending as it does on the climate. The problem of day-
light is inseparable from that of space and for this reason it is responsible for
countless architectural successes and countless failures. Both static and mechan-
ical means can be used to protect objects against the harmful effects and
fluctuations of this light.
Initial planning plays a decisive role. It goes without saying that an enclosed
building with fixed and well-insulated walls, small apertures and a low level
of lighting does away with many problems. But other, equally difficult prob-
lems arise. Harmony between the space and the source of light is of prime
importance. For instance, a very high room with a relatively small overhead
opening may be well lit by the light reflected on to the walls; in addition, the
height of the room facilitates the natural circulation of the air (Fig. 101).
An opening facing the side away from the sun may have advantages. In the
case of a saw-tooth roof or a similar structure, care must be taken that the
architecture does not 'killy the exhibit. It may be necessary to have a ceiling
I02
through which the light is diffused, and this will have to be set fairly far away High room with relatively small skylight.
on account of the undulating contours of the shadow. Then, the intensity of Good lighting due to: (a) the relatively
the light will have to be checked to make sure it is adequate. In the case of a high proportion of room area covered by
the central light; (b) side light reflected
lateral wall built on the saw-tooth principle, its deliberately discontinuous from walls from a considerable height.
character and the risk of dazzling and exposure to oblique light reduce the
103
flexibility of the display. For reasons explained elsewhere, it is doubtful Lateral wall built on the saw-tooth
whether unilateral exposure, when a predominant feature, is a good thing principle. Risk of dazzling and exposure to
oblique light. Monotony, limited
(Fig. 103). flexibility of display.

IO2

There are various fixed appliances for the purpose of diffusing light and
providing shadow. Absorbent panes of glass or film, the density of which can
be chosen, go only some way towards reducing harmful radiation. In the case
of objects which are sensitive from the aesthetic point of view (paintings),
one must take into account the fact that they alter the colour of daylight.
Absorbent panes which at the same time diffuse the light greatly are not
suitable for objects whose effect lies in their form.
Slatted or latticed sun-screens are effective only if they are placed outside
the weather barrier (the pane of glass). Their shape depends firstly on the
sun's orbit-in other words, on the latitude-and, secondly, on the direction
214 Conservation '

ro4
Claustra. The claustra casts a shadow on
the exhibits and often (as is the case here
this is not on the right scale, making the
objects difficult to see.

in which they are facing. If sun-screens are non-adjustable, it is difficult to


eliminate the disturbing effects of light and shadow caused by the sun's chang-
ing position, which can ruin a carefully planned display. The absence of main-
tenance costs is an advantage (Fig. IO$).
Adjustable regulating appliances are best suited to the variability of natural
light, and afford the great advantage that the apertures can be kept open when
luminosity is slight, and all the available light can be let in. They can be
regulated according to the angle of incidence of the light, and they perform
four functions: (a) they afford protection against the sun; (b) they regulate the
intensity of the light; (c) they diffuse the light; (d) they may be used to reflect
artificial light (inside). When fixed proportions are laid down, a single fitting
cannot perform all these functions. The diffuser is not effective unless it is kept
clean, which can only be done if it inside the building-but this is incom-
patible with its being used as a sun-screen to regulate the intensity of the light.
A dimming device is necessary, principally so that the effect of the light can
be reduced as far as possible outside visiting hours. If there are only a few
objects which need to be protected, it is possible to install a directed dimming
device (for showcases, for instance). Automatic control is preferable, to ensure
smooth running. It is often difficult to find room to install it, so it is as well to
think about it fairly early on. Unfortunately, the visual disturbance resulting
from the equipment available on the market affects the architecture consider-
ably and also the intimate relationship between the object and the visitor,
which is most important. The way in which such fittings are designed is of
major importance for the museum using natural lighting. An unobtrusive and
accurate regulating mechanism is still to be invented.
'
Light coming from the side facing away from the sun (northern light or,
for the southern hemisphere, southern light) has the advantage of being
relatively constant with regard to both its physical quality and its physiological
eEect. A certain monotony is inevitable when it is used exclusively, especially
when the light is not very intense. This reduces the validity of one of the main
arguments in favour of daylight, namely that it is subject to variations, which
are the essence of life. One can perhaps go so far as to say that a choice must
be made between a complicated device to provide protection against the sun
and an excessively bleak monotony. Differences in the quality of the light open
up possibilities in the interpretation of the objects. In practice, when light from
the north has been chosen for reasons of preservation, it has proved profitable
to enhance it by means of a certain amount of southern light, possibly in the
Physiochemistry of the objects 2IJ

form of reflected light. Lighting from one side throughout an entire building
has a leaden effect on the basic architectural design, and makes it necessary to
arrange the various rooms on the same lines. It is possible to introduce a
greater or lesser degree of variation between rooms, but the fact that the light
always falls on one of the sides and that the other side is invariably chosen as
the hanging surface is psychologically inhibiting and produces stereotyped 2h
patterns of presentation.
Reflected light has a greater effect and significance than is generally recog- rol
Roughly speaking, daylight can be
nized, owing to the fact that daylight, which in any case is diffuse, rebounds off considered adequate when the ratio of the
all the surfaces in the room. The reflectivity, the colour and the structure of height of a neighbouring building to its
distance from the window is at least I : 2.
the surfaces give the whole room its tonality. In general-particularly in hot Simplified cross-section.
countries-the lighting and heating effect will be still found to be pronounced.
One of the advantages of indirect light lies in the fact that the harmful ultra-
violet rays are absorbed in the course of the phenomenon of reflection; its
disadvantage is that it alters the colours in a way which is not desirable in a
museum. In the architectural conception of the problem of lighting, indirect
light should be usèd for background lighting and direct light to add emphases.
Reflections from surrounding buildings and trees can be very important,
and may become a decisive criterion in the choice of a site. For instance, many -0-
of the opportunities of using daylight are lost if there is a skyscraper towering
up in front of the sun (Figs. IOJ, 106).

Humidity and temperature


106
Temperature and humidity are closely bound up with the problem of light. The tendency of a reflecting wall to
The reader will get some idea of what this means from the fact that, in a affect colour and raise temperature
(particularly in warm climates).
building in which 50 per cent of the surface area of the outer walls consists of
glass panes, the latter are responsible for as much as 80 per cent of heat-loss.
Here too, constancy is desirable. Fluctuations over a long period are less
harmful than sudden variations in temperature, as is shown by the relatively
satisfactory state of historic works of art that are kept in buildings in which the
temperature varies little (churches, for instance). Recommended temperatures
range from about 1 8 to ~ zo°C for an atmospheric humidity of J O to 66 per
cent, with a maximum of 70 per cent in damp climates and a corresponding
temperature. It is to be noted that even these figures constitute a compromise
with the conditions of human physiology, since considerably lower tempera-
tures are better for the preservation of more fragile objects. The measures to
be taken depend, on the one hand, on the geographical and urban situation
(dust, fumes, etc.) and, on the other, on the physiochemical make-up of the
object. If the temperature-humidity ratio is higher or lower than the appro-
priate figure, either dehydration, cracks, etc., or condensation, accompanied
by the formation of mould and bacteria, will result.
With regard to planning, it is to be borne in mind that it is basically easier
to humidify than to dehumidify. While it is possible, to a certain extent, to
achieve humidification by natural means (by providing water surfaces),
dehumidification can be performed only by mechanical means. At the stage of
architectural design, care should be taken to avoid the formation of stagnant
air-pockets which could give rise to mildew. This makes it necessary for
studies of fluid dynamics to be carried out, with a view not only to allotting the
space available but also to arranging the rooms. Fumes can be eliminated only
by ventilators provided with filters, which may be used for general air-con-
ditioning or be specially designed for certain objects (for instance, an air-filter
which absorbs sulphur dioxide).
According to the nature of the exhibits, steps must be taken to ensure that
the whole of the museum is dust-proof, which means either installing an
artificial ventilation system or placing the exhibits in dust-proof showcases,
with or without ventilators. In manv countries-esDeciallv in troDical areas-it
216 Conservation

is recommended that visitors be made to pass through an unobtrusive device


which absorbs dust and humidity.

NATURAL VENTILATION AND DAYLIGHT

In museum architecture, the requirements of conservation can be met at very


different technical levels.

If natural ventilation and daylight are chosen (artificial lighting being used
merely to supplement it), efforts will have to be made to meet the main require-
ments by climate-adapted building, that is to say by using only specifically
building techniques to regulate the effects of the climate.10 These may be:
I . In the general planning of the project and the over-all design of outer walls
comprising a proportion of openings and of enclosed areas adapted to the
contents of the collection, providing for the openings to be facing in an
appropriate direction and, if need be, for an arrangement which is in accord-
ance with the principles of fluid dynamics. It is also necessary to take account
of environmental engineering from the ecological point of view, especially
with regard to the humidity rate and the reflection of heat.
2 . Determining the dimensions of the rooms on the basis of the climate, for
instance: rooms with high ceilings in a hot climate, natural circulation of the
air both vertically and horizontally, etc.
3. Providing for weather-insulation and employing appropriate building
techniques (walls of several thicknesses, double glass panes, etc.).
4. Using materials capable of withstanding extreme climatic conditions, for
instance: hygroscopic materials in a dry climate, waterproof materials in a
damp climate, etc.
Such measures-which cannot all be dealt with here-have a profound influ-
ence on museum architecture, but they must be adapted to each particular
case. They afford the advantage of not giving rise to mechanical breakdowns
and not entailing large operating costs. If they are to operate ‘economically’,
however, a higher outlay on the building is necessary. Owing to considerations
relating to natural ventilation (high ceilings, air-cushion, etc.), the volume to
be built will be greater than other factors would necessitate (Pig. 107).
Although climate-adapted building makes it possible to obtain appreciable
results, its possibilities are limited. If one relies on its effectiveness alone, un-
satisfactory conditions of conservation will often have to be accepted.

ARTIFICIAL AIR-CONDITIONING AND DAYLIGHT

For this reason, most museums employ artificial atmosphere regulation,


while continuing to use daylight. Atmosphere regulation-or air-condition-
ing-may be partial or complete. In general, one starts from the principle that
the most important rules associated with climate-adapted buildings should be
obeyed, and that a mechanical air-conditioning plant should also be provided.
As one will certainly wish to take advantage of the excellence of daylight for
displaying the exhibits, the air-conditioning plant must perform the following
functions: (a) make it possible to obtain maximum benefit from the daylight
and to guard against its fluctuations; (b) offset sudden changes in the weather
that the building material (glass, for instance) cannot absorb; (c) in most cases,
overcome the effects of heat or cold; (d) keep fresh air circulating. In comparing
the cost of complete mechanical air-conditioning with that of a solution based
solely on climate-adapted building, it should not be forgotten that the first
IO. See Appendix II, page 269. may require as much as a third of the total volume of the building, depending
Physiochemistry of the objects 217

107

ff Diagrammatic suggestion for acclimatization


in a hot, dry tropical climate. Simplified

,A L,ll
-
1111111 1111II
cross-section. Movement of air through
and up a central hall which acts as a
chimney, extending vertically the height
of the building. Humidity ensured by
air sucked in over water surfaces. Shade
from roof projections perforated for
ventilation. (Design varying according to
direction in which the museum is facing.)

on the size of the unit, and that, generally speaking, it does not lead to a
reduction in the volume built. From the technical point of view, it is recom-
mended that the building be divided up into sections according to the different
types of environment and use (conditioning of the object, special sections).
In a museum lit by daylight, it is often difficult to house such bulky machinery.
For the sake of the psychological ‘economy’ of the display section, the exhibits
should not have to compete with radiators, exhaust pipes and ventilation
shafts; in other words, the latter should be in the background or not visible
(concealed, for instance, behind false ceilings or walls). From the stage of
architectural planning onwards, allowance must be made for the large amount
of space required by the air-conditioning conduits, and this may in some cases
have a decisive effect on the project (Fig. 108).

ARTIFICIAL AIR-CONDITIONING AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING

Technological progress in the creation of an artificial environment has


finally reached a stage at which both lighting and atmosphere regulation are
entirely artificial. This poses problems which belong to the technical sphere.
Constancy, flexibility and regularity can undoubtedly be guaranteed within
fixed limits. The outer walls can be closed and can be well insulated; large
installations and pipe-systems can be positioned and controlled visually. Even
where there are undesirable light-rays, they can be investigated and dealt with
more accurately than can daylight; an artificially regulated atmosphere can be
kept constant.
The focal point of the architecture becomes the arrangement of internal
space, on which the relationship between the object and the surroundings
depends. The problem of light is really a question of the technique used for
lighting. If all the opportunities offered by artificial lighting are used, a large,

108
The pressure gradi.ent of air-conditioning
systems designed to meet conservation
requirements should lead down from
sensitive towards less sensitive areas or
exhibits. The arrangement of the rooms
I l
I=
II_ II II _ L
l I should be taken into consideration at the
I- r earliest possible stage in planning.
Pressure gradient Simplified ground-plan.
Conservation

flexible space (‘open plan’ design) must be chosen. Consequently, there will
be no appreciable distinction between this space and other neutral structures
which are used for all kinds of purposes and which are to be found throughout
the world.

The differences are so deep-seated that a basic distinction must be made


between a museum using daylight and a museum using artificial light.
A museum using daylight, establishing as it does a dialectical relationship
between man, space, light and object, is complicated and makes no claim to
perfection in the rational sense. Primary importance is accorded to man and
display, in their sociological, psychological and physiological interdependence.
109
Plan for a multistorey museum lit by There are many obstacles to the free development of this relationship, but they
daylight. Simplified cross-section. Light
should preferably be obtained from call forth unexpected solutions. Two building problems predominate: first,
north-facing windows or skylights (south- the number of storeys. If a museum using daylight is to be used effectively and
facing in the southern hemisphere) in
order to avoid exposing the exhibits to afford the same resources as a museum using artificial light, it must be able to
direct sunlight. Satisfactory lighting of the avail itself of the whole spherical horizon. Only a single-storey museum can
lower storey is difficult.
fully meet this condition; if similar conditions are to be obtained in a building
of several storeys, the different storeys must each be set back considerably.
It is not satisfactory to set them back a short distance, on account of the
oblique light and the reflection of the wall above.

II0
In multistorey buildings higher storeys may
be set back to allow daylight to enter
through the roof of the storey immediately
below. Oblique light, illumination
decreasing sharply from top to bottom
of the wall, relative darkness of the
middle of the room. Simplified cross-
section.

I
!

There remains the problem of the middle area, which, in certain cases, is not
sufficiently well lit by daylight to meet the requirements of display (Figs. 109,
IIO).
Secondly, flexibility is much reduced.
4 h d A museum using artificial light places most emphasis on the preservation of
the exhibit, for the sake of which the visitor and most of the exhibits have to
exchange their natural environment for the artificial environment of the
museum. For this purpose the architecture offers the setting of a large, super-
imposable and highly adaptable space. The space within which the specific
III museum experience takes place is arranged after the basic setting has been
Museum lit exclusively by artificial light: established, like a theatrical setting. In the absence of overriding considerations,
extensible on a vertical plane
(cumulative); extensible on a horizontal the architecture can provide only a neutral structure resembling that of ware-
plane; flexibility of presentation; house. As to its fitting into the urban framework, there are two possibilities,
adaptable lighting (the direction,
intensity and nature of the light may be which are mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.ll
changed at will). Conservation is A building which goes back a long way, which has glass walls, and is mainly
considered the first priority.
lit by artificial lighting, is in much the same position as an artificially lit museum
II. See page 205. (Fig. I I I ) .
Physiochemistry of the objects 219

II2
DENVER ARTMUSEUM, Denver.
Artificial light only is used for presentation
of the exhibits. The scattered window I;lits
serve the purely psychological purpose of
providing orientation and a change of
scene. Architects: James Sudler
Associates, Denver; Gio Ponti, Studio
P.F.R., Milan.

Since ecological and sociopsychological considerations are also involved, an


interdisciplinary problem arises. The choice between daylight and artificial
light should be made in each individual case bearing in mind considerations
relevant to the human and the exact sciences. In one case, the architecture is
also a clear expression of what occurs in the museum; in the other case-if it
is to be consistent-its effect is neutral; the implications of the decision are
such that economic considerations should not be decisive (Fig. 112).
220

Side entrance

Hospitality
I I

i I ,
I

Creative activities

Temporary exhibitio

.....D
Main entrance

I I I
Public
O Semi-public Semi-internal Internal

II?
Schematic path diagram. The main lines
of communication between different
sections and areas, indicating varying
degrees of accessibility to the public.
221

Funetions

Space and circulation

The foregoing chapters were concerned partly with man in his psychosomatic
complexity and partly with the object in its material substance. The considera-
tions which follow stem from architecture, that is, from the laws governing
the ordering of space. Since things, in Goethe’s words, ‘clash violently in space’,
space must be so ordered that the desired operational processes may function.
The word ‘function’ has its origins in the industrial way of thinking of the
previous century, and appropriates to itself the utilitarian logic of the machine,
which is non-stop and automatic. In any case, this interpretation soon came to
be contested, since the complexity of architecture cannot be compared with
the mode of operation of a machine, and it is possible to distinguish therein
both‘ a utilitarian and a non-utilitarian aspect. In the following pages, we shall
endeavour to treat the subject systematically in so far as it relates to construc-
tion; in doing so we shall undoubtedly find it necessary to link those functional
qualities which can be measured in objective terms to those which call for
subjective interpretation.
The relative disposition of space and arteries and other channels of circula-
tion (‘paths’) necessarily derives from the basic concept elaborated by socio-
logy, physiology and physiochemistry, which not only furnishes the decisions
of principle, but if one is to be consistent, must continue to serve as a guiding
directive, down to every detail. It is possible to deduce from this concept
operational processes and spatial qualities which must bear a structural resem-
blance to the mental construct, that is, must belong to a particular order. To
be sure, this ‘order’ cannot be grasped in strictly functional terms in the
exhibition area. ‘Order’ may be undesirable if the effect of ‘disorder’ is con-
sciously sought after, for example in contrast to the efFïciency-minded world.
Clearly, then, in the museum as nowhere else, considerations of utilitarian logic
must be subordinated to certain guiding principles deriving from some higher
order. In the functional sphere also, the objectives must be so formulated as to
allow room for interpretation.

Display area
SYSTEMS OF ARRANGEMENT

The holdings of a pluralistic museum can be arranged in accordance with


different internal schemata which entail extremely varied spatial forms and
relations. The following are but a few examples taken from the infinite number
of possibilities:
Topological arrangement, which may conform more or less closely to certain
internal sequences, but without any attempt to impose a geometrical pattern.
This principle of dispersal gives little indication as to the type of archi-
tecture suitable as its framework (Fig. 114).
222 Functions

Systematic arrangement, either horizontal (for example, according to the


materials) or vertical (for example, chronological). On the basis of scientific
considerations, a specific, continuous sequence of developments is posited,
which leads to the principle of the arrangement in series. The criterion of
serial arrangement may be didactic, thematic, or comparative (Fig. II)).
Systematic superimposition of two or more types of arrangement. Gross-
references are brought into evidence by means of the pattern of spatial
relations. This process may take place on one or indeed on several levels
(Fig. 116).
Division of the collection into groups of exhibits that are similar in nature or
belong together (depending on content, scale, materials, and so forth).
These groups are then housed in separate pavilions, which allows the
architecture of individual buildings to be adapted to each group of objects
w i d e 10 tho museum . (Fig. 117).
II4 Arrangement based on visual (communicative) effect, the purpose of which is
Topological allocation of museum space
under a Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome. to display exhibits to maximum advantage. The architectural specifications
Alexander Dorner, Architektzdr Wettbewerbe, should be as conducive to the harmonious relationship between space, light-
Stuttgart, Icrämer, p. 38.
ing and exhibits as possible. Objects which are governed by similar condi-
tions are grouped together, thus inducing a sense of the gradation of spatial
qualities (Fig. 118).
b Arrangements admitting of interpretations from varying points of view, in
the light of additional information. These give rise to areas of varying
intensity and density, possessing focal points characterized by some special
spatial quality (where written oz audio-visual material may also be made
available) (Fig. I 19).
IIJ
Systematic arrangement on the principle Levels of conservation, arranged in accordance with climatological considera-
of a series. Simplified ground-plan. tions and grouped together for specific technical reasons (for example, a

Chronological
\ (vertical) arrangement

1r6 117

r16 compact building is most satisfactory from the heat-exchange point of view).
Superimposition of several types of
arrangement (e.g. 'horizontal-vertical' The temperature (humidity, etc.) gradient may be dictated by considerations
arrangements'oflthe collection or 1st relating to the public as well as to the exhibits. By sealing off the rooms as
circuit-2nd circuit-store, etc.) by leading
visitors either along a radius of the appropriate, these various climates (macro, micro, mini) can be juxtaposed,
circle or in concenturic circles. Access is superimposed or enclosed one within the other (see Figs. 93 and 101).
from the centre of the circle. Simplified
ground-plan. Symbolization of an idea underlying the presentation. A system of arrangement
is chosen whose spatial structure generates associations connoting a particu-
I I7 lar semantic content. For example, a circuit spiralling upwards may be
Exhibition area in the form of a complex
of pavilions allowing architectural design compared with the progress of mankind; in other words, form is raised to
to match content. Simplified ground-plan. the rank of a sign (Fig. 1 2 0 ) .
Space and circulation 223

! Sidelight I Daylight II8


I Artificial
light
Overhead
1 light ! I Arrangement based on visual effect,

f
display of exhibits to maximum advantage.
Here daylight is the determining factor.
Simplified ground-plan: gradation of
spatial qualities; courtyard containing
collection of sculpture; collection of
paintings-daylight; collection of
drawings-artificial light.
BI
M
1I
!
!
! @ n
w
L -.IL Ql
!
!
/ Drawings i¡Paintings ! ! I
f Paintings Sculpture
i m
II8
! 3
I
I

1 -
Staging of a collection, where diachronicity is used in the same way as in the
theatre. The spatial framework must be both neutral and flexible, in order
jkl- p
i
that it may serve for the performance of successive ‘representations’ (Fig. 121). I U
!
In each of the foregoing systems of arrangement, quite different functional 1 ! 2 1 3
relations emerge not only in regard to the mode of presentation, but in the
over-all context of the museum. The disposition of the rooms, their situation 113
The architectural design conforms to the
in relation to each other, and their ordering, that is the general layout, will in type of interpretation aimed at. Here, for
each case be radically different. It is not possible to evaluate the different example, the Ist, 2nd and 3rd (store)
circuits are each treated differently.
systems of arrangement in general, as there are always special circumstances Simplified ground-plan.
to be considered, and in this respect also each museum must work out its own
style. To be sure, conflicts with sociological, psychological or other criteria
may arise, which may prevent a functional conception from being put into
effect as a principle of spatial organization. A creative leap is always needed in
order to unite a theoretical system with an architectonic system, with the many
constraints to which it is subject.
The functions deriving from the type selected are necessarily reflected in
the programme as qualities of space or surface which have only to be defined
quantitatively at this stage, once they have been clarified in terms of the ideal.
In the same way, the nature and frequency of ‘traffic flows’ between groups
of rooms must be established as exactly as possible. I20
In designing a museum, particular difliculties arise in establishing the exact WORLDMUSEUM OF THE MUNDANEUM,
Geneva (Switzerland).
dimensions of the exhibition area, since generally valid, rational criteria are Human progress symbolized by an
relatively few and far between. For this purpose one can take as one’s starting- extended spiral. Project 1929, Le Corbusier.
point, either space (for example, approximately 2.7 linear metres of hanging
surface or 7 square metres of floor surface per painting) or time (for example,
two hours taken as the average length of museum visits). Figures of this kind
are however valid only for the case in point, and are put forward at best as an
approximate guide, since both the objects and the system of arrangement tend
to vary considerably. Accordingly, the actual area needed can be determined
only by means of statistical comparisons with other similar institutes, trial
layouts and scientific experiments (for example using hodometers).

ACCESS

The functional capacity of the chosen form of organization is deduced from an


examination of the internal system of access and the distribution of visitors. 121
As this is a problem of traffic, the laws governing traffic management can be Exhibits arranged as on a stage with
maximum flexibility: no supports within
applied i~zufatisizz&atzdis. The question can be approached in terms of a general the exhibition area, external bearing
distribution along certain main directions of traffic flow and a more detailed frame; adjustable levels, e.g. podia
breakdown within groups of rooms-although the means of locomotion ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(perambulation) is in both cases the same. The architectural spaces must be if necessary excluded by means of mechan-
planned accordingly, and must offer a variety of focal points, vistas and changes
of mood, as is done on a larger scale in town-planning policy.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

assembled and changed at will.


z2- be
7-24 Functions

--
I22
A rectilinear circuit.

The following is intended as a critical analysis of some of the basic possi-


bilities which arise in this connexion. From the functional point of view, we
shall be mainly concerned with strictly objective and practical (working) con-
siderations, since psychological and other similar factors are best left out of
A account at this stage.
123
A twisting circuit around a central hall. A basic distinction can be made between systems affording centralized and
Access from a staircase in the middle
which links the different levels. decentralized access, according to whether there is just one entrance (and exit)
or, alternatively, the collection can be approached from a number of sides.

Centralized systeilzs of access

The main advantages of such systems are the possibilities of control and sur-
veillance which they afford. Only in such systems can the visitor be systema-
tically guided along a predetermined path. A certain disadvantage lies in the
fact that before coming to a particular object he has always been subjected to a
number of other prior impressions.
A layout based on the principle of arterial flow implies that visitors have to
keep moving along, and thus to a certain extent entails the idea of a 'conducted
tour'. The visitor may be 'conducted', more or less noticeably, by means of
different architectonic forms, which will lead him on continuously, in what is
bound to be to some extent a stereotyped manner, from start to finish, even
124 though he may be able to cut short his visit at certain points.
An itinerary which weaves in and out,
often involving use of a ramp, endeavours The arterial flow may be:
to counterbalance the constraints inherent I. In a straight-or more or less straight-line, as in the case of the suites of
in an exhibition by introducing an
element of surprise. Simplified ground- rooms (with or without interpolation of cubicles) to be found in old
plan. museums, and also some new ones (Fig. 122).
2 . Twisting so as to follow the line of the atriums or meanders of the ground

plan, on one or on several floors; some two-thirds of all museums are built
on the lines of the classical atrium (in particular, museums depending on
daylight) (Fig. 123).
3. Curved in circular or spiral form, on one or more floors (Fig. 67).
4. Weaving freely about; here, the visitor may end by losing his bearings if
geometrical constraints are done away with altogether (Fig;-124).
In all these forms, the continuous nature of the artery offers relatively few
alternative possibilities of presentation; this is especially so in the case of
narrow arteries.
A comb-type layout functions according to the principle of a central axis,
with ancillary loops offering a graduated succession of alternatives which may
at the same time correspond to the system of classification of the museum's
holdings. Access may be either from one end of the 'comb' or through one of
its sides. In the case where access is gained halfway along one side, the visitor
can immediately turn left or right and thus has a greater range of possibilities
(Figs. 1 2 j , 126).
A chain layout represents a loose sequence of self-contained display units,
each of which may be designed to blend with the contents, in respect of con-
A figuration, lighting, and so forth. The transitions from one unit to another
1z.J can be so arranged as to enable short-cuts to be taken (Fig. 127).
Comb-type layout. An entrance at one end
of the 'comb' leads into a central axis, A star layout (for the whole area or part of it) was extremely widespread
off which one can wander at will into around the turn of the century. Radiating out from its central point, it provides
successive exhibition areas, varying in size.
Simplified ground-plan. access to sections of more or less equal significance, which, as in the case of
Space and circulation 225

1.26

126
Entrance halfway along one side of the
‘comb’ offers the visitor a wider choice of
alternatives than given in Figure I Z J .
Simplified ground-plan.

‘27
Chain layout. The different units can each
be designed to match their contents.
Simplified ground-plan.
128
Access from centre of a star shape.
Simplified ground-plan.

1.29
Access from centre of a fan shape.
Simplified ground-plan.

comb layout, have no through-flow of visitors and so can be isolated. The


symmetry of the axial configuration presents a problem, as it can only seldom
be brought into harmony with the different elements of the collection (Fig. 128).
A fan type of layout offers the visitor a broad range of possibilities, obliging
him to make*arapid choice. In the case of large collections, this may be asking -I-

too much of him so that he feels overtaxed. In other words, the advantages
gained from the informational and technical (‘traffic management’) point of
view are transformed into a psychological disadvantage. Furthermore, a bottle-
neck may be caused at the entrance as a result of visitors’ bunching together.
Access may be central or-less satisfactorily-through one ‘finger’ of the fan. bd
Within certain limits, the different ‘fingers’ may vary in their dimensions and 1.28
configuration (Fig. 129).
226 Functions

I 30
Access to a block arrangement. Simplified
ground-plan. Variations: (a) a large block
offers the widest range of possibilities if
access is central (the area is large enough
for flexibility to be unimpaired); (b) in a
small block access must be from the side so
that the whole of the limited area mav be
available for use. a b

A block arrangement leaves the choice of circuit free, according to where


the point of access is situated. The distribution of visitors can be regulated as
desired. When access is central, the approach must be from a different level if
the most is to be made of available possibilities (Fig. 130).
As a rule, the square or circular design and central access offer the widest
range of possibilities in this respect. However, this is true only in the case of
extensive display areas, since to have a fixed central point of access in smaller
rooms considerably limits their use. The problems referred to here concerning
the circulation of visitors can of course also arise in intermediate forms, or in
combination.

Decentralixed systems of access

Here, since there are two or more entrances and exits, the visitor is not required
to follow a particular circuit. He could be allowed to move about freely, as in
the areas reserved for pedestrians in town centres (of which the museum
could form an integral part); and since it is not always possible to see everything

I31
Decentralized access. Simplified ground-
plan. This system has advantages if the
twin problems of security and cloakroom
facilities can be satisfactorily solved
(perhaps by using electronic devices).

in a ‘free-range’ system at a single visit, further visits will be required, enabling


him to make further discoveries. Until now, the socio-psychological advantages
of such an approach have in practice been nullified by organizational difficulties.
The proposal continues to be mooted, in theoretical works and in competi-
tions; it has, however, already been put into practice in the somewhat similar
form of the ‘exhibition street’ (Figs. 131, 132).

Speciai areas
The internal functions of the areas devoted to communication (multipurpose
space, etc.), practical activities (experimentation and work rooms), educational
activities (lecture halls and classrooms), refreshment (cafeteria, etc.) or admin-
istration (offices, mailing service) will not be discussed here, as most of
these areas function according to their own laws and are not peculiar to
12. See Introduction, page 129. museums.12On the other hand, we shall consider their place in the layout, their
Space and circulation 227

D B A
132
ONTARIO SCIENCE CENTRE, Toronto.
Architecture designed to incorporate a
number of different specific functions and
spatial relationship to the display area as also the ways in which they interrelate. making good use of the site. Plan and
Ideally, the administrative services, laboratories, workshops and mailing section: A. Entrance building; B. Core
building; C. Exhibition and work core;
rooms should form a functional sector of their own, with a separate entrance, D. Future exhibition; E. Future studio,
' which must however be integrated as closely as possible into the institution laboratory and library; I. Cooling pond;
2. Parking; 3. Pedestrian bridge;
as a whole. In the case of the other areas, the question arises as to whether, 4. Service tunnel; 5 . Administration
and to what extent, they can be integrated. In certain cases-for example areas offices; 6. Great hall; 7. Soo-seat auditorium;
8. Lecture rooms; 9 . Connecting link,
given over to practical activities and refreshment areas-part of the area will elevators and escalators; IO. Terrace;
be integrated (and open to the public), part will be left separate (for instance I I. Galleries; I 2. Future arboretum;
13. Future rest area; 14. Future exhibit
to accommodate the supply services). Two approaches are possible: integra- halls; IT. Parkland. Architect: Raymond
tion and separation. Moriyama.
228 Functions

Integration into the collection, which, particularly in the case of smaller


museums whose layout can be taken in at a glance, and whose holdings are not
especially fragile, can be both expedient and attractive. The intimate, relaxed
character of the museum is accentuated. The pre-condition is that all areas
must be as freely accessible as possible, from outside the museum as well as
from inside. Otherwise, the rooms set aside for rest and refreshment and
practical activities are not certain to be used to full capacity. The precise mode
of functioning is a question of organization and (possibly electronic) security
and surveillance (Fig. 133).
Separation-or the possibility of separation-of the special areas from the
collection and from each other. There are many arguments in favour of this
course: the separate use made of these areas (for example for evening courses),
the fact that they have different spatial qualities and the need to prevent dis-
turbance from noise, the coming-and-going of visitors, and so forth. Since,
on the other hand, the museum must retain the character of an ‘open house’,
the architect has at one and the same time: (a) to divide off the areas in question,
using fixed or movable partitioning; (b) to ensure that they can be used for a
variety of purposes; (6) to provide transitional zones which can be connected
alternately to one or other area.

I33
Special areas integrated in a small museum,
As the layout of the whole area can be
taken in at a glance there is no need for
rigid demarcation according to function.
Simplified ground-plan.

This can be achieved as follows: (a) by using light, adjustable partitions


possessing adequate insulating capacity; (b) by a judicious arrangement of
space which allows people to move easily and without commotion from one
place to another as desired (for example, areas of quiet, contrasting with areas
of noise); (c) by designing the technical (for example, air-conditioning and
lighting) installations of the different areas so that they can be used equally
well for joining together and separating; (d) by ensuring that the architectural
treatment of the different areas (in regard to acoustics, finishing materials, and
so forth) remains varied, but blends harmoniously when they are joined
together.
From the functional point of view, it is important to decide which areas
must remain in direct contact, adjacent to one another, and which need link
up only indirectly (groups of rooms). The principle of separate utilization
requires that as many special areas as possible should link up directly to the
entrance hall. Depending on what part the various functions are expected to
play, fixed or movable channelling devices will be used (Fig. 134).
The location of the storage rooms can also be considered in terms of the ’

choice between integration and separation. In this connexion, the question of


zoning for sociopsychological or conservational reasons plays only a limited
role. Generally speaking, the grouping together of the storage rooms is, from
the point of view of organization and building technology (air conditioning,
security, etc.), the most appropriate solution (Fig. 1 3 ~ )In. its relation to the
display area, this group of rooms can be: (a) added on alongside or on the
Space and circulation 229

I3 4
Access to special areas from the entrance
hall. Functional interdependence of special
areas.

13J
Peripheral position of store, with display,
Exhibition study and storage areas on different
levels. Cf.Figure 133 with store in
central position. (Visitors are able to
Reference collection view store from outside or. where
appropriate, use it.)

periphery, so as to enable both areas to develop unimpeded; (b) located cen-


trally, thus permitting easy access by visitors and easy removal and replace-
ment of objects, but on the other hand imposing constraints in regard to pres-
entation and also tending to the neglect of other functions (research, laboratory
work, administration).

Transit (circulation)
Architectonic functions can mostly be expressed in terms of circulation or
path diagrams though, here again, subjective considerations have to be taken
into account alongside purely objective factors. The importance of the part
played in this connexion by psychology is evidenced by the well-known fact
that to traverse a given itinerary frequently appears to the person concerned to
demand a much greater effort than is justified by the actual distance covered,
and vice versa. In other words, the way in which an itinerary is plotted and laid
out automatically generates certain responses. In museums a basic distinction
must be made between the circuit followed by the visitor, on the one hand, and
the paths taken by staff and transport, on the other.
AS has already been shown in the chapter relating to psychology, the circuit
followed by the visitor is not subject to today’s paramount principle of e&-
ciency, and may be characterized as a ‘voluntary detour’. Its efficacity lies in a
sphere quite different to that governing the paths taken by staff or for the
230 Functions

movement of exhibits, where the laws of economy of effort prevail and the
aim is the diametrically opposed one of minimizing the distance to be covered.
The paths taken by staff and for the movement of exhibits must accordingly
be planned according to this principle and, in general, must of necessity be
kept separate from those used by visitors. With regard to vertical means of trans-
port (lifts), every effort should be made to site these centrally in the ground-plan,
in order to keep the horizontal distances as short as possible. This theoretical
‘point of gravity’ can nevertheless be shifted in so far as the amount of traffic
is not the same to and from all areas and tends to be heaviest in the direction
of the administrative services, workshops and so forth (Fig. 136).
In order to assess the functional soundness of a building, it is common
practice to analyse the relationship between useful space and space used for
circulation or transit. In the case of museums, however, this practice is appro-
priate only when applied to what goes on ‘behind the scenes’, since as far as
the collection itself is concerned no space should be reserved exclusively for
transit, seeing that every square inch should be used for display or relaxation

13 6
Path diagram showing how the visitor
‘saunters’ (above) and how staff and I
exhibits follow a direct route from the
most central point of access (below). b

purposes. It is also important that access to the special areas should not be
through bare, tunnel-like corridors, but through space that is attractively used
for display or other museum purposes.

Attention has already been called, in the chapters on town-planning and


sociology, to the need for an effective link-up with the urban structure. Gen-
erally speaking, new buildings are required to fit into an existing situation, or
are erected as part of a larger urban complex. In the latter case, there is theor-
etically every chance of achieving a satisfactory solution. In practice, however,
the solution achieved is unfortunately rarely happy, since other planning com-
ponents take precedence. This may be due to any of the following factors:
(a) adherence to a pre-established town-planning policy; (b) greater economic
importance of adjoining buildings planned at the same time; (c) purely quanti-
tative assessment of utilization; (d) disregard for the not immediately apparent
demands museums make in regard to their surroundings.
The inadequacy of new museum buildings is largely to be attributed to these
factors, and can be overcome only by giving priority to the museum, both in
terms of time and space, from the very start of the planning operation. This is
not to be understood as meaning that museums should be sited like monu-
ments in a commanding position, any more than that they should be placed
‘in the way’ of passers-by like some great department store. Most truly
Space and circulation 231

contemporary museums have a particular, reflexive relationship to the present,


a relationship which should also be expressed in the general approach to the
museum. Due weight must be given to the appropriate use of spatial means to
prepare the visitor and condition him, in order that he may begin to apply
other standards or values than those that prevail outside, and so make such a
voluntary ‘detour’ seem worth while (Fig. 137).
These subjective considerations are virtually independent of the objective
factors governing the transit (circulation) system. In all cases, efforts must be
directed towards ensuring ease of access; however, it is not necessary that an
underground station open directly into the entrance hall (as has already been
proposed) or that the visitor be obliged to traverse a gigantic car park in order
to reach the collection. As the visitor approaches the museum, the tyranny of
the concrete jungle should gradually fade. The immediate precincts of the
museum, which have the exceptionally important function of serving as inter-
face between the museum and the outside world, are reserved exclusively for
pedestrian use. This is why the entrance to major museums can be approached
on two levels, an upper one reserved for pedestrians and a lower level for

I
o i

motor vehicles; it is for this same reason, coupled with a concern to spare the I37
Design for an extension of,the
museum’s surroundings, which are generally worth preserving, that the car Schomburg Collection, New York.
parks are situated either at a considerable distance from, or beneath, the build- Plan: I. Passage; 2. Exhibition; 3. OfTices.
Here, the road runs into the entrance
ing. The problem of motor traffic being a general one, we shall not pursue it zone. The collection is reached by a
further (Fig. 138). pedestrian passage situated in the middle
of Harlem and can also be seen from a
The functional relationship between the reception areas (courtyards and walkway. Architect: Roger De Conrey,
the like), the entrance hall and the collection itself is further affected by the Glasgow.
problem of security. Even if it is frequently disputed, and is not everywhere
13 8
an acute problem, this is a factor which must be taken into ‘account. At all Pedestrians and motor vehicles can
events, as large an area as possible should be kept free, surveillance being approach large museums at different
levels. Internal or external staircases,
exercised only on the actual collection. It could also only help to make the depending on the position of the (single)
museum more lively and attractive if some form of ‘streaming’ of visitors were ticket barrier or check point.
practised already in the entrance hall. A major museum should not be accessible
only through ‘the eye of a needle’. There should,therefore be either discreet
channelling within the entrance hall or several ticket barriers or check points
should be positioned on a single axis of distribution along which all visitors
must pass. The solution adopted to this problem can have a significant effect
upon the architectural conception as a whole. The principle that the entire
collection must be kept in view for surveillance purposes, which tended in the
past to be regarded as an absolute criterion, made it well nigh impossible to
design smaller, more intimate rooms. Thanks to electrical safety devices, this
principle has nowadays lost some of its absolute validity. From the functional
point of view, transit (circulation) within the museum is governed by the fact
that the museum is divided into an ‘on-stage’ area and a ‘behind-the-scenes’
area, in other words, there exists a public domain and a technical-cum-oper-
ational domain, just as there is a visitors’ entrance and an independent service
212 Functions

entrance. In addition, there are certain border-line sections. The more respon-
sive the museum is to sociological trends, the more ‘fluid’will be the transit
areas and the more difficult surveillance will become. The public should also
be allowed a glance behind the scenes, for example by means of windows let
into the restoration workshops, storage rooms and technical installations (for
example the conducted tour of the sky-lights in Gapodimonte). For this pur-
pose suitable arrangements must be made at the design stage to enable the
visitors’ circuit to touch upon such premises at various points without affect-
ing the security system. This bi-partition should naturally be as little apparent
to visitors as possible; this is best achieved by ensuring that there are no cross-
junctions. The architect’s difficult task is to bring both domains so unob-
trusively into relation with one another that both the internal link-ups (means
of access) and the systematic divisions (stair cases, etc.) functions moothly.

Under this heading we shall consider only the specific requirements in regard
to circulation facilities in museums. Their efficiency can only be assessed in
relation to the psychological function. Since there is in theory no space reserved
exclusively for transit in the display area of museums, there should be no
‘corridors’ or ‘staircase wells’ to constrict fluid movement, in other words, the
circulation facilities must be made part and parcel of the presentation itself.
This can be achieved by eschewing: (a) all constriction or interruption, which
means for example that broad staircases will be preferred to long ones (not
to be confused with changes in rhythm); (b) to great vertical intervals (hence
for instance a preference for mezzanines and split-level arrangements);
(c) stretches of ‘waste-land’, providing neither information nor emotional
impact.
I39 On the other hand, the vertical intervals (changes of level) must not be too
CENTRE GEORGES POMPIDOU,
Paris. small (however attractiye this may be in architectural terms), as they can easily
External escalators give access to different be overlooked by the visitor whose attention is engaged elsewhere as well as
areas of the cultural centre in turn. Model
(see also Fig. 3 ~ Architects:
). Piano constituting an” obstacle for the physically handicapped, as also for transporta-
& Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners. tion purposes. Likewise, ‘suspended’ storeys and galleries are to be avoided,
140 as they may appear to the visitor at first glance as being unlikely to reward the
MUSÉEDES ARTSET TRADITIONS physical effort involved.
POPULAIRES, Paris.
The urban appearance of this museum is Ramps offer a means of countering certain of these difficulties and securing
determined mainly by the multistorey continuity of movement. However, their gradient should not exceed 6 per cent,
research department. The single-storey
display area affords great flexibility of use and they are bound, as a result, to take up considerable space (for example,
and the basement contains a reference 60 metres in length for 3.60 metres difference in level. Moreover, it is difficult
collection which is open to the public.
Architect: Dubuisson. Museologist: over this relatively long distance to arrange displays that are compatible with
Georges Henri Rivitre. the gradient (cf. the Guggenheim Museum).
Mechanical means of transport always call for a psychological adjustment
on the visitor’s part, in the case of escalators and travelling platforms by
taking up his attention and in the case of lifts by constricting and interrupting
the continuity of his experience. When mechanical means of transport are used,
it must be borne in mind that: (a) they offer no contrast to the world of effi-
ciency; (b) they generally call for some form of decision on the visitor’s part;
and (c) mechanization almost always means collectivization. How far these
effects are considered suitable or indeed desirable will depend upon the type
of museum and its particular pretentions (for example, technical museums).
There are no objections to the use of such means of transport outside the
display area (for example, in the entrance hall), provided that the congruity
of the whole is not disturbed (Fig. 133).
Needless to say, quite different laws apply to the technical services. The
principle of economy of effort may even make it expedient to allow vans to be
brought into the exhibition area (for example, the area devoted to practical
activities).
Space and circulation 23 3
234 Functions

In this connexion, it is instructive to compare the horizontal with the Vertical


development of the museum building. In doing so, however, we shall confine
our discussion to the display area, since in the case of research, education,
administration and so forth, special consideration’s apply which are not peculiar
to museum practice (Fig. 140).
The single-storey display area offers the maximum possibilities, as far as
adapting space and natural light in order to show exhibits to their best advan-
tage is concerned. Differences of level can further enhance the advantages of
this type of layout, which allows considerable flexibility and scope for exten-
sion, whether of the museum as a whole or of individual sections. There is no
doubt that the single-storey arrangement is ideally suited for smaller museums,
particularly those depending on natural lighting. For the public’s sake, how-
ever, the collection must not be too large, in other words, this ideal solution
is applicable essentially in the case of smaller museums and ‘site museums’.
Since a big single-storey museum is likely to extend over a very large area, the
I4I
Proposal for a large museum with physiological criteria are decisive. It is conceivable that recourse to various
predominantly single-storey display areas. technical and spatial devices would make it possible to overcome this limitation
Division into sections linked by
electronically controlled means of transport. to some extent, but this would entail additional expense, as would the location
Maximum flexibility, extensibility and use of all non-display sectors in basements (Fig. 141).
of daylight.

142
ARTMUSEUM, Denver.
I
Example of vertical layout. Standard floor-
plan. Seven storeys, relatively high.
Architects: James Sudler Associates,
Denver; Gio Ponti, Studio P.F.R., Milan.

142

\
Space and circulation 23 5

By contrast, vertical, multistorey development affords the advantage of


economic use of land and profitability. The ‘behind the scenes’ technical
services also operate extremely smoothly, since communications can be con-
centrated vertically, with numerous junction points and short distances. Since
the ‘efficiency’ of museum operation varies in proportion to their height, a
conflict arises between the measurable values and criteria governing museum
architecture and those that are not (or not yet) measurable. In many or most
cases, it is no longer possible to make a free choice; however, in cases where the
decision has not yet been taken, the following considerations should be borne
in mind:
I. The division into storeys splits the display once and for all into hard-and-
fast sections. Even when, to begin with, the collection falls naturally into a
division by stories, it will be subsequently impossible to modify this arrange-
ment to any satisfactory degree. Flexibility is thus reduced.
2 . Natural lighting is adequate only on the top-most storey; on the lower
storeys the only lighting available is that entering obliquely from the sides.
The decision in favour of the multistorey museum is thus tantamount to a
decision in favour of artificial lighting.
3. The rooms will necessarily be arranged in vertical ‘flights’, since approxi-
mately the same volumes must be superimposed upon each other. Regardless
of the nature of the exhibits, the ratio between surface-area and duration of
visit is fairly constant (Fig. 142).
Certain of these drawbacks can be alleviated as follows:
I. Visual links between the different storeys (possibly also split-level arrange-
ments) transcend as far as possible the horizontal divisions and thus give
rise to a sort of ‘vertical open-plan arrangement’ in which objects and spaces
are brought vertically and diagonally into relationship with one another.
2. Natural lighting can be improved by disposing the storeys in tiers, thus
allowing sky-lights to be built into the peripheral areas. When combined
with terraces, the resulting building is on the model of a ‘ziggurat’, and has
the additional advantage of giving on the outside world (Fig. 143).

The concept of the ‘architectural landscape’, which is today so current, is a


conjunction of ideas that harks back to man’s original need for living space, 143
and is undoubtedly particularly applicable to museums. It can be interpreted WALKERARI‘CENTER,Minneapolis.
A building in.dggurat style. Plan of the
in either the horizontal or the gertical sense to enable the architect to devise fourth floor with a view over the terraces:
means of attenuating the concern with efficiency and output which is the hall- Ï. Terrace I; 2. Terrace II; g.Terrace III;
4.Restaurant; s. Kitchen. Architect:
mark of the multistorey building (Figs. 144(a), (b)). Edward Larrabee Barnes.

r44(a), (b)
A linear system of architecture with
standardized basic structures which is well
suited to a transport museum. Plan and
elevation. Design for a transport museum,
New Delhi. PrinciDal architect:
L. G. Toye, Luckhow.
I4.J
CENTREGEORGES POMPIDOU,
Paris.
The experimental room of the IRCAM
project is a good example of a multi-
functional space, offering great optical and
acoustical flexibility. Architects: Piano &
Rogers.
Technology

Flexibility, extensibility

Building .is both an intellectual and a material process. Where as the intellect-
planning and reshaping-is constantly astir, the materials remain fixed in the
form imposed upon them. Present-day building techniques have for the first
time made it possible to keep pace, to a certain extent, with the ever-acceler-
ating operations of the human mind. There undoubtedly exists a relation-the
origins of which remain unexplained-between the stability of a building, that
is the expenditure of energy required to effect the transformation in question,
and the duration of human needs, that is the validity of the form established.
On the one hand, technology has the task of ensuring that the currently
required specifications are such as to provide ‘workable material’; on the other
hand, it is at the same time áhvanced technology which has stimulated the
intellect to carry out unending modifications and experiments. It is precisely
in the field of museum construction that a new philosophy has developed con-
currently with the new operational methods available to architecture, including
the latitude they afford for imaginative innovation. In the planning of each
particular museum, it is accordingly essential to clarify at the very outset
whether, and if so what, modifications are necessary and what limits can be
I drawn.
The reasons for this uncertainty have already been indicated in the foregoing
chapters; in the present chapter we shall take them for granted. They are of
three kinds: (a) practical, relating to the exhibits themselves, and involving for
example, the extension or modification of the collection (purchases, donations,
functional extension); (b) conceptual, deriving from a reappraisal or a new
approach (involving new correlations and focal points); (c) technological,
relating for example to new possibilities of conservation or interpretation,
including architectural possibilities (all too easily forgotten). The considera-
tions which act as a check upon unbridled extension include: (a) the scienti-
fically proven limit to man’s receptivity; (b) the alienating effect and the in-
human scale of major complexes; (c) the need to anchor the object in some spatial
or temporal continuum. The concept of an infinitely expanding museum is as
frightening as that of a hypermarket stretching on and on. The primary
phenomenon of locality, rooted in the philosophical consciousness, must be
taken into consideration and the stability it implies must be brought step by
step into a dialectical relationship with the dynamics of development.
The properties that make it possible to modify the function of an existing
space to meet a new requirement-which must be organically integrated with
the over-all utilization of space-are adaptability and extensibility. These two
terms can be distinguished as follows: a building is considered (a) adaptable
if it is specially designed to allow its functions to be modified with a minimum
of technical resources and organizational work; (b) extensible if its design
principle is such as to enable structural uniformity to be preserved as the
building grows. (Fig. 14~).
Adaptability and extensibility are thus inseparable; in other words, a coherent
extension of the museum may be accompanied by a modification of the uses to
which it is put. The following possibilities may accordingly arise:
I . The museum can be enlarged without any major modification of the existing
building. For the purpose of this relatively simple process of ‘adding on’
238 Technology

146
Extensibility. Simplified ground plan:
(a) continuation of existing forms and
structures is not to be recommended
unless the building work can be done
quickly and the over-all architectonic
effect has been carefully structured in
advance; (b) a new building on the
reserved site.

it is necessary merely to reserve additional building land and to justify the


appropriateness of the extension in architectural terms.
2. It must be possible to enlarge the museum in such a way as to allow its
content and structure to be reorganized and integrated into a unified whole;
in other words, the new additions must be properly planned so as not to
disrupt existing relationships, while the exhibits are rearranged and re-
attuned to their new setting.
3. The museum is not enlarged, but the arrangement of the exhibits is con-
stantly modified so as to allow the focal points to be shifted and new rela-
tions to be established between the exhibits and their setting.
W i l e in the first case a new, independent structure can be selected, in the
second and third cases an over-all structure is required which must be suffi-
ciently neutral and adaptable to lend itself fully to the modified uses to which
it is put.
Moreover, a basic distinction must be drawn according to whether these
modifications affect the museum as a whole or only sections thereof. For
example, the different sections of the display area are more or less prone to
change depending on whether their content forms a finished whole or is in
process of development. The decision reached on this question is of consider-
able bearing, since it has the effect of diminishing or extending the range of
architectural possibilities. The problem of adaptability is one that dominates
modern architecture as a whole; in the case of museum architecture, however,
it is particularly acute, since: (a) the future uses vary considerably and are
difficult to anticipate; (b) requirements with respect to space and light are
particularly high as regards both the public and the exhibits.
Examples of possible forms of spatial modification and extension are as
follows:
I. A new collection forming a coherent, independent corpus is added to the
existing collections-or made up from them, as they grow in size-without
impairing the structural integrity of the old building. The link-up with the
existing circuit must proceed either from the central area of access or from one
of the main arteries of circulation; a reorganization of the traffic paths in the
old building does not necessarily entail the alteration of its structure.
Flexibility, extensibility 239

To house the new collection, the design of the old building may be extended 147
NEWMUSEUMS BUILDING, Cambridge.
without interruption, though in cases where the extension operation is spread A building complex which is divided into
over a number of years, such a solution is fraught with difficulties, as the former sections can be built in separate stages in a
way which is technically as well as
design is generally antiquated and the building materials are no longer obtain- visually acceptable. Architects:
able (differences in ageing, and so forth). Alternatively, the architecture of the Arup Associates.
new building may be designed to contrast harmoniously with the old building
(Figs. 146~147).
2. Provision is made at the initial planning stage for the autonomous growth
of the specialized departments which must remain in the same relationship
once and for all. When the content of the future additions is more or less
known beforehand, the extension can be planned in several stages. The main
difficulty lies in the fact that a central or radial system offers the best guarantee
of easy access; on the other hand, the nucleus round which extension develops
must itself be able to develop consequentially. In other words, the advantage
of a centralized entrance area must be weighed against the resulting check
upon the growth of the centralized installations (information, communication 148
Extension of a building with a clearly
and activity sectors accessible from the centre). This inevitably restricts the defined centre is only possible to a
extensibility of star- and fan-shaped layouts (Figs. 148, 149). limited extent as the central nucleus itself
cannot be extended in an architectonically
The less centralized the layout, the easier it becomes to effect an extension of convincing manner. The figure shown here
individual sectors. A linear ‘distributor belt’ offers a greater number of starting- is a five-pointed star. Simplified ground- ,
plan.
points and more independence vis-à-vis the ground-plan. This central path can
be either rectilinear (for example in the comb layout) or annular (as in the chain
layout). The individual sectors, whose design will reflect the nature of their
respective holdings, can be planned and extended independently. This is a
point of major importance for the museum as a whole; however, it does imply
that the pavilion-type sectors will remain fixed and will not subsequently
encroach or overlap upon one another. Such an assumption is not always a
very safe one (Figs. 110, 1~1).
3. The focal points and scale of the future growth of the collection cannot be
extrapolated from the existing situation; in other words, a major shift in the
use made of the existing premises may possibly occur. In such a case, a structure
must be chosen that is as uniform and neutral as possible, designed to answer
variable requirements, and that can be enlarged as the need arises-like an
240 Technology

I49
JURONG SINGAPORE SCIENCE CENTRE.
Extension in several stages. Individual
extension of the various departments.
Site-plan: I. Main entrance; 2. Public and
student entrance; 3. Staff and service
entrance; 4.Control gate for ecological zone
- 24

and V.I.P. entrance; 5 . V.I.P. entrance;


6. Teachers and staff entrance; 7. Workshops
entrance; 8. Loading and unloading area;
9 . Life-science gallery; IO. Science and
. technology gallery; I I . Bridge; I 2. Work-
shops; I 3. Special exhibits gallery;
14.Void; I 5 . Cafeteria facing ecological
zone; 16.Future extension of the gallery;
17. Future courtyard; 18. Future extension
of store; 19. Park for 150 cars; 20. Park for
IOO motorcycles; 21. Future extension of
car parks; 22. Staff car park; 23. Ecological *!
zone; 24. Jurong Lake; 2 5 . Boundary line;
26. Future road to town centre. Architects:
Raymond Woo & Associates.

26

industrial plant-using the same elements at different intervals of time. The


system of presentation is made flexible so that it can be adapted as appropriate
in line with the structural extensions. The crux of the problem is that the
technical constraints-particularly the regular repetition of the elements as in
a crystalline aggregate-may be detrimental to the free-ranging quality of the
presentation. For this reason, it is advisable in every case to space out the
supports at as wide intervals as possible and to design adjustable ceilings.
With this system there are no visual difficulties about subsequent extensions
IJO
(even after fairly long intervals of time) provided one has a fluid ground-
Extension of a comb-type system. A linear plan comprising projections and recesses (Fig. IJZ).
axis of distribution makes it possible to
extend individual areas (to increase their 4. The growth of the collection is contained by a process of selection and
contents) or to add on other sections rotation. From the architectural point of view, extensions take place within
without having to keep to a fixed system
of arrangement. Simplified ground-plan. a pre-established framework providing functional adaptability over the entire
area (‘open plan’). The advantage of this over the crystalline structure (see 3
above) is that all the load-bearing pillars can be located outside the ‘main
stage’, in or in front of the outside wall of the building, thus making available
a ‘landscape, which can be adapted at will. Should an extension nevertheless
prove to be necessary, the approach taken should be that outlined in our first
example, since the system of supports is located on the periphery of the build-
ing and forms a self-contained whole.
j. In the case of continued growth, the exhibits can be split up and divided
among smaller museums in the region in question, for example in newly-built
satellite towns. This gives the subsidiary museums the opportunity to fill the
‘cultural vacuum’ created by new housing estates or which may exist through-
out a particular province. Since there is not likely to be the same shortage of
land in such newly-planned estates, these satellite museums can be incorporated
into a wide-ranging programme of environmental development for cultural
and leisure purposes. A further advantage is that they will not be encumbered
III with special sectors such as major storage rooms, or research and administra-
Extension of a chain layout on a site
reserved for museum use from the tion departments; in addition to display areas they will, however, need premises
outset. Independent design (or extension)
of individual buildings whose style matches for practical and other activities, workshops and amenities for visitors, if they
their content: I.Exhibition, old; are to fulfil their task adequately. This method of extension can also be com-
2. Lecture room, new; 3. Exhibition, new;
4. Research, new; 5 . Catering, new; bined with the process of ‘rotation’, which has already been discussed in its
6. Administration, new. various aspects in the chapter concerning conservation.
Flexibility, extensibility 241

It should be pointed out once more that we are dealing here again with the
extension of large museums according to the principle of decentralization and
not with museums relating to a particular site whose establishment and
operation are governed by quite different factors.
6. The extension of the special (non-display) sectors or areas gives rise to
Werent problems to those posed by the display area in that the framework
within which they must be tackled is not by and large very flexible. Given the
specific spatial qualities of these areas, it is very difficult to make any change in
the use to which they are put. The trend towards expansion is limited to the
individual sector and to the development of its particular functions. This
autonomy of development makes it advisable to separate the premises devoted
to practical activities, lectures and classwork, rest and refreshment, etc., from
the display area as such and to develop them as separate units, with their own
architectural forms which may serve to enhance the rest of the museum by
providing a contrast.
When the special sectors are housed predominantly in the centre of the
museum complex, provision must be made at the planning stage for adequate
reserve space into which to expand. It must also be taken into account in this
respect that a subsequent raising of buildings located within the ground-plan
is fraught with major technical difficulties and that non-built-up areas must
accordingly be kept free from the start.
Should the special sectors continue to expand, it may be found expedient to
envisage complete spatial separation, which can be done either: I Jz
Extension of an ‘open plan’ system based
I . By erecting on the available building plot self-contained, extensible pavi- on square units. Simplified ground-plan.
lions, and at the same time grouping together the presentation (Figs. 1j3,
1/41.
2. By foregoing all idea of spatial proximity and siting the special sectors in
another area of the town or of the region, where they will be able to develop
freely. This solution could be adopted whenever the building possibilities
of the plot have been exhausted. It should, however, be stated that such a

b
‘I3
WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, Perth.
Building offering great flexibility in the use
of the premises, although optimum
adaptation to a particular function is
difficult.
242 Technology

II4
Extension by establishing a ‘branch’ in a
different area of town. Plan of siting.

IJJ
MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, Tokyo.
The research department is an extension
built approximately three miles from the old
museum.

solution means the end of the pluralistic, integrated museum as outlined in


the foregoing chapters (Figs. IJJ, 1~6).
In all considerations with regard to extensibility, a basic distinction must be
drawn between those relating to content and those relating to technical factors.
The collection can to a certain extent grow ‘organically’ through the incor-
poration and exchange of ‘cells’. By contrast, the building process is always
one of addition, in which new ‘crystals’ accrete to the old structure. Even the
so-called flexible building remains stable and limited as a construction, although
lending itself to a variety of different uses.
It is also to be noted that a master plan must be developed at the outset
with a view to possible future expansion of the museum (however unlikely
this may at first appear); such a plan should not go into too much detail, but
should at least establish the broad outlines of future extension.
It may further be noted that the various alternative layout systems are to a
greater or lesser degree conducive to extension depending on how far they are
compatible with a ‘neutral’ design. A museum whose architecture possesses a
considerable symbolic value will find it more difficult to expand than one with
a neutral structure.

s y s t e m s of construction
The building of a museum consists in the twin processes of arranging the
materials of the collection and ordering the materials used in its construction,
the aim being to bring the two into harmony with one another. With the self-
confidence which was natural to an age not given to constant self-doubt, as is
the present age, earlier museum builders solved this problem with sovereign
authority. Our faculty for ‘total recall’ has become so perfected that individual
convictions are accorded only minimal importance on the diachronic scale.
It is for this reason that museums in particular, whose activities bear upon
. Flexibility, extensibility 243

periods and intellectual spheres that are quite remote from one another, ‘must
be on their guard against all rigid formalization of the type characteristic of
whatever is constructed. Museum architecture is thus torn between two
contrary requirements: (a) it must be as well suited to the exhibits as possible
(space, lighting and exhibits all forming a single unit); (b) it must make it
feasible to scrap existing units and replace them by others.
If architecture is understood in its strict sense, that is to say as relating to
the fixed structure, not the interior arrangement which can always be modified,
it becomes clear that it cannot meet both requirements in full at one and the
same time. The choice of the construction system will accordingly oscillate
within these two extremes, tending towards either a closed or an open system.
In order to make clear what are the advantages and drawbacks of these two
systems, we shall in what follows present them in the ‘pure state’.

CLOSED STRUCTURE

The closed structure is a self-contained, clear-cut system, such as is (judged


to be) best suited to a specific task at a particular moment in time. Architec-
turally, it is represented by specific, individual forms, which may be strongly
charged with a precisely modulated expressive value. Until quite recently, it
remained the sole mode of architectural thought. Not only was it the result
of a iertain technical incapacity of past ages; its conscious aim was to formulate
its own conception in all matters great and small, and to bequeath it as a legacy
to posterity. Similar aims may still be valid today in the field of museum
architecture and lead to the adoption of a closed system. Since by its very
nature such a system admits of a great number of individual variations, a general
technical description of it is not possible. We shall accordingly do no more
IJ6
than illustrate it with a few examples (Fig. 1~6). Simplified ground-plan for a closed
The architecture is suited to the chosen system of arrangement (see the structure.
chapter on functions) and ideally embraces the object in a differentiated
environment (with respect to space and lighting). As each object finds its echo
in the architecture, everything goes to favour the dialogue between visitor and
exhibit. The psychological effect derives from the definitive character of the
constructed (realized) form, whose impact is thereby increased. The spatial
dimensions are determined in relation to the object, the constituent architec-
tural elements being perceived as primary constructions in their own right; in
other words, the vision of the architect is reflected in every detail, right down
to the immediate surroundings in which each object is placed. R-evelation of the
static forces at work is the most important and most characteristic ‘medium
of communication’ at the architect’s disposal. The visual link between con-
struction and expression confers a convincing authenticity on the ‘original’
atmosphere of a treasure-house of ‘original’ items (Fig. 117).
Accordingly, the walls and ceilings will be designed so as to ensure their
structural harmony with the exhibits, and their static function will be empha-
sized. The walls should be designed so that they are both suited to the exhibits
and also recognizable as stress-bearing structures, while the ceilings must be
constructed in such a way as not only to provide a protective canopy for the
exhibits but also to retain, visually, the character of supporting structures. The
building materials used in a museum do not serve merely as a back-drop; they
are also a determining factor in ensuring its cohesion. Masonry tends to find
expression in plane surfaces, steel lends itself best to linear structures, while
reinforced concrete possesses the property of linking horizontal and vertical
forces in a monolithic block. Thus each different building.materia1 bears a
different relationship to the object exhibited. An intractable brick wall, for
example, does not respond in the same way as a light concrete wall which can
be moulded at will (Fig. 118).
Solid-wall and skeleton construction processes are both quite feasible,
depending on the content of the collection. The former provides a subdued,
244 Technology

r/7 hermetic surface as back-drop, the latter thrusts into the visitor’s field of
JUTLAND FINEARTSMUSEUM,
NORTH
Alborg. vision-when it is systematically left visible-supporting pillars and props as
Here expressive forms and lighting make massive elements which may detract from the visual impact of the exhibits.
the architecture striking, but they also
determine the space and presentation Generallg. speaking, the delimitation of space requires that recourse should
possibilities. The ceiling sections are made also be had to light elements whose role is visibly one of jointing and bonding.
of a light material and could, theoretically,
be changed. Architects: Elissa and Alvar The closed structure thus tends to find expression in walls rather than in pillars,
Aalto and Jean-Jacques Baruël. and the choice of the mzterials already constitutes a certain decision as to the
form.
In the actual construction process, conventional techniques tend to be
applied, the finishing work being done by craftsmen in a more or less durable
form. When the closed structure is used to maximum advantage, flexibility
becomes, in principle, of secondary importance. In practice, however, a variety
of intermediate solutions are encountered whereby partial modifications are
feasible:
I . Relatively large, high-ceilinged rooms, as are to be found in old mansions:
experience proves that these allow considerable scope for alterations, since
the load-bearing elements are spaced far apart from each other.
2. Alterations involving areas which do not bear any static load, using for
example light-weight structures that can be erected on the spot and taken
down at no great cost: the advantage of these, from our present point of
view, is that, thanks to their jointless, uniform surface, they appear to be
more permanent than they are.
3. Commutable sections, for example detachable ceiling panels and inter-
changeable transparent or opaque domed roofs.
118 All in all, the closed-structure system makes it possible to design a complex
WILHELM LEHMBRUCK MUSEUM, Duisbourg
Modular system applied to a concrete wall. which is custom-built. The ground-plan and elevation are worked out in
Flexibilitv. extensibilitv 24 s

considerable detail; a direct, optimal relationship between lighting and object is


also secured. Lastly, this system affords scope for an architectural interpreta-
tion of the collection which is not merely superficial, but penetrates to the
very structure of the building (Fig. 1j9(a), (b)).
The difficulty of this conception lies in the fact that the individual relation-
ship between exhibit and architecture must necessarily be reflected in a design
that is unobjectionable both in static and in functional terms. Since he is also
working for posterity, the architect bears a considerable responsibility. There
is a great temptation to give free rein to personal interpretations or to take
the structural medium as an end in itself. In order to prevent any misunder-
standing, it should also be stressed that we are not heie speaking of the creation
of a complex reflecting historical development, or of any kind of formalism,
but only of a conception which embodies the structural affinity between the
exhibit and architecture. Nor is this at all the same thing as over-emphasizing

--
/-----

A I\

‘19
This original design in the form of
ascending pyramids was developed to
solve the problem of displaying carpets of
varying length. Here large carpets can be
examined from galleries at various levels:
(a) section; (b) model. Design for
Government Museum of Decorative Arts,
Frunze, Kirgiz Republic (U.S.S.R.).
Architects: A. Marin, I. Michailev and
B. Revjakin. Engineer: B. Levinstein.

1/9 (It)
any particular elements of the building (for example the girders) as ‘structural
motives’, as this would run counter to the whole psychology of perception
as applied to museums.

OPEN STRUCTURE

The open structure does not have as its starting-point the differentiation of
functions and the careful study of individual sectors, which are finally inte-
grated into an equally complex, architecturally closed system, but derives
rather from a general building principle which is made to subsume all func-
tions, including those that will become known only at a later date. In order to
achieve this diachronic character, it is essential to be able at any moment to
246 Technology

review and readjust the available space in accordance with fixed architectural
and technical criteria. As a result, the conception itself is not based upon any
particular system of arrangement of the content of the collection, but upon
an empty, neutral cube, which ideally should be provided with power supplies
only (and the mains and other installations needed for this purpose should as
far as possible have no impact on the architecture).
The displays which succeed each other on this ‘stage’ involve predomi-
nantly the use of interior design features similar to the wings of a theatre. The
requisite unity of space and exhibit is accordingly secured at the decorative
level, while the structure proper manifests an attitude which ranges from
passivity to ‘tolerant goodwill’. In accordance with the view that architecture
is primarily the search for forms that come to terms with the earth’s gravity,
no attempt is made to bring the object and the building into harmony with one
another-a harmony which is in any case unattainable since all true structures
are primarily fixed and can be flexible only secondarily in so far as they can be
put to a number of different uses. The relationship between the object and space
is therefore necessarily based upon contrast, which is particularly effective in
fine arts and archaeology museums, where it can be raised to the level of an
architectural principle, while in technical museums as also in ‘museums of
modern art it need be emphasized less strongly.
This system makes it possible to match the interior architecture more or less
perfectly to the exhibit. By means of lightweight elements which can be
quickly put together, it is possible to adjust the spatial dimensions, the mood
and colours, as also the lighting-albeit only to a certain degree in the case of
natural lighting. In many cases, such an arrangement will prove satisfactory,
.and even highly desirable; it is not suitable, however, in the case of exhibits
of outstanding value or aesthetic appeal. The more dynamic the ‘on-stage’
action, the less ‘solid’ must be the wings-not in the sense of their actual
fabrication but in their impact as judged from the standpoint of the psychology
of perception. For example, forms reflecting historical development cannot be
accommodated in a closed system, but can be accepted perfectly well as tem-
porary arrangements and aids to interpretation. Moreover, desirable though
the establishment of a dialogue between visitor and object may be, in the case
of ‘major’ exhibits there is a danger of its becoming non-committal and
superficial.

‘Open plan’ designs without pillars

The architectural conception of adaptable ‘open plan’ design is based on broad


spans whose downwards thrust, concentrated on as few fulcra as possible, is
absorbed vertically. In order to avoid any reduction of the available area, the
load-bearing elements are placed in the vertical plane of the external boundaries,
or better still, outside the area demarcated. According to the same principle,
the trusses can also be situated above the roof, on the outside, in order to free
the entire area in the vertical as well as horizontal planes. This approach has
proved particularly effective in cases where it is desirable to avoid the visually
segmenting effect of shadows cast by beams or girders on a luminous ceiling
(Fig. 160).
Where multistorey buildings are designed without pillars but with ceilings
which are required to bear a relatively heavy useful load, the resulting sup-
porting structures are likely, when the spans involved are considerable, to
reach storey height. These intervening storeys can be used for the purpose of
housing installations, which may just as well be situated relatively unobtru-
sively between the main storeys, since all the lower display areas will in any
case need artificial light. This will, however, appreciably detract from the
desired vertical continuity (see the chapter on psychology). It can therefore be
stated that the ‘open plan’ arrangement without pillars lends itself best to the
single-storey type of construction.
Flexibility, extensibility 247

I 60
Large open space with no pillars.
Simplified ground-plan. The wide bays
mean that the building can be enlarged in
two directions. The large area of available
surface ens’ures great flexibility and there
is no problem in adapting it to different
functions as the quality of the space
remains the same. See Figure 121.

From the functional point of view, maximum flexibility is obtained with a


modular system, which operates best when it embraces all three dimensions.
There are several reasons for this: (a) the neutral design is quite unrelated,
architecturally, to the objects; which are in any case interchangeable; (b) the
structure is self-sufficient and can as a result be erected in complete indepen-
dence, from the rational and technical points of view; (c) the exhibits’ environ-
ment is made up of mobile components which can be handled most easily and
rapidly of they are modular; (d) the standard nature of the components facilitates
their assembly and fitting in place, as also their maintenance and servicing.
If the modular system is to be used to the best advantage, it is essential that
the ground-plan and elevation be split up into units of equal size, and that no
‘odd‘ sections be left over. For this purpose, the following continuous geo-
I 61
metric systems may be used: the square grid with sub-components (for example, Extension of a hexagonal ‘open plan’
the isosceles triangle) (see Fig. IJZ), or the hexagonal grid with sub-components arrangement. Simplified ground-plan.
(equilateral triangles) (Fig. 161).
Modules of other shapes might also conceivably be chosen; by and large,
however, they result in over-complex structures.
Even if it is not considered practicable to divide up the whole interior into
equal units, an ‘open plan’ design can still be achieved by use of other stereo-
metric forms, since the building’s shell is in any case of secondary importance
only in the architectural presentation of the objects (Fig. 162).
With this type of design there should also be maximum flexibility in the
lighting arrangements. This gives rise to particular difficulties as regards
natural light, which should in principle be available at all points and from
every direction if one is to get the specific lighting desired in each case. Ideally,
therefore, the cube should be ‘glassed in’ on all sides, like an enormous show-
I 6.2
case, in order that all possibilities may be left open. At a later stage, the hori- ‘Open plan’ arrangement in a circulai-
zontal and vertical fields that are not used would be blocked out as conserva- area, the boundary walls of which
support the whole structure. Inside this
tional or psychological requirements necessitate or regulated by means of neutral space the exhibition can be
appropriate mechanisms. Reference has already been made to the technical arranged with a minimum of constraint.
Glass may be used in the construction or
difficulties which arise in this connexion. The problem becomes much simpler not, as preferred. Simplified ground-plan.
in the case of artificial lighting, which is available everywhere and can be
installed as required. It may therefore be concluded that an adaptable museum,
depending on natural lighting, will logically be open on all sides, while the
artificially-lit museum will be a closed structure.
With regard to the building materials, reinforced concrete or steel suggest
themselves for the main structure, and glass or lightweight materials for the
external partitions. The same or similar materials are used for the internal
divisions; for such purposes, prefabricated components such as those used in
department stores may suitably be employed. Two considerations should,
however, be borne in mind, particularly when a high artistic level of pre-
sentation has to be achieved: in all assemblies of prefabricated components
the joints are apparent, and may detract from the visitor’s aesthetic enjoyment:
the contrast with the everyday world or with trade-fair architecture should be
preserved.
248 Technology

A system must therefore be devised which avoids these dangers or gives the
impression of being specifically designed to serve permanently for museum
purposes even though it may thereby lose in flexibility.
Generally speaking, it can be said that all the advantages of the closed struc-
ture must be considered as being drawbacks of the open structure, and vice
versa. The strength of the open system lies in its rational approach and its
sociopsychological trend. The system in question also makes it possible to
handle a complete reversal in the organization or conception of the museum.
The architectural possibilities are limited to ensuring harmony of treatment,
down to the smallest details, and an ‘impassive’ restraint towards the object
‘involved’. The bigger the hall, the more adaptable it is; however, the integrated
extension of the building becomes that much more difficult. In other words,
this form of building tends to stand on its own, a fact which must be taken
into account from the outset.

‘Open plm’ desìgm afforditg the possibìlity of extensìoti

It is possible to regard as an extension of the principle of adaptable ‘open


plan’ designs a structure of the ‘honeycomb’ type with units which can be
added on progressively as required. The aim is to create an ‘open plan’ area
made up of modules, which is nevertheless limited in its all-purpose service-
ability by the presence in its interior of stress-bearing elements. Such a system
makes sense essentially if it is planned to serve a dynamic function. It is
a relatively easy matter to reorganize the entire collection each time a new
extension is made. The conditions governing the presentation and the relation-

163
Open structure with variable ceiling and
roof levels, enabling side light to reach
central areas. Simplified cross-section.

IQ
MUSEUM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FINE
ARTS,Panjab University, Chandigarh.
Combination of chain layout and open-
plan system based on square units. The
central pillar of the mushroom-shaped
structure poses a problem if the latter has
a small overhang. Architect: P. B. Mathur.
Flexibility, extensibility 249

.6J
I
‘Container-Museum’ I y j8. Design for a
fine arts museum in Antwerp (Belgium).
Architect: François Jamagne.

ship between the object and the building in which it is housed are similar to
those obtaining in the system outlined above, with allowance for the interior
pillars. The open structure has the further advantage of being extensible on
all sides and adaptable to irregular or uneven sites. It is possible to enhance
the impression of spaciousness by means Óf a vertical-and possibly itself
adjustable-staggering of the different sections, which would have the further
advantage of allowing light to enter the upper part of the central sector from
the side (Fig. 163).
What was said above regarding square or hexagonal modules is equally
valid in the present case. The number of pillars should be kept to a minimum;
the broadest spans will occur in the central sector. Mushroom-shaped con-
structions have the advantage of having only a single pillar; from the point of
view of presentation techniques, however, they are satisfactory only when
their overhang is considerable. For construction purposes, a steel or rein-
forced concrete frame must be used (Fig. 164).
As a result of weathering, etc., the plastic harmony of the fasade is visibly
broken if the successive additions follow one another at considerable intervals
of time.
Lastly, mention may be made of a proposal that is constantly being mooted,
which derives from other fields of building practice: the idea is to solve the
problem of extension and adaptability by means of interchangeable ‘containers’.
Quite irrespective of the fact that the wealth and diversity of the exhibits pre-
cludes such a solution being applied, if only for material reasons, in a plural-
istic museum, it must be evident that it is at variance with all that we have
learnt from psychology concerning the museum, whose vitality depends upon
its uniqueness rather than its interchangeableness (Fig. I 6~).
In conclusion, it may be said that when a close and appropriate relation-
ship exists between the object and the building, one can hardly look to pre-
fabricated techniques for very satisfactory results, since the repetition of the
dimensions and forms is at odds with the innermost nature of the individual,
unique object. However, when only the interior design impinges directly on
the object, design of the structural frame can proceed according to its own laws,
and prefabricated components can in this case be used.
iGG
CENTREGEORGES POMPIDOU,
Paris.
Once decisions of a functional, technical and
economic nature have been taken, the
material still has to take form, a form which
will say something of the collection
inside. Here the first struts of a ‘cultural
supermarket’ in the heart of Paris
(October 1974).Architects: Piano
Rogers.
Aesthetics

Laws of form and semantics

It is common knowledge that the planning and building stage is dominated by


practical, technical and economic considerations, problems of form usually
being relegated to the background as less urgent, if they are not regarded with
outright suspicion.
Once plans are completed the tactics are suddenly reversed; pressures which
existed earlier are forgotten and no longer accepted as explanations or excuses-
in fact they can no longer be Gisualixed as they existed before. The majority
can now only see the plan as afait accompli existing in its own right, and expect
it to provide them with the key to an understanding of the building and the
collection.
This illustrates the great importance of the architectural design, which has
received particular emphasis recently for several reasons: (a) social trends are
placing the museum in a more central position in society and extending the
scope of its activities; (b) the museum is beginning to assume some of the
responsibilities of other cultural institutions which have now served their
historical purpose; (c) it has thus become a focal point for culture in action
and a mirror in which cultural values and ideals can be presented and assessed
in visual form.

I -i T 6.7
-
AA impression of strength combined
with irrationality is conveyed by this
heavily overhanging design. Plan for a
‘museum of the earth‘, Brasilia. Architect:
Oskar Niemeyer.

Museum building therefore affords an opportunity to transcend the func-


tional or technical terms of the language of architecture and to put forward
interpretations and feelings which are in harmony with the social and aesthetic
aspirations of the times. The architectural style therefore has the dual responsi-
bility of, on the one hand, conveying the museum’s central theme and indi-
cating the diversity and general orientation of the cultural manifestations housed
there, and, on the other, finding an appropriate way of drawing attention to
and enhancing the role of cultural phenomena.
As the museum exists not primarily to meet objective requirements or to
serve any utilitarian purpose, but to satisfy subjective needs, museum archi-
tecture has occasioned a wide variety of .conceptions-indeed it has become a
testing ground for new, freer approaches to problems of form, as many
imaginative and original buildings of recent years bear witness (Figs. 167,1-88).
Aesthetics

168(a), (61 These trends can be taken as an indication of the place of the museum in
WINNIPEG ARTGALLERY. ’

Example OF a piece of modern architecture today’s world. Nietzsche’s dictum, ‘the museum is the church of the aesthete’,
which is irrational and formalistic. can be interpreted as meaning that particularly high standards will be set for
Architect: Gustavo da Roza.
the intellectual and architectural ‘superstructure’, of the museum. It therefore
calls for an approach which is seldom needed today, one which over and above
the satisfaction of immediate requirements should branch out into the realms
of ‘total art’. This places great responsibility on the planner, as architecture of
this standard is as vulnerable to excess of zeal as to lack of it. The faceless,
purely functional ‘warehouse’ style is as unsuitable as an obsessive and extrava-
gant preoccupation with form.

Genera! approach to assthelie


As it is becoming more and more widely recognized that man is very sensitive
to form and shape, efforts are now being made not only to demonstrate these
categories philosophically but also to subject them to scientific methods of
analysis. The further this research work impinges on the realm of the exact
sciences the more confidently use can be made of the results. The different
approaches have already been dealt with in the chapter on psychology and
need only be briefly summarized here:
Gestalt psychology is based on a physiological study of human perception and
examines the demonstrable phenomena of visual reactions, so as to arrive at
Laws of form and semantics 2 <7

qualitative statements about objects and space; its methods are empirical
and it calls for no prior knowledge on the part of the subject.
Information aesthetics is based on physiologically measurable units of per-
ception which are recorded in a process oscillating between differentiation
and integration of the object. The length of time taken by this process
depends on the quality of the object. The amount of information received
and the time taken to ‘use’ it gives an indication of the aesthetic richness and
complexity of the object and enables its aesthetic value to be described
quantitatively and even to be arithmetically measured.
The semantic approach is based on the assumption that visual communication
takes place by means of signs transmitted by the object which are inter-
preted by the receiver on the basis of a common code. As these reactions can
only be triggered by a learning process or previous knowledge, the impact
of the object is dependent on its context in time and space.
It is unfortunately not possible to give a more detailed account of these
attempts to reach a scientific understanding of this complicated subject at this
juncture. Each of the methods outlined, with its particular advantages and
weaknesses, serves to define a different aspect of this many-sided problem.
Their application to architecture therefore raises special difficulties-which
do not occur in connexion with painting and sculpture for example-as here
it is hard to disentangle the aesthetic from the rational processes. The inter-
relationship between seeing and thinking, which is difficult enough to grasp
at the best of times, is further obscured and complicated by the simultaneous
entry into the picture of other, non-aesthetic, categories.
Although relatively little research has been carried out into the impact of
architectural forms and shapes from the point of view of visual communication
there is no doubt that such an impact exists. In the following reflections on
museum architecture the three approaches referred to above will each affect
the final assessment to a different degree, according to the emphasis. While we
shall not here consider such obvious practical aspects as the problem of
unoccupied space, conservation requirements, etc., due attention will be given
to the close relationship between practical, organizational aspects and aesthetic
considerations.

Consequences of preceding chapters concerning


aesthetic form
Previous chapters have shown that decisions reached on the basis of socio-
logical, psychological or conservation requirements already imply decisions
regarding form; in other words, the spatial organization of each category
already comprises a pattern of arrangement that displays particular formal
tendencies. The aesthetic problem could therefore be simplified by saying that
if a basic idea is taken to its logical conclusion the arrangement of space and
form will follow more or less automatically. However convincing this may
sound in theory, it does not give a full picture of the situation, as (a) each
programme contains a wide variety of possibilities which on closer examination
can be seen to constitute formulae of the ‘both . . . and. . .’ type; (b) in a circum-
scribed space valuations are unavoidable; (c) the translation of concepts
expressed in verbal terms into reality, or into terms of ‘nuts and bolts’, is a
subject in its own right; (d) the ‘language of form’ has its own laws which
open up new possibilities. Questions of form can only be discussed on the basis
of pictures as verbal metaphors are inaccurate and not to be trusted.
The conversion of theoretical schemata into building terms is accordingly
a creative process which, though it externalizes what is present in the mind,
cannot rest content with selecting one of several existing possibilities, but
must evolve something completely new.
It need hardly be said that although this chapter will discuss the architectural
implications of some of the topics considered earlier, such factors as the
7-54 Aesthetics

environmental conditions in an urban or rural setting raise entirely different


questions, as regards their bearing on architectural design.
Whether the aim is to adapt the style to that of the surrounding buildings
or to create a contrast between old and new, both approaches being defensible
from an aesthetic point of view, measure and proportion must always be kept
as the guiding principles if the visual impact of the whole is to be effective and
recognizable, as an example either of unity or of polarity, in gestalt psycho-
logical terms.
As the pluralistic approach of today’s museum requires it to play host to the
most varied activities, its content can only give the architect a rough guide to
the aesthetic approach to be adopted. A simple, open structure is the only one
which will enable the museum to fulfil its role in society today. The archi-
tecture only provides the external framework and leaves the articulation of
space within to the interior designer. This subservient role can be carried to
the point of self-effacement. As the technological limitations and possibilities
of all buildings which aim to provide maximum flexibility are roughly similar
at a given moment in time, the purpose for which they are intended is not
particularly important-in other words even museum architecture does not
try to impose a style of its own.
As we have already shown, an emphasis on flexibility leads to simple geo-
metrical forms which lend themselves to economic use of internal space. It
follows therefore that the wider the variety of content and functions the more
neutral the style of the building will be, and the more limited and concentrated
the scope of the collection the more emphasis can be given to architectural
style as an expression of content. The smaller, more specialized museum would
therefore seem to offer the architect more opportunity to devise an individual,
original design based on the special characteristics of the collection.
Another result of social trends is that specialized fields such as research,
education, communication, etc., are taking up more and more of the museum’s
time and this should also be reflected in its external appearance. However, as
each of these specialized fields has its own architectural ‘image’, one of the
dangers to be avoided is that of superimposed themes obscuring the central
message of the exhibition building.
The conservation aspect of the museum’s work is expressed by the exclu-
sion of the outside world. Although it is practically impossible to build a
block which is completely sealed off from the outside world, solid walls which
serve as hanging surfaces but also as protection are a feature of many museums
and the treatment of these surfaces on the outside in such a way as to indicate
what the museum contains is a constantly recurring problem (Figs. 169, 170).
The main responsibilities of the museum are not of a rational, functional
nature, requiring a high degree of internal organization ‘behind the scenes’.
There is therefore no reason to bring functional aspects into the foreground
in order to create the impression of a highly efficient museum ‘machine’. The
forms and shapes of purely functional architecture can therefore be considered
uncharacteristic of a museum.
Building techniques are closely linked with many fundamental questions
and to some extent supply the basis and lay down rules for the implementation
of the design. There is, however, a basic distinction to be drawn between manual
and industrial building techniques, which offer very different possibilities and
have quite a different visual impact. The former, which include all conventional
techniques using stone, bricks, concrete and steel, have the advantage that
practically any co-ordination of building with subject-matter can be achieved.
They allow special materials and orders to be envisaged to meet individual
needs, while monolithic structures provide a smooth, uniform background. It
is therefore clear that conventional building methods make possible the
emergence of meaningful configurations in gestalt psychological terms as well
as affording a high and complex level of achievement from the standpoint of
information aesthetics.
Laws of form and semantics

I 69
CULTURAL CENTRE, Randers (Denmark).
The introverted nature of cultural
experience can be expressed in architectural
terms as withdrawal from the
environment. Architect: Flemming Lassen.
Collaborators: Peter Brodersen, Per
Lassen, 0.2. Nielsen.

If industrial building methods are used the manufacturing and assembly


techniques which they imply lead to the dominance of neutral space using
geometrical structures. As it is practically out of the question to make struc-
tures correspond with content, the design options are severely limited and
must be concentrated on achieving clarity of outline for the complex taken as
a whole, making use of the simplification and repetition which industrial
building methods impose. This type of building will on the other hand allow
all the more scope for interior design complementing the external structure
and providing a high degree of plasticity making it possible to adapt the form
to the nature of the exhibits. The aesthetic choice therefore lies in the main
between external architecture lacking informational content and a style which
although more interesting and varied has less psychological impact. In order
to avoid t o D . great a discrepancy between external and internal styles, the
internal design should match the geometrical framework to a large extent and
echo its gestalt psychological effects.
The physiological effects of a museum vary between the two extremes of
concentration and relaxation. The architectural style may be reminiscent of a
‘cloister’, encouraging meditation, or base itself on ‘holiday’ styles of archi-
tecture. In the first case an introverted style radiating harmony and stillness

17 0
NEWHISTORICAL MUSEUM, Tashkent
(U.S.S.R.).
The use of glass walling throughout
establishes an effective though limited
relationship with the outside world.
Climatic reasons necessitate the use of glass
which is permeable to light without being
transparent or heat-absorbing.
Architects: Abdulov, Nikiphorov,
Rosenblom.
256 Aesthetics

171
SHELDON MEMORrAL ARTGALLERY,
University of Nebraska (Lincoln).
Symmetrical museum. Architect: is to be preferred, while features of the second should be openness to the out-
Philip Johnson.
side world and lively, adventurous design. Two factors which will determine
the final decision are the immediate environment and the nature of the collec-
tion. From the point of view of the biological rhythm of the human organism
it may be desirable for both tendencies to be catered for and held in counter-
poise by the architectural composition.
As psychological and aesthetic factors are very closely related, and indeed
often identical, we shall not give many examples of their interrelationship,
referring the reader to the chapter on psychology for more detailed discussion
of the subject. In general, arrangements designed to help the museum visitor
find his way, providing directions of which he may or may not be aware, con-
stitute an aesthetic bonus. Emphasis on the need for a well-ordered articulation
of space with a recognizable system of co-ordinates, based on the constants in
perceptual behaviour, can itself be made into an architectural manifesto
establishing specific principles of design. In a rectangular system for example,
the desired qualities of simplicity and order can be reflected down to the
smallest details, resulting in a high aesthetic standard. As the regular shapes are
easily understood they are aesthetically as well as psychologically effective;
although they are strongly perceived, their familiarity prevents them from
becoming too dominant. The desire to make the structure of the whole area
comprehensible at a glance leads to an architectural transparency which further
enhances the aesthetic appreciation of space by introducing an element of
simultaneity. Symmetry, which embraces a host of related categories of design,
is also often used as a means of grounding and consolidating the consciousness
of locality. Attention should however be drawn to the difficulty of reconciling
the geometrical dominance exerted by symmetry with the pluralistic approach
of modern museum work (Fig. 171).
A completely different conception is that in which the museum visitor is not
called upon to take in the whole collection-or the whole museum area-all at
once, but step by step. Here, as for psychological reasons no attempt is made
to give a general impression, the visitor’s interest must be sustained by placing
new, stimulating features at intervals along his route. The stimulus of curiosity
will thus replace the effect of the over-all view and it must be kept alive by
features which have expressive content. The visitor will be led on by assymetri-
cal, oblique or fluid shapes which keep him gently but firmly on the
Laws of form and semantics 257

preordained path. The architectural style should not be neutral but should be
involved in the life of the museum, overlying static shapes and drawing upon
a wide variety of free-flowing, dynamic configurations. The variety and
restlessness towards which this architectural conception tends should not,
however, be allowed to distract attention from the exhibits (Fig. 172).
Psychology understood as study of the whole system of biological stimuli
and responses also has a decisive bearing on aesthetic considerations. As we
have already said in the paragraph on information aesthetics, man’s capacity
17-2
for perception and retention is limited and in a museum it must be allowed to The ‘journey of discovery’ effect can only
concentrate as much as possible on the exhibits. The architecture must aim to ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~
avoid such optical interference and distraction as might be presented by ensured by an architectural layout which
obtrusive architectural features, over-prominent backgrounds, or jointings ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
and unnecessary points of intersection. The philosophy of architecture on circuit also has emotional significance.
which this view is based can be summed up in Mies van der Rohe’s words ground-plan*
‘less is more’. Boldness in over-all design and simplicity in details is an archi-
tectural maxim which is particularly relevant to museum design. This ‘inte-
grating’ approach should not necessarily be taken as opposed to differentiation,
as contrasts can in gestdl‘t psychology contribute to simplification, leading to a

I73
The Netherlands Davilion at the Venice
better aesthetic appreciation of the object. If a few elements are developed ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c $simplicity ~ ~ & of the
s ~ n d
individually and at the same time placed in a carefully-thought-out relation- architecture focuses the visitor’s attention
ship with each other tlie twin dangers of summary treatment on the one hand ~ ~ ~
and fussiness on the other will be avoided (Fig. 173). G. Ristveld.
As we mentioned earlier, architecture can also be seen as a means of com-
munication which uses different spatial arrangements and shapes to send out
its ‘signals’. This ‘sign language’ can pass on information regarding the
contents and significance of the building and define its functions and its place
in time and in its environment. These messages may be made up of physical or
intellectual components, having in the one case a functional and in the other
z j8 Aesthetics

a symbolic character. As messages of the latter type call for a higher level of
sensitivity in the ‘receiver’ they are clearly of an aesthetic nature.
The material features of an architectural style which act as ‘signals’ receive
their semantic content from patterns of behaviour which are generally linked
with them, from comparisons with forms which are familiar in a similar con-
text, from experience of different sizes, proportions and materials and from
all types of associations and affinities which are operative in the field of gestak
psychology. It is, however, extremely important for the aesthetic quality of
the architecture that the signal should not derive from literary vocabulary or
a mere representation of nature but should be a genuine transposition into the
abstract language of architecture, which only speaks through geometry, size,
shape, colour and material.
The form of the museum building should therefore be significant and, over
and above superficial, causal associations, send out decoded messages regarding
such subjects as the nature of the collection to be seen inside. It follows that
each museum can be distinct from other museums and have its own individual
design. It is not therefore possible, as with other types of building, to build a
series of museums on the same model.
The style of architecture must spell out as it were, in palpable and convinc-
ing fashion, what in the particular instance the concept ‘museum’ denotes.
Ability to transmit other information will follow automatically to some extent
once museological requirements are met and presented in an artistically
unambiguous form. Confusion with buildings intended for other purposes,
for example offices or schools, should be out of the question.
The configuration of the building should also reflect the museum’s status
as a focal point for cultural activity in society. Experience indicates that this
requirement in practice allows a great deal of scope: thus it can be construed
as an invitation to ‘monumentality’, which has in a few extreme cases been
carried to the point of ostentation. Much as all signs of external power and
influence should be rejected, yet some degree of ‘heightening’ is justified, as
long as its result is to show the museum as ‘different’, not as ‘bigger’ (Fig. 174).
This is no doubt the basis for the widespread attribution of sanctity
to the museum, which has led to the adoption in Western countries
of the Greek temple and in Eastern lands of Asian temple architecture as a
model for museum architecture, an approach which persists even today. The
complicated problems raised by the imitation of historic buildings can only be
briefly mentioned here (Fig. 17)).
The fact that this is still a live issue even today is illustrated by the plans for
a tantra museum in India, which strive towards a synthesis of modern archi-
tecture and traditional forms of religious architecture. It is doubtful whether
this can be considered an example of the pluralistic approach to museum
work (Fig. 176).
The expressiveness of an architectural form can, if it is the subject of general
consensus, crystallize in the course of time as a symbol, as it were the seal or
hallmark of a complex intellectual concept. The only drawback is that formulae
handed down by earlier generations are accepted uncritically although they
may have lost their meaning. Museum architecture, which has a close relation-
ship with the past, is particularly vulnerable to this danger. However the
symbol always retains its validity in semantic terms-either by the abstract
transposition of an ancient canon of design into the technology of our times,
in which case its meaning is only perceived subliminally, by association, or by
the development of new symbolic forms which can already be seen emerging
today in different places (Figs. 177,175, 179).
Laws of form and semantics 7-j 9

I74
NATIONALGALERIP, West Berlin. Façade.
The serene but forceful character of this
structure is a modern architectural
interpretation of the desire for pomp and I7.f
solemnity. Architect: Ludwig Mies van der NATION.4L MusEuar, Seoul (Republic of
Rohe. Korea).
This is basically a modern structure which
has been given a semantic content by the
use of traditional forms and copies of
ancient temples.
260
Aesthetics

176
TANTRA MUSEUM, New Delhi.
Ground-plan. The museum houses
a collection of works of art connected with
the tantra cult. Symbolic forms inspired
by the very specialized content took
precedence over museological considerations
in the design. Architect: Kavinda.

So far we have tried to identify what might be called ‘outside’ influences-


for example from the environment, society or technology-which affect the
aesthetics of two- or three-dimensional figures. The translation of theories into
bricks and mortar is difficult because the real world of shapes and forms
operates according to its own completely independent laws. While gestalt
psychology enables us to investigate these laws, the majority of men react
quite spontaneously to visual stimuli and although their response is uncon-
scious it is both rapid and unequivocal. The inexhaustible variety of material,
shapes and forms and the -equally innumerable rules governing their com-
bination can only be hinted at in a verbal consideration of the subject.
We shall mention only a few examples which have specific significance in
terms of gestalt psychology:
I . Size is a means of establishing a scale of relativities in the world of things
and also places man in a fundamental relationship to his work. The observer
is therefore very sensitive to anything which infringes the established scale
of sizes and expects a different architectural style depending whether he is
viewing a collection of jewellery or monumental statuary.
Laws of form and semantics 261

I77
NATIONAL MUSEUM, Peking.
The modern horizontal design has been
overlaid with reproductions of historically
significant forms. Museum constructed
around 1966 at the beginning of the
Cultural Revolution in the People’s
Republic of China.

178
NARAKOKURITSU HABUTSUKAN (Nationka1
Museum), Nara.
Japanese museum combining the most
modern of constructions with tradition:I1
Japanese forms.
262 Aesthetics

I79
MUSEO DE ANTROPOLOGÍA, Mexico.
This mushroom-shaped structure, situated
in the central hall and surrounded by
fountains, evokes the ancient Mexican god
of rain in a contemparary manner. 2. Proportion is a biological fact which indicates that temion has been brought
Architects: Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, into equilibrium. It can also be described in terms of information aesthetics
Rafael Mijirez and Jorge Campuzano.
as a specific form of complexity. It has a definite role to play in a museum
building which is oriented towards visual perception and can serve as a
pointer to interior atmosphere and quality.
3. Dominance of vertical or horizontal lines is immediately interpreted by the
observer as signifying rest or tension, extension or intensity, etc., with the
associations and philosophical attitudes which these concepts imply
(Fig. 1 8 0 ) .
4. Every shape, whether it be a cube, a sphere or a quasi-organic form, repre-
sents a configuration of forces which is very individual and may or may not
be tolerant of neighbouring shapes and surroundings. For example the
juxtaposition of a straight and a sagging wall always creates a situation of
aesthetic conflict.
5 . The formal qualities of a linear, net-like system of containment, transparent
and permeable, are quite different from those of a solid construction, which
appears protective from the inside but discouraging from the outside. In
other words a ceramics museum will not resemble a museum which extols
the achievements of modern mathematics.
6. The variety of materials available will extent the possibilities we have men-
tioned here almost to infinity.
These laws of physical shape and form must be taken into account from the
outset in museum architecture.
This is just a small extract from the ‘vocabulary’ of shapes and forms, which
can be put to a wide variety of uses but must never be applied arbitrarily or on
the basis of a purely intellectual approach. But there is also a ‘grammar’
Laws of form and semantics 26 z

governing relationships between the different shapes and forms, for example:
(a) incompatibility, when shapes are mutually exclusive because there is no
common denominator; or (b) congruency when a form is adapted to its sur-
roundings, assimilation when simplification is called for, combination when an
effect should be heightened; or (c) contrast when attention should be drawn
to a particular feature or when an element of tension is required.
As the impact of the innumerable possible visual antitheses varies in inten-
sity, each must be chosen and used in accordance with the desired artistic
effect. It may be appropriate to set a geometrical outline against a featureless
natural landscape or to build a fluid structure to contrast with the stark cubic
background of the modern city. In the same way it may be necessary to screen
off the background to an exhibit carefully, so as to ensure that the different
values are set neither too close together nor too far apart.
Every shape is ‘charged’ with aesthetic values and can only be combined
with others in specific collocations and juxtapositions. It should be possible
to work out an aesthetic equivalent of Mendel’s law for combinations of shapes
depending on the extent to which they produce the desired results.
Even the most summary review of design problems establishes that they are
subject to a wide vagiety of different influences. The quality of the solution
with regard to its informational content will depend on the number of aspects
which were taken into consideration when the decision was made. If it is
assumed that each object, each work of art for example, is a small ‘cosmos’, it
is museum architecture’s special task to ensure identification not only between
man and building but also between building and object. Every time a museum
is planned this exceptionally wide range of factors must be taken into account
and their importance carefully evaluated before a selection is made. However,
it should be emphasized that the right solution will not be arrived at merely
by systematic examination of each possibility in turn but-this being the way
the human mind operates-more by a series of ‘hunches’. This is one reason
why the team responsible for planning should begin to work together as soon I80
as possible. HERBERT F. JOHNSON MUSEUM OF ART,
Ithaca, New York.
Architecture symbolizing effort. Surprising
for a museum. Architect: I. M. Pei.
Coexiste n ce-co m b i nat i on-syn t hesi s
These conflicts which necessarily occur in such a process are unfortunately
often left unreconciled in the name of ‘coexistence’, which may be expressed
both in the museum’s relationship to its environment and in a lack of harmony
between the different elements inside the museum, with adverse consequences
as regards the museum visitor’s initial impressions and his understanding and
appreciation of the collection. Although we take irreconcilable elements more
in our stride than earlier generations did, each visitor will still make a more or
less conscious effort to reconcile such visual discrepancies in his own mind,
thus using up mental energy unnecessarily (Fig. 183).
A more satisfactory solution would be based on the principle of combination
which enables the various elements to retain a considerable degree of indepen-
dence although their interrelationship is shaped by selection and co-ordination.
This approach would be most suitable for the modern ‘pluralistic’ museum.
It can be expressed in architectural terms as a carefully arranged group of
different types of buildings, for example a complex of pavilions combining
very different styles which, while keeping their distance, are brought into a
dialectical relationship with one another (see Fig. 117).
Alternatively the antithesis may be transposed to the plane of the building
itself, as when a flexible, modern structure has to be combined with the neces-
sary adaptation to the environment. This problem often occurs when a new
museum is to be built in an old, historically interesting city district, a situation
which projects a problem familiar to designers working inside the museum
into the sphere of external design (Figs. 181, 192).
264 Aesthetics

I 81
Matching the architecture to the
environment. External features. The
neutrality of style of a multipurpose
building inevitably conflicts with the
requirements of aesthetic design or
environmental desiderata in regard to use
of space. Embellishment of the façade by
skilful use of shape, proportion, material
or directioning or by deliberate recourse to
contrast is one way of solving this
problem.

I82
MUSEUM OF ARTOF THE SOCIALIST
REPUBLIC OF LITHUANIA, Vilna.
Example of architecture relating to
environment. Around the outside shops
form an integral part of the museum.
Architect: Cekanauskas.

Solutions based on the principle of an all-embracing synthesis are however


by far the most satisfactory. A prior condition is that the circumstances must
make it possible to find a common denominator of form, and this is likely to
be a long and laborious process. Once the homogeneity of the whole has been
ensured by finding such an underlying motif, individual elements can be
worked in to enhance the general effect. As the basic specifications in this case
cannot be too unusual or too rigorous, this approach is most successful with
museums which deal with modern subjects (for example twentieth-century art
and technology) where man, the environment, exhibits and building all belong
to the same period. It is of the nature of a ‘pluralistic’ museum however that
such an approach would be of limited use here.
The subjective components of the museum’s work offer scope which an
imaginative architectural approach must exploit to the full in a time such as
ours, which is so lacking in symbol and allegory. But this scope can be abused
by designers anxious to ‘do their own thing’. A satisfactory design always
seems obvious but is nevertheless the result of a long process of inner doubt
and hesitation between the numerous alternatives. It is never arrived at ‘by
accident’ or ‘as an afterthought’ but is gradually assembled piece by piece. In
no case is it permissible for: (a) eccentricity to be pursued as an end in itself,
as its ‘appeal’ is short-lived and it does not reflect the essence of a museum;
(b) a preconceived form to be imposed which is not a reflection of the museum’s
content; (c) architectural design to be so emphasized that rather than being
subservient to the exhibits it competes with them for the visitor’s attention.
Laws of form and semantics 265

This largely answers the question of the originality of the building and the
influence of the architect's personality, for a design can only be valid and
creative if these limitations have been observed. But all that we have said
earlier makes it clear that museum architecture must be unique and unmistak-
able of its kind.
In the laborious process of museum design three groups of factors which
must be considered on'their own terms have therefore to be skilfully blended
and fused together. They are: (a) physical (functional) factors, and the objective
constraints resulting frbm them; (b) aesthetic aspects, with their emphasis on
wholeness and permanence; and (c) intellectual forces affecting the contem-
porary social, historical and ideological scene.
The architectural style must be such as to express in convincing fashion its
inherent structural affinity with these various spheres.

183
R~MISCH-GERMANISCHES
MUSEUM,
Cologne.
The adaptation to gothic architecture being
very difficult, the solution of contrast was
chosen, for the exterior shape of the
museum as well. Architect: Heinz RBcke.
266

184
MUSEUM OF FINEARTS,Louisiana
(Denmark).
With careful planning by the commissioning
authority and an appropriate design by the
architect the museum today can carry
out to the full its role in education,
culture and enjoyment if the setting is one
of natural beauty. Architects: Jörgen Boe
and Vilhelm Wohlert.
267

Conclusion

In this essay we have tried to assemble the individual bricks needed to build
this thematically complex structure and to give some indication of the way in
which they should be put together to form an organic whole. The ‘network’
of requirements which we have been able to lay out so neatly here in theoretical
form will, after examination and assessment of the factors involved in the
‘here and now’ of building a particular museum, necessarily undergo a radical
shift of emphasis. In this process, however, the remaining joins holding the
whole fabric together must not be torn apart but-by analogy with the laws
governing ‘half-lattices’ in mathematics-drawn together in the appropriate
relationship.
People often bewail the fact that the ‘ideal’ museum has yet to be built. An
‘ideal’ museum can never and should never be designed, as the starting-points
are so different that an approximation to abstract values is all that can ever be is.;. ,

achieved. It would, however, be very much to the point to design a ‘museum


of museums’, an idea which has been put forward on several occasions.
We have shown that architecture can make a very substantial contribution
to a museum’s success in dealing with its problems in general, as man not only
shapes space but is shaped by it. Many plans to modernize museums and bring
them more to life can only be carried through if spatial requirements have
been met.
It must therefore be recognized that the architectural organization of space
is for the museum worker a means of communication which if properly used
can help him to achieve his goal. Architecture can be a very direct and imme-
diate form of ‘public relations’ in the best sense of the term.
As the conditions on which museum design is based vary so greatly from
one museum to another and as it is in any case a fairly unusual assignment for
an architect to be asked to design a museum, there are very few systematic
analyses of museum design, although a wealth of written material exists for
such buildings as schools and hospitals. The approach outlined here can there-
fore only be seen as an introduction to the subject, which must be subjected to
further analysis and expanded in many respects. It should also be noted that
in the absence of exact data in many spheres we have at times only been able
to base our discussion on unverified assumptions. In some spheres these
assumptions could be used as a basis for experiment, or at least for further
discussion. This work can therefore be regarded as a foundation on which
successive layers of new knowledge can be built, after first being checked by
experts in the basic sciences. We have indicated a way of tackling many indi-
vidual problems, of closing gaps in our knowledge and of exchanging experi-
ences in the sphere of museum design. Most work remains to be done in the
practical held, the surface of which we have only been able to scratch, and many
technical details will require closer attention before they can be built into the
final edifice. It is therefore absolutely essential that systematic research in the
field of museum architecture should be pursued on a world-wide scale, experi-‘
ments carried out and the results made available to all. Everyone concerned
should take part in this work and if our essay has helped to convince anyone
of this it has achieved its aim.
[Tradated from Germas]
Appendixes

Museums are not institutions which can be ation, decides to found a museum devoted to an estimate of the cost and the time required
reproduced in an indefinite number of copies a particular subject, with its own aims, its for completion,
from a single, specific model. Museums take particular size, its own statutes, on a given After consulting the museologist, the
various forms, depending upon: site, and in accordance with the resources client adopts the plan, pending further
I. The relative importance given to, the which they are able to command for the inquiries.
three major purposes of the museum: purpose. During the second phase, the main
study and documentation, conservation, and As the client, they commission a museol- contractor, who remains in constant touch
education and culture. ogist to establish the museum’s programme, with the museologist, draws up a detailed
2. The nature of the major discipline or allocating suitable funds for the purpose. project, including working plans and an
discipIines covered-arts, the sciences of In order to draw up the programme, the indication of the estimated cost of the
man, nature and the universe, advanced museologist begins by obtaining all relevant carcassing, the finishings and the fittings
technologies-and the forms of presentation information from the client and from and fixtures.
-monodisciplinary, multidisciplinary or other sources. With this information to Finally, after consulting the museologist,
interdisciplinary. hand, and keeping in constant touch with the client adopts the final plan, the financing
3 . The architectural characteristics of the the client, he draws up the programme as arrangements and building schedule.
museum, according as to whether it is: follows: specification of the museum’s Work then begins on the implementation
(a) a new building or one adapted for the operational units and sub-units by categories of the plan, in accordance with the agreed
purpose and which may or may not be an of premises, together with a summary schedule. The main contractor remains
historic building, with or without its own assessment of the respective surface areas and responsible until completion of the work
surroundings; (b) a systematic open-air the purposes of the premises (which may be: for the building operations carried out by
museum, with or without the addition of public foyer ; exhibition galleries ; semi- the individual contractors and for the cost
buildings; (c) a natural park. public meeting-rooms and halls for orga- of the operations.
There is, for example, a world of difference nized activities; semi-private documentation The client is kept constantly informed
between a museum which has a research rooms; rooms reserved for specialists; of the progress of work jointly by the
centre and one which has not, between an private workrooms; offices for the director main contractor and by the museologist.
American-style ‘art- centre2 and a museum and the scientific, technical and admistra- Minor changes may possibly be made
designed to provide cultural cross-references tive personnel; technical equipment store- during the execution of the plan, on the
to the scientific activities of the university rooms and stock rooms). initiative of the museologist or the main
to which it is attached, between an art In drawing up this programme, the contractor, subject to the approval of the
gallery and an open-air museum of sculpture, museologist enlists the services of specialists client concerning the nature and costs of
between a museum of pre-history connected in the various technical fields; their assist- such additional operations.
with certain archaeological sites and a ance, and the necessary verifications which Once work has been completed, the
museum of advanced technology, exhibiting this entails, continue to be provided client goes through the procedure of
locomotives and aeroplanes in its enormous throughout the operations up to and includ- provisional acceptance, then, after the
halls, between a zoo and a natural park, ing final acceptance. necessary time for inspection tests, final
etc. The client adopts this programme, acceptance.
However various their forms, there is pending the receipt of further information. The client is likely to be spared a great
nevertheless one thing that all museums Then, in consultation with the museo- many technical and financial difficulties,
have in common, the process by which logist, the client organizes a national or legal complications and frustrations if the
they are initially programmed and planned. international competition for the purpose of work of programming and planning thc
Let us attempt to summarize the stages selecting an architect, or appoints an project is carried out properly, whilst the
of this process as it applies in the case of a architect directly, as the main contractor. architect can derive great satisfaction from
’ new building. On the basis of the programme, and of applying his professional skills to coping
In the first instance, realizing that a the estimated cost of the operations, the with the technical problems involved.
gap exists in the network of national main Contractor or architect draws up the
museums, a public authority, or a group of plan. This plan takes the form initially of
citizens formitig themselves into an associ- a summary specification, together with
- outline plans, a study of the physical
I. I? May 1974. characteristics and accessibility of the site, I GEORGES
HENRIRIVIBRE
Appendixes 269

II Climate and museum architecture


in South and South-East Asia

The problem The area lying between the tropics of


Cancer and Capricorn is known as the
It is well known that preservation of art tropics. Climatically, this area has been
objects is intimately connected with the divided into several zones, bit the region
climate of the environment surrounding in which we are interested, South and
them. Too high a temperature coupled South-East Asia, can be divided into three
with low humidity produces a condition main climatic zones.
in which many types of objects deteriorate These are: (a) the hot dry zones (Iraq,
rapidly. Palm leaves loose their flexibility Iran, Pakistan and part of India); (b) the
and start crumbling; cracking in woodwork monsoon zones or hot wet-dry zones
starts and paint layers in paintings tend to (Burma, India, Thailand); (c) the hot humid
flake off the support. Similarly, high zones (parts of South India, Sri Lanka,
temperature and constant high humidity Indonesia, Malaysia, etc).
create a condition in which micro-orga- To these main climate types, we could
nisms and insects thrive; paper becomes include two secondary climatic zones which
limp, and corrosion of metals is rapid. are due to the geographical position of
Sudden or repeated fluctuations of temper- land: the mountainous zones (parts of
ature and relative humidity, the two main Afghanistan, Himalayas) and the coastal
factors designating the climate of a place, areas.
may spell disaster for susceptible types of
objects. Wood, for example, expands when
the relative humidity of the atmosphere is Important characteristic of
increased and shrinks when the relative climate types
humidity is reduced. Constant movement of
the grains of wood gives rise to permanent HOT DRY ZONE
strains and cause it to crack eventually.
Air-conditioning is often recommended The hot dry zone is characterized by high
as a solution for the control of climatic day temperatures (annual mean of maximum
conditions inside a museum building. It is temperature in shade 37" C), cooler nights
no doubt the best means of ensuring a (annual mean 20' C) and low' relative
uniform climate in a closed space, but its humidity (10-55 per cent). There is a
high cost-both capital investment and large daily variation in temperature (mean
maintenance-makes its adoption in mu- daily variation approximately 23' C). The
seums of South and South-East Asia almost annual temperature variation is comparat-
impossible. There are instances where air- ively low (mean value approximately
conditioning units were installed, but had 1 0 ~ - 1 7 C).
~ Land is very dry, giving rise
to be abandoned later because the museum to wind-blown sand.
found the monthly bill of electricity and This type of climate produces desiccation
the salaries of maintenance staff too high and is hazardous for all types of organic
for its budget. The majority of museums in objects. Loss of humidity produces splits
developing countries will unfortunately find and cracks in wood.
themselves in this category.
It is therefore of great importance to HOT HUMID ZONE
consider whether any system other than
air-conditioning would have a sufficient The hot humid zone has a warm and
effect on the museum climate, whether continuously moist climate. Relative humid-
anything can be done, through orientation ity almost throughout the year remains
and designing of the museum building, high (55-100 per cent). The annual temper-
to control the indoor climate, if not fully, ature variation is not high (approximately
at least to a certain extent. It is not often 3"-5" C). The annual mean of maximum
realized that proper siting, orientation, day temperature in the shade is high (approx-
designing of roofs and windows, ceiling imately 36" C). The daily variation is not
heights and many other factors can have a high (5'-7' C). The sky is usually overcast.
tremendous inAuence on the microclimate. The landscape is green and there is con-
sequently no dust problem.
The continuous wet climate accelerates
Climate features the growth of micro-organisms. The water
level is also very high, and difficulty is
Climate is the result of many elements, experienced in the construction of base-
the main ones being temperature, humidity, ments. Conditions are not conducive
precipitation and sunshine. The climate of to human comfort.
any region is not determined by a single
climatic element. It is the result of the M O N S O O N ZONE
combination of all the climatic elements
there prevailing and is controlled by several The mónsoon zone has distinct dry and
factors such as latitude, land and water, wet seasons. Relative humidity is fairly
winds, altitude, mountains, oceans, etc. high during the rainy season (55-95 per
270 Appendixes

1x1
Vaulted roofs protect high windows,
shade walls and reflect a higher
proportion of solar radiation.

I 86
Wide roof projections keep the sun away
from the walls. The two-storey high
pierced screen keeps the windows and
walls behind cool and well ventilated.

cent). It drops during the season


(20-55 per cent).
Temperature during the summer season
is high (annual mean of maximum day
I 87 temperature in the shade is approximately
Internal court with fountains and plants 3 j C). There are three main seasons: cool,
O
cools the surroundings by evaporation. hot and rainy. The hottest month is very
It is roofed with a pierced screen which
helps to reflect solar radiation from the sky. warm, and the coolest month is not very
cool.
Marked differences of humidity during
dry and rainy seasons produce swelling
and shrinkage of materials which are
moisture-absorbing. Wood, cardboard and
paintings suffer greatly in this climate.

MOUNTAIN ZONE

Because of their geographical position,


areas such as the mountain zone have a
special climate. The day temperature is
lower as. compared to the surrounding
climatic zone. It decreases with height at the
rate of approximately I' C for every zoo
metres. Humidity is on the high side
(45-100 per cent). There is likelihood of
frost in these areas. Dust is not a great
problem.

COASTAL ZONE

Again because of their geographical position,


coastal areas have a climate slightly different
from that of the surrounding climatic
Appendixes 271

protected by sun-breakers or wide projec-


tions.
Buildings in the tropics need protection
from direct and reflective solar radiation.
Roofs and external walls are the main
victims of solar radiation, and unless
these are protected the interiors would
also be affected.
Roofs and external walls can be used to
minimize the effect of solar radiation in
two ways. First, reflective materials and
white or near-white paint can reflect away
much of the solar radiation from the
building. Secondly, the methods of con-
struction of roofs and walls can prevent
sunlight from reaching the interiors of the
buildings. Provision of external shades can
keep the buildings cool. Trees can provide
some shade, but in a museum building,
trees are a security risk providing easy
access to windows as well as to the roof.
Thermal insulation of roofs, a false ceiling
or a double roof can reduce solar radiation
considerably. Wide roof projections, use
of sun-breakers and proper materials of
construction can protect the external walls
to a great extent from solar radiation, and
the walls in turn will protect the interiors.
Exact sizes of the window openings
will be dictated by the requirements of a
particular zone, but in general they need
protection from the sun. Sun-breakers,
vertical, horizontal or a combination of
both, can protect windows from direct rays
while allowing much-needed glare-free light
inside the museum gallery. Windows
provide natural ventilation, which is needed
to some extent in all the zones of the
tropical climate. (Figs. 18j, 186, 187).
Ventilation can also be provided by
channelling the wind. Foz this purpose
windscoops or special,screens are installed
on the roofs to divert the wind to channels
I XY which reach the rooms. This technique has
Traditional
roofscape showing been use in certain very hot dry parts of
the wind scoops on India for centuries. Normally one windscoop
the terraces of the is provided for each room, and in multi-
buildings. These storeyed building the channels reach all
channel wind into the way down. This type of ventilation is
the room and bring possible if the wind blows regularly in the
the high same direction. By providing such venti-
temperature down
considerably. lation, temperature can be brought down
from 48" C to 35' C . (Fig. 188).
Before planning a museum building,
it is necessary to decide whether the
building will be provided with air-condition-
zones. The difference lies mainly in high a constant factor, though its position in the ing or not. This decision will influence
humidity ( 5 5-100 per cent). Annual temper- sky may vary in different zones, but it is the planning. If a building is designed
ature variation is lower. Air in coastal much fiercer than in temperate or cool in order to obtain natural lighting and
areas is charged with salts which give climates. Protection from sun and solar ventilation, which can be supplemented
rise to many conservation problems. radiation is therefore the main consideration with additional artificial lighting and venti-
as regards walls, roofs, window-openings, lation, it will be moie functional than a
as well as orientation of buildings. building which has not been so planned.
Building design In a museum building, orientation is all In a museum building, natural lighting,
and structural requirements the more important because normally north with all its faults, cannot be discarded.
light is recommended as the most suitable It can be reflected, screened and diffused so
GENERAL PRINCIPLES natural light for galleries, and for conserva- that it is without glare and with less ultra-
tion studios; the north light is uniform, violet rays. Judicious use of natural light
When construction is planned in the tropics, and the colours are distinctly visible. can be most profitable and inexpensive.
the common characteristics of the different But, naturally, the opposite wall facing Light entering through high windows
types of climate, which affect buildings to a south has to be well protected from the reflected by the ceiling is adequate for
great extent irrespective of tonal variations, sun by large projections, , balconies or galleries. (Figs. 189, 190).
need first consideration. It will be seen sun-breakers which allow light but exclude Ceiling fans, different types of air-
from the above description that all the direct sun rays and heat. East-west orien- circulators and unit ventilators are helpful
zones are hot with normally high air temper- tation, which is a favourite of traditional to the circulation of air, but their location
ature, though some are hot humid, others builders in India, is not suitable for museums, should not be disturbing in the galleries.
hot dry or hot dry-wet. Sun in the tropics is unless the walls facing east and west are They can be built in.
272 Amendixes

I 89
A traditional example of the pierced
screen with an opening which allows
diffused sunlight and air into the building.
The interior is kept cool by the breeze.
Hot air can be kept out by covering the
screens with reed curtains; these can be
rolled up to allow a cool breeze to enter.

I9 0
An example of the protection of the
ground-floor wall by a verandah. The
upper-floor wall and the windows are
protected by the projecting roof and the
sun-breakers.

Special csaasideratiows be smaller than south windows, but should High ceilings do not make any apparent
have adequate screens, shutters and sun- difference in the temperature unless there is
shades. North windows need protection a double roof. In museums such a roof can
HOT-DRY ZONE from wind in winter. provide top-lighting introduced into the
West facing walls in particular need to be space between ceiling and the roof. The
This climatic zone has high air temperatures, thick. A 1j1/2-inch thickness of walls lighting can be natural as well as artificial.
dry air and dry ground. Absence of cloud normally provides a ten-hour time-lag. Courtyard planning of a compact type
or vapour intensifies solar radiation, which Alternatively, cavity walls are considered would function effectively for this zone.
dries the air still more. Owing to dryness of effective for blocking out heat transmission. Enclosed courtyards retain heat during
ground, very little vegetation or plant life East and south walls can be of light con- winter and allow quick radiation of heat
is possible, and solar radiation is reflected. struction if protected by overhangs or and cooling during summer. They can be
Use of dark colours for exposed ground sun-breakers. landspaced with fountains and green plants
near the buildings will decrease reflective A 41/3-inoh thick R.C.C. slab with 3 to 4- and can be utilized as sculpture courts or
radiation. Fountains and trees should be inch lime-concrete or mud-concrete layer relaxation areas in museums.
added in order to cool the surroundings, provides an eight-hour time-lag for flat
but they should be kept away from the roofs.
building to avoid termites. For maintenance of desirable humidity HOT-HUMID ZONE
Humidity being low in this zone, doors inside galleries and for cooling the interiors
and windows are kept closed; this restricts by circulation of cool air, desert-coolers can This zone has moderately high temperatures
the entry of hot air into the building. Small be used. but moist air and damp ground. Cloud and
window openings high up in the wall Airborne sand or dust storms, high vapour act as a filter to solar radiation;
allow the necessary air to enter and reduce temperatures, higher fluctuations of diurnal and damp ground, with a lot of vegetation,
the solar radiation. During the daytime, temperatures and sudden chilling during plants and shrubbery, reduces the heat
windows are kept closed, but cool air winter months create great stress in the of the surrounding area, which does not
should be introduced at night, particularly surface of building materials, and it is heat up easily. Air movement also helps in
in the museum galleries, to cool the interiors. advisable to use only such materials as cooling surroundings as well as interiors.
Windows on the east and west sides should will withstand these conditions. For human comfort natural ventilation
Appendixes '73

is a necessity, and breeze at body level Humidity fluctuates severely as per


is desired. External air must continually seasonal variations and causes wood and
replace internal air. This can be ensured comparable building materials to shrink
by wind-oriented large windows. In the and split. It also affects shrinkable clays. The
planning of museum galleries, this creates building materials have to be selected
problems, as most of the walls have to be carefully. Owing to heavier construction
spared for exhibitions and the display of of outside verandahs, i t may be necessary
objects; but if the orientation of the galleries to shut up the building during the day
is planned in view of the wind direction, and open it up during the night. This
comparatively smaller openings can provide needs special attention in museums.
enough ventilation. However, windows need
protection in the form of sunbreakers or M O U N T A I N ZONE
overhangs which should allow ventilation
and light but not glare and rain. The In this zone, the temperature is low because
angles of sun-breakers and window project- of high altitudes; humidity is high, and the
ions need particular care because they range of diurnal temperature is also fairly
should not obstruct the breeze. While high.
preparing an exhibition layout for the A heavyweight structure with a higher
galleries, it should be seen that partitions time-lag will prove satisfactory, as the
or screens are not erected which would temperature drops considerably at night.
obstruct natural ventilation. Cross-ventila- Ceiling insulation is useful in preventing
tion of the galleries is most important. rapid loss of heat by radiation at night.
Thick walls protect galleries from solar Sunlight is strong at higher altitudes and
radiation but external walls need protection contains a higher proportion of ultra-
from the rains. Water penetration can be violet rays, the sky being clear. Ventilation
avoided by adjustable louvers which should, is a necessity, as the humidity is high.
however, allow much-needed breezes. Measures for the hot humid zone can be
High humidity can be mastered for adopted to a certain extent, depending on
personal comfort by introducing air move- exact situation.
ments through fans, and air circulators.
Good air circulation prevents the growth COASTAL CLIMATE
of micro-organisms. High humidity also
affects building materials, and exposed Humidity in coastal areas is very high
metals or timber should not be used in this throughout the year. Rainfall is also gen-
climate. erally high. Ample provision of windows
to provide ventilation is subject to penetra-
MONSOON ZONE tion of rain-water and needs careful design-
ing. Wind is normally strong and some
This zone combines the characteristics of a areas are also affected by cyclonic storms.
hot-humid climate during the rainy season This necessitates compact structures and
and has a hot-dry climate during the rest of closed walls with adjustable window open-
the year. ings on the windward side. The construction
A special effort is needed in this zone to must be sound to withstand storms.
maintain surroundings like green lawns Building materials which can resist pene-
and fountains which are a great help in the tration of rain-water and corrosion due
dry season in cooling the surroundings and to sea-salts should be used.
reducing solar radiation. In the museum galleries most of the
Windows should be in generous propor- museum objects should be displayed in
tion as compared to hot and dry zones but closed showcases, as sea-salts are very
need protection from the hot summer sun harmful to them.
in the form of sun-breakers and wall or
roof projections. Pierced screens covering
the windows or verandah are very useful Conclusion
in this zone, allowing enough ventilation
in the,rainy season but cutting down direct The ideas presented here are only prelimi-
sun rays as well as solar radiation from the nary, showing that there is a close relationship
sky and the ground. In winter, they allow between the design of the museum building
much needed sun during the daytime. But and the conservation of the material.
behind the pierced screens, it is necessary This relationship is notable in the tropics
to provide shutters to the windows, which because the climatic factors are extreme.
can be closed when necessary to keep out Since air-conditioning is difficult for most of
the sun, cold wind and dust prevalent in the museums in South and South-East
this zone. Windows or ventilators as meas- Asia, museum designing to meet the
ures of permanent ventilation in the form requirements of conservation assumes still
of pierced screens are a popular feature of greater importance. It needs much more
traditional Indian architecture. However, research and practical experimentationbefore
such ventilators are always without shutters. concrete results can be achieved and firm
In museums they not only create cleaning recommendations made. Traditional archi-
problems but allow the entry of dust, tecture in South and South-East Asia as
which is very harmful to museum objects. elsewhere in the world is very much
The building should not be compact, influenced by the climate. Analysis of
but open and well ventilated. Walls of traditional measures to counterbalance the
galleries should be of heavy masonry, extreme climate provides some solutions
but should be protected by verandahs or which can be adapted to the present
balconies of lightweight construction; this conditions.
slows down the rate of cooling or heating
of internal galleries in extreme seasons. and SMITAJ. BAXI
O. P. AGRAWAL
New museums in the URSS

The spectacular revival of interest in along with problems pertaining to muse-


museums observed almost everywhere in ology, such as the constant extension of
the world today shows that this institution, collections and the development of the
one of the oldest in the history of human main functions of modern museums: con-
culture, is becoming more attractive and servation, study and education.
is entering upon a new phase in its existence. The U.S.S.R. now has a long-term plan
The flood of information distributed by the for the development of museums between
mass media, far from supplanting our 1975 and 1990. This document was prepared
first source of knowledge, the historic by museum specialists and architects work-
building, seems on the contrary to cast ing in collaboration. Particular stress is
a new light on its intrinsic merits of unique- laid on the organization of new museums
ness and authenticity. The lesson of the in the major new towns. The various
museum is indeed unique in its way, for specific suggestions made in the document
within its walls instructive information is can be summed up as follows: (a) a museum
combined in the most natural manner is one of the various institutions whose
with sensual impressions to offer that special function is to provide information and
intellectual pleasure which makes a museum which are essential elements in the nucleus
visit such a memorable event. A museum is around which a city is built; (b) museum
neither a mausoleum nor a temple. However, architecture should reflect the particular
by the very nature of its function, which nature of the collections and of the national
is to perpetuate the historical experience of and climatic conditions; (c) the interior of a
the human race, it selects the most significant museum should be so arranged as to ensure
of such buildings and presents them in the that the main administrative and functional
form of models or plans. Hence the vast areas are linked in the most convenient
potentialities of the museum’s contribution way for both visitors and staff, and that the
to man’s spiritual world. widest use is made of new display techniques.
The present network of museums in the The development plan also provides for the
U.S.S.R. consists of a multitude of vari- systematic training of specialists in muse-
ously specialized museums amply covering ology.
the different branches of culture, art, science The implementation of this programme
and technology and systematically distributed must be organized in a different way at
over the whole country. All the admin- each stage. At the first stage, the work
istrative and cultural centres of every consists in calculations: the figures concern
republic, territory and region possess the size and type of the collections of the
museums, special attention being given to future museum, the proportion of exhibits
their organization in the national republics. to reserve stocks, annual acquisitions, all
In the Soviet Union, the building of these being the factors which determine
new museums and the modernization of old rhe areas of display rooms and storage rooms.
ones are included in State plans for cultural Provision is made for special rooms for
development. In drawing up these plans temporary exhibitions, which occupy an
all the diverse requirements of modern increasingly important place in the activities
life are borne in mind. Specifically, this of a modern museum. The number of
means taking into account changing social visitors, the rate of growth, the amount,
conditions, urban growth, increasing leisure types and methods of public information
191 time (the working day is continually being work are assessed in order to compile the
DOM-MUZEJ V. I. LENINA(Lenin
Memorial Museum), Ulyanovsk, I 970. shortened), the trend in general educational list. of ancillary areas, defïning their functions
Architects: B. Mezentsev, M. Konstantinov, and cultural level (in I972 general secondary and parameters-lecture rooms, club rooms,
G. Issakovitch. educati6n became compulsory for all), entrance hall. This is the task of the museum
Appendixes 27 5

I93
GOSUDARSTVENNYJ LITERATURNYJ MUZEJ
(Museum of Russian Literature), Moscow.
The individual rooms are arranged
according to themes round a central hall.
General view (model). Architects:
Y . Rabaev, V. Talikovski, G. Savchenko,
I. Diachenko, L. Enchenko, E. Shpakov-
skaya, T. Itkina, A. Lvov. Engineers:
M. Schwechman, I. Kritchevskaya,
V. Vanag.

staff, who also specify their needs in regard premises, the itinerary for visitors, the Ulyanovsk Memorial and the branch of the
to services premises, restoration workshops, arrangement of displays. The wide variety Lenin Museum in Tashkent, inaugurated on
laboratories. of types of museum obviously affects the the centenary of Lenin’s birth, are major
At the next stage, the design study is details of the preparatory study. The architectural works. Both are situated in the
entrusted to the architects. The figures installations, functional organization and centre of important towns which are rapidly
are now turned into concrete shapes. architectural problems which are related developing and have a rich history. (Figs.
Museums cannot be standardized: the urban to museum work are the subject of analytical 190, 191).
site and the nature of the collections are surveys and synoptic reports undertaken At Ulyanovsk, Lenin’s birthplace, the
taken as the starting-point for the work of at the Central Institute for Research on great man’s memory is bound up with
finding an essentially original answer to the Buildings for Cultural Purposes and Sports. the steep banks of the Volga and the
architectural problem. In preparing their This institute is responsible for reviewing peaceful lanes lined with cottages, mostly
design, the architects draw on both national and testing the application of scientific timberbuilt. How was a monument on a
and foreign experience. Nevertheless, the principles in all types of public buildings, grand scale to be fitted into the dilapidated
creation of a new museum is always the including museums. setting of Lenin’s childhood and ado-
outcome of a long search for the best Many new museums have sprung up in lescence? The architects have fully succeeded
architectural solution and a careful study the U.S.S.R. over the past decade. Memorial in solving this problem: the memorial has
of the functions to be catered for, due museums, which are very popular, are by merged into its urban environment as if
allowance being made throughout for far the most numerous. Their purpose is to it had always been there. The design of
possible future extensions. perpetuate the memory of great historical this multipurpose complex, comprising
The work on the design itself is preceded events, individual or collective exploits and the museum proper, a large concert hall and
by a detailed study of the collections. great personalities, and this is why they a political education centre, conveys a
Architects and museologists hold joint hold a particularly strong appeal for the strong sense of unity. In the centre are
discussions from which the general plan public. For the same reason, the style of preserved the cottages which were the
should emerge. The purpose of their the architecture and the aesthetic quality homes of the various members of the
consultations, which will not be discon- of the design play a leading part in the Ulyanov family. This is the memorial
tinued until the study is completed, is to success of this kind of museum. part of the exhibition. The original features
determine the functional layout of the The group of buildings forming the of each cottage have been restored, inside
Appendixes

194 as well as out. In this way, history is woven monumental work is reflected in the
MuzEJ T. % & E " m J (T. Sh"-Iko into the fabric of the architectural plan to architecture of the Velikie Luki Museum.
Museum Of Art), (Kazakhstan)* form a monument which is harmoniously This building, which perpetuates the
Architects: E. Kuznetsova, O. Naumova.
Engineers: M. Kashlarski, 2. Sukhanova. designed around a sing1e theme' memory of the young people killed in the
The Lenin Memorial exhibition occupies Great Patriotic War, bears the name of
a room in the central building which lends Aleksandr Matrosov, who met a hero's
itself to all manner of modifications in order death at the age of 19. The white wall area
to accommodate the steadily increasing rising above the entrance to the glass-
number of acquisitions. Its sixteen sections enclosed ground floor serves as a support for
are spatially differentiated only by the a symbolic composition in sheet-steel.
arrangement of the material displayed. The wall overhangs the spot where Matro-
Monumental art plays an active part in sov's k.o7~~~onzaZmembership card is displayed,
the exhibition by contributing stained glass, this being the centre-piece of the exhibition.
sculptures and mosaics. The visitors' In the semi-darkness, a shaft of light falls
itinerary ends in the Lenin Room, which is on it from above. The memorial also
the thematic and architectural heart of comprises the tomb of the young hero
the museum and of the whole memorial. with a funerary sculpture and the obelisk
(It is in this room that official ceremonies erected to the memory of the soldiers who fell
take place, investitures are held, etc.) The in action when the town was liberated in
function of the memorial is not solely 1943.The centre of the complex is Alek-
to perpetuate the memory of the past: it sandr Matrosov Square, which is an open
incorporates important public institutions space raised above the surrounding area, on
necessary for modern urban life, such as which there stands the main part of the
an institute of education, a cultural centre, memorial, namely, the museum. The slope
an opera-house, an hotel, a shopping centre. down from the square has been made into
The Lenin Museum in Tashkent is the an amphitheatre for assemblies, meetings
first memorial of this kind in Central and big demonstrations.
Asia. The project features the national The memorial complexes and the museums
characteristics of Uzbek architecture, which built at Salaspils, Krasnodon, Katyn,
is distinguished by the simplicity of its Erevan and Baku are also famous. An
general form and the very elaborate style essential feature of this type of museum is
of the decorative elements. that it represents a synthesis of all the arts.
In particular, the link with tradition is There is practically no end to the variety
implicit in a ground-plan boldly designed of themes handled in museum work. It
around one central point and in the orna- is clearly the main task of the architect to
mental character of the façades. The central reflect the specific aspects of each theme.
point is the great hall around which display The project for the new Museum of
areas are provided on two levels. The red Literature to be built in the centre of
stone surface of the walls, broken by the Moscow has been prepared by architects
white stone of the plaques bearing inscrip- and museologists working together. The
tions, combines with the abundance of aim of the exhibition is ro offer a panoramic
light to create a most impressive atmos- introduction to the history of Russian
phere of majesty. The exhibition, which is literature, to throw the crucial periods
not divided up by partitions, opens on to the into relief, highlight the work of the great
central hall. It includes nearly 3,000 texts, writers, show the broad trends in modern
first editions of Lenin's works, models of times.
memorial sites, works of art inspired by his The visitors' itinerary follows a vertical
life, A great deal of the museum's activity pattern, starting on the third level and
is concerned with lectures and excursions, going down in chronological order from
for most visits terminate in the lecture room. the beginnings of Russian literature to our
The same desire to produce an original own time. A room is devoted to each
Appendixes 277

trend or school, all the rooms being arranged completion. This museum will put the racter of the exhibition ‘devoted to the
around the central hall. The exhibition as a finishing touch to the general appearance of work of the remarkable Lithuanian painter
whole is so designed as to give a very the centre of the city, which already has a and composer of that name dictated the
comprehensive picture of the general theatre, a circus and a wedding hall. simple compact lines of the building and
development of Russian literature (Fig. 193). The gallery’s collection comprises 10,000 the quiet style of the interior decoration.
This museum will have a rich collection works by artists from Kazakhstan, Russia, Works by Csurlionis can be heard in the
of works of art and objects used in the the U.S.S.R. and Western Europe, and music room, while his pictures are hung in
home, which recreate the atmosphere of a includes products of the craftsmen of India, display areas built as projecting units on
period. Lighting poses a special problem China and Japan. The collection is steadily different levels rising from the entrance,
in this type of museum. As the keeper’s increasing, at the rate of about 300 items a each row representing one period. The
main concern is to ensure that the conser- year. distemper painting on cardboard is protected
vation of manuscripts and old books is The display areas are arranged around an by special glass frames.
not jeopardized by exposure to full day- inner courtyard so that all the sections A series of new museums is to be built in
light, there are no windows in the walls. are easily accessible to visitors enabling Moscow in the next few years. The Academy
Skylights in the ceilings spread a diffused them to choose whether to see them of Sciences is to have a Museum of Palaeon-
natural light, which is combined with consecutively or selectively. The building is tology and museums are planned for
artificial lighting. The highly varied layout completed by the glass-sided pyramid of music, the theatre and the applied arts.
of the internal display areas contributes to the central hall, which houses the display Construction work on the U.S.S.R. Art
the effectiveness of the exhibitions. of sculpture. The museum is also equipped Gallery is being completed. Lastly, we
More and more art museums are bcing with a group of special exhibition rooms, should mention the events of major impor-
designed and constructed in most of the storage areas, studios, a library, restoration tance which are the competitions organized
Soviet Republics. Fine arts museums are workshops and technical services (Fig 194). recently for designs for the new premises of
being completed at Tashkent, Frunze, A large number of smaller art museums the country’s biggest museums, the Lenin
Nukusgand Erevan. At Alma-Ata, capital of have also been opened recently in many Museum and the Museum of the Revolution.
Kazakhstan, the construction work on the places. The Csurlionis Museum at Kaunas is
Taras Shevchenlio Art Gallery is nearing a noteworthy example. The intimate cha- IRINA
ANTONOVA
and V. REVYAKIN

IV The building starts with a programme-


but where does the programme end?

You have been given the responsibility of ming is a process, and to proceed by succes-
producing the programme for a new sive approximations, starting with the
museum building. Simple?No. Just put down roughest ratios of cost per square unit
on a piece of paper a list of all the functions of floor space.
you would like to see included, with a The second fallacy lies in the reality
number next to each item for the amount that, in practice, the flow of even pro-
of space it should have. Then hand it grammatic ideas is not one way. As the
over to the best architect you can find, building begins to take shape, it is apt to
and he will translate thcse concepts into suggest functions. Some space allocations
beautiful forms. I are negotiable according to opportunities
There are, in reality, at least three basic introduced by the design and priorities set up
fallacies to such an Arcadian formulation. by the client. Whatever the fashionable
The first is that the god Mammon raises shibboleths of our post-Bauhaus age,
his head from the very outset, and that function follows form in the real world as
whatever is done must involve an analysis much as the other way around (although a
of the available and potential resources in a well-kept secret among the architectural
world where construction costs may be fraternity). There is no need to feel guilt;
rising, as in the United States, by I per cent a symbiosis is just as fashionable and probably
month, or 12 per cent a year. To match the healthier. The key, however, is again the
scope of a project to its probable cost requires recognition that programming is a process,
the involvement from the outset of an archi- analogous in some ways to the more
tect (not necessarily the eventual designer of familiar one of expository writing. The
the building), people versed in construction, architect, too, proceeds from a very rough
and people involved in the provision of the outline through succeeding stages of greater
funds. At this stage it seems that the and greater specificity, down to the final
costs cannot be known until the building working drawings for every centimetre of
is designed, and the building cannot be the finished structure.
designed until the costs are known. The The character of the undertaking as
only solution is to recognize that program- process is further dramatized if the owner
278 Appendixes

I9J chooses ro construct the project by the cross-purposes with his client. This pheno-
NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART,Washington. so-called ‘fast-track ’method. In a period menon is all the more unexpected since,
Left, the ancient building; right, the new of rising costs, the most economical way particularly in the case of an art museum,
extension building. Plan of the concourse to proceed may be to begin the time- both client and architect share to such an
level, underground. unusual degree an aesthetic orientation. One
consuming excavation before the building
is designed in complete detail. Particularly of the functions prescribed in a museum
if the project is large and complex, one building’s programme should be beauty;
saves the money otherwise eaten away while the structure should embody in its design
waiting for the finished plans. This method the standards of visual imagination and
precludes putting a final set of documents cultural excellence that the institution
out for competitive bidding; but the theory it houses strives to foster. By virtue of its
is that in the case of a unique building civic importance, and the values the
such as a museum, which is apt to be out museum strives to preserve, a degree of
of the experience of most builders, a monumentality is inevitable. But no one
contractor would have to put such a in the business of operating a museum need
large contingency factor inro bis bid that be told that beauty and monumentality are
the owner is better off with a contract not enough. To end with a museum that
based on cost plus a fixed percentage. works takes more than presenting an
Priorities for design completion are then architect with a sheet of paper. The museum
set by the ‘critical path’ of what needs to be professional must, as a continuing process,
built next, and the programming thus fight for every function that he wants the
continues actively long after the basic new building to perform.
design of the building has been arrived at. From the early days, some six years ago,
The third fallacy is in many ways the in which the writer was assigned by the
most important, the most complex and the trustees to begin planning for a second
most unexpected. It is that any architect building for the National Gallery of Art in
good enough to be chosen for a project of Washington, everyone consulted who had
the cultural importance of a museum is recently completed a building project of
going to be subtly but fundamentally a t his own gave the same advice. One cannot
Appendixes 7-77

be too Careful about reviewing what the visitor is to avoid being blinded and his
architect proposes, down to the placement rapport with the imaginative world of the
of a thermostat on an office wall. Some of object is not to be intruded upon unnecessar-
those asked even suggested hiring an ily. Lighting of the works of art is the most
additional architect just to sit on the client’s difficult and controversial problem both the
side and review the plans. Not even the architect and his client must face. It may well
professional designer can ever visualize be that no completely satisfactory solution
completely the effect of a finished structure has ever been reached. Without attempting
in three dimensions, and for the layman to discuss it here, it should be remembered
it is all the trickier. The non-specialist finds that conservation of objects demands less
himself in a new medium, where he generally light; excitement by the architecture demands
must rely for alternative options on the more.
same designers who are pushing their In the area of service to the public,
own solution as the best one possible functions of the most prosiac kind must
And that solution will be the best, if they be championed by the planning staff if
are competent, according to an underlying they are not to be ignored by architects
set of criteria that do not, however, necessar- for whom they become blemishes on the
ily match yours. design purity of the conception. Drinking
To illustrate the range of functions the fountains, lavatories, public telephones,
process of programming must oversee smoking lounges, checkrooms; shelter while
would be to fill this special issue of Museum. waiting for opening time, places to meet
Suffice it to touch here on the three basic others or have coffee in pleasant surround-
areas of display, public services and ings; wheelchair storage, ramps and lava-
behind-the-scenes. tories for paraplegics; places to write a
If it is an art museum you are building, postcard, and post it; information desks, 196
inventory storage space for the sales facility, HIRSHHORN MUSEUM AND SCULPTURE
the loyalty of the museum staff will be to GARDEN,Washington.
the individual works of art; that of the signs that communicate without cluttering- This photograph reached us just as the
architect, to the aesthetic integrity of the the lists never seem to end. issue was going to press. It shows a new
building as a whole. As buildings are Finally, all the areas off view to the and important construction by the
experienced over time, inside and out, public will naturally tend to inspire less Smithsonian Institution to which we shall
in three dimensions, and at very large of the architect’s enthusiasm than the return in a subsequent issue. We are hoping
scale, no individual art object can compete public spaces. Here, therefore, the process of that readers will keep us informed of
with them. At the same time, the experience programming the building must be partic- new museum ventures in different‘parts
ularly vigilant. Adequate art’ storage for the of the world so that we can draw
of that object is this kind of building’s attention to them in the review’s ‘Museum
ultimate point. The architect will naturally future, designed for convenient study and Notes’. (Editor’s note.) 1
.
:

want visual control over everything the research; well-thought-out and secure spaces
public sees; he must be led to realize that for packing and unpacking; support for
the nearest analogy to what he is designing heavy sculpture all along its route to display;
is that of a theatre, where the beauty and adequate space for the preparation of
excitement of the building should put the exhibits and the storage of unused cases
audience in a mood of heiglitened awareness, and pedestals; elevators and corridors of
but where, ultimately, other artists must be suitable dimensions for very large objects;
allowed to take the stage. a logical flow from shipping dock to I’ 1

Objects require settings of their own. registrar to photo lab to conservation to


Most critical, perhaps, is the relationship storage; convenient places for guards to rest
between the scale of the object and the and provision for both female and male
scale of the spatial volume with which guards; conduits for possible future require-
it must contend. The object cries out for ments of audio-visual and computer tech-
containment, dominance of its environment, nologies; perimeter and internal security
and insulation from an architectural schema systems; services for scholarship, including
too large for it to handle. Modern archi- provision for library growth and future
tecture, on the other hand, revels in open, automated data retrieval systems; housing
interpenetrating spaces, and reminders of the for mops and floor-cleaning machines,
structural system that subordinate subspaces access to light fixtures for re-lamping, and
to the total building. in general the maintenance implications of
As requirements for display will undoubt- every aspect of the design-here again no
edly change in the future, ‘the museum amount of concentration will ever seem
needs flexibility, This is particularly true as to produce an exhaustive list.
the activities of a museum develop, and Programming a new museum is thus not
it comes to serve a variety of civic and an act. It is an ongoing, painstaking and
quasi-performing-arts functions. The archi- continuously interacting process. The ability
tect, however, naturally wants to set the of a good architect to come up with
forms once and for all. imaginative and functional solutions that
The security and preservation of the satisfy the programme and are also beautiful
work of art on display will inevitably mean is an uncanny phenomenon to watch. But
more to the museum’s staff than to the architects will often repeat the truism that a
architect. Atmospheric control, the preven- building can be no better than its client;
tion of theft or of damage in times of and the opportunity of those engaged in the
violence, all tend to require a building in the professional aspects of museums to help a
form of an air-conditioned vault. Modern new museum happen, and keep it from
architecture, on the other hand, cherishes happening wrong, presents one of the most
openness and a sense of invitation. Percep- rewarding challenges that any career could
tion of the out-of-doors and the flow of offer.
indoor-outdoor space rank high in the
architect’s desiderata; but if introduced at all,
they must be rigorously controlled as at the
Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon, if the J. CARTER
BROWN
280

MUSEUMS I

Neue Musmmskunde. VEB Deutscher Verlag Museum architecture: projects and recent
ARCHITECTURE
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Arcbitectzrral Forum. Whitney Publications Masezmskzinde, Verlag Walter de Gruyter
Inc., New York, N.Y. 10022 (United plans.
& Co., I Bedin 30 (West Berlin).
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Architectural Revieiv. The Architectural Museums, Washington, D.C. 20007
Press Ltd, London SWIH 9BY (United States). Qupb icated COU rses
(United Kingdom). The Museam Journal. Collin Sizer, Museums
L’Architecture ZAzdourd’baL Technic- Association, London (United Kingdom). Physiologie du musée: conservation. By
Union S.A., y2100 Boulogne (France). Georges Henri Rivitre, Universities of
L'Architecture Franfaise. Editions Paris I and IV. (UER art et archéologie.)
Ch. Rambert, 14 Rue de l’université,
75007 Paris (France). Books
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Copenhagen (Denmark). ALOI,Roberto. Musei. Milan, Ulrico Hoepli, GENERAL
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Batwelt. Bertelsmann Fachzeitschriften Verlag Arthur Niggli, 1965. WAETZOLD, Stephan. Planung fiir die
GmbH, West Berlin. LINICE,S.;NAGEL,S. Bautetz fur Bildung Museen am Tiergarten. Reprint from:
The Canadian Architect. Southam Business and Forscbutg2 Museen, Biblìotheken, Jahrbuch Preussìscber Kdtarbesit?,
Publications Ltd, Don Mills, Ontario Instit&. Giitersloh, Verlagsgruppe vol. IV, West Berlin, 1971.
(Canada). Bertelsmann, 1971. WALTERS, Christian. Konservatorische
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Tokyo (Japan). GmbH, 1969.
Kalohi. Royal South Australian Society of -. Humaner Sfädtebaa. Hamburg, 1968. Arcbifectwe of M2ise~1ms(MONA). New
GRAN JEAN, E. PhysiologischeArbeitsgestal- York, November 1968.
Arts, Institute Bldg, North T.C.E., Concours international pour la réalisation
Adelaide, S.A. 5000 (Australia).
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KIEMLE,Manfred. Ästbetische Probleme der du Centre Beaubourg. Rapport du jury.
Progressive Architecture. Reinhold Publishing Revne de Z’UIA (Paris), no. 12, 1971,
Corporation, Stanford, Conn. 06904 Arcbitektiir unter dem Aspekt der
Informationsästhetik. Quickborn, Verlag p. 20-33.
(United States). The Denver Art Museum, Denver.
U.I.A. Information. Union Internationale Schnelle, I 967.
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des Architectes, I Rue d’Ulm, Museum architecture. Masez{?~s-Assoctieo~z
Frankfurt and Vienna, Verlag Ullstein
75005 Paris (France). of India. New Delhi, February 1971.
Perk. Zollikofer & Co. A.G., Buch- und GmbH, 1965.
MALES,Abraham A. Informationstheoriee und Das Museum fiir Völkerkunde in Berlin-
Offsetdruck, 9000 St Gallen Dahlem, Berlin.
ästhetiesche Wahrnehminig. Cologne, Verlag
(Switzerland). DuMont Schauberg, 1971. New Museums, Moscow.
SCHMIDT-RELENBERG, Norbert. So?iologiee Singapore Science Centre. From: S I A J
Stüdtebari. Stuttgart, Karl Kriimer Verlag, (Singapore Institute of Architects
1968. Journal), November-December I 971.
I . See also selective bibliography compiled by the
SENKENBURG MUSEUM. Several publications. Victorian Arts Centre, Melbourne.
Unesco-ICOM Documentation Centre. Frankfurt. Walker Art Center, Minneapolis.
Aufhor ColZaborafor (Co-author of chapter on Frederick Kiesler, Werk, February 1959;
'Siting') SJ, Henie Onstad Museum, Oslo;
MANFRED
LEHMBRUCK 89, Collection, Museum of Modern Art,
BERNDRAUTENSTRAUCH New York; y j , Hakone Open Air Museum;
Professor, Dr. Ing., born Paris 1913.(Son Engineer, scientific assistant to Professor 97(a), (b), Sepp Mayer, Rottweil; 104, 138,
of the sculptor Wilhelm Lehmbruck.) Lehmbruck at the Technische Universität, 170, I ~ J 177,179,182,
, Manfred Lehmbruck;
Began his studies with the architect Brunswick 112, Wayne Thom, Santa Barbara;
Mies van der Rohe in Berlin and continued 140, Musée des Arts et Traditions
them at the Technischen Hochschulen in Populaires, Paris (A. Guey); 147, Colin
Berlin and Stuttgart. Obtained his doctorate Westwood, London; 1j3, Western
at the Technische Hochschule in Australian Museum (Vera MacKay),
Hannover with a thesis on 'Fundamental Perth; r j j , National Science Museum,
Problems of Modern Museum Tokyo; r j 8 , Rüdiger Dichtel, Stuttgart;
Construction'. Worked with Auguste Perret Picttrre credits I ~ J A.
, Pelegrie, Anvers; 166, Laurent
in Paris, until the war and afterwards Rousseau; Paris; 168, Ernest Mayer,
in several Swiss architectural offices. I , Roger Viollet, Paris; 3, Leonard Freed/ Winnipeg Art Gallery; 169, Kulturhistorisk
In 1950 went to Stuttgart to work Magnum; I I , Musée de l'Horlogerie, Museum, Randers (Lars Johansson);
independently as a freelance architect and La Chaux-de-Fonds; 22, Metropolitan r71, Ezra Stoller Associates; 173, Fototeta
in 1967 was appointed professor of building Museum of Art, New York; 23, 183, A.S.A.C. Biennale, Foto A.F.I., Venezia;
and draft plan at the architectural Hildegard Weber, Itöln; 26, Victoria Arts 174, Reinhard Friedrich, Berlin, 178, The
university of Brunswick. Since 1962 has Centre, Melbourne; 27, Siorid Neubert, Japan Architect (Taisuke Ogawa), Tokyo;
been an active member of ICOM. Miinchen; 28, 86(b), Bernd Kirtz, Duisburg; 180, Cornell University Photograph, Office
Constructions carried out: Reuchlinhaus 31(b), Jorn Freddie, Kcabenhavn; 34, Heinz of Public Information, Ithaca, N.Y.;
Cultural Centre, Pforzheim; Wilhelm Oeberg, Berlin, 3j, Centre Culturel du 184, Striiwing, Birkerod; 18j-8, 190, Omar
Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg; Federsee Plateau Beaubourg; 40, Stadsontwikkeling Prakash Agrawal, Delhi; I 89, Archaeolo-
Museum, Bad Buchau; school, industrial and Dienst Publieke Werken, Amsterdam; gical Survey of India, Government of India;
residential buildings, hospital, library at 41, Ecomusée de la Communauté Urbaine 191, Novosti Press Agency; 192, Filial
Hallenbad. Projects: Cultural Centre, du Creusot-Montceau-les-Mines; Central'nogo Muzeja V. I. Lenina,
Rottweil; Cultural Centre, Nicosia 42, Thomas HÖpkerlMagnum; 60, Gil Tashkent; 193, GosudarstvennyjLiteraturnyj
(Cyprus), etc. Work taken over from other Amiac, New York; 64, University Art Muzej, Moskva; 194, Muzej T. SevEenkogo,
architects: Art Museum, Neuss; Literary Museum, Berkeley (Colin McRae); Alma-Ata; 196, Smithsonian Institution,
Archives, Marbach; etc. 7 o ( b ) , Ryoo Hata, Tokyo; 80, Sketch after Washington, D.C.

AVAILABLE BACK ISSUES 1967. vol. xx:


No. 2 General number
Bilingual editions No. 4 Museums of Belgium
1958.Vol. XI: 1968. Vol. XXI:
No. I International Campaign for No. I Museums and education
Museums No. 3 The technical organization of an
No. 2 Czechoslovak museums international art exhibition:
No. 3 Regional and local museums Man and H is World, Expo '67,
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1959. Vol. XII: No. 4 General number
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1960. Vol. XIII: No. 314 Public attitudes towards
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1962.Vol. XV:
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1963. vol. XVI: 1972. vol. XXIV.
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1964. vol. XVIk of contemporary art in the West
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1965.Vol. XVIII. No. 4 General number
No. I Aesthetic principles and general 1973. vol. xxv.
planning of educational No. I /2 Museums and environment
exhibitions No. 3 The role of museums in today's
No. 3 The role of museums in Latin America. Round table
contemporary Africa organized by Unesco, Santiago
No. 4 Museums in India ( c u e ) , 1972
1366. Vol. X I X No. 4 General number
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