Naval Architecture Study Guide

ADVANCED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
& SHIP CONSTRUCTION

BACHELOR OF APPLIED SCIENCE (MARINE ENGINEERING)
PAUL FURNESS (EDITOR)
A U S T R A L I A N M A R I T I M E C O L L E G E
LECTURE & REFERENCE NOTES
FOR
ADVANCED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

& SHIP CONSTRUCTION
BACELOR OF APPLIED SCIENCE

(MARINE ENGINEERING)
PAUL FURNESS B.ENG (HONS)

(EDITOR)
A U S T R A L I A N M A R I T I M E C O L L E
G E
NOT FOR SALE
ALL RIGHTS OF ISSUE

RESERVED BY THE EDITOR
ALL ILLUSTRATIONS
BY PAUL FURNESS
(COPYRIGHT)
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EDITOR’S NOTE
These reference notes are intended to function as lecture notes in the subject JNE317 Advanced
Naval Architecture & Ship Construction for students of the Bachelor of Applied Science (Marine
Engineering) at the Australian Maritime College. The contents of these notes, including the
tutorial questions, form the examinable material for the subject.
It is important to stress that these notes are authored only in part by the editor. Due to significant
sections of these notes being edited extracts from the two primary reference sources, the editor
makes no claim of copyright on any text contained therein, and due acknowledgement is given to
the editors and authors of those two publications. As such, these notes are not intended for sale.
All illustrations (except Figure 1.6) are those of the editor and are therefore subject to copyright,
however, students of the Australian Maritime College are permitted to reproduce any of the
editor’s illustrations while enrolled.
All rights of issue of these notes remain with the editor and are restricted to undergraduates
enrolled at the Australian Maritime College and therefore copies of these notes may not be made
without the permission of the editor.
Paul Furness
Editor
June 2013
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The primary reference sources used for these notes are acknowledged below and at the beginning
of each module. Both are strongly recommended to students for further reading.
• Lewis, E.V., (Editor)

Principles of Naval Architecture
S.N.A.M.E., Jersey City 1988
• Clark, I.C.
The Management of Merchant Ship Stability, Trim & Strength
The Nautical Institute, London 2002
Further material has been referenced and/or extracted from publications of the IMO, including:
• Code on Intact Stability for All Types of Ships Covered by IMO Instruments
Resolution A.749 (18 )
IMO, London 1995
• Explanatory notes to the SOLAS regulations on Subdivision and Damage Stability

of Cargo Ships of 100 metres in length and over
Resolution A.684 (17 )
IMO, London 1993
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Contents
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CONTENTS
Page
UNIT 1 GEOMETRY OF SURFACE VESSELS
1 The Lines Drawing . . . . . . . 1
2 Hull Dimensions . . . . . . . 2
3 Significant Datum, Dimensions & Features of Form . . . . 4
4 Displacement & Weight Relationships . . . . . 6
5 Coefficients of Form . . . . . . . 8
UNIT 2 TABULAR METHODS OF INTEGRATION
1 General . . . . . . . . 15
2 Simpson’s Rules (Simpson’s First Rule) . . . . . 15
3 Simpson’s Second Rule . . . . . . 20
4 Intermediate Ordinates . . . . . . 22
5 Application of the Parallel Axis Theorem . . . . . 25
6 Application of Simpson’s Rules to Volumes . . . . 27
UNIT 3 MASS ADDITION, REMOVAL & TRANSFER
1 Introduction . . . . . . . 35
2 Centre of Gravity . . . . . . . 35
3 Shift in Centre of Gravity due to Addition (or Removal) of Mass . . 39
4 Shift in Centre of Gravity due to Movement of On-board Mass . . 41
5 Effect of a Suspended Mass . . . . . . 43
UNIT 4 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRANSVERSE INTACT STABILITY
1 Introduction . . . . . . . 47
2 Equilibrium (Positive, Neutral & Negative Stability) . . . 47
3 Metacentric Height (GM) & Transverse Metacentre (M) . . . 51
4 Curves of Statical Stability (GZ Curves) . . . . . 53
5 Tracking the Centre of Buoyancy . . . . . 58
6 KN & Cross Curves of Stability . . . . . 59
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Contents
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UNIT 5 HEELING MOMENTS & ANGLES, & FREE SURFACE EFFECTS
1 Heeling Forces . . . . . . . 65
2 Heeling Moment Curves . . . . . . 66
3 Heeling due to an Offset G (Angle of List) . . . . 67
4 Angle of Loll . . . . . . . 68
5 Free Surface Effect & Moments . . . . . 69
UNIT 6 THE INCLINING EXPERIMENT
1 General . . . . . . . . 77
2 The Principle . . . . . . . 77
3 IMO Res. A.749 Chapter 7 Extracts (Determination of Centre of Gravity) . 79
4 IMO Res. A.749 Annex 1 Extracts (Guidance for Conducting an Inclining Test) . 84
5 Inclining Test Procedure . . . . . . 87
UNIT 7 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIM
1 Introduction . . . . . . . 93
2 Longitudinal Centre of Flotation . . . . . 93
3 Tonnes Per Centimetre Immersion . . . . . 95
4 Longitudinal Metacentre . . . . . . 96
5 Trimming Moment (& MCTC) . . . . . . 97
6 Longitudinal Transfer of Onboard Mass . . . . 101
7 Change in Trim due to Addition/Removal of Small Masses . . . 102
8 Change in Drafts due to Change in Trim . . . . . 103
9 Determination of Drafts after Addition/Removal of Large Masses . . 105
10 Change in Trim due to Change in Density (& FWA) . . . 108
11 Draft Marks . . . . . . . 109
UNIT 8 THE PARTIALLY  AFLOAT CONDITION
1 Introduction . . . . . . . 115
2 The Dry-Docking Case . . . . . . 115
3 Calculating the Force P . . . . . . 119
4 Minimum GM0 and Maximum Trim for Dry-Docking . . . 120
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Contents
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UNIT 9 DAMAGE STABILITY
1 Introduction . . . . . . . 123
2 Subdivision . . . . . . . 123
3 Definitions of Fundamental Terminologies . . . . 124
4 Bilging Effects on Stability & Trim . . . . . 125
5 Implications for Stability & Trim . . . . . 131
6 IMO Subdivision Requirements for Dry-Cargo & Passenger Vessels . . 131
UNIT 10 RESISTANCE & PROPULSION
1 Introduction . . . . . . . 135
2 Frictional resistance . . . . . . . 135
3 Residuary resistance . . . . . . 136
4 Froude’s Law of Comparison . . . . . 137
5 Effective Power . . . . . . . 139
6 Propulsors . . . . . . . . 141
7 Marine screw parameters . . . . . . 148
8 Flow conditions for the propeller . . . . . 148
9 Slip ratio . . . . . . . . 150
UNIT 11 RUDDERS
1 General . . . . . . . . 153
2 Geometry & Forces . . . . . . . 153
3 Rudder Design . . . . . . . 158
4 Empirical formulae for rudder calculations . . . . 159
5 Steering gear . . . . . . . 161
UNIT 12 SHIP STRUCTURAL FRAMING SYSTEMS & COMPONENTS
1 Introduction . . . . . . . 163
2 Functions of hull structural elements. . . . . . 163
3 Systems of framing . . . . . . . 165
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Contents
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(continued)
SOLUTIONS TO TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
UNIT 1 Geometry of Surface Vessels . . . . . 177
UNIT 2 Tabular Methods of Integration . . . . . 181
UNIT 3 Mass Addition, Removal & Transfer . . . . 193
UNIT 4 Elementary Principles of Transverse Intact Stability . . . 197
UNIT 5 Heeling Moments & Angles & Free Surface Effects . . . 205
UNIT 6 The Inclining Experiment . . . . . 217
UNIT 7 Elementary Principles of Trim . . . . . 219
UNIT 8 The Partially-Afloat Condition . . . . . 231
UNIT 9 Damage Stability . . . . . . 233
UNIT 10 Resistance & Propulsion . . . . . 239
UNIT 11 Rudders . . . . . . . 245
UNIT 12 (No tutorial questions)
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The Geometry of Surface Vessels
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THE GEOMETRY OF SURFACE VESSELS
1
UNIT
References & Extracts from: Lewis, E.V. (Editor)

1 The Lines Drawing (or Lines Plan)
The complex curvature of a vessel’s hull surface is defined by the lines plan or lines drawing.
Precise and unambiguous means are needed to describe the surface as the vessel’s form must be
configured to accommodate all internals and provide all desired buoyancy, stability, resistance
and seakeeping characteristics. Additionally, the hull surface must be technically feasible in as
much as it can be constructed readily without the incursion of impractical costs.
The lines plan consists of orthographic projections of the intersections of the hull form with 3
mutually perpendicular sets of planes drawn to an appropriate scale. Figure 1.1 shows a lines
plan for a twin-screw vessel.
The profile shows the hull form intersected by the centreplane (a vertical plane on the vessel’s
centreline) and by buttock planes which are parallel to the centre plane and spaced for convenient
definition of the hull shape and identified by their distance from the centreplane. The
centreplane shows the profile of the bow and stern.
The waterlines plan displays the intersection of the hull form with planes parallel to the
horizontal base plane which is referred to as the base line. All such parallel planes are termed the
waterplanes. It is convenient to space most waterplanes equally by an integral number of metres
but a closer spacing is often used near the base line in the vicinity of the bilge where the shape of
the hull changes rapidly. In Figure 1.1 the full hull is shown, however, it is common and only
necessary to display one half-breadth due to the symmetry of the hull form.
The body plan shows the shapes of sections determined by the intersection of the hull form with
planes perpendicular to the buttock and waterplanes. Planes defining the body plan are known as
body plan stations or simply sections. These are usually spaced equally such that there are 10
spaces  or multiples thereof  over the waterline length, however extra stations may be
employed near the bow and stern at 50% or 25% of the normal spacing. Due to the symmetry of
the hull the body plan is often depicted as a combination of bow and stern half sections as shown
in Figure 1.1. By convention the forward (bow) sections are shown on the right-hand side of the
body plan and the aft (stern) sections are shown on the left-hand side.
Note:
By convention the bow of the vessel is shown to the right. In most countries the stations are
numbered from 0 (zero) to 10 from left to right, with the notable exception of the USA where
stations are numbered from right to left.
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0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10
5.0 5.0 m
4.0 4.0 m
DWL DWL
2.0 2.0 m
1.0 1.0 m
0.5 0.5 m
BL BL
0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10
MS
PROFILE
0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10
IV IV
III III
II II
I I
C.L. C.L.
I I
II II
III III
IV IV
0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10
MS
WATERLINES PLAN
IV III II I CL I II III IV
5.0 5.0 m
4.0 4.0 m
DWL DWL
2.0 2.0 m
1.0 1.0 m
0.5 0.5 m
BL BL
IV III II I CL I II III IV
BODY PLAN
Figure 1.1 Lines Plan for a twin-screw monohull vessel.
In order to simplify the calculation of underwater form characteristics it is customary to divide

the length (LBP or LWL  whichever is being used) into 10 or 20 (or even 40) equal intervals by
the body plan sections. These sections are known as stations. If, for example, 10 intervals were
used then 11 stations would result (including those at the extremities of the length), and would be
numbered from 0 to 10. If intermediate stations are used near the ends of the hull, these would
be numbered accordingly, such as 0.5 for an intermediate station between 0 and 1, and 9.5 for an
intermediate station between 9 and 10. (Refer to Figure 1.1.)
2 Hull Dimensions
The lines depicted on a lines plan represent the moulded surface of the vessel, a surface formed
by the inside of the hull shell or ‘skin’ (i.e., the outer edges of hull frames) in vessels of steel or
aluminium construction. In the case of vessels of composite construction (e.g. fibre-reinforced
plastic) the moulded surface is the outside of the hull. Dimensions used to describe the geometry
of a vessel’s hull are given in the following:
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2.1 Length Over All (LOA)
The length over all of a vessel is the extreme length of the hull measured along the vessel’s
centreline at its uppermost deck level. LOA does not normally include projections beyond the
ends of the hull formed by bulwarks, helicopter flight decks, stern A-frames, etc.
2.1 Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP)
.1 Forward Perpendicular (FP)

A vertical line in the profile view of a lines plan is drawn at the intersection of the design
waterline (DWL) and the forward side of the stem plating. This is known as the forward
perpendicular (FP). A slight inconsistency is therefore introduced by this definition, as the
forward side of the stem is on a surface external to the moulded surface shown in a lines plan.
.2 Aft Perpendicular (AP)

Within a hydrostatics context the location of the aft perpendicular (AP) for a vessel with
rudder(s) or azimuth thruster(s) is at the intersection of the DWL and the centreline of the rudder
stock or azimuth thruster axis (vertical shaft). In the design of naval vessels the AP may be
defined as the aft end of the DWL. This should also be the case for vessels propelled by
waterjets and surface drives. The length between perpendiculars (LBP) is the distance between
the forward and aft perpendiculars measured along the centreline.
2.2 (Design) Waterline Length (LWL)
Many consultancies will use the LBP as the basis for hydrostatic calculations, however it may be
argued that for both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic analyses it may be more accurate to use the
length of the design waterline (measured along the centreline). This may be the case when there
is significant waterline length aft of the AP if the AP is taken as the rudderstock centreline. If the
AP is defined as the aft end of the DWL then, of course, the LWL and the LBP are identical.
LENGTH OVER ALL (LOA)
DWL
LENGTH BETWEEN PERPENDICULARS (LBP)
AP FP
DESIGN WATERLINE LENGTH (LWL)
Figure 1.2 Definition of lengths.

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3 Significant Datum, Dimensions & Features of Form
3.1 Moulded Base Line
The moulded base line shown in the profile and body plan is shown as a straight horizontal line
and is an important reference datum, both for design and construction purposes, representing a
plane in space from which many vertical dimensions are referenced. It also represents the
bottom of the vessel’s moulded surface and so is coincident with the upper surface of the keel
plating. In the case of a vessel having a raked keel, the moulded baseline is shown parallel to the
DWL and may represent the bottom of the moulded surface amidships or at the AP.
3.2 Moulded Depth (DM)

The moulded depth of a vessel is the vertical distance from the moulded baseline to the underside
of the deck plating, measured at the vessel’s side.
3.3 Moulded Breadth (BM)

The moulded breadth is defined as the breadth of the hull, measured from the inside of the side
plating at the broadest part of the vessel.
3.4 Moulded Draft (dM)
The moulded draft is defined as the vertical distance from the top of the keel plating to the
waterline; i.e., it excludes the bottom plating thickness.
3.5 Extreme Draft (dEXT , dUSK)
The extreme draft is the draft with which the vessel operator is most concerned and is the vertical
distance from the lowest point of the keel to the waterline. The extreme draft is also known by
the nomenclature dUSK where the subscript (USK) refers to the underside of the keel.
3.6 Camber
Camber is the term given to transverse curvature of the weather deck (main deck). Camber is
useful for a deck where drainage is essential, but it additionally permits transverse structural
members to possess greater depth (and hence strength) at their mid-span where the greatest
bending stress may occur. Furthermore, camber contributes to longitudinal stiffness of the deck
as a whole. Camber is quoted as the vertical distance between the underside of the deck plating
on the centreline and that at the hull side.
3.7 Extreme Breadth (BEXT)
This is the maximum breadth of the hull.
3.8 Rise of Floor (or Deadrise)
This is the term used for the vertical rise (if employed) in the bottom plating between the keel
plate and the bilge strake. In small craft and in particular planing craft the term used is deadrise
and is quoted in degrees.
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EXTREME BREADTH
MOULDED BREADTH
DECK CAMBER
ROUNDED
SHEERSTRAKE
DWL
DM DM
dEXT dM
BILGE RADIUS
MOULDED BASELINE
FLAT
OF RISE OF
KEEL FLOOR
(DEADRISE)
Figure 1.4 Significant dimensions and features of form.
3.9 Bilge Radius
The bilge radius refers to the curved transition between the bottom plating and the ship’s side
plating. In smaller vessels, (especially planing craft) the bilge radius may be replaced by a sharp
transition, known as a chine.
3.10 Tumble-home
Tumble-home is the inward curvature of the hull above the waterline and is essentially an
obsolete feature rarely employed in modern design except in bulwarks. Tumble-home delays the
immersion of the deck-edge on vessels at large angles of heel.
3.11 Sheer
Sheer is the upward longitudinal curvature of the main deck sometimes employed to increase
bow height, reduce deck wetness, and to increase reserve buoyancy. It is measured as the
vertical distance between the deck height amidships and that at the respective perpendicular.
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3.12 Flare
This is the outward transverse curvature of the hull above the waterline and is always present in
the bow section (of a conventional bow) to avoid shipping water and to provide increased reserve
buoyancy. Excessive flare if featured in vessels operating in certain high sea states may however
result in high slamming stresses and structural damage.
SHEER (mm)
DWL
AP FP
Figure 1.5 The measurement of sheer.
4 Displacement & Weight Relationships
4.1 Archimedes’ Principle
The fundamental physical law controlling the static behaviour of a body completely or partially
immersed in a fluid is known as Archimedes’ Principle which states that a body immersed in a
fluid is buoyed by a force that equals the weight of the displaced fluid. Thus the weight is
considered to be a downward force that is proportional to the body’s mass; the equal buoyant
force is proportional to the mass of the displaced fluid.
If a rigid body is afloat in a fluid in static equilibrium, pressure forces act normal to the surface
of the body. Such pressure forces are proportional to the depth of fluid at any point and may be
quantified by:
P =  gh (1.1)
where: P = pressure (Pa or N/m2)

 = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h = depth (or head) of fluid (m)
For the body to be in equilibrium, the integration of the upward components of these hydrostatic
pressures over the wetted surface area (S) of the body is the buoyant force (or simply buoyancy),
and must be exactly balanced by the gravitational force of the body’s mass directed downwards,
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i.e., its weight. The mass of the fluid displaced by the body is equal to the product of its volume
and its density. Therefore the mass of a vessel and its contents is equal to the mass of displaced
water, i.e., its displacement (or mass displacement).
 =  (1.2)
where:  = mass displacement (kg or tonnes)

 = volume of displacement (m3)
 = density of fluid (kg/m3 or tonnes/m3)
Note:
The standard values of mass density for sea and fresh (pure) waters are:
 SW = 1025 kg/m3 or 1.025 tonnes/m3
 FW = 1000 kg/m3 or 1.000 tonnes/m3
It is evident that a fully immersed rigid body, such as a submarine, also experiences an upward
buoyant force equal and opposite to the weight of water it displaces. A totally submerged body
may weigh either more or less than the displaced water. For the body to be in equilibrium in its
submerged position it would have to receive, in the first case, and additional upward force, and in
the second case, an additional downward force.
WATERLINE
Figure 1.6 Buoyant forces on a floating body showing the net resultant vertical force
acting at the volumetric centroid (centre of buoyancy, B).
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4.2 Displacement & Centre of Buoyancy (B)
.1 Volumetric Displacement ()
The volume of the underwater portion of a vessel may be calculated using integration methods.
The result is known as the volumetric displacement at the waterline (draft) at which the vessel is
floating. The symbol used to denote volumetric displacement is , (the Greek letter nabla) and
the units used are cubic metres (m3).
.2 Mass Displacement ()
The mass of a fluid is the product of its volume and mass density (), therefore the mass of the
fluid (water) displaced by a vessel is equal to the product of its volumetric displacement and the
density of the water in which it is floating. The symbol used to denote mass displacement is ,
(the Greek letter delta) and the units used are tonnes. In common usage the term mass
displacement is often abbreviated to simply displacement.
.3 Centre of Buoyancy (B)
The centroid of the underwater portion of a vessel may be calculated by the principle of
moments, (using methods outlined later). This volumetric centroid is referred to as the centre of
buoyancy and represents a point through which the vertical buoyancy vector is considered to
pass. The centre of buoyancy is given the symbol B.
4.3 Fluid Medium Density Effects
A decrease in the density of the fluid in which a vessel floats requires an increase in the volume
of displacement, , in order to satisfy static equilibrium requirements. Therefore a vessel
moving from saltwater to fresh water, for example, experiences an increase in draft. The
centroid of the underwater volume will shift (both vertically and longitudinally) as a result of the
altered draft and consequent change in volumetric displacement. For example, an increase in
draft resulting from a decrease in fluid density causes a vertical rise in B with respect to the keel
as a result of the increased displacement volume, . The mass of the vessel will not have
changed and hence the mass displacement, , remains unaltered.
5 Coefficients of Form
In comparing hull forms, displacements and dimensions, a number of coefficients are used in
naval architecture. The coefficients of form are useful in power estimates and in expressing the
fullness (or conversely, fineness) of a vessel’s overall form and those of the waterplanes and
body plan sections.
5.1 Waterplane Area Coefficient (CW)
The waterplane coefficient is the ratio of the area of the waterplane area, AW, to the product of
the waterline length (or LBP) and moulded breadth of the vessel.
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AW
CW = (1.3)
LWL  BM
WATERPLANE AREA (AW )
BM
(WATERLINE)
LWL (or LBP)
Figure 1.7
5.2 Midship Section Coefficient (CM)
The midship section coefficient is the ratio of the immersed midship cross-sectional area (AMS)
to the product of the moulded breadth and the moulded draft.
AMS  AMAX 
CM =  or: (refer below)  (1.4)
BM  d M  BM MAX  d M 
If the maximum immersed cross-sectional area, AMAX occurs at some point other than midships
then the maximum area should be used for the calculation of CM and also for CP (see 5.4).
IMMERSED AREA OF
MIDSHIP SECTION
( AMS )
WATERLINE
dM
BM (WATERLINE)
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Figure 1.8
5.3 Block Coefficient (CB)
The block coefficient (CB) is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement to the volume of
a rectangular prism formed by the product of the LWL (or LBP), maximum moulded breadth and
mean moulded draft. [Refer to Figure 1.9.]

CB = (1.5)
LWL  BM MAX  d M
Values of CB at design displacement vary from about 0.35 for a very fine high-speed vessel to
about 0.85 for a very full low-speed bulk-carrier. For a given displacement and installed power,
the lower the CB the higher the speed.
10
WATERLINE
9
LWL 6
10
(or LBP)
5
9
4
8
3
7
2
6
1
5 IMMERSED VOLUME
0 ()
4
dM
2
1
BM
0
(W ATERLINE)
Figure 1.9 Ratio of volumes for block coefficient, CB .
5.4 Prismatic Coefficient (CP)
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The prismatic coefficient (CP) is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement to a prism
formed by the product of the LWL (or LBP) and the immersed midship cross-sectional area, AMS (or
the maximum immersed cross-sectional area, AMAX .
   
CP =  or:  (1.6)
LWL  AM  LWL  AMAX 
and since  = CB  LWL  BM  dM (1.7)
and AM = CM  BM  dM
CB  LWL  BM  d M
then CP =
LWL  CM  BM  d M
CB
= (1.8)
CM
10
WATERLINE
9
LWL 6 10
(or LBP)
5 9
IMMERSED VOLUME
() 4 8
3 7
2 6
1 5
IMMERSED MIDSHIP
0 4
SECTION AREA ( A MS )
3
or
dM 2 MAXIMUM IMMERSED
SECTION AREA (A MAX)
1
Figure 1.10 Ratio of volumes for prismatic coefficient, CP .
Note:
In view of the confusion which can arise when different definitions of dimensions  especially
length  are used by different designers in determining these coefficients of form, it has been
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suggested that LBP on single-screw vessels be used in their calculation, and LWL in the case of
twin-screw vessels. The editor’s preference, however, is to use LWL exclusively (i.e. in all cases).
Form coefficients should always be stated with respect to the draft (DWL or quoted in metres)
and length (LWL or LBP) employed in their calculation.
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TUTORIAL 1  GEOMETRY OF SURFACE VESSELS
Question 1
A raft 3 m long and 2 m wide is constructed of timber 0.25 m thick having a relative density of 0.7.
The raft floats in water of density 1018 kg/m3. Calculate the minimum mass which must be placed on
top of the raft to sink it.
(Ans. 477 kg)
Question 2
A box-shaped barge 65 m long and 12 m wide floats at a draft of 5.50 m in sea water. Calculate:
a) the displacement of the barge;

b) the draft of the barge in fresh water.
(Ans. a) 4397.25 tonnes, b) 5.637 m)
Question 3
A vessel, 53 m LBP, breadth 11 m, has a draft of 3.2 m and a CB = 0.73. Calculate the vessel’s
displacement in sea water.
(Ans. 1 395.94 tonnes)
Question 4
A ship 150 m LBP and 20.5 m breadth floats at a draft of 8 m and displaces 19 500 tonne. The
midship section area coefficient (CM ) is 0.94.
Calculate:
a) the block coefficient;

b) the prismatic coefficient;
(Ans. CB = 0.773, CP = 0.822)
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(continued)
Question 5
Indicate the following features on a sketch of a monohull surface vessel:
a) LBP f) dM k) tumble-home
b) LWL g) dUSK l) deck camber
c) LOA h) moulded baseline m) rise of floor (deadrise)
d) BM i) sheer
e) DM j) flare angle
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Tabular Integration Methods
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TABULAR METHODS OF INTEGRATION
(AREAS, VOLUMES & CENTROIDS)

2UNIT
References & Extracts from: Lewis, E.V.. (Editor)

1 General
For numerous analyses and applications it is necessary to calculate areas, volumes, centroids of
those areas and volumes, and other geometric characteristics of a vessel’s hull form when
floating at any prescribed waterline. Areas of immersed cross-sectional area at any body-plan
station and of each waterplane are of particular interest as these areas are used as the basis for
calculations of volumetric displacement. Due to the symmetry of the hull(s) of most vessels
about the longitudinal centreline plane most calculations may be performed for only one side of
the hull only and then multiplied by 2. Each of the half transverse sections, or half waterplanes
form a closed ‘curve’. The area enclosed may be found by integral calculus provided the curve is
described by a mathematical equation. As most lines delineating a hull form are not
mathematical curves it is customary to approximate the area by numerical integration methods.
These methods lend themselves readily to a tabular format and hence the use of spreadsheet
computing.
2 Simpson’s Rules
In order to evaluate these integrals for areas, volumes, centroids, etc., naval architects overcome
the limitation that most vessel lines are not represented by mathematical formulae by utilising
approximate rules of integration. A rule of integration assumes that the curve to be integrated is
closely approximated by a mathematical curve that has the same offsets (ordinates) as the actual
hull curve at a series of stations. The desired integrals are then approximated by taking the sum
of products of offsets and particular multipliers developed for each rule, and multiplying the sum
by an integrating factor. The rules most commonly employed by naval architects are Simpson’s
Rules which are part of a group of rules known as Newton-Cotes Rules.
2.1 Simpson’s First Rule
Simpson’s First Rule integrates precisely the area under a curve of the type y = a + bx + cx2,
which is a second-order parabola, by applying multipliers to groups of 3 equally spaced
ordinates. As many hull curves are not dissimilar to the parabola, the area so found is a close
approximation to that of the vessel and the rule is widely used in naval architecture. It may be
shown that Simpson’s First Rule also precisely integrates the area under a third order parabolic
curve of the form y = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 which passes through three given ordinates. Hence
Simpson’s First Rule is sufficiently accurate for most hull-based calculations.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
15
__________________________________________________________________________________________
y0 y1 y2
B C
h h
Figure 2.1
The curve to be integrated must be divided into an even number of spaces by equally spaced
ordinates. Thus referring to Figure 2.1:
h
Area ABCD = 1y0  4 y1  1y2  (2.1)
3
This rule may be applied repeatedly to determine the area of a larger plane such as for EFGH
shown in Figure 2.2.
F
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6
H G
h h h h h h
A1 A2 A3
Figure 2.2
h
Area A1 = 1y0  4 y1  1y2  (2.2)
3
h
Area A2 = 1y2  4 y3  1y4  (2.3)
3
h
Area A3 = 1y4  4 y5  1y6  (2.4)
3
__________________________________________________________________________________________
16
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Therefore the area EFGH is the sum of the 3 areas, i.e.,
Area EFGH = Area A1 + Area A2 + Area A3
=
h
3
 
1y0  4 y1  1y2   1y2  4 y3  1y4   1y4  4 y5  1y6 
1y0  4 y1  2 y2  4 y3  2 y4  4 y5  1y6 
h
= (2.5)
3
2.2 Terminology
The distance h is termed the common interval and the numbers 1, 4, 2, 4, etc., are termed
Simpson’s multipliers. The values of y0 , y1 , y2 , etc., are referred to as the ordinates, or as
half-ordinates in the case of a waterplane or deck area where the half-ordinates used are the
offsets or half-breadths of the waterplane or deck area taken at equal (common) intervals.
2.3 Application of Simpson’s First Rule
Simpson’s First Rule can only be applied with an odd number of equally-spaced ordinates.
In calculating the area of a waterplane it is usual to divide the length of the vessel into 10 parts,
using 11 sections (ordinates). These sections are numbered from 0 at the aft end to 10 at the
forward end. Thus midships will be section number 5. When offsets (half-breadths) are used for
ordinates, the area calculated needs to be multiplied by 2 to give the total waterplane area.
2.4 Simpson’s First Rule for First Moment of Area & Moment of Inertia
Simpson’s First Rule may be adapted to the calculations of first moment of area and moment of
inertia about a transverse axis (Y-axis) in a similar way to that used for deriving the formula for
area, with the assumption that the ordinates of a 2nd-order parabolic curve are xy and x2y
respectively. The moment of inertia about a transverse axis is known as the longitudinal moment
of inertia.
In practice it is customary to perform calculations for area, first moment and moment of inertia
using Simpson’s Rules by means of a tabular calculation. Separate columns are used in the table
for the ordinates, Simpson’s multipliers, products, levers, etc. For simplicity, the levers are
usually non-dimensionalised by dividing their distance from the reference datum by the station
spacing, h. When this is done, the tabular calculations for M and I relative to a transverse axis
may be expressed by the following formulae:
h2
M =
3
 Moments ( 2 if half-ordinates are used) (2.6)
h3
I =
3
 Second Moments ( 2 if half-ordinates are used) (2.7)
If a similar derivation was applied to the determination of Simpson’s formulae for first moment
and moment of inertia about a longitudinal axis, non-solvable expressions would result. Never-
__________________________________________________________________________________________
17
__________________________________________________________________________________________
the-less, Simpson’s First Rule is routinely applied to the calculation of these 2 moments by
weighting the squares and cubes of ordinates by Simpson’s area multipliers. This is equivalent to
assuming that the ordinates of the 2nd-order parabola are y2 and y3 respectively. Calculations
for M and I relative to a longitudinal axis may be expressed by the following formulae:
h
M =    Moments ( 2 if half-ordinates are used) (2.8)
6
h
I =    Second Moments ( 2 if half-ordinates are used) (2.9)
9
Therefore in the event the squares of the ordinates, or the cubes of the ordinates of the curve to
be integrated followed a 2nd-order parabolic curve, the integration for first moment of area and
moment of inertia by Simpson’s Rule would be precisely correct.
Note: Clarification of Transverse & Longitudinal Axes
To clarify the difference between transverse and longitudinal axes refer to Figure 2.3. In
reference to a vessel’s hull, the longitudinal axis is usually the (fore and aft) centreline.
A transverse axis may be an axis across the vessel passing through midships, or the aft
perpendicular, or through the centroid of waterplane area.
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6
longitudinal axis
transverse axis
Figure 2.3 Transverse and longitudinal axes with respect to a vessel.
3.5 Illustrative Example Applying Simpson’s First Rule
The half-breadths (in metres) of a waterplane at 11 stations 12.2 metres apart are: 2.0, 7.3, 9.8,
10.4, 10.6, 10.7, 10.6, 9.9, 7.8, 4.2, and 0.2 respectively, commencing at the aft end.
Determine the position of the centroid relative to the midship station.
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18
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Note:
The axis used is a transverse axis through the midship station. Moment levers used are measured
from this midship position, i.e., from the transverse axis. By convention, levers measured aft of
the midship station are positive (+ve) while those measured forward of the midship station are
negative (ve).
Solution
The following solution offered is one using a tabulated method of calculation. Such a method is
recommended due to its inherent simplicity and ease of adaptation to spreadsheet methods.
Station Half- SM Product leverMS Product for

No. breadth for area first moment
Aft 0 2.0 1 2.0 +5 10.0

1 7.3 4 29.2 +4 116.8
2 9.8 2 19.6 +3 58.8
3 10.4 4 41.6 +2 83.2
4 10.6 2 21.2 +1 21.2
Midships 5 10.7 4 42.8 0 0
6 10.6 2 21.2 1  21.2
7 9.9 4 39.6 2  79.2
8 7.8 2 15.6 3  46.8
9 4.2 4 16.8 4  67.2
Fwd 10 0.2 1 0.2 5  1.0
A = 249.8 FM = 74.6
h
Total waterplane area, AW =  A  2 (for both sides)
3
where: h = 12.2 (given)
12.2
therefore: AW =  249.8  2
3
= 2 031.7 m2
h2
FMA about amidships =  FM  2 (for both sides)
3
12.2 2
=  74.6  2
3
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19
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 7 402.3 m3
first moment of area about the axis

Centroid of AW from MS =
area
7 402.3
=
2 0317
.
= 3.64 m aft of amidships (since M was +ve)
Note: The centroid of the waterplane is known as the centre of flotation.
3 Simpson’s Second Rule
Simpson’s Second Rule correctly integrates the area under a 3rd-order parabolic curve, when 4
equally spaced ordinates are provided.
y0 y1 y2 y3
B C
h h h
Figure 2.4
The area under an arbitrary curve with 4 equally spaced ordinates, by Simpson’s Second Rule is:
3
Area ABCD = h1y 0  3 y1  3 y 2  1y 3  (2.10)
8
As with Simpson’s First Rule, this Second Rule may be applied repeatedly to determine the area
of a larger plane such as for EFGH shown in Figure 2.5.
3
Area A1 = h1y 0  3 y1  3 y 2  1y 3  (2.11)
8
3
Area A2 = h1y 3  3 y 4  3 y5  1y 6  (2.12)
8
__________________________________________________________________________________________
20
__________________________________________________________________________________________
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6
H G
h h h h h h
A1 A2
Figure 2.6
Therefore the area EFGH is the sum of the 2 areas, i.e.,
Area EFGH = Area A1 + Area A2
=
3
8
 
h 1y 0  3 y1  3 y 2  1y 3   1y 3  3 y 4  3 y5  1y 6 
h1y 0  3 y1  3 y 2  2 y 3  3 y 4  3 y5  1y 6 
3
= (2.13)
8
Simpson’s Second Rule may be applied to the calculation of first moment of area and moment of
inertia about a transverse axis using:
3h 2
M =
8
 Moments ( 2 if half-ordinates are used) (2.14)
3h 3
I =
8
 Second Moments ( 2 if half-ordinates are used) (2.15)
The resulting first moments and moments of inertia about a transverse axis are not rigorously
correct for a parabolic curve of the third order but are used. The resulting errors are quite small,
in general. The accuracy of first moment of area and moment of inertia about a longitudinal axis
when using Simpson’s Second Rule are subject to the same limitations as apply to the First Rule.
3.1 Application of Simpson’s Second Rule
Simpson’s Second Rule can only be applied where the number of equally-spaced ordinates,
minus 1, is divisible by 3.
(i.e., the number of equi-spaced ordinates is 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, etc.)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
21
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4 Intermediate Ordinates
Towards the end of a waterplane or body plan section the curvature is sometimes so great that a
closer spacing of ordinates is necessary to give a sufficiently high standard of accuracy.
Intermediate ordinates are introduced to reduce the spacing to half or quarter of the normal
spacing. If this fractional spacing is used in conjunction with normal spacing the appropriate
internal multipliers are divided by the appropriate fraction. If the common interval is halved the
Simpson multipliers are also halved over that part of the range. In this way the calculation can be
kept continuous. The multipliers, where the normal spacing is halved, are compounded as shown
in Figure 2.6. It should be noted that halfspacing is only suitable for Simpson’s First Rule.
h h
2
y0 y0.5 y1 y1.5 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8 y8.5 y9 y9.5 y10
1 4 2 4 2 4 1
0.5 2 1 2 0.5 0.5 2 1 2 0.5
0.5 2 1 2 1.5 4 2 4 2 4 1.5 2 1 2 0.5
Figure 2.6 Compounding of Simpson’s multipliers with intermediate ordinates.
The lower line of Simpson multipliers in Figure 2.6 above, indicates the values to be used for the
multipliers in the tabular calculation. The values are gained through the addition of the
multipliers applicable to each area or ordinate. A slightly more complex use of intermediate
ordinates is given in the following example.
4.1 Illustrative Example 1  Intermediate Ordinates
(Note: This example makes use of intermediate ordinates to illustrate how levers are affected by
their inclusion.) The half-ordinates of a waterplane 180 metres long are as follows:
Station AP 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 FP

(MS)
Half-
ordinate 0 5.0 8.0 10.5 12.5 13.5 13.5 12.5 11.0 7.5 3.0 1.0 0.0
(m)
Calculate: i. The area of the waterplane;

ii. The distance of the centroid from amidships;
iii. I of the waterplane about a transverse axis through amidships.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
22
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Solution
Stn Half- SM Product leverMS Prod. leverMS Prod.

No. breadth for area for F.M. for I
Aft 0 0.0 0.5 0 +5 0 +5 0

0.5 5.0 2 10.0 + 4.5 45.0 + 4.5 202.5
1 8.0 1.5 12.0 +4 48.0 +4 192.0
2 10.5 4 42.0 +3 126.0 +3 378.0
3 12.5 2 25.0 +2 50.0 +2 100.0
4 13.5 4 54.0 +1 54.0 +1 54.0
MS 5 13.5 2 27.0 0 0 0 0
6 12.5 4 50.0 1  50.0 1 50.0
7 11.0 2 22.0 2  44.0 2 88.0
8 7.5 4 30.0 3  90.0 3 270.0
9 3.0 1.5 4.5 4  18.0 4 72.0
9.5 1.0 2 2.0  4.5  9.0  4.5 40.5
Fwd 10 0.0 0.5 0 5 0 5 0
A = 278.5 FM = 112.0 I = 1 447.0
h
3
180
where: h =
10
= 18 m
18
therefore: AW =  278.5  2 (for both sides)
3
= 3 342.0 m2
h2
3
18 2
=  112  2
3
= 24 192 m3
FMA
Centroid of AW from MS =
A
24 192
=
3 342
= 7.238 m aft of amidships (since M was +ve)
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23
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h3
I about amidships =  I  2 (for both sides)
3
18 3
=  1 447  2
3
= 5 625 936 m4
4.3 Illustrative Example 2  Intermediate Ordinates & Moment of Inertia about the Centreline
The half-ordinates of a waterplane 180 m long are as follows, calculate the moment of inertia of
the waterplane about the centreline (i.e., the transverse moment of inertia).
Station AP 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 FP

(MS)
Half-
ordinate 0 5.0 8.0 10.5 12.5 13.5 13.5 12.5 11.0 7.5 3.0 1.0 0.0
(m)
Solution
When calculating for a longitudinal axis the tabulated calculation takes the form as shown below,
where the ordinate is first cubed for the calculation of the products for moments.
3
Station Half- (Half-breadth) SM Prod.
No. breadth for I
0 0.0 0 0.5 0
0.5 5.0 125.0 2 250.0
1 8.0 512.0 1.5 768.0
2 10.5 1157.6 4 4630.4
3 12.5 1953.1 2 3906.2
4 13.5 2460.4 4 9841.6
5 13.5 2460.4 2 4920.8
6 12.5 1953.1 4 7812.4
7 11.0 1331.0 2 2662.0
8 7.5 421.9 4 1687.6
9 3.0 27.0 1.5 40.5
9.5 1.0 1.0 2 2.0
10 0.0 0 0.5 0
I = 36 521.5
__________________________________________________________________________________________
24
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h
I =  I  2 (for both sides)
9
180
where: h =
10
= 18 m
18
therefore: I CL =  365 215
. 2
9
= 146 086 m4
5 Application of the Parallel Axis Theorem
It is often required to calculate the longitudinal second moment of area of the waterplane, I,
about a transverse axis through the centroid of that waterplane, i.e., through the centre of
flotation. In the tabulated method, I is calculated about a transverse axis through amidships.
Thus, to calculate I about an axis through the centroid, the parallel axis theorem must be applied.
Using this theorem the following applies:
I CF = I MS  Ax 2 (2.16)
I MS = I CF  Ax 2 (2.17)
where: I CF = I about a transverse axis through the centre of flotation (centroid)

I MS = I about a transverse axis through amidships
A = area of waterplane
x = distance of centre of flotation (centroid) from amidships
5.1 Illustrative Example
In the Illustrative Example 2 the second moment of area of the waterplane about a transverse
axis through the centre of flotation would be calculated using:
I CF = I MS  Ax 2
= 5 625 936  (3 342.0  7.2382)

= 5 450 853 m4
6 Application of Simpson’s Rules to Volumes
Simpson’s Rules calculate the area under any continuous curve irrespective of what the ordinates
represent. If the immersed cross-sectional areas of a vessel at a number of equally spaced
stations along the length of the vessel are plotted on a base representing the vessel’s length, the
__________________________________________________________________________________________
25
__________________________________________________________________________________________
area under the resulting curve will represent the volume of displacement and may be found by
using Simpson’s Rules. Hence the displacement of the vessel may be calculated, and
furthermore, the longitudinal centroid of the area under the curve represents the longitudinal
centre of volume which is the longitudinal centre of buoyancy (LCB) of the vessel. Refer to
Figure 2.8.
100
90
80
70
immersed 60
CSA
50
2
(m ) 40 CENTROID OF AREA
30
UNDER CURVE
20
(LCB)
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
LCB MS
Figure 2.8 Curve of immersed cross-sectional areas for a vessel.
6.1 Example of Using Simpson’s First Rule to Calculate Volumetric & Mass Displacements
The immersed cross-sectional areas for a vessel 180 m long at equal intervals are: 5, 118, 233,
291, 303, 304, 304, 302, 283, 171, and, 0 m2 respectively. Calculate the displacement of
the vessel in sea water of density 1.025 t/m3.
Solution:
Station CSA SM Product for vol.
0 5 1 5
1 118 4 472
2 233 2 466
3 291 4 1 164
4 303 2 606
5 (MS) 304 4 1 216
6 304 2 608
7 302 4 1 208
8 283 2 566
9 171 4 684
10 0 1 0
V = 6 995
__________________________________________________________________________________________
26
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Since there are 11 ordinates there are 10 sub-areas (intervals).
180
Therefore the common interval, h =
10
= 18 m
h
The volume of displacement:  =  V
3
18
=  6 995
3
= 41 970 m3
Displacement (mass):  = 
= 41 970  1.025
= 43 019 tonnes
6.2 Application of Simpson’s Rules to Centroids of Volumes (LCB & KB)
It is a common and indeed essential procedure in marine design to determine the location of the
centre of buoyancy of a vessel with respect to both the midships station and the keel (i.e., LCB
and KB respectively). It is not essential to generate a curve of immersed cross-sectional areas as
shown in Figure 2.8, however, immersed cross-sectional areas and waterplane areas are
determined at regularly spaced stations and waterlines for the direct calculation of LCB and KB.
In calculating the position of a vessel’s LCB relative to midships, products of immersed volumes
are first determined by multiplying the immersed cross-sectional area at each station by the
appropriate Simpson’s multiplier (as illustrated in the previous example). Moments of volumes
are then calculated for each station by multiplying the product of volume by the corresponding
lever (referenced to the midship station). The sum of these moments of immersed volume
integrated over the waterline length produces the first moment of volume for the immersed
portion of the hull about midships. This value of first moment of immersed volume, divided by
the total immersed volume, reveals the longitudinal location of the volumetric centroid; the LCB
relative to midships.
If the LCB location was desired relative to the aft perpendicular or transom, levers employed in
calculating the moments of volume would be referenced to the aft perpendicular or transom
station (station 0).
6.3 Example of Using Simpson’s First Rule to Determine LCB Location
The immersed cross-sectional areas of a vessel with a waterline length of 125 m, commencing
from aft are: 3, 42, 83, 108, 115, 124, 124, 109, 99, 57, and 0 m2 respectively. Calculate
the volumetric displacement and the longitudinal centre of buoyancy.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
27
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h 10
9
h
8
h 7
h 6
h 5
h 4
h 3 LCBMS
h 2
h 1
B
0
Figure 2.9 LCB for a planing hull form (at its static draft) determined via the application of
Simpson’s Rules to the immersed cross-sectional areas at regularly spaced stations.
Solution
Station CSA SM Product leverMS Product for

No. for volume first moment
Aft 0 3 1 3 +5 15
1 42 4 168 +4 672
2 83 2 166 +3 498
3 108 4 432 +2 864
4 115 2 230 +1 230
Midships 5 124 4 496 0 0
6 124 2 248 1  248
7 109 4 436 2  872
8 99 2 198 3  594
9 57 4 228 4  912
Fwd 10 0 1 0 5 0
V = 2 607 FM =  347
__________________________________________________________________________________________
28
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h
Vol. of displacement  =  V
3
125
where: h =
10
= 12.5 m
12.5
therefore:  =  2 607
3
= 10 862.5 m3
h2
FMVMS =  FM
3
12.5 2
=  347
3
=  18 073 m3m
FMV
LCBMS =

18 073  m3 m
=  3 
10 862.5  m 
= 1.664 m fwd of amidships (since FM was ve)
In determining the position relative to the keel, of a vessel’s centroid of displaced volume,
products of immersed volumes are first calculated by multiplying the waterplane area at each
waterline by the appropriate Simpson’s multiplier. Moments of volumes are then calculated for
each waterplane by multiplying the product of volume by the corresponding lever (referenced to
the keel). The sum of these moments of immersed volume about the keel, integrated over the
draft, produces the first moment of volume of the immersed portion of the hull about the keel.
This value of first moment of immersed volume, divided by the total immersed volume, reveals
the vertical location of the volumetric centroid; the VCB , and being relative to the keel is more
commonly termed KB. The same principle used for the determination of LCB and KB for a hull
form may be applied to the calculation of the centroid of volume of tank spaces within a vessel.
6.4 Example of Using Simpson’s First Rule to Determine VCB Location
A vessel with an even-keel draft of 5.0 m possesses the following waterplane areas:
d (m) 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
AW (m2) 1011 933 842 777 726 674 622 583 544 518 492
Determine the volumetric displacement and VCB (i.e., KB) values.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
29
__________________________________________________________________________________________
10
9
1
B
6 0
5
4
3
2 KB
1
K
Figure 2.10 KB for a planing hull form (at its static draft) determined via the application of
Simpson’s Rules to its waterplane areas at regularly spaced intervals.
Solution
Draft AW SM Product leverK Product

for vol. for FM
DWL 5.0 1 011 1 1 011 + 10 10 110

4.5 933 4 3 732 +9 33 588
4.0 842 2 1 684 +8 13 472
3.5 777 4 3 108 +7 21 756
3.0 726 2 1 452 +6 8 712
2.5 674 4 2 696 +5 13 480
2.0 622 2 1 244 +4 4 976
1.5 583 4 2 332 +3 6 996
1.0 544 2 1 088 +2 2 176
0.5 518 4 2 072 +1 2 072
Keel 0.0 492 1 492 0 0
V = 20 911 FM = 117 338

 347
__________________________________________________________________________________________
30
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h
Vol. of displacement  =  V
3
5.0
where: h =
10
= 0.5 m
0.5
therefore:  =  20 911
3
= 3 485.2 m3
h2
FMVK =  FM
3
0.5 2
=  117 338
3
= 9 778.2 m3m
FMV
VCBK =

9 778.2  m3 m
=  3 
3 485.2  m 
= 2.806 m above keel
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31
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TUTORIAL 2  TABULAR INTEGRATION, AREAS, VOLUMES
& CENTROIDS
Question 1
The halfbreadths of a vessel’s waterplane are: 2.0, 7.3, 9.8, 10.4, 10.6, 10.7, 10.6, 9.9, 7.8, 4.2,
and 0.2 metres respectively. The LWL = 122 m. Determine the total area of the waterplane.
(Ans. 2031.7 m2 )
Question 2
A vessel 140 m long and 18 m beam floats at a draft of 9 m. The immersed cross-sectional areas at
equal intervals are: 5, 60, 116, 145, 152, 153, 153, 151, 142, 85 and 0 m2 respectively.
Calculate: a) displacement; (Ans. 16 775 tonnes)

b) block coefficient; (Ans. 0.722)
c) midship section area coefficient; (Ans. 0.944)
d) prismatic coefficient. (Ans. 0.764)
Question 3
The halfbreadths of a vessel’s waterplane 120 m long are as follows:
Stn AP 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 FP

Ord 1.2 3.5 5.3 6.8 8.0 8.3 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.4 8.2 7.9 6.2 3.5 0
Calculate:
a) waterplane area; (Ans. 1 716.8 m2 )
b) distance of centroid from amidships. (Ans. 0.559 m fwd)
Question 4
A vessel 160 m long has halfbreadths of waterplane of 1.6, 5.7, 8.8, 10.2, 10.5, 10.5, 10.5, 10.0,
8.0, 5.0 and 0 m respectively. Calculate the second moment of area of the waterplane about the
centreline.
(Ans. 75 155 m4 )
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Question 5
The offsets of a vessel’s waterplane at stations 10.5 m apart and commencing from aft are:
Stn AP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 FP
Ord 0.2 7.4 8.7 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.1 8.6 7.8 5.1 0
Determine:
a) the area of the waterplane; (Ans. 1 587.6 m2 )
b) the position of the centre of flotation relative to amidships; (Ans. 2.148 m aft of MS)
c) the moment of inertia about the centre of flotation. (Ans. 1 088 560 m4 )
Question 6
The immersed cross-sectional areas of a vessel 120 m long commencing from aft are: 2, 40, 79,
100, 103, 104, 104, 103, 97, 58, and 0 m2. Calculate:
a) the vessel’s displacement; (Ans. 9 790.8 tonne)

b) the position of the longitudinal centre of buoyancy. (Ans. 2.07 m forward of MS)
Question 7
A vessel of LWL = 130 m has waterplane areas at 1.30 m intervals as follows:
WL 1.3 2.6 3.9 5.2 6.5 metres above baseline

AW 1460 1630 1740 1790 1800 m2
The immersed cross-sectional areas for the complete hull at equi-spaced stations are:
Stn 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
CSA 0 37 78 100.5 107 107.8 107.5 105 87 44.2 0
The section of the hull below the 1.30 m waterline is treated as an appendage having a displacement
of 1310 tonnes in seawater and a VCB of 0.67 m.
Determine:
a) the displacement at an even-keel draft of 6.50 m; (Ans. 10 380 tonnes)
b) the corresponding KB for the vessel; (Ans. 3.562 m)
c) the corresponding LCB for the vessel. (Ans. 1.147 m fwd )
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34
Addition, Removal & Transfer of Masses
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MASS ADDITION, REMOVAL & TRANSFER
(LOCATING & TRACKING OF G ) 3

UNIT

1 Introduction
The location of a vessel’s centre of gravity is fundamental to the vessel’s stability and trim
characteristics. Unlike many other hydrostatic parameters of a vessel, the values for which are
purely functions of the hull geometry, (e.g., LCF, LCB, VCB, etc.,) the centre of gravity of a
vessel is a function only of the mass distribution throughout. The determination of a vessel’s
centre of gravity is often the objective (or an interim stage) of stability calculations and analysis.
During the operation of a vessel the centre of gravity does not remain stationary, but will move
either marginally or significantly due to changes in the vessel’s mass distribution as a
consequence of events such as fuel consumption, ballast transfer, cargo loading and discharge,
overboard deployments and retrieval, shifts in liquids contained aboard, ice accretion, etc. The
location and prediction of movement of the centre of gravity is therefore an essential component
of design and its constant tracking (by the vessel operators) is integral to the safe operation of the
vessel.
2 Centre of Gravity (G)
The centre of gravity, G, of an object is the point at which the whole mass of the object may be
regarded as acting. The location of the centre of gravity of a body relative to a selected axis is
equal to the quotient of the total moment of mass about that axis divided by the total mass.
 m  d  AXIS
GAXIS = (3.1)
 m
where: d = distance of mass centre of gravity from selected axis
The position of the centre of gravity of a vessel may be found by taking moments of the
individual masses. The actual calculation of the centre of gravity of a vessel (the weight
estimate) is a very lengthy process, and since many of the masses must be estimated, it is not
considered to be sufficiently accurate for stability calculations. Such a calculation is undertaken
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for vessels in the preliminary and detailed design stages but the results are always to be
confirmed by an alternative method (an inclining experiment) upon the vessel’s completion.
Once the position of G is determined for the completed vessel, less any consumables, payloads,
crew and effects, (i.e., the lightship condition), the centre of gravity of the vessel in any loaded
condition may be found.
2.1 VCG, KG, LCG & TCG
It is usual to measure the vertical position of the centre of gravity (VCG) of the vessel relative to
the moulded base line (K) and this distance is usually denoted KG. (VCG is equally appropriate.)
The height of the individual centre of gravity of an item on, or component of the vessel relative
to the keel is denoted by kg.
The longitudinal position of the centre of gravity of the vessel (LCG) is most commonly given as
a distance forward or aft of midships. The distance of the individual centre of gravity of an item
on, or component of the vessel relative to midships is denoted by lcg.
G WL
VCG (or KG)
LCG
Figure 3.1 VCG (relative to the moulded baseline) and LCG relative to midships.
The transverse position of the centre of gravity of the vessel (TCG) is given as a distance from
the vessel’s centreline. The distance of the individual centre of gravity of an item on, or
component of the vessel relative to the centreline is denoted by tcg. Ideally, the TCG for a vessel
in any condition should lie on the centreline.
2.2 Convention for Levers
As a convenient means of tracking the position of G relative to the reference datum used
(midships, baseline, centreline) the sign convention adopted in these notes is to consider moment
levers or distances (lcg) aft of midships as positive, and moment levers (lcg) forward of midships
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36
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as negative. Levers or distances (tcg) to starboard of the centreline are positive while those to
port are considered negative. Distances (vcg) above the keel (baseline) are always positive.
+ ve
 ve
FWD
 ve
PORT
+ ve
+ ve
STBD
baseline
AFT
Figure 3.2 Moment lever sign convention.
2.3 Illustrative Example Calculation
The final construction phase of a vessel is the assembly of pre-outfitted modules with masses
(tonnes) and centres of gravity (in metres relative to each datum) quoted as shown. Determine
the completed lightship displacement and centre of gravity.
Module Mass vcgK lcgMS tcgCL
Stern section 145.3 5.8 27.2 (A) 0.6 (P)

Aft hull centre sect. 322.7 2.9 9.6 (A) 1.1 (S)
Fwd hull centre sect. 261.4 3.7 11.8 (F) 0.2 (S)
Port side section 255.8 3.8 1.6 (F) 4.3 (P)
Stbd side section 255.4 3.8 1.6 (F) 4.3 (S)
Bow section 173.2 5.1 24.3 (F) 0.4 (P)
Superstructure level 1 28.3 9.7 18.2 (A) 0.2 (S)
Superstructure level 2 18.1 11.9 15.5 (A) 0.6 (P)
Stern crane 2.8 9.9 21.3 (A) 2.4 (P)
Nav. mast 2.1 15.4 16.1 (A) 0.0
Solution
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The calculation is undertaken using a tabular format as shown:
Module Mass vcgK Vert. Mom. lcgMS Long. Mom. tcgCL Trans. Mom.
Stern section 145.3 5.8 842.74 27.2 3 952.16  0.6  87.18
Aft hull centre sect. 322.7 2.9 935.83 9.6 3 097.92 1.1 354.97
Fwd hull centre sect. 261.4 3.7 967.18  11.8  3 084.52 0.2 52.28
Port side section 255.8 3.8 972.04  1.6  409.28  4.3  1 099.94
Stbd side section 255.4 3.8 970.52  1.6  408.64 4.3 1 098.22
Bow section 173.2 5.1 883.32  24.3  4 208.76  0.4  69.28
S’structure level 1 28.3 9.7 274.51 18.2 515.06 0.2 5.66
S’structure level 2 18.1 11.9 215.39 15.5 280.55  0.6  10.86
Stern crane 2.8 9.9 27.72 21.3 59.64  2.4  6.72
Nav. mast 2.1 15.4 32.34 16.1 33.81 0.0 0.00
= 1 465.1 VM = 6 121.59 LM =  172.06 TM = 237.15
tonnes tonne-metres tonne-metres tonne-metres
 LIGHTSHIP = 1 465.1 tonnes
VM
VCG = (3.2)

6 12159
.
=
1 4651.
= 4.178 m (above moulded baseline)
LM
LCG = (3.3)

172.06
=
1 4651
.
=  0.117 m (fwd of midships since ve)
TM
TCG = (3.4)

237.15
=
1 4651
.
= 0.162 m (to stbd of centreline since +ve)
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3 Shift in CoG due to Addition (or Removal) of Mass
When a mass is added to a vessel, the centre of gravity of the vessel, G, moves towards the
position of the added mass. The distance moved by the vessel’s G depends upon the magnitude
of the added mass, the distance of the mass from G, and the displacement, , of the vessel. For
example, if a mass is placed on the port side of the focsle, G moves forward, upwards, and to
port. The actual distance and direction of this movement is seldom required, but the separate
components are most important, i.e., the longitudinal, vertical, and transverse shift in G. When
an item is removed from a vessel, G moves away from the original position of that item.
gcrane
G
G1
Figure 3.3 Shift in LCG due to an addition of mass. G moves some distance
towards the centre of gravity of the added mass to a new point, G1 .
mass added to vessel mass removed from vessel
gM gM
shift in TCG
G1 G
shift in G shift in VCG
shift in VCG
shift in G
G1
G shift in TCG
Figure 3.4 Shift in G in terms of VCG and TCG in the case of (i) an addition of mass (left), and
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(ii) a removal of mass (right). G moves to G1 some distance along a line joining G and gM .
In determining the shift in G under circumstances where a mass has been added or removed, the
same lever convention (refer Section 2.2) applies, and masses added are treated as positive and
masses removed are negative.
3.1 Illustrative Example Calculation
A vessel with a displacement of 2 319.1 tonnes and VCG = 3.787 m, LCG = 1.608 m (F), and
TCG = 0.100 m (S) loads the following items:
Item Mass vcgK lcgMS tcgCL
Traction winch 11.5 8.7 13.8 (A) 0.15 (S)

Ballast 165.0 0.5 8.3 (A) 0.00
At the completion of a voyage the vessel has consumed the following:
Fuel 460.0 3.1 4.1 (F) 0.00

Provisions 3.1 6.5 18.3 (F) 1.60 (P)
Determine the vessel’s displacement and G on arrival.
Solution
Item Mass vcgK VM lcgMS LM tcgCL TM
vessel 2 319.1 3.787 8 782.20  1.608  3 729.60 0.10 230.900
traction winch 11.5 8.7 100.05 13.8 158.70 0.15 1.725
ballast 165.0 0.5 82.50 8.3 1 369.50 0.0 0.000
fuel  460.0 3.1  1 426.00  4.1 1 886.00 0.0 0.000
provisions  3.1 6.5  20.15  18.3 56.73  1.60 4.960
= 2 032.5 VM = 7 518.6 LM =  258.67 TM = 237.59
tonnes t-m t-m t-m
 = 2 032.5 tonnes
VM
VCG =

7 518.6
=
2 032.5
= 3.699 m (above moulded baseline)
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LM
LCG =

258.67
=
2 032.5
=  0.127 m (fwd of midships since ve)
TM
TCG =

237.59
=
2 032.5
= 0.117 m (to stbd of centreline since +ve)
4 Shift in G due to Movement of On-board Mass
Movement of a mass that is already located on board the vessel has no effect on displacement.
However, the effect of such a mass transfer is to move the vessel’s centre of gravity in a direction
parallel to the movement of the centre of gravity of the mass. The distance through which the
vessel’s G will move depends only on the magnitude of the mass, the distance through which the
mass is moved and the vessel’s displacement.
gM gM gM
gM G
shift in G
shift in TCG only shift in VCG
G1 G G1
shift in TCG
Figure 3.5 Shift in G in terms of VCG and TCG in the case of transferring a mass
already on board. G moves to G1 in a direction parallel to the mass shift.
Consider a system composed of masses of m1 , m2 , and m3 . The centre of gravity of each of

these masses measured vertically from some datum is h1 , h2 , and h3 respectively. The height
of the centre of gravity for the system may be determined by dividing the total moment of mass
about the datum, by the sum of the masses.
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total moment of mass

G = (3.5)
total mass
m1h1  m2 h2  m3 h3
= (3.6)
m1  m2  m3
= y
If the mass m3 is now raised through a distance d to a new position, then G of the whole
system is also raised. This new centre of gravity, G1 , could be expressed as:
m1h1  m2 h2  m3 (h3  d )
G1 = (3.7)
m1  m2  m3
m1h1  m2 h2  m3 h3 m3 d
=  (3.8)
m1  m2  m3 m1  m2  m3
m3 d
= y (3.9)
m1  m2  m3
Thus it can be seen that the shift in G (referred to as GG1 ) is equal to:
m3 d
GG1 = (3.10)
m1  m2  m3
mass moved  distance moved

= (3.11)
total mass
The distance a mass is moved may be given the nomenclature gg1 (rather than d as in the above
expressions) and the total mass, in the case of a vessel, will be the displacement. Hence equation
3.11 may be expressed as:
m  gg1
GG1 = (3.12)

where: m = mass of item moved

gg1 = distance through which the item’s centre of gravity is moved
This expression is most useful and is applied throughout stability and trim analysis. It should be
noted that it is not necessary to know either the position of the vessel’s G or the position of the
mass relative to the vessel’s G. For example, the rise in G is the same whether the mass is
moved from the tank top to the main deck, or from the main deck to the mast head, as long as the
distance moved is the same.
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A ship of 2 032 tonnes displacement has a winch of 11.5 tonne on the stern deck 13.8 m aft of
midships. Calculate the shift in the vessel’s G if the winch is moved to a position 0.5 m forward
of midships.
Solution
m  gg1
GG1 =

.  138
115 .  0.5
=
2 032
= 0.081 m (forwards)
5 Effect of a Suspended Mass
The centre of gravity of a mass suspended freely from a point on a vessel (e.g., the jib-head of a
deck crane) will remain vertically below that point regardless of the vessel’s angle of heel. The
point of suspension therefore, is the metacentre through which the mass of the item acts. It
makes no difference in the stability of the vessel whether the mass hangs high above the deck or
not, provided that the point of support remains the same. A suspended mass therefore may be
treated as though its centre of gravity relative to the vessel were located at the point of
suspension.
This principle has particular significance when loading/discharging a vessel by means of the
vessel’s cranes. If, for example, a mass positioned low in a cargo hold is being discharged, at the
instant the mass is lifted free, the item’s centre of gravity is effectively raised to the jibhead of
the crane (which may be 30 metres above the mass) and causes a rise in the G of the vessel.
Vessels which are equipped to load heavy cargoes by means of high-capacity cranes must have a
standard of stability which will prevent excessive heel when the cargo is suspended. Similar
standards of stability should be applied in the design of trawler vessels for the operating
condition when the trawl is lifted clear of the water and prior to contact with the vessel’s deck.
A navigation-services vessel of 2 032 tonnes displacement has a marker buoy of 10.7 tonnes
positioned on deck. The vessel’s stern crane with its jib-head 21.5 m above the centre of gravity
of the buoy is to be used to deploy the buoy. Calculate the shift in the vessel’s G when the buoy
is lifted just clear of the stern deck.
Solution
m  gg1
GG1 =

10.7  215
.
=
2 032
= 0.113 m (upwards)
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g1
jib-head
gg1
centre of gravity
of mass
MASS UNSUSPENDED MASS SUSPENDED
Figure 3.6 Effect of a crane lift.

The centre of gravity of the suspended mass is immediately transferred
to the point of suspension.
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TUTORIAL 3  MASS ADDITION, REMOVAL & TRANSFER
Question 1
The KG of a vessel of 5000 tonnes displacement is 6.0 m and the LCG is 1.5 m forward of midships.
Calculate the new position of the G if 500 tonnes of cargo are placed 10 m above the keel and 36 m
aft of midships.
(Ans. 1.909 m aft)
Question 2
A vessel has 300 tonnes of cargo in a hold 24 m forward of midships. The displacement of the vessel
is 6000 tonnes and its G is 1.2 m forward of midships. Find the new position of G if this cargo is
moved to an aft hold 40 m from midships.
(Ans. 2.00 m aft of midships)
Question 3
A small products shuttle tanker of 17 000 tonnes displacement has its G 1.0 m aft of midships and has
250 tonne of oil fuel in its forward deep tank 75 m from midships. This fuel is transferred to a tank
with its centre 50 m from midships. 200 tonnes of fuel from that aft fuel tank is then consumed.
Calculate the new position of G:
a) after the fuel oil has been transferred;

b) after the fuel oil has been consumed.
(Ans. a) 2.838 m aft of midships

b) 2.277 m aft of midships)
Question 4
A vessel of 3000 tonnes displacement has 500 tonne of cargo on board. This cargo is lowered 3.0 m
and an additional 500 tonne of cargo is loaded and positioned 3.0 m vertically above the original
position of G. Determine the nett shift in G.
(Ans. Zero nett shift)
(continued)
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Question 5
A vessel of 8000 tonnes displacement has 75 tonnes of cargo on the deck. It is lifted by a crane with
its jib-head 10.5 m above the G of the cargo and placed in the lower hold 9.0 m below the deck and 14
metres forward of its original position. Calculate the shift in the vessel’s G from its original position
when the cargo is:
a) just clear of the deck; (Ans. 0.0984 m upwards)

b) at the jib-head; (Ans. No further change)
c) in its final position. (Ans. 0.0844 m downwards, 0.1313 m forwards)
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46
Elementary Principles of Transverse Stability
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ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSVERSE INTACT STABILITY 4

UNIT
References & Extracts from:
• Lewis, E.V., (Editor) • Clark, I.C.

Principles of Naval Architecture The Management of Merchant Ship Stability,
S.N.A.M.E., Jersey City 1988 Trim & Strength
1 Introduction
Not only must the designer provide adequate buoyancy to give adequate support for the vessel
and its contents but it must be assured that it will float at the proper longitudinal attitude (trim)
and remain upright when loaded with fuel and other payload. This involves issues of
gravitational stability and trim with reference to static conditions in calm water. Consideration
must also be given to criteria for assessing the adequacy of a vessel’s stability, considering both
internal and external hazards. It is important to recognize, however, that a surface vessel in its
natural sea environment is subject to dynamic forces resulting from accelerations caused
primarily by wave action. It is possible to consider certain dynamic effects, such as the forces
related to wind and high-speed turning, while investigating static stability, as these forces may be
treated as static, or quasi-static rather than dynamic.
Another external influence affecting a vessel’s stability is that of damage to the hull through
collision, grounding, etc., that results in the flow of water into the hull spaces. Known as the
damage stability analysis of a vessel, it requires extensive examination and is treated separately.
Analysis of the stability and trim characteristics of a vessel in its undamaged operational
condition is referred to as its intact stability. Transverse intact stability refers to the
determination of the responses and resultant equilibrium conditions of an undamaged hull as a
consequence of heeling moments imposed upon the vessel.
2 Equilibrium
In general, a rigid body is considered to be in a state of equilibrium when the resultants of all
forces and moments acting on the body are zero. In dealing with static floating body stability the
main point of interest is that state of equilibrium associated with the floating body upright and at
rest in a still liquid.
The two principal forces acting upon a freely floating vessel are its mass and buoyancy. Other
forces, such as wind pressure, act upon it periodically, and in special circumstances their effect
upon stability has to be considered. The mass and buoyancy are equal in magnitude and both are
vertically acting forces and for equilibrium must counteract each other. The following forces act
upon the ship when at rest in still water:
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47
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• Mass force acting vertically downwards through the centre of gravity (G) ;
• Buoyancy force acting vertically upwards through the centre of buoyancy (B) .
The centre of gravity (G) is in the same vertical line as the centre of buoyancy (B). Refer to
Figure 4.1.
W L

Figure 4.1 Equilibrium.
2.1 The Stable Condition (Positive Stability)
If a floating body, initially at equilibrium, is disturbed by an external moment, there will be a

change in its angular attitude. If upon removal of the external moment the body returns to its
original position, it is said to have been in a stable condition and to have positive stability. When
the vessel is inclined by an external moment to a small angle , the centre of gravity G remains
in the same position but the centre of buoyancy moves from B to B1. The buoyancy therefore
acts up through B1 while the weight still acts down through G, creating a moment of GZ  ,
which tends to return the ship to the upright position.

G
W L
B
B1
Figure 4.2 The stable condition (positive stability).

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48
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2.2 Neutral Stability
If a floating body that has assumed a displaced inclination because of an external moment
remains in that inclined position when the external moment is removed, the body is said to be in
neutral equilibrium and has neutral stability.

W L
B
B1
Figure 4.3 The neutral equilibrium (neutral stability) condition.
2.3 The Unstable Condition (Negative Stability)
If a floating body displaced from its original angular attitude by an external force continues to
move in the same direction after the force is removed, it is said to have been in an unstable
condition and to possess negative stability.

W L

B
B1
Figure 4.4 The unstable condition (negative stability).

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49
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2.4 Interaction of Weight & Buoyancy
The attitude of a floating object is determined by the interaction of the forces of mass and
buoyancy. If no other forces are acting, it will settle until the force of buoyancy equals the mass
and it will rotate until 2 conditions are satisfied: the centres of buoyancy B and gravity G are in
the same vertical line, and any slight rotation from this position will cause the equal forces of
weight and buoyancy to generate a couple tending to return the object to its initial position.
For every object (with one exception) at least one position must exist for which these conditions
are satisfied, otherwise the vessel would rotate indefinitely. The centre of gravity G may be
either above or below the centre of buoyancy B. An exception to the second condition exists
when the object is a body of revolution with its centre of gravity exactly on the axis of
revolution, No moment is created when the object is rotated since the centre of buoyancy is
always directly below the centre of gravity. Such a situation is one of neutral equilibrium
(neutral stability).
A submerged object (clear of the bottom) can come to rest in only one position. It will rotate
until the centre of gravity is directly below the centre of buoyancy.
.1 Righting moments
A righting moment exists at any angle of inclination where the forces of mass and buoyancy act
to rotate the vessel toward the upright position.
.2 Heeling moments
A heeling moment exists at any angle of inclination where the forces of mass and buoyancy act
to rotate the vessel away from the upright position.
2.5 Surface Vessels & Submarines
The centre of buoyancy of a surface vessel or surfaced submarine will move with respect to the
vessel as the vessel is inclined, in a manner which depends upon the hull shape in the vicinity of
the waterline. The centre of buoyancy of a submerged submarine, on the contrary, does not
move with respect to the vessel regardless of the inclination or the hull shape because it is
stationary at the centre of the entire submerged volume. This constitutes an important difference
between surface and submerged vessels. The moment acting on a surface vessel can change
from a righting moment to a heeling moment, or vice versa, with increased inclination, but this
cannot occur on a submerged submarine unless there is a shift in the vessel’s centre of gravity.
2.6 Influence of the Location of G
It may be seen (from Figure 4.2) that lowering of the centre of gravity, G, along the vessel’s
centreline increases stability. When a righting moment exists, lowering G increases the
separation of the forces of weight and buoyancy and increases the righting moment. Thus
lowering of G along the centreline could change the initial stability condition of a vessel from
unstable (negative stability) to a stable condition (positive stability). This applies to both surface
vessels and submerged submarines.
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3 Metacentric Height
Consider a symmetrical vessel heeled to a small angle, . (Refer to Figure 4.5 with the angle
exaggerated). The centre of buoyancy B has moved off the vessel’s vertical centreline to a
position B1 as the result of the inclination. The lines along which the resultants of mass and
buoyancy act are separated by a distance GZ, which is referred to as the righting arm or righting
lever. A vertical line through B1 will intersect the original vertical through B (i.e., the vessel’s
centreline) at a point M called the transverse metacentre. The location of this point will vary
with the vessel’s displacement and trim, but for any given draft it will always have the same
location. The shift of B is entirely dependant upon how the immersed hull shape changes with
heel as this determines the metacentric radius, BM.


G Z
W L
B
B1
Figure 4.5 Transverse metacentre & righting lever.
Unless there is an abrupt change in the shape (form) of the hull in the vicinity of the waterline,
the transverse metacentre will remain essentially stationary with respect to the vessel as the
vessel is inclined to small angles, up to about 7. At heel angles greater than 7 the transverse
metacentre commences a discernible shift and does not coincide with the vessel’s centreline.
As can be seen from Figure 4.5, if the locations of G and M are known, the righting lever (for
these small angles of heel, i.e., < 7) can be readily calculated with sufficient accuracy for all
practical purposes using:
GZ = GM sin  (4.1)
The distance GM is therefore important as an index of transverse stability at small angles of heel
and is called the transverse metacentric height. Since GZ is considered positive when the
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moment of weight and buoyancy tends to rotate the vessel toward the upright position, GM is
termed positive when M is above G, and negative when M is below G.
3.1 Location of the Transverse Metacentre (M)
It can be shown that the metacentric radius, BM, can be expressed as:
I CL
BM = (4.2)

The calculation of the height of the transverse metacentre above the keel, KM, is the sum of KB
and BM. These values for any particular vessel are all functions of the hull form geometry and
draft. KG is a function of the mass distribution for any load condition of the vessel. The
transverse metacentric height is therefore determined using:
GM = KM  KG
= KB  BM  KG (4.3)
3.2 Transverse Metacentre for Submerged Submarines
The centre of buoyancy, B, for a submerged submarine is stationary with respect to the vessel for
any angle of inclination. It follows that the vertical through the centre of buoyancy in the upright
position will intersect the vertical through the centre of buoyancy in any inclined position, at B.
The centre of buoyancy therefore is also the transverse (and longitudinal) metacentre for a
submerged submarine. (Refer to Figure 4.6.) Examining the situation from a different aspect;
the KM of a surfaced submarine is equal to KB + BM where BM is a function of the waterplane,
(ICL /). As the vessel submerges the waterplane disappears and the value of ICL and hence BM
is reduced to zero. The value of KM becomes KB + zero, and therefore B and M coincide. The
metacentric height of a submerged submarine is usually termed GB rather than GM.
sea surface


M B
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Figure 4.6 Submerged submarine stability.
3.3 Catamaran, SWATH & Semi-Submersible Hull Forms
The transverse moment of inertia of the waterplane area about the centreline axis, ICL , to be
employed in the calculation of BM is that applicable to the vessel. In multi-hulled vessels, such
as catamarans, SWATH and semi-submersible vessels 2 or more waterplanes exist symmetrically
located about the vessel’s centreline axis. In these cases the ICL for each demihull (in the case of
the catamaran) or for the pontoon struts (in the cases of SWATH and semi-submersibles) needs
to be calculated, then adapted to the vessel’s centreline via application of the parallel axis
theorem and then, further, multiplied by 2 to gain the ICL for the total waterplane area
symmetrically arranged about the vessel’s centreline (i.e., both sides).
Where all the waterplane areas are identical (as in a catamaran) the ICL adjusted via the parallel
axis theorem to the vessel’s centreline need only be multiplied by the number of waterplane
areas. Where waterplane areas may vary (as is commonly the case in SWATH and semi-
submersibles) the adjusted values of ICL need to be summed.
Therefore, for multi-waterplane area hull forms, ICL for the vessel is found using:
For a catamaran:

I CLVESSEL = 2 I CLDH  AWDH y 2  (4.4)
For SWATH or semi-submersible vessels:

I CLVESSEL =  I CLS  AWS y 2  (4.5)
where: I CLVESSEL = moment of inertia of the vessel’s total waterplane area
I CL DH = moment of inertia of one demihull waterplane area about the demihull

centreline
I CLS = moment of inertia of one strut waterplane area about the strut centreline
AWDH = waterplane area of one demihull
AWS = waterplane area of one strut (or column)
y = distance from demihull or strut centreline to vessel’s centreline
4 Curves of Statical Stability (GZ Curves)
The statical stability curve is a plot of righting lever (GZ) versus angle of heel for a given
condition of loading (i.e., constant displacement). For any vessel, the shape of this curve will
vary with displacement, the positions of LCG and TCG, trim, and the effect of free liquids.
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The statical stability curve, also referred to as simply the GZ curve has a number of features that
are significant in the analysis of a vessel’s stability. The slope of the curve at the origin can be
given by the expression:
GM sin 
(4.6)

With  in radians, the value of (sin  ) approaches , as  approaches zero. Thus at 0 angle of
inclination the slope of the curve is equal to the metacentric height, GM of the vessel. If the
righting arm continued to increase at the same rate as at the origin it would be equal to GM at an
inclination of 1 radian (57.3). Therefore if the value of GM is plotted as an ordinate at 57.3,
then a line connecting this ordinate with the origin would be tangent to the statical stability curve
at the origin.
2.0
1.8 TANGENT LINE
1.6
1.4
1.2
GZ
1.0
(METRES)
0.8 GM
0.6
0.4 57.3
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE OF INCLINATION (DEGREES)
Figure 4.7 Typical curve of static stability (GZ curve).
The stability curve usually rises above the GZ = GM sin  line at first due to the fact that as the
angle of inclination increases there is an increase in KB as well as lateral shift, and also an
increase in BM due to increases of waterline breadth and underwater asymmetry. This causes the
transverse metacentre, M, to rise up the centreline and move outboard to the low side at
increasing rates until the deck edge becomes immersed, at which point the waterline breadth and
BM start decreasing so the vessel’s positive stability will stop increasing. Further reduction in
the waterline breadth (and hence BM) at greater angles of heel will lead to reduction of positive
stability.
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4.1 Features of the GZ Curve
The point of inflexion on the GZ curve indicates the angle of inclination at which the deck edge
becomes immersed (DE ). The curve peaks at the angle where the maximum righting lever GZ
occurs and the point at which the curve crosses the horizontal axis is known as the point of
vanishing positive stability. If the vessel is inclined beyond this angle the forces of mass and
buoyancy will act to capsize, rather than right, the vessel.
The range of heeling angle throughout which the vessel possesses positive stability (i.e., a
positive GZ) is known as the range of stability. On a normal vessel the range of positive stability
is somewhat indefinite. Stability data on which the GZ curves are drawn are usually based on the
assumption that the superstructure is not effective in contributing to buoyancy at very large
angles of heel due to downflooding through openings. However, if the vessel were to roll
beyond the point of vanishing stability for a brief period a positive righting lever may exist due to
the influence of added buoyancy from the immersed superstructure. Repeated rolling beyond the
point of vanishing stability will almost invariably result in eventual capsize due to flooding and
shifting of free masses (e.g., cargo, free fluids).
2.0
1.8
initial GM
1.6
1.4
maximum GZ
1.2
GZ
1.0
(METRES) KB & BM BWL & BM decreasing
increasing angle of vanishing
0.8 GM
stability
0.6
KB KB
0.4 increasing decreasing
57.3
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

DE GZ MAX
range of stability
Figure 4.8 Features of the GZ curve.
4.2 The Righting Moment Curve & Dynamical Stability
As explained in Section 2, when a vessel with positive stability characteristics is inclined from
the upright condition, the forces of buoyancy and mass move out of vertical alignment and
produce a righting moment. This righting moment is equal to the vessel’s buoyant force acting
on the righting lever, GZ. As the buoyant force (or simply buoyancy) is equal to the
displacement of the vessel, then the righting moment at any angle of heel is equal to the product
of displacement () and GZ. The righting moment therefore has units of tonne-metres (t-m).
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Values of the righting lever, GZ, for a vessel at a given displacement, applying over the range of
stability if multiplied by the vessel’s displacement will produce a righting moment curve. The
shape of the GZ and righting moment curves will be the same, as the displacement remains
constant for a given loaded condition.
The area under any portion of a curve of righting moment represents the work (energy) required
to cause a vessel to heel from one angle to another against the righting moment. A moment
multiplied by the angle through which it is exerted (measured in radians) represents work. In the
case of a vessel where the moment varies with the angle of heel, and if M is the moment at any
angle, , then the work, W, required to rotate the vessel against this moment through an angle 
can be expressed as:
W =  M d (4.7)
Therefore the total area between the righting moment curve and the horizontal axis over the
range of positive stability represents the total work required to capsize the vessel from the upright
position. This work (or energy) is known as the dynamical stability, although it does not involve
dynamics per se because rolling velocities and accelerations are not considered.
RIGHTING
MOMENT area under righting moment curve
(t-m) is measured in tonne-metre radians
(energy required to capsize vessel)
8 000
7 000
6 000
5 000
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE OF INCLINATION (DEGREES)
Figure 4.9 Curve of righting moments.
If the total area under the righting moment curve represents the energy required to heel the vessel
to the point of vanishing stability, then it may also be described as the potential energy acquired
by the vessel at that point. If all external heeling forces were released, this energy will return the
vessel to the upright zero-heel condition. However, at this point all the potential energy will
have been transformed into kinetic energy equal in magnitude to the potential energy acquired
less that expended in overcoming the resistance of the water to rolling. This kinetic energy
(proportional to the square of angular velocity) will heel the vessel to some angle beyond the
upright condition.
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4.3 Comparison of GZ & Righting Moment Curves
A considerable amount of information can be gained about a vessel’s stability envelope from
either the GZ or righting moment curves. It is important, however, to appreciate the difference
between the 2 curves. The GZ curve simply exhibits the changing value of the righting lever as
the underwater hull form alters with the angle of heel, whereas the area under the righting
moment curve measures the energy involved in effectively changing the immersed hullform,
although both curves have an identical shape.
Two similarly shaped hulls of differing displacement can have the same GZ curve if their upright
GM values are the same. The 2 vessels will share certain characteristics, (e.g., deck-edge
immersion angle, angle of maximum GZ). However, heeling the heavier vessel will require more
energy than that used in producing the same heel angle in the smaller vessel, thus for the same
wave and wind conditions it can be expected that the larger vessel will roll less.
4.4 IMO Minimum Stability Criteria
National maritime authorities produce regulations stating minimum stability criteria with which
certain vessel types under their jurisdiction are required to comply. These criteria usually relate
to the GZ curve or to the righting moment curve. The criteria demanded by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO) are the standards generally accepted and enforced by most major
national flag administrations. The applicable IMO Code is IMO Resolution A.749 (18) Code on
Intact Stability for All Types of Ships Covered by IMO Instruments adopted on 4th November
1993. The Code requires that the GZ curve for any operating condition for a vessel covered by
the Code meet 6 general minimum stability criteria. These are:
.1 The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 0.055 metre-radian up
to  = 30 angle of heel. (1.0 metre-radian = 57.3 metre-degrees.)
.2 The area under the GZ curve should not be less than 0.09 metre-radian up to  = 40 or the angle
of flooding F if this angle is less than 40.
.3 The area under the GZ curve between the angles of heel of 30 and 40, or between 30 and F if
this angle is less than 40, should not be less than 0.03 metre-radian.
.4 The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20 metres at a heel angle equal to or greater than 30.
.5 The maximum righting lever should occur at an angle of heel not less than 25 and preferably
exceeding 30.
.6 The initial metacentric height GM0 should not be less than 0.15 metres.
Notes
• F (known as the angle of downflooding) is an angle of heel at which openings in the hull,
superstructures, etc., which cannot be closed weathertight immerse. Therefore, the IMO
criteria .1 to .2 imply that the angle of downflooding must exceed 30.
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• GM0 in the context above is the nomenclature used for the initial metacentric height
corrected for free surface effects, which in these notes has been termed as GMF.
The IMO criteria are really concerned with the first 40 of heel although it is not unusual for
loaded conditions of a vessel to produce GZ curves with positive intact stability up to 80 or
more. In reality however, flooding and shifts in weight distribution will most likely have
occurred at a far lesser angle hence beyond about 50 of heel a vessel will probably be in serious
difficulty and it may be argued that the curve is no longer particularly relevant.
The purpose of the IMO Code is to prevent a vessel ever reaching this state of affairs and it
should be appreciated that the Code gives absolute minimum criteria to be met at all stages of a
voyage and in all potential conditions, therefore a vessel may require an initial GM greater than
0.15 metres in order to comply with other requirements, such as minimum area(s) under the GZ
curve. This would be particularly so if a vessel is loaded to its minimum freeboard.
initial GM  0.15 m
maximum GZ
GZ
Area 30-40
(METRES)
 0.030 m-rads GM0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Area 0-30 GZ MAX F
 0.055 m-rads  25 57.3
Area 0-40
 0.090 m-rads
Figure 4.10 IMO general intact stability minimum criteria.
5 Tracking the Centre of Buoyancy
The hull form of a surface vessel is a complex three-dimensional body usually possessing
symmetry about only one plane and with cross-sectional shape varying significantly over its
length. Furthermore, geometric properties of the immersed volume change with angle of
inclination. When a hull form is heeled to large angles these changes in geometric properties and
their corresponding effects may not be as readily apparent as for small angles of heel (< 7).
Analysing the changes in the immersed geometry, particularly in regard to the 2 most
fundamental properties; volumetric centroid, (B), and waterplane area, (AW), is crucial to the
accurate determination of a vessel’s stability characteristics.
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If a box- (or ship-) shaped hull is heeled at progressively larger angles, it could be observed that
the centre of buoyancy does not trace an arc of constant radius about a single fixed metacentric
point. Indeed, the centre of buoyancy shifts initially upwards and away from the original upright
location of B, and then traces an approximate parabolic path as shown in Figure 4.11.
M30
M45
M15
M60
M0
M75 WL 0
M90
B90
B75
B0 B60
B45
B15 B30
Figure 4.11 Movement of the transverse centre of buoyancy and metacentre

over a 90 range of heel angle.
At large angles of heel ( > 10) the inclined waterline will not intersect the original waterline
(i.e., for the upright condition) on the vessel’s centreline for vessel’s of conventional form. This
is primarily as a result of the asymmetry of the inclined waterplane and causes the approximate
parabolic migration of the centre of buoyancy. Figure 4.12 shows the typical points of
intersection of inclined waterlines for a displacement monohull.
5.1 Movement of the Transverse Metacentre
Both the metacentric radius, BM, and the position of the metacentre continually change as the
angle of heel increases. The metacentric radius, BM, increases as the metacentre, M, is seen to at
first rise up and then off the centreline with increasing angles of heel and the corresponding
increase in waterline breadth (and hence ICL of the waterplane), until the point at which the deck-
edge is immersed. At this point the trend reverses as the waterline breadth is reduced to its
minimum value at 90 heel angle.
6 KN & Cross Curves of Stability (KN Curves)
At small angles of heel ( < 7) it has been seen that it is possible to consider the point on the
vessel’s centreline through which the buoyancy force acts (the transverse metacentre, M) as
being stationary. Under these circumstances it is possible to consider the righting lever GZ as
simply the horizontal transverse lever between the lines of action through the centres of
buoyancy and gravity. At these small angles of heel GZ = GM sin . At angles of heel greater
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than 7 however, it has been seen that the metacentre moves and significantly so with greater
inclination, (as shown in Figure 4.11). Over a marginally wider range of heel angle (0  15) the
righting lever GZ can be determined via a more refined expression (the ‘wall-sided expression’)
if the assumption of wall-sidedness is valid. This expression accounts for movement of the
metacentre, M, upwards along the centreline which typically occurs at heel angles from 0 to
around 15 but it cannot account for movement of the metacentre off the centreline which occurs
at greater angles.
WL 90 WL 75 WL 60 WL 45
WL 30
WL 15
WL 0 WL 0
WL 15
WL 30
WL 45 WL 60 WL 75 WL 90
Figure 4.12 Superimposed inclined waterlines showing points of intersection

with the hull centreline.
Due to the significant migration of the transverse metacentre at larger angles of heel, the
convenience of the transverse metacentre as a reference for locating the line of action of the
buoyancy (righting) force, and hence for the determination of the righting lever, GZ, at all angles
of heel over the range of stability. As a consequence, the point of reference used for the
calculation of GZ values and hence for the generation of GZ curves is taken as K; the
intersection of the centreline and the moulded baseline. The intersection of a horizontal line
projected from K to the line of action of buoyancy is termed N and the distance between the 2
points is KN. (Refer to Figure 4.13.) Therefore, in the design of surface vessels and the
prediction of their transverse stability characteristics, the line of action of buoyancy at any given
angle of heel is defined by its KN value.
The KN value at any instant would be the righting lever, GZ, at that particular draft and heel
angle, if the centre of gravity of the vessel was at the fixed point K. When KN is known for any
heel angle and displacement (i.e., draft), and KG is known, the calculation of GZ is very simple
and is expressed as:
GZ = KN  KG sin  (4.8)
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

G Z
W L
B
B1
K N
Figure 4.13 KN  The horizontal distance from the single fixed point K to
the line of action of buoyancy for any given angle of heel.
7.1 Cross Curves of Stability (KN Curves)
KN values are generated for different conditions of draft (displacement), and trim, over the range
of heel from 0 to 90 and may be presented graphically as shown in Figure 4.14. These graphic
representations of KN values are plotted for angles of heel in increments of 5, 10 or 15 and the
resulting curves are known as cross curves of stability. Such cross curves are generated prior to
the production of GZ curves for the relevant loading conditions of a vessel and form an integral
component of a vessel’s formal trim and stability documentation.
Alternatively, and more frequently in current practice, the KN values for different conditions of
draft (displacement), and trim, over the range of heel from 0 to 90 are presented as tables (see
Figure 4.15) in the vessel’s formal stability document  the Trim and Stability Booklet.
Irrespective of the method of presentation (cross curves or tabular), best practice requires that the
KN values be presented for separate conditions of trim; as a minimum: for the vessel in an even-
keel (zero trim) condition and for 0.5 metres trim, both by the stern and by the bow. Trim alters
the distribution of buoyancy and hence will affect the shift in B as the vessel heels. If there is
significant difference in reserve buoyancy between the forward and aft hull regions then the
heeling of the hull form will actually produce a trimming effect which must be taken into account
when considering transverse stability. This is particularly important in vessels such as offshore
support vessels.
6.2 Calculation of KN Values
In principle, KN can be calculated by taking moments of volume of the inclined vessel about a
vertical axis through K at a series of waterplanes at selected intervals of draft at selected intervals
of heel angle up to 90. The calculation of a single accurate KN value for just one condition of
heel angle and displacement is a tedious and incremental process and therefore the generation of
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a complete set of cross curves or tabulated KN data is impractical manual undertaking. In

practice, computer software is employed (and necessary) for the determination of KN values.
60
75
7
45
90
6 30
KN
(METRES)
4 15
2
CORRECTION (mm) TO KN VALUES
FOR EACH METRE HEIGHT OF KG
15 30 45 60 75 90

1
259 500 707 846 966 1000
0
5 000 6 000 7 000 8 000 9 000 10 000 11 000 12 000 13 000 14 000 15 000 16 000
DISPLACEMENT (TONNES)
Figure 4.14 Example of cross curves of stability (KN curves).
DISPLACEMENT HEEL ANGLE

TONNES
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
9 000 2.83 5.37 7.31 8.90 10.22 11.22 11.66 11.37 10.84
9 500 2.76 5.29 7.25 8.86 10.23 11.27 11.74 11.39 10.84
10 000 2.70 5.21 7.20 8.83 10.24 11.31 11.82 11.40 10.85
10 500 2.65 5.13 7.15 8.81 10.26 11.34 11.81 11.38 10.83
11 000 2.60 5.06 7.10 8.78 10.27 11.37 11.81 11.38 10.80
Figure 4.15 Example of a KN data table.
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TUTORIAL 4  ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF INTACT STABILITY
Question 1
Calculate the metacentric radius for a box-shaped barge of LWL = 48.30 m, BWL = 9.80 m, d = 4.80 m.
(Ans. 1.667 m)
Question 2
A vessel has a  = 5000 tonnes, KG = 4.572 m, KM = 5.84 m. A double-bottom ballast tank holding
100 tonnes of seawater (vcg = 0.61 m) is emptied. Determine the new metacentric height.
(Ans. 1.187 m )
Question 3
Calculate the GM0 for a vessel floating in sea water having the following particulars:
KB = 4.80 m, KG = 8.00 m,  = 7680 tonnes, LWL = 140.00 m
The vessel’s offsets for the load waterplane are:
Stn AP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 FP
Ord 1.2 3.5 5.7 7.5 8.2 8.2 8.0 7.1 5.2 2.4 0
(Ans. 0.259 m)
Question 4
KB = 3.00 m, KG = 4.80 m,  = 1 000 tonnes, LWL = 85.00 m
Stn AP 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 FP

Ord 0.3 0.9 1.2 1.8 2.7 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 3.8 2.7 1.8 1.0 0.6 0
(Ans. 0.475 m)
(continued)
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Question 5
Determine the transverse metacentric height for a catamaran formed by 2 rectangular box-shaped
demi-hulls each having a LWL = 40.00 m, BWL = 3.00 m and with a 7.00 m separation between their
centrelines. The catamaran floats at an even-keel draft of 2.00 m and has a KG = 4.00 m.
(Ans. 3.50 m)
Question 6
The GZ values for a vessel at a particular load condition are as follows:
 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

GZ 0.0 0.34 0.83 1.26 1.34 1.20 0.87 metres
a) If the initial GM is 1.65 m and the angle of downflooding is 43, check the vessel’s compliance
with the IMO minimum intact stability criteria;
b) If the vessel’s displacement at this load condition is 5 128.5 tonnes, determine the dynamical
stability to 60 heel; i.e., the energy required to heel the vessel to 60.
(Ans. b) 4 895.8 tonne-metre radians )
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64
Heeling Moments & Angles & Free Surface Effects
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HEELING MOMENTS & ANGLES
& FREE SURFACE EFFECTS 5 UNIT

1 Heeling Forces
The magnitude of heeling forces and corresponding heeling moments that may act on a surface
vessel determines the magnitude of moment that must be generated by the forces of mass and
buoyancy in order to minimise excessive heel angles developing and in the extreme, to prevent
capsizing.
Example causes of external heeling forces affecting transverse stability include the following:
• beam winds (including or excluding effects of rolling);

• suspension of large masses over the vessel’s side (including or excluding effects of rolling);
• high-speed turning;
• grounding;
• towline tension (during tug operations);
• mooring line tension;
Internal heeling forces affecting transverse stability may be caused by the following:
• transverse shifts of onboard masses (including passenger congregation);

• entrapped water on deck;
• asymmetric ice accretion.
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The condition of transverse stability resulting from any one, or a number, of these influences
acting simultaneously, (if relevant) requires careful analysis and evaluation during design phases
and in certain cases compliance with regulatory minimum requirements is essential.
2 Heeling Moment Curves & Their Interpretation
If the moment developed by a heeling force is calculated for a range of angles of inclination, the
resulting moments may be plotted on the same co-ordinates as the statical stability curve (GZ
curve), or as the righting moment curve as illustrated in Figure 5.1. Note that both the heeling
and righting moment curves are extended to the left to show heel in the opposite direction.
RIGHTING
MOMENT MOMENT
(t-m)
D
HEELING
MOMENT
C A
30 20 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
PORT STBD
HEEL ANGLE OF INCLINATION HEEL
(DEGREES)
MOMENT
(t-m)
Figure 5.1 Heeling and righting moments superimposed.
At points A and B the heeling moment equals the righting moment and the forces (heeling and
righting) are in equilibrium. If the vessel is heeled to point A, any further inclination in either
direction will generate a moment tending to restore the vessel to position A. If the vessel is
heeled to point B any further inclination in either direction will produce a moment tending to
move the vessel away from position B and the vessel may either come to rest in position A, or
capsize, depending upon the direction of the further inclination. The range of positive stability
for the vessel has been reduced to point B by the effect of the heeling moment. When a heeling
moment exists, (as in Figure 5.1), the vertical distance between the heeling and righting moment
curves at any angle represents the net moment acting at that angle, either to heel or to right the
vessel, depending upon the relative magnitudes of the moments.
2.1 Energy Considerations
If it is assumed that the vessel has rolled to port, to angle C, and has come to rest and is about to
roll in the opposite direction, then between C and the origin, the heeling and righting moments
will act in the same angular direction and the total moment acting on the vessel will be
represented by the vertical distance between the 2 curves. To the right of the origin these
moments will act in opposite angular directions and the moment acting on the vessel is (as
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before) the distance between the 2 curves. Between points C and A, the shaded area in Figure 5.1
corresponds to the energy imparted to the vessel that will exist as kinetic energy when the vessel
rolls through point A. This energy will carry the vessel to some angle D such that the area
between the curves and between points A and D is equivalent to the kinetic energy at point A. If
there is insufficient area between the curves and between A and B to absorb this energy, the
vessel will roll past point B and capsize. To reduce the danger of capsizing under these
conditions, the area between the heeling and righting moment curves between points A and B
should be greater (by some margin) than that between points C and A.
2.2 Heeling Lever Curves
As an alternative to superimposing heeling and righting moment curves (as shown in Figure 5.1)
the curve of heeling lever may be superimposed on the GZ (righting lever curve). Both forms of
curves are equally useful for analysis, however, within a vessel’s formal intact stability
documentation the GZ curve is presented for each relevant loading condition and hence heeling
lever curves are those most commonly seen.
3 Heeling Due to an Offset G (Angle of List)
In the event that a loading condition produces a value of TCG other than zero then an angle of
list will result due to the vessel’s centre of gravity, G, being offset from the centreline plane.
Small angles of list (< 7) resulting from an offset G may be calculated using the expression:
TCG
tan  = (5.1)
GM
where:  = resulting angle of heel (list)

TCG = transverse distance of the offset G from centreline
GM = metacentric height
 

W L
G1 HEELING LEVER
KG
B
B1
G

K G1
GT
 (TCG)
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Figure 5.2 Calculation of list angle (for small  ).
3.1 Angle of List and the GZ Curve
From Figure 5.2 it can be seen that the heeling lever due to an offset G can be expressed as:
heeling lever = TCG cos (5.2)
The GZ curve for a vessel with G on the centreline with a heeling lever curve superimposed, is
shown in Figure 5.3.
GZ
(METRES)
reduced area of positive stability
(‘residual stability’)
angle of list
point of vanishing
stability
GM0
negative
stability
area of lost positive stability
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

reduced range of positive stability
Figure 5.3 Standard method of GZ curve presentation with a heeling lever.
4 Angle of Loll
If a vessel loses stability to such an extent that the upright GM becomes negative and a slight
inclination is imposed, then the vessel will experience a heeling moment. As the vessel inclines,
the underwater hullform becomes increasingly asymmetrical and the heeling moment decreases.
Provided that the initial (upright) GM is small, an angle of heel is reached where the GM
becomes positive and a restoring moment will act on the vessel if inclined further. Positive
stability is recovered beyond this angle, (known as the angle of loll ), however, the range and
magnitude of positive dynamic stability are both significantly reduced.
It can be shown that the angle of loll,  , can be determined using the following expression:
2 GM 0
tan  = (5.3)
BM 0
where: GM 0 = modulus (absolute value) of the initial (upright) GM
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BM 0 = initial metacentric radius
The main danger to a vessel with a negative GM0 is that it can suddenly ‘flop’ over to either side
of upright, and if the roll through the upright position is too violent, the vessel with its reduced
range and magnitude of dynamic stability, can roll right over, flood and capsize.
  
M3
G M2 G G
M1
B1 B2 B3
  
NEGATIVE STABILITY ANGLE OF LOLL POSITIVE STABILITY
GZ
(+ ve)
angle of loll
57.3
0.0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
negative stability positive stability
negative GM0 GM0

GZ
( ve)
Figure 5.4 Angle of loll resulting from a negative upright GM.
5 Free Surface Effect & Moments
The motion of the fluid in a tank that is partially full reduces a vessel’s stability because the
centre of gravity of the fluid shifts toward the low side as the vessel is inclined. This causes the
vessel’s centre of gravity to move toward the low side, reducing the righting lever, GZ. If a tank
is empty, or completely full, there is no effect as there is no free surface in either case. The fluid
in a full tank behaves as a solid mass and the fluid’s centre of gravity has a constant location
irrespective of angle of heel. The usual practice in evaluating the effect of free surface in a
vessel’s tanks is to assume the most unfavourable disposition of liquids likely to occur. The
maximum effect occurs when a tank is about half full.
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Sea water ballast tanks can be filled to 100% capacity by ‘pressing up’ whereby the tanks are
deliberately overfilled; overflow escaping via ventilators. Within the formal trim and stability
documentation for a vessel, all full fuel tanks, however, are to be regarded as 98% full and hence
having a free surface, thus all such tanks are to have a corresponding free surface moment
calculated for each loading condition (except when such tanks are empty).
5.1 Free Surface Effect (Virtual Reduction in GM)
If it is assumed that a vessel has a partially filled tank and heels due to some external influence
such as a beam wind, then the surface of the tank liquid will remain horizontal and within the
tank a mass of liquid will have transferred itself in the same direction as the vessel heels (i.e.,
from the ‘high’ side to the ‘low’ side. Referring to Figure 5.5, the movement of the vessel’s
centre of gravity from G to G1 has been caused by the transfer of a mass of liquid across the
tank.
If the transverse stability of the vessel is considered it can be seen that the righting lever has
therefore been reduced from GZ to G1Z. The righting lever is the perpendicular distance between
the verticals through the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity and this distance may be
measured at any point. The vertical through G1 intersects the inclined vessel’s centreline at GV.
Since the initial stability of a vessel is usually measured in terms of metacentric height, GM, it is
useful to assume that the effect of a free surface of liquid is to raise the centre of gravity from G
to GV, thus effectively reducing the metacentric height of the vessel.
GGV is termed the virtual reduction in metacentric height due to free surface or, more commonly
and more simply, the free surface effect, or the rise in G, or the loss of GM.

M
GM (FLUID)
GMF
 GZ (FLUID) GZF
GV Z
VIRTUAL RISE
IN G
(FREE SURFACE
EFFECT) VIRTUAL G
THE VERTICAL HEIGHT OF GV

ABOVE THE MOULDED BASELINE
IS TERMED KG (FLUID) OR KGF
G Z
G1 Z

ACTUAL G (after fluid movement)
Figure 5.5 Free surface effect: the virtual reduction in metacentric height
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due to free surface(s) of tank fluids.
Referring to Figure 5.5:
GG1 = GGV tan  at small angles of  .
It can be shown via a complex mathematical derivation that:
iT  T tan 
GGV =
 S  tan 
iT  T
= (5.4)
S
where  T = density of liquid in the tank

 S = density of water in which vessel is floating
iT = transverse moment of inertia of liquid surface
and since  =   S
where  = volume of displacement of the vessel
iT  T
GGV = (5.5)

If the fluid in the tank is the same density as that in which the ship floats, then equation 5.5
becomes:
iT
GGV = (5.6)

It is important to note that free surface effect is independent of the tank location within a vessel.
For a given tank the free surface effect is identical if the tank is located on the centreline within a
double bottom, or off-centre adjacent to the hull side, or high within the vessel. Additionally,
free surface effect is independent of the level of liquid within tanks of rectangular cross-section
provided the fluid surface extends across the entire tank width (typically within 5% and 95% full
and the heel angle is relatively small). Free surface effects do, however, increase with increased
depth of fluid in tanks of triangular cross-section (e.g., forward and aft peak tanks).
5.2 Reduction of Free Surface Effect by Subdivision
Due to its dependence on the moment of inertia of the liquid free surface the loss of GM due to
free surface effect increases proportionally to the cube of the tank width. From this it can be seen
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that the free surface of any tank space can be greatly reduced by dividing the space into several
smaller tanks through the use of longitudinal bulkheads.
Consider a rectangular tank of length l and breadth b partly full of sea water.
iT
GGV =

lb 3
where: iT =
12
lb 3
thus GGV = (5.7)
12
If the same total tank space but with one longitudinal centreline division (forming 2 equal tanks)
is considered, then:
l b 2
3
for 1 tank: iT = (i.e., where 1 tank = one half the total tank space)
12
 l b 2 3 
for 2 tanks: iT = 2 
 12 
 
lb 3
=
48
lb 3
hence: GGV = (5.8)
48
Thus the free surface effect is reduced to 25% of the original value by the introduction of one
longitudinal division (on the tank centreline).
If the original tank space with 2 longitudinal divisions (forming 3 equal tanks) is considered:
l b 3
3
for 1 tank: iT = (i.e., where 1 tank = one-third of the total tank space)
12
 l b 3 3 
for 3 tanks: iT = 3 
 12 
 
lb 3
=
108
lb 3
hence: GGV = (5.9)
108
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Therefore the free surface effect is further and significantly reduced by the introduction of 2
longitudinal divisions. If a rectangular tank space is subdivided longitudinally by n watertight
divisions forming (n +1) equal tanks, then:
1 lb 3
GGV = (5.10)
n  1 2 12
B B B
B
B B
B 3
2 B 3 B
2 3
FULL-WIDTH TANK HALF-WIDTH TANK THIRD-WIDTH TANK
iT 1 iT 1 iT
GG V = GG V = GG V =
 4  9 
Figure 5.6 Reduction of free surface by tank subdivision.
5.3 Free Surface Moment (FSM)
In equation 5.5, the numerator, ( iT  T ), is termed the free surface moment (FSM) and has units
of tonne-metres and may be regarded as the heeling moment imposed by the shift in the wedge of
fluid caused by the free surface when the vessel is inclined. The FSM has particular importance
in the stability analyses undertaken for the loading conditions of a vessel and must be applied to
all tanks if a free surface exists, or where regulatory stability codes require the assumption of a
free surface, (e.g., fuel tanks). The total of free surface moments for all appropriate tanks,
divided by the displacement provides the free surface effect and is termed the free surface
correction (FSC) which is then applied to the initial GM and KG values to give the all-important
corrected values; GMF and KGF for the vessel in that particular loading condition.
 FSM
FSC = (m) (5.11)

GM F = GM 0  FSC (5.12)
KGF = KG0  FSC (5.13)

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An example extract from a loading condition analysis illustrating the use of FSMs and resulting
FSC is given below:
DEADWEIGHT ITEMS WEIGHT LCG VCG FSM % FILLING

TONNES METRES METRES T-M %
STORES 1 204  107.99 17.04

HFO DEEP TNKS (P & S) 2 811 114.65 9.41 5 195 74
HFO WING TNKS (P & S) 1 396  103.80 11.65 3 548 30
HFO SERVICE TNK (P) 131  112.28 19.51 126 98
HFO SETTLING TNK (P) 142  109.58 19.48 157 98
OIL CARGO (SG = 0.795 t/m3)

No 1 CENTRE TNK 14 554 90.90 11.27 20 004 98
No 2 CENTRE TNK 16 317 45.80 11.24 22 505 98
No 4 CENTRE TNK 16 315  17.80 11.24 22 505 98
No 5 CENTRE TNK 16 948  66.44 11.38 23 778 98
No 1 SIDE TNK (P & S) 16 690 89.56 11.53 9 280 98
No 2 SIDE TNK (P & S) 20 895 45.79 11.13 12 287 98
No 3 SIDE TNK (P & S) 20 905  1.90 11.12 12 287 98
No 4 SIDE TNK (P & S) 20 451  49.25 11.33 12 284 98
SLOP TNK (P & S) 6 441  82.57 13.28 4 706 98
DEADWEIGHT 155 200 9.95 11.38 148 662

LT SHIP WEIGHT 21 900  15.17 12.37
DISPLACEMENT 177 100 6.84 11.51 148 662
GMO 6.69 metres

FSC  0.84 metres
GMF 5.85 metres
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TUTORIAL 5  HEELING MOMENTS, ANGLES
& FREE SURFACE EFFECTS
Question 1
A vessel of  = 10 000 tonnes, KG of 4 m, initially upright, loads deck cargo of 4000 tonnes with its
kg = 10 m and tcg = 1.5 m to starboard of the centreline. Calculate the resulting KG and TCG of the
vessel plus cargo, and the resulting angle of list if the vessel’s KM of 9.0 m remains unchanged.
(Ans. KG = 5.714 m, TCG = 0.429 m,  LIST = 7.44 )
Question 2
In order to correct the list in the vessel in Question 1, water ballast is pumped from wing tanks on the
starboard side to wing tanks on the port side. If the transverse distance between the centroids of these
tanks is 5.0 m and the kg of the tanks are all the same, how much ballast must be transferred ?
(Ans. 1 201 tonnes)
Question 3
Determine the angle of loll of a box-shaped barge of length 25 m and breadth 5 m when floating at an
even-keel draft of 1.50 m and with a KG of 2.18 m.
(Ans. 13.7 )
Question 4
A vessel of  = 10 000 tonnes, floating in sea water, with KG = 8.9 m and KM = 9.4 m, loads ballast
water of density 1.010 t/m3 into a rectangular double-bottom tank space measuring L 30 m  B 20 m
 D 2 m to a depth of 1.0 m. The tank space has a centreline division. Determine the fluid GM.
(Ans. 0.504 m)
Question 5
A vessel of  = 11 000 tonnes, KG = 8.0 m and KM = 9.0 m. A rectangular double-bottom tank with
L 12 m  B 6 m, with its centroid 4.0 m to starboard of the vessel’s centreline, is partially filled with
72 tonnes of fresh water to a depth of 1.0 m. Determine the GMF and resulting angle of list.
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(Ans. 1.03m, 1.45 )
Question 6
Plot the GZF curve for the following vessel and compare with the IMO criteria;
 = 196 866 tonnes, KG = 10.17 m, FSC = 0.07 m,KM = 12.42 m
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

KN 2.19 4.44 6.67 8.65 10.23 11.20 11.55 11.32 10.63
(Ans. All IMO criteria are complied with )
Question 7
In a vessel of  = 8 100 tonnes with GM = 0.61 m and KG = 5.65 m, it is intended to empty a double-
bottom ballast tank containing sea water. The tank has L = 13 m, B = 12 m and D = 1.06 m. For the
vessel floating in sea water:
a) Determine the GMF when the water level has fallen 0.6 m in the tank.
b) Determine the loss of GM if the tank under consideration had a watertight centreline division.
c) Determine the GMF and angle of heel if the tank had a watertight centreline division and the
water level in the starboard half is lowered 0.6 m and the port half remains full.
Assume KM remains unchanged.
(Ans. a) 0.312 m, b) 0.06 m, c). GMF = 0.551 m,  = 1.9 to port )
Question 8
Estimate the resulting heel angle of a fast ferry travelling at 28.0 knots in a high-speed turn of radius
70 m. The vessel has an operating draft of 1.20 m, KM = 4.20 m, KG = 2.05 m and the total free
surface effect has been determined to be 0.18 m.
(Ans.  = 14.5 )
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The Inclining Experiment
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THE INCLINING EXPERIMENT

6UNIT

Code on Intact Stability for All Types of Ships Covered

by IMO Instruments (Resolution A.749 (18 ))
IMO, London 1995
1 General
A vessel’s operators are primarily concerned with the GM in any particular loading condition.
The designer, however, is very concerned about the position of the centre of gravity in the light
ship condition, since it is the basis of calculations for different conditions of loading.
Toward the end of the construction period an inclining experiment is conducted to establish
experimentally the mass of the vessel and the vertical and longitudinal co-ordinates of its centre
of gravity. The results of this inclining experiment supersede the corresponding values
determined via the weight estimate. An inclining experiment is also undertaken after a vessel has
been modified or converted if such alterations are extensive enough to preclude a reliable
estimate of the effects of the conversion.
2 The Principle
To obtain the metacentric height (GM) it is necessary to determine the position of the centre of
gravity (G). A metacentric calculation consists of 2 parts. The first is the height of the
metacentre above the keel (KM) which is purely geometrical depending only on the form of the
vessel’s hull. The second is the height of the centre of gravity above the keel (KG) and this
depends upon the structure and machinery masses plus those of any loading (cargo, fluids, etc.).
The immediate purpose of the inclining experiment is to determine the metacentric height. The
ultimate purpose is to obtain the height of the centre of gravity for a definite condition of the
vessel  the lightship condition. It is therefore necessary to carry out the inclining experiment
on the empty vessel (or as near to empty as possible). The experiment is commenced with the
vessel upright. A mass (m) is moved across the vessel through a distance (gg1 ). This causes the
centre of gravity to move from its original position G on the centreline to G1. (Refer to Figure
6.1.)
m gg1
then: GG1 = (6.1)

As a result the vessel heels to an angle , and the centre of buoyancy moves from B to B1 , in the
same vertical line as G1 . The vertical through B1 intersects the centreline at M, the transverse
metacentre.
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
gg1
M

l pendulum
G G1
W L
B
B1
batten
a

Figure 6.1 Principle of the inclining experiment.
Since: GG1 = GM tan  (6.2)

m gg1
then: GM tan  = (6.3)

m gg1
therefore: GM = (6.4)
 tan 
To determine the angle of heel,  , a pendulum is suspended from some fixed point on the
vessel. The deflection of the pendulum is measured when the mass is moved across the deck.
Thus if: l = length of the pendulum

a = deflection of pendulum from zero (upright) datum
a
then: tan  = (6.5)
l
GG1
or: tan  =
GM 0
m gg1 l
and GM 0 = (6.6)
 a
The height of the centre of gravity above the keel may then be found using:
KG = KM  GM (6.7)
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3 Extracts from Chapter 7 of :
IMO Resolution A.749 (18): Code on Intact Stability for All Types of
Ships Covered by IMO Instruments
Determination of Lightship Displacement and Centre of Gravity
3.1 Application
.1 Every passenger vessel regardless of size and every cargo vessel having a length † as defined in
the International Convention on Load Lines, 1966, of 24 metres and upwards should be inclined
upon its completion and the elements of its stability determined.
.2 Where any alterations are made to a vessel so as to materially affect the stability, the vessel
should be re-inclined.
.3 The Administration may allow the inclining test of an individual vessel to be dispensed with
provided basic stability data are available from the inclining test of a sister vessel and it is shown
to the satisfaction of the Administration that reliable stability information for the exempted vessel
can be obtained from such basic data.
.4 The Administration may allow the inclining test of an individual vessel or class of vessels
especially designed for the carriage of liquids or ore in bulk to be dispensed with when reference
to existing data for similar vessels clearly indicates that, due to the vessel’s proportions and
arrangements, more than sufficient metacentric height will be available in all probable loading
conditions.
.5 The inclining test prescribed is adaptable for vessels with a length below 24 metres if special
precautions are taken to ensure the accuracy of the test procedure.
3.2 Definitions
.1 Certification of the test weights is the verification of the weight marked on a test weight. Test
weights should be certified using a certified scale. The weighing should be performed close
enough in time to the inclining test to ensure the measured weight is accurate.
.2 Draft is the vertical distance from the moulded baseline to the waterline.
.3 The inclining test involves moving a series of known weights, normally in the transverse
direction, and then measuring the resulting change in the equilibrium heel angle of the vessel.
By using this information and applying basic naval architectural principles, the vessel’s vertical
centre of gravity (VCG) is determined.
†
Length is 96% of the total length on a waterline at 85% of the least moulded depth measured from the top of the keel, or the length
from the fore-side of the stem to the axis of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater. In ships designed with a rake of keel
the waterline on which this length is measured shall be parallel to the designed waterline.
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.4 Light-ship condition is a vessel complete in all respects, but without consumables, stores, cargo,
crew and effects, and without any liquids on board except that machinery and piping fluids, such
as lubricants and hydraulics, are at operating levels.
.5 A light-weight survey involves taking an audit of all items which should be added, deducted or
relocated on the vessel at the time of the inclining test so that the observed condition of the vessel
can be adjusted to the light-ship condition. The weight, longitudinal, transverse and vertical
location of each item should be accurately determined and recorded. Using this information, the
static waterline of the vessel at the time of the inclining test as determined from measuring the
freeboard or verified draft marks of the vessel, the vessel’s hydrostatic data, and the seawater
density, the light-ship displacement and longitudinal centre of gravity (LCG) can be obtained.
The transverse centre of gravity (TCG) may also be determined for mobile offshore drilling units
(MODUs) and other vessels which are asymmetrical about the centreline or whose internal
arrangement or outfitting is such that an inherent list may develop from off-centre weight.
3.3 Preparations for the Inclining Test
.1 Notification of the Administration
Written notification of the inclining test should be sent to the Administration as it requires, or in
due time before the test. An Administration representative should be present to witness the
inclining test and the test results be submitted for review.
The responsibility for making preparations, conducting the inclining test and light-weight survey,
recording the data, and calculating the results rests with the shipyard, owner or naval architect.
While compliance with the procedures outlined herein will facilitate an expeditious and accurate
inclining test, it is recognized that alternative procedures or arrangements may be equally
efficient. However, to minimize the risk of delay, it is recommended that all such variances be
submitted to the Administration for review prior to the inclining test.
.2 Details of Notification
Written notification should provide the following information as the Administration may require:
• identification of the vessel by name and shipyard hull number, if applicable;
• date, time and location of the test;
• inclining weight data;
• type;
• amount (number of units and weight of each);

• certification;
• method of handling (i.e. sliding rail or crane)
• anticipated maximum angle of heel to each side;
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• pendulums  approximate location and length, (if a substitution is desired, an inclinometer

or other measuring device may be substituted for one of the 2 required pendulums, prior
approval should be obtained from the Administration. The Administration may require that
the devices be used in addition to the pendulums on one or more inclinings to verify their
accuracy before allowing actual substitution for a pendulum);
• approximate trim
• condition of tanks;
• estimated weights to deduct, to complete, and to relocate in order to place the vessel in its
true light-ship condition;
• detailed description of any computer software to be used to aid in calculations during the
inclining test;
.3 General Condition of the Vessel
A vessel should be as complete as possible at the time of the inclining test. The test should
scheduled to minimize the disruption in the vessel’s delivery date or its operational
commitments.
The amount and type of work left to be completed (weights to be added) affect the accuracy of
the light-ship characteristics, so good judgement should be used. If the weight or centre of
gravity of an item to be added cannot be determined with confidence, it is best to conduct the
inclining test after the item has been added.
Temporary material, tools, staging, debris, etc., on board should be reduced to an absolute
minimum before the inclining test. Excess crew or personnel not directly involved in the
inclining test should be removed from the vessel before the test.
Decks should be free of water. Water trapped on deck may shift and pocket in a fashion similar
to liquids in a tank. Any rain, snow or ice accumulated on the vessel should be removed prior to
the test.
The anticipated liquid loading for the test should be included in the planning of the test.
Preferably, all tanks should be empty and clean, or completely full. The number of slack tanks
should be kept to an absolute minimum. The viscosity and depth of the fluid, and the shape of
the tank should be such that the free surface effect can be accurately determined.
The vessel should be moored in a quiet, sheltered area free from extraneous forces such as
propeller wash from passing vessels, or sudden discharges from shore-side pumps. Tide
conditions and the vessel’s trim during the test should be considered. Prior to the test, the depth
of water should be measured and recorded in as many locations as are necessary to ensure that
the vessel will not contact the bottom. The water density should be accurately recorded. The
vessel should be moored in a manner to allow unrestricted heeling. Access ramps should be
removed. Power cables, hoses, etc., connected to shore should be at a minimum, and kept slack
at all times.
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The vessel should be as upright as possible and have sufficient draft so that any abrupt changes in
the waterplane will be avoided as the vessel is inclined. A deviation in design trim of up to 1%
of L is normally acceptable when using hydrostatic data calculated at design trim. Otherwise, the
hydrostatic data should be calculated for the actual trim. Caution should be exercised when
applying the “1% rule of thumb” to ensure that excessive error, as would result from a significant
change in the waterplane area during heeling, is not introduced into the stability calculations.
With inclining weights in the initial position, up to 0.5 of list is acceptable.
The total weight used should preferably be sufficient to provide a minimum inclination of 2 and
a maximum of 4 of heel to each side. However, a minimum inclination of 1 to each side may
be accepted for large vessels. Test weights should be compact and of such a configuration that
the VCG of the weights can be accurately determined. Each weight should be marked with an
identification number and its weight. Recertification of the test weights should be carried out
prior to the inclining. A crane of sufficient capacity and reach, or some other means, should be
available during the inclining test to shift weights on the deck in an expeditious and safe manner.
Water ballast is generally not acceptable as inclining weight. However, water ballast transfer
may be permitted when it is absolutely impractical to incline using solid weights if acceptable to
the Administration.
The use of 3 pendulums is recommended but a minimum of 2 should used to allow identification
of erroneous readings at any one pendulum station. Pendulums should be located in areas
protected from the wind. The pendulums should be long enough to give a measured deflection,
to each side of upright, of at least 15 cm. To ensure recordings from individual instruments are
kept separate, it is suggested that the pendulums be physically located as far apart as practical.
The use of an inclinometer or U-tube should be considered in each separate case. It is
recommended that inclinometers or other measuring devices only be used in conjunction with at
least one pendulum.
.4 Plans Required
The person in charge of the inclining test should have available a copy of the following plans at
the time of the inclining test:
• lines plan;
• curves of form (hydrostatic curves) or hydrostatic data;
• general arrangement plan of decks, holds, inner bottoms, etc.;
• capacity plan showing capacities and vertical and longitudinal centres of gravity of cargo
spaces, tanks, etc.;
• tank sounding tables;
• draft mark locations; and
• docking drawing with keel profile and draft mark corrections (if available).
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3.4 Test Procedure
.1 Procedures followed in conducting the inclining test and light-weight survey should be in
accordance with the recommendations laid out in Annex 1 to this Code.
.2 Freeboard/draft readings should be taken to establish the position of the waterline in order to
determine the displacement of the vessel at the time of the inclining test. It is recommended that
at least 5 freeboard readings, approximately equally spaced, be taken on each side of the vessel
or that all draft marks (forward, midship and aft) be read on each side of the vessel.
Draft/freeboard readings should be read immediately before, or immediately after, the inclining
test.
.3 The standard test employs 8 distinct weight movements. Movement No. 8, a re-check of the zero
point, may be omitted if a straight line plot is achieved after movement No. 7. If a straight line
plot is achieved after the initial zero and 6 weight movements, the inclining test is complete and
the second check at zero may be omitted. If a straight line plot is not achieved, those weight
movements that did not yield acceptable plotted points should be repeated or explained.
3 4
1 2
m1 m2
5 6
7 8
Figure 6.2 The 8 distinct movements of masses of the inclining experiment.
.4 A copy of the inclining data should be forwarded to the Administration along with the calculated
results of the inclining test in an acceptable report format, if required.
.5 All calculations performed during the inclining test and in preparation of an inclining test report
may be carried out by a suitable computer program. Output generated by such a program may be
used for presentation of all or partial data and calculations included in the test report if it is clear,
concise, well documented, and generally consistent in form and content with Administration
requirements.
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4 Detailed Guidance for the Conduct of an Inclining Test
4.1 Introduction
Annex 1 supplements the inclining standards put forth in Chapter 7 of this Code and contains
important detailed procedures for conducting an inclining test in order to ensure that valid results
are obtained with maximum precision at a minimal cost to owners, shipyards and the
Administration. A complete understanding of the correct procedures used to perform an
inclining test is imperative in order to ensure that the test is conducted properly and so that
results can be examined for accuracy as the inclining test is conducted.
4.2 Preparations for the Inclining Test
.1 Free Surface and Tankage
If there are liquids on board the vessel when it is inclined, whether in the bilges or in the tanks,
they will shift to the low side when the vessel heels. This shift of liquids will exaggerate the heel
of the vessel. Unless the exact weight and distance of liquid shifted can be precisely calculated,
the metacentric height (GM) calculated from the inclining test will be in error. Free surface
should be minimized by emptying the tank completely and making sure all bilges are dry; or by
completely filling tanks so that no shift of liquid is possible. The latter method is not the
optimum because air pockets are difficult to remove from between structural members of a tank,
and the weight and centre of the liquid in a full tank should be accurately determined in order to
adjust the light-ship values accordingly. When tanks must be left slack, it is desirable that the
sides of the tanks be parallel vertical planes and the tanks be regular in shape (i.e. rectangular,
trapezoidal, etc.) when viewed from above, so that the free surface moment of the liquid can be
accurately determined.
Free surface correction is independent of the height of the tank in the vessel, location of the tank,
and direction of heel. As the width of the tank increases, the value of free surface moment
increases by the third power. The distance available for the liquid to shift is the predominant
factor. Thus even the smallest amount of liquid in the bottom of a wide tank or bilge is normally
unacceptable and should be removed prior to the inclining test. Insignificant amounts of liquids
in V-shaped tanks or voids (e.g., a chain locker in the bow), where the potential shift is
negligible, may remain if removal of the liquid would be difficult or would cause extensive
delays.
Free surface and slack tanks  The number of slack tanks should normally be limited to one
port/starboard pair or one centreline tank of the following:
• fresh water reserve feed tanks;

• fuel/diesel oil storage tanks;
• fuel/diesel oil day tanks;
• lube oil tanks;
• sanitary tanks; or
• potable water tanks.
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To avoid pocketing, slack tanks should normally be of regular (i.e. rectangular, trapezoidal, etc.)
cross-section and be 20% to 80% full if they are deep tanks and 40% to 60% full if they are
double-bottom tanks. These levels ensure that the rate of shifting of liquid remains constant
throughout the heel angles of the inclining test. If the trim changes as the vessel is inclined, then
consideration should also be given to longitudinal pocketing. Slack tanks containing liquids of
sufficient viscosity to prevent free movement of liquids as the vessel is inclined (such as heavy
fuel oil at low temperature) should be avoided since the free surface cannot be calculated
accurately. A free surface correction for such tanks should not be used unless the tanks are
heated to reduce viscosity. Communication between tanks should never be allowed. Cross-
connections, including those via manifolds, should be closed. Equal liquid levels in slack tank
pairs can be a warning sign of open cross-connections. A bilge, ballast, and fuel oil piping plan
can be referred to when checking for cross-connection closures.
Pressed-up tanks  “Pressed up” means completely full with no voids caused by trim or
inadequate venting. Anything less than 100% full, for example the 98% condition regarded as
full for operational purposes, is not acceptable. Preferably, the vessel should be rolled from side
to side to eliminate entrapped air before taking the final sounding.
Empty tanks  It is generally not sufficient to simply pump tanks until suction is lost. Tanks
should be entered after pumping to determine if final stripping with portable pumps or by hand is
necessary. The exceptions are very narrow tanks or tanks where there is a sharp deadrise, since
free surfaces would be negligible.
.2 Mooring Arrangements
The importance of good mooring arrangements cannot be overemphasized. The arrangement

selection will be dependent upon many factors. Among the most important are depth of water,
wind, and current effects. Whenever possible the vessel should be moored in a quiet, sheltered
area free from extraneous forces such as propeller wash from passing vessels or sudden
discharges from shore-side pumps. The depth of water under the hull should be sufficient so that
the hull will be entirely free of the bottom. The tide conditions and the trim of the vessel during
the test should be considered. Prior to the test, the depth of water should be measured and
recorded in as many locations as necessary to ensure the vessel will not contact the bottom.
The vessel should be held by lines at the bow and the stern, attached to temporary padeyes
installed as close as possible to the vessel’s centreline and as near the waterline as practical. If
temporary padeyes are not feasible then lines can be secured to bollards and/or cleats on the
deck. This arrangement requires that the lines be slackened when the vessel is heeled away from
the dock. The preferred arrangement is as shown in Figure 6.3. In this case, the lines can be
kept taut to hold the vessel in place, yet allow unrestricted heeling. Wind and current may cause
superimposed heeling moments to act on the vessel throughout the test. For steady conditions
this will not affect the results. Gusting or varying wind and/or current will cause these
superimposed heeling moments to change, which may require additional test points to obtain a
valid test. The need for additional test points can be determined by plotting test points as they
are obtained.
Where the vessel can be moored to one side only, it is good practice to supplement the bow and
stern lines with 2 spring lines in order to maintain positive control of the vessel. The leads of the
spring lines should be as long as practicable. Cylindrical camels should be provided between the
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vessel and the dock. All lines should be kept slack, with the vessel free of the pier and camels,
when taking readings.
mooring lines to mooring lines to propeller

temporary bow clip or rudder handling padeyes
waterplane at inclining
Figure 6.3
If the vessel is held off the pier by the combined effect of wind and current, and the bow and
stern lines are secured at the centreline and near the waterline, they can be taut. This is
essentially the same as the preferred arrangement previously described.
.3 Pendulums
Pendulums should be long enough to give a measured deflection, to each side of upright, of at
least 15 cm. Generally, this will require a pendulum length of at least 3 m. It is recommended
that pendulum lengths of 4-6 m be used. Usually the longer the pendulum the greater the
accuracy of the test; however, if excessively long pendulums are used on a tender vessel the
pendulums may not settle and accuracy of deflections would be questionable. If the pendulums
are of different lengths, the possibility of collusion between station recorders is avoided.
On smaller vessels, where there is insufficient headroom to hang long pendulums, the 15 cm
deflection should be obtained by increasing the test weight so as to increase the heel. On most
vessels the typical inclination is between 1 and 4.
The pendulum wire should be piano wire or other monofilament material. The top connection of
the pendulum should afford unrestricted rotation of the pivot point.
A trough filled with a liquid should be provided to dampen the oscillations of the pendulum after
each weight movement. The use of a winged plumb-bob at the end of the pendulum wire can
also help to dampen the pendulum oscillations in the liquid.
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5 Test Procedure
The inclining experiment, the freeboard/draught readings and the survey may be conducted in
any order and still achieve the same results. If the person conducting the inclining test is
confident that the survey will show that the vessel is in an acceptable condition and there is the
possibility of the weather becoming unfavourable, then it is suggested that the inclining be
performed first and the survey last. If the person conducting the test is doubtful that the vessel is
complete enough for the test, it is recommended that the survey be performed first since this
could invalidate the entire test, regardless of the weather conditions. It is very important that all
weights, the number of people on board, etc., remain constant throughout the test.
5.1 Initial Walk-Through and Survey
The person responsible for conducting the inclining test should arrive on board the vessel well in
advance of the scheduled time of the test to ensure that the vessel is properly prepared for the
test. If the vessel to be inclined is large, a preliminary walk though may need to be done the day
preceding the actual incline. Checks should include: all compartments are open, clean and dry,
tanks are well ventilated and gas-free, movable or suspended items are secured and their position
documented, pendulums are in place, weights are on board and in place, a crane or other method
for moving the weights is available, and the necessary plans and equipment are available.
5.2 Freeboard/Draft Readings
.1 Freeboard/draft readings should be taken to establish the position of the waterline in order to
determine the displacement of the vessel at the time of the inclining test. It is recommended that
at least 5 freeboard readings, approximately equally spaced, be taken on each side of the vessel
or that all draft marks (forward, midship, and aft) be read on each side of the vessel.
.2 Draft and freeboard readings should be read immediately before, or immediately after, the
inclining test. Weights should be on board and in place and all personnel who will be on board
during the test should be on board and in location during these readings. This is particularly
important on small vessels. If readings are made after the test, the vessel should be maintained in
the same condition as during the test.
.3 The density of the flotation water should be determined at this time. Samples should be taken
from a sufficient depth of water to ensure a true representation of the flotation water and not
merely surface water, which could contain fresh water from run-off of rain. For large vessels, it
is recommended that samples of the flotation water be taken forward, midship and aft and the
readings averaged. For small vessels, one sample taken from midships should be sufficient. The
temperature of the water should be taken and the measured density corrected for deviation from
the standard, if necessary. A correction to water density is not necessary if the density is
determined at the inclining site. Correction is necessary if density is measured when sample
temperature differs from the temperature at the time of the inclining.
.4 The dimensions given on a vessel’s lines drawing are normally moulded dimensions. In the case
of depth, this means the distance from the inside of the bottom shell to the inside of the deck
plate. In order to plot the vessel’s waterline on the lines drawing, the freeboard readings should
be converted to moulded drafts. Similarly, the draft mark readings should be corrected from
extreme (bottom of keel) to moulded (top of keel) before plotting.
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.5 The mean draft (average of port and starboard readings) should be calculated for each of the
locations where freeboard/draft readings are taken and plotted on the vessel’s lines drawing or
outboard profile to ensure that all readings are consistent and together define the correct
waterline. The resulting plot should yield either a straight line or a waterline which is either
hogged or sagged. If inconsistent readings are obtained, the freeboards/drafts should be retaken.
5.3 The Incline
.1 A plot should be run during the test to ensure that acceptable data are being obtained. Typically,
the abscissa of the plot will be heeling moment (weight  distance) and the ordinate will be the
tangent of the heel angle (deflection of the pendulum  length of the pendulum). This plotted
line does not necessarily pass through the origin or any other particular point for no single point
is more significant than any other point. A linear regression analysis is often used to fit the
straight line. The weight movements shown in Figure 6.4 give a good spread of points on the test
plot.
Maximum moment to starboard

tan 
2
3
Approx. 2/3 maximum
moment to starboard
1
Approx. 1/3 maximum
moment to starboard
8
P S
4 heeling moments (m gg1)
Approx. 1/3 maximum
moment to port
7
5
Approx. 2/3 maximum
moment to port
6
Maximum moment to port P
Figure 6.4
Plotting all the readings for each of the pendulums during the inclining experiment aids in the
discovery of bad readings. Since (m gg1 /tan  ) should be constant, the plotted line should be
straight. Deviations from a straight line are an indication that there were other moments acting
on the vessel during the inclining. These other moments should be identified, the cause
corrected, and the weight movements repeated until a straight line is achieved. Figure 6.5
illustrates examples of how to detect some of these other moments during the inclining and a
recommended solution for each case. For simplicity, only the average of the readings is shown
on the inclining plots.
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.2 Once everything and everyone is in place, the zero position should be obtained and the remainder
of the experiment conducted as quickly as possible, while maintaining accuracy and proper
procedures, in order to minimize the possibility of a change in environmental conditions during
the test.
S S
tan  tan 
2
2
3
3
1 1
4 4
P S P S
heeling moments heeling moments
7 7
5
5
6
6
P P
Excessive free liquids (re-check all tanks & voids and pump out as Ship touching bottom or restrained by mooring lines (take water
necessary: re-do all weight movements & re-check draft readings) soundings and check lines: re-do weight movements 2 and 3)
Figure 6.5  1 Figure 6.5  2
S 2 S 2
tan  tan 
3
3
1
1
4
P heeling moments S P S
7 heeling moments
5
5
6
6
P
P
Steady wind from port side arose after initial zero point taken (plot Gusty wind from port side (re-do weight movements 1 and 5)
is acceptable)
Figure 6.5  3 Figure 6.5  4
.3 Each weight movement should be made in the same direction, normally transversely, so as not to
change the trim of the vessel. After each weight movement, the distance the weight was moved
(centre to centre) should be measured and the heeling moment calculated by multiplying the
distance by the amount of weight moved. The tangent is calculated for each pendulum by
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dividing the deflection by the length of the pendulum. The resultant tangents are plotted on the
graph. Provided there is good agreement among the pendulums with regard to the tan  value,
the average of the pendulum readings may be graphed instead of plotting each of the readings.
.4 Inclining data sheets should be used so that no data are forgotten and so that the data are clear,
concise and consistent in form and format. Prior to departing the vessel, the person conducting
the test and the Administration representative should initial each data sheet as an indication of
their concurrence with the recorded data.
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TUTORIAL 6  THE INCLINING EXPERIMENT
Question 1
During an inclining experiment on a vessel of 4300 tonnes displacement, a mass of 6 tonnes is placed
aboard and moved transversely a distance of 14 m. Immediately after the mass shift the deflection of
an 11 metre pendulum is found to be 120 mm. KMT is 7.25 m. Determine the vessel’s KG.
(Ans. KG = 5.462 m )
Question 2
An inclining experiment was undertaken on a vessel of 8 000 tonnes displacement. A mass of 10

tonnes was placed aboard and moved 14 m across the deck causing a pendulum 8.50 m long to deflect
110 mm. KMT is 7.15 m. Calculate the GM and the KG values.
(Ans. GM = 1.351 m; KG = 5.799 m )
Question 3
A vessel with a light ship displacement of 3 550 tonnes during an inclining experiment recorded an
angle of heel of 1.3 degrees when 6 tonnes was moved transversely a distance of 10 metres. The KM
at this displacement was 8.5 m. Determine the height of the centre of gravity above the keel.
(Ans. KG = 7.756 m )
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92
Elementary Principles of Trim
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ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIM

7 UNIT

1 Introduction
Trim, T, defines the longitudinal inclination or attitude of a vessel and may be expressed as the
angle between the moulded baseline and the waterplane, but more usually, as the difference in
forward and aft drafts. A vessel having equal drafts forward and aft is termed ‘on an even keel’,
i.e., having no trim. A vessel is termed as ‘trimmed by the stern’ where the aft draft exceeds the
forward draft, and a vessel with a forward draft exceeding the aft draft is termed ‘trimmed by the
bow’ (or ‘by the head’).
A vessel with a raked keel, and hence an intended deeper aft draft than forward, is trimmed by
the stern when the difference in drafts is greater than designed, and is trimmed by the bow when
the difference in drafts is less than that designed.
2 Longitudinal Centre of Flotation (LCF)
The centre of flotation is the point in the vessel’s waterplane through which the axis of rotation
passes when the vessel is inclined, either transversely or longitudinally, or both. For longitudinal
inclinations this point is the centroid of the waterplane.
CENTROID OF WATERPLANE AREA

(CENTRE OF FLOTATION)
LCF
Figure 7.1 A vessel trims about a transverse axis through the centre of flotation
and heels about a longitudinal axis through the centre of flotation.
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When the trim of a vessel is changed by a redistribution of mass, the newly immersed volume of
the hull must equal the original displaced volume as the vessel’s total mass has remained
constant. The waterplane rotates around a trimming axis which transfers a wedge of buoyancy
from one side of the axis to the other. This is basically the same as occurs in the transverse
context when a vessel is heeled around the centreline except that the waterplane of a vessel is
usually asymmetrical about a transverse axis through midships. Generally at deeper drafts the
waterplane is fuller in the stern region than forward and hence the centroid of the waterplane, i.e.,
the centre of flotation, and therefore the trimming axis, is often some distance aft of midships.
The position of the centre of flotation is usually quoted relative to midships (alternatively,
relative to the aft perpendicular) and has greatest relevance in the longitudinal context and thus in
this case is known as the longitudinal centre of flotation (LCF).
BUOYANCY WEDGES
OF EQUAL VOLUME
WL0
WL1
LCF
DEVELOPMENT OF STERN TRIM
BUOYANCY WEDGES
OF EQUAL VOLUME
WL1
LCF
WL0
DEVELOPMENT OF BOW TRIM
Figure 7.2 Change of trim with redistribution of mass (constant displacement).
The centre of flotation is useful in the determination of drafts for 2 reasons. When the vessel is
trimmed with no change in displacement (as in the case of a transfer of mass), there is no change
in draft at the centre of flotation, if the change in trim is moderate. Secondly, if the original
waterline (i.e., drafts) and change in trim are known, the new waterline can be determined.
Additionally, if a small mass is added to a vessel at the centre of flotation there is an increase in
mean draft but no change in trim since the centre of gravity of the added mass is at the same
position as the centre of the added ‘layer’ of buoyancy. A large mass (e.g., one exceeding 5% of
the displacement) will, however, cause a considerable increase in draft and hence a change in
waterplane area and centre of flotation.
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ADDED MASS
gm
PARALLEL SINKAGE
WL1
LCF WL0
ADDED MASS
gm
PARALLEL SINKAGE
WL1
LCF WL0
Figure 7.3 Parallel sinkage (no change in trim) with mass addition at the LCF.
3 Tonnes Per Centimetre Immersion (TPC)
The tonnes per centimetre immersion (TPC) of a vessel at any given draft is the mass required to
increase the mean draft by 1 cm. (Refer to following Note.)
Consider a vessel floating in water of density  t/m3. If the mean draft is increased by 1 cm (i.e.,
1/100th of a metre), then the increase in the volume of displacement, , is:
1
 =  AW m3
100
AW 3
= m (7.1)
100
The increase in mass displacement, , is therefore:
AW
 =  tonnes (7.2)
100
This increase in mass displacement is also equal to the number of tonnes necessary to produce
the change in volumetric displacement, , or the 1 cm change in mean draft. Therefore:
AW 
TPC = (7.3)
100
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At different drafts, variations in waterplane area cause variations in TPC values. TPC values are
included in a vessel’s hydrostatic tabulated data (quoted over a vessel’s range of displacements).
It is assumed for small alterations in draft, that a vessel is wall-sided and therefore TPC remains
constant. If the change in draft exceeds 0.5 metres, then a mean TPC value should be used.
Note: Mean Draft (True Mean Draft & Arithmetic Mean Draft)
The term true mean draft (or simply mean draft) is the draft at the LCF, and the term arithmetic
mean draft is that applied to the average of forward and aft drafts, i.e., the draft at midships
assuming that the hull is neither hogged or sagged. It is however, a common and confusing
practice to use the term mean draft as the average of the forward and aft drafts.
4 Longitudinal Metacentre (M L)
The longitudinal metacentre is similar to the transverse metacentre except that it involves
longitudinal inclinations. Due to the asymmetry of conventional waterplanes about a transverse
midship axis and additionally, due to the variation in buoyancy distribution with change in even-
keel draft, the position of a vessel’s LCB varies significantly. For a given even-keel waterline,
the longitudinal metacentre is defined as the intersection of a vertical line through the centre of
buoyancy in the even-keel attitude with a vertical line through the centre of buoyancy at a
waterline longitudinally inclined through a small angle, .
ML

WL0
LCF WL1
B1 B
Figure 7.4 Location of the longitudinal metacentre, ML.
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The longitudinal metacentre may be regarded as substantially fixed with respect to the vessel for
small to moderate angles of trim provided there is no abrupt change in the shape of the hull in the
vicinity of the waterline. The distance of the longitudinal metacentre above the vessel’s centre of
gravity is known as the longitudinal metacentric height, GML , and is an index of a vessel’s
resistance to changes in trim.
The height of the longitudinal metacentre above the keel, KML , for conventional surface vessels
is much greater than the transverse equivalent, KMT , and also much greater than any possible
KG value. This means that in normal circumstances the GML value will always be positive and
hence a vessel will not lose longitudinal stability. The value of GML is typically so large (often
in the order of the vessel’s length) that trim angles are usually limited to 2 to 3.
4.1 Location of ML via the Longitudinal Metacentric Radius (BM L)
It may be shown that the longitudinal metacentric radius, BML, may be determined using the
following expression:
I CF
BM L = (7.4)

The method of calculation of ICF is described in Sections 4 & 5 of Unit 2.
The shape of the ends of the waterplane have the greatest effect upon the value of BML . Bow
and stern flare will significantly impact upon BML and hence a vessel’s resistance to changes in
trim, even at small angles. This increased resistance to trim with increased flare will further
impact upon a vessel’s resistance to pitching. An increased resistance to trim may imply a
reduced resistance to pitching (i.e., increased pitching tendency).
5 Trimming Moment
There are 3 means of imposing a longitudinal or trimming moment upon an intact free-floating
vessel:
• longitudinal transfer of an onboard mass;

• addition/removal of mass;
• change in water density.
The method of determination of the trimming moment imposed will depend upon which of the
above circumstances applies.
5.1 Convention of Trimming Moments (+ or )
In the computation of drafts resulting from the imposition of trimming moments it is essential to
monitor the moment direction. This is particularly important in the analysis of complex loading
conditions and operations and in development of software for the prediction of numerous trim
and stability conditions relevant to any vessel. A commonly accepted convention applied is to
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regard trimming moments which cause a sternward rotation about the LCF as positive, and those
that cause a forward rotation about the LCF as negative. (Refer to Figure 7.5.)
In cases where small masses are involved in the generation of a trimming moment, the positive
trimming moment causes an increase in aft draft and a reduction in forward draft, while the
negative trimming moment causes as increase in forward draft and a reduction in aft draft.
In the event that a large (nett) mass relative to the vessel’s displacement is added (loaded), both
drafts may increase, however a positive trimming moment will result in a larger increase in the
aft draft than in the forward draft, while a negative trimming moment will produce a greater
increase in the forward draft than in the aft draft. If a large mass is removed (discharged) both
drafts may decrease; the positive trimming moment produces a greater decrease in the forward
draft than aft, and the negative trimming moment produces a greater decrease in the aft draft than
forward.
MASS REMOVED
FWD
MASS ADDED  ve
AFT MASS MOVED
TRIMMING
AFT
MOMENT
LCF
MASS ADDED
FWD
MASS REMOVED  ve
AFT TRIMMING
MASS MOVED MOMENT
FWD
LCF
Figure 7.5 Positive and negative trimming moments and example causes.
5.2 Moment to Change Trim 1 cm (MCT 1 cm or MCTC)
It is useful to assume that when a small mass is added to a vessel it is first placed at the centre of
flotation and then transferred forward or aft to its final position. Thus the effect of an added
mass on the drafts may be separated into:
• a bodily increase in draft,

• a change in trim due to the transfer of the mass from the LCF to its final position.
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The bodily increase in draft may be found by dividing the mass added, by the TPC. In the case
of a removal of mass, the mass is treated as negative and the resulting bodily change in draft is
consequently negative, implying a reduction of draft. The change in trim due to any longitudinal
movement of mass may be found by considering its effect on the centre of gravity of the vessel.
ML
gg1

g
g1
G1 G L0
W1
F  L1
W0 B1 B

LWL
Figure 7.6
Consider a vessel of displacement  and waterline length LWL, lying initially at an even-keel
waterline W0L0 and having a mass m on deck. (Refer to Figure 7.6.) For equilibrium, the centre
of gravity G and the centre of buoyancy B are located in the same vertical line. If the mass m is
moved a distance gg1 aft, the vessel’s centre of gravity moves aft along a line parallel to gg1 ,
from G to G1 , where:
m gg1
GG1 = (7.5)

In the longitudinal context, the entity (m gg1 ) is known as the trimming moment. As a
consequence of the mass transfer the vessel changes trim about the centre of flotation, F until it
lies at the waterline W1L1 . This change in trim causes the centre of buoyancy to move aft from
B to B1 , which for a new state of equilibrium must lie in the same vertical line as G1 . The
vertical through B1 intersects the original vertical through B at ML (the longitudinal metacentre).
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If the vessel trims through an angle  then:
GG1 = GM L tan 
m gg1
thus: GM L tan  =

m gg1
or: tan  = (7.6)
 GM L
Referring to Figure 7.6, if a line RL1 is drawn parallel to the original even-keel waterline W0L0 ,
then the change in trim, T , can be expressed as:
T = W1W0  L0 L1
= W1 R
Trim (T), and the change in trim (T), are often expressed in centimetres rather than metres.
Therefore, if T is the change in trim (in cm) over the length LWL (in m):
T
tan  = (7.7)
100 LWL
T m gg1
thus: =
100 LWL  GM L
m gg1 LWL
therefore T = 100 (cm) (7.8)
 GM L
where: LWL = waterline length in metres
GM L = longitudinal metacentric height in metres
gg1 = longitudinal distance of mass transfer in metres
The moment required to change trim 1 cm (MCTC) at regular draft (or displacement) intervals is
an integral component of a vessel’s hydrostatic data compiled and presented within formal trim
and stability documentation. MCTC is a value highly useful in the determination of trim and
resulting draft calculations. From equation 7.8 an expression for trimming moment is:
T  GM L
m gg1 = (t-m) (7.9)
100 LWL
where: T = centimetres
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100
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If the change in trim, T, is 1 cm then equation 7.9 can be expressed as:
 GM L
m gg1 = (t-m) (7.10)
100 LWL
 GM L
or: MCTC = (t-m) (7.11)
100 LWL
m gg1
and T = (cm) (7.12)
MCTC
6 Longitudinal Transfer of Onboard Mass
When a mass aboard a vessel is moved longitudinally, the shift generates a longitudinal moment
(trimming moment). The direct correlation between the direction of shift (forwards or
sternwards) and the direction of the trimming moment action is clear.
The example illustrated in Figure 7.6 shows a mass onboard shifted aft and the corresponding
change in trim is the consequence of the resulting positive trimming moment. The trimming
moment in cases of transferring an onboard mass is equal to the product of the mass, m , and
distance shifted, gg1. For a number of such mass transfers, the nett trimming moment is:
nett trimming moment =  m gg1  (7.13)
6.1 Positive & Negative Directions
As trimming moments are required for the determination of the change in trim, T , and the
resulting drafts, a means of mathematically determining the direction of trimming moment is
necessary, particularly if software minimising manual data entry, and hence probability of input
error, is to be developed.
Longitudinal measurement is, by convention, referred to the x-axis and the reference datum from
which longitudinal distances are measured (i.e., the positions of masses) may be either midships
or the aft perpendicular. The positive or negative nature of the trimming moment resulting from
mass transfer is dependent only on the sign (+/) applied to the direction of shift, since the mass
can only be regarded as positive.
When the datum used is midships, (x aft of midships is +ve, and x forward of midships is ve)
then, in order to gain the correct sign for the trimming moment, and correct drafts subsequently,
the value of the distance moved is expressed as:
gg1 = x1  x (7.14)
where x = original location of mass relative to midships

x1 = new location of mass relative to midships
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6.2 Illustrative Example (Midships as Datum)
Determine the change in trim for a vessel with MCTC = 47.3 t-m when 25 tonnes of fuel is
transferred from a tank centred at 23.8 m fwd of midships to a tank centred at 18.1 m aft of
midships, and 19.5 tonnes of ballast water is transferred from a tank 15.6 m aft to one centred at
20.4 m fwd of midships, in order to partially compensate.
Solution
For fuel: gg1 = x1  x
= 18.1  ( 23.8)
= 41.9 m
For ballast: gg1 = x1  x
=  20.4  (+ 15.6)
=  36.0 m
T =
 m gg1 
MCTC
=
25 419.   19.5 36.0
47.3
= 7.30 cm (T +ve, therefore by the stern)
7 Change in Trim due to Addition/Removal of Small Masses
The case of addition and/or the removal of masses to/from a vessel is the most common
application of trim analysis and is typified by the relevant loading conditions analysed by the
naval architect during the design process and presented in the formal trim and stability
documentation. These loading conditions usually involve a significant number of additions of
mass (in an equally large number of locations) to the light ship condition.
Such a trim analysis involves knowing the location, relative to the LCF, at which each mass is
added (or removed). A nett trimming moment about the LCF is then determined by calculating
the sum of the individual longitudinal moments (trimming moments) generated by each mass.
Therefore the nett trimming moment resulting may be expressed as:
nett trimming moment =  m Fg  (7.15)
where: Fg = distance from mass (loaded or removed) to the LCF
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7.1 Positive & Negative Masses & Distances
In order to ensure the correct direction of the resulting trimming moment is obtained, masses
added are treated as positive and those removed are negative. Following a similar convention to
that described in Unit 3 Section 2.2, Fg is positive (+) when the mass, m, is added at, or
removed from, a position aft of the LCF , and Fg is negative () when the mass, m, is added at,
or removed a position forward of the LCF.
Determine the change in trim for a vessel with MCTC = 105 t-m and LCF @ 2.05 m aft of
midships, following the loading/discharge operations outlined:
33.0 tonnes stores loaded 48.0 m fwd of midships

228.0 tonnes fuel loaded 3.1 m fwd of midships
173.5 tonnes cargo loaded 37.5 m aft of midships
3.2 tonnes oil discharged 30.2 m fwd of midships
Solution
 aft of MS  aft of MS  aft of LCF
 fwd of MS  fwd of MS  fwd of LCF
Item Mass Pos’n MS LCFMS Fg Moment

(tonnes) (m) (m) (m) (tm)
stores 33.0  48.0 + 2.05  50.05  1 651.65
fuel 228.0  3.1 + 2.05  5.15  1 174.20
cargo 173.5 + 37.5 + 2.05 + 35.45 + 6 150.58
oil  3.2  30.2 + 2.05  32.25 + 103 20
 Mom = + 3 427.96
T =
 m Fg 
MCTC
 3 427.96
=
105
= 32.65 cm (T +ve, therefore by the stern)
8 Change in Drafts due to Change in Trim
Referring to the transfer of the small mass in Figure 7.6, it can be seen that the vessel will change
trim by the stern, i.e., the forward draft will be reduced while the aft draft will be increased.
Using similar triangles it can be seen that:
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T L0 L1 WW
= = 1 0
LWL L0 F W0 F
where T, L0L1 , and W1W0 may be expressed in centimetres while LWL , L0F , and W0F may
expressed in metres. The change in draft forward,  dF , may be expressed as:
 dF = L0 L1
T
=   L0 F (cm) (7.16)
LWL
The change in draft aft,  dA , may be expressed as:
 d A = W1W0
T
=   W0 F (cm) (7.17)
LWL
Draft marks are normally located on, or as close as practicable to, the load waterline
perpendiculars, therefore L0F represents the distance between the forward perpendicular, FP,
and the LCF and W0F represents the distance between the aft perpendicular, AP, and the LCF. If
these 2 distances are alternatively expressed as FFP and FAP respectively, and if LBP is
substituted for LWL, the previous expressions 7.16 and 7.17 for the change in draft become:
T
 dF =   FFP (cm) (7.18)
LBP
T
 dA =   FAP (cm) (7.19)
LBP
The () and (+) signs applied in expressions 7.18 and 7.19 respectively are applicable to the
example depicted in Figure 7.6, where a mass (already aboard) was transferred aftwards. Had
the mass been transferred forward then the signs would be reversed and thus the forward draft
would increase and the aft draft decrease. Hence, the positive or negative nature of the change in
drafts forward and aft depends upon the direction of the trimming moment.
The general expressions, therefore, for the change(s) in draft(s) as a consequence of a change in
trim are:
T
 dF =   FFP (cm) (7.20)
LBP
T
 dA =   FAP (cm) (7.21)
LBP
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8.1 Draft Prediction & Consistency of Sign Conventions
The general expressions for the change in drafts forward and aft given in equations 7.20 and 7.21
respectively, and the appropriate sign (/) to apply to each draft requires interpretation of the
trimming moment and change in trim. If the sign conventions outlined in Section 5.1 are
followed consistently, then the following expressions for change in draft can be applied to all
situations (irrespective of trimming moment sense) and hence are recommended for use:
T
 dF =   FFP (cm) (7.22)
LBP
T
 dA =   FAP (cm) (7.23)
LBP
9 Determination of Drafts after Addition/Removal of Large Masses
The previous methods of trim prediction have dealt with masses which are small relative to the
vessel’s displacement. The accuracy of the results is dependent upon the assumption that the
position of the LCF and values of MCTC (and TPC) are changed negligibly or only slightly.
When a large mass is added to, or removed from a vessel the resultant increase or decrease in
draft is sufficient to cause significant changes in all appropriate hydrostatic details. It then
becomes necessary to calculate the resulting drafts from first principles. Such a problem exists
every time a vessel loads or discharges the major part of its deadweight.
G1
F WL0
B
 TRIMMING LEVER GB

WL0
F G1
WL1
B1
Figure 7.7 Addition/removal of large masses: (above) trimming lever, GB and

(below) consequential trim resulting in equilibrium.
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The underlying principle is that after loading or discharging, the vessel is in equilibrium and
hence the final centre of gravity is in the same vertical line as the final centre of buoyancy.
For any given condition of loading it is possible to calculate the displacement, , and the
longitudinal centre of gravity, LCG relative to midships. At the new displacement, the mean
draft, MCTC and locations of LCB and LCF relative to midships can be obtained from the
vessel’s tabulated hydrostatic data.. However, these data are calculated and presented for the
even-keel condition and as the even-keel LCB is unlikely to be in the same vertical line as the
new LCG, a horizontal separation will exist between these 2 points. This longitudinal distance
between G and B is known as the trimming lever, GB, and hence a trimming moment acts on the
vessel. This trimming moment is equal to the product of displacement, , and the trimming
lever, GB. (Refer to Figure 7.7.) The trim required to vertically align the LCB with the new
LCG (i.e., produce equilibrium) can be calculated and thus the resulting forward and aft drafts
can also be determined.
9.1 Positive & Negative Trimming Lever (GB)
It is possible to introduce a sign (/) convention for the trimming lever, GB, which follows the
sign conventions previously outlined and which facilitates simple determination of the correct
direction of the corresponding trimming moment,  GB. As previously outlined, distances
forward of midships of the LCG or LCB are negative, and distances aft of midships for these
centres are treated as positive. If expression 7.31 is rigidly adhered to for the determination of
GB then the resulting sign of the trimming lever (and hence the trimming moment) will follow
the convention outlined in Section 5.1 in all 6 permutations of the positions of LCG and LCB
relative to each other and to midships.
GB = LCG  LCB (7.24)
Where GB is positive then a positive trimming moment results and conversely, where GB is
negative a negative trimming moment occurs. A positive value of GB simply implies that the
LCB is forward of the LCG and a negative GB indicates that the LCB is aft of the LCG.
A vessel of LBP = 125.0 m has a light ship displacement of 4 625 tonnes and an LCG 1.85 m aft
of midships, undertakes the following loading operations:
8 550 tonnes cargo loaded 4.25 m fwd of midships

1 470 tonnes fuel loaded 3.15 m aft of midships
210 tonnes FW loaded 7.63 m aft of midships
45 tonnes stores loaded 41.07 m fwd of midships
At 14 900 tonnes displacement (from hydrostatic data) the mean draft (dLCF) is 7.80 m, MCTC =
163 t-m, LCB = 2.35 m forward of midships and LCF = 1.25 m aft of midships. Determine the
final drafts.
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Solution
 aft of MS
 fwd of MS
Item Mass lcg MS Moment
(tonnes) (m) (tm)
light ship 4 625 1.85 8 556.3
cargo 8 550  4.25  36 337.5
fuel 1 470 3.15 4 630.5
FW 210 7.63 1 602.3
stores 45  41.07  1 848.2
= 14 900 LM =  23 396.6
LM
LCG1 =

23 396.6
=
14 900
=  1.570 m (i.e., fwd of midships since ve)
GB = LCG1  LCB (trimming lever)
=  1.570  ( 2.35)
=  0.780 m
 GB = 14 900  ( 0.78) (trimming moment)

= 11 622 t-m
 GB
T = (cm)
MCTC
11 622
=
163
= 71.30 cm (ve)
T
 dF =   FFP (cm)
LBP
T L 
=    BP  LCF 
LBP  2 
713
. 125 
=     125
. 
125  2 
=  36.36 cm
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107
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T
 dA =   FAP (cm)
LBP
T L 
=    BP  LCF 
LBP  2 
713
. 125 
=     125
. 
125  2 
=  34.94 cm
d F = d mean  d F
= 7.80 + ( 0.364)
= 7.436 m
d A = d mean  d A
= 7.80 + (+0.349)
= 8.149 m
10 Change in Trim (& Drafts) due to a Change in Density
When a vessel moves from sea water into river water, or vice versa, without a change in
displacement, there is a resultant change in trim and a change in true mean draft. Both changes
are small, but not negligible. Consider a vessel of displacement , floating at a waterline WL0
in sea water of density S t/m3. The centre of gravity G and the centre of buoyancy B are in the
same vertical line. If the vessel moves into river water of density R t/m3 , there will be a bodily
increase in draft (due to the lower density) and the vessel then floats at waterline WL1. The
volume of displacement has been increased by a thin layer of volume, v , whose centroid may be
considered as located at the centre of flotation, F. This additional volume causes the centre of
buoyancy to move from B to B1 , however, the centre of gravity remains at G. Due to the
resulting longitudinal separation of LCB and LCG a trimming lever and hence a trimming
moment is established and the vessel trims to achieve equilibrium.

ADDITIONAL VOLUME v
G WL1
F WL0
B1 B

TRIMMING LEVER GB1
Figure 7.8 Trimming moment due to moving to water of lower density.
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10.2 Fresh Water Allowance (FWA)
One effect of a vessel moving into water of less density is to produce a bodily sinkage which is
equal to the increase in draft which occurs at the LCF. A particular case occurs when a vessel
moves from sea water (1.025 t/m3) to fresh water (1.000 t/m3). An expression for the draft
increase which results (in cm) is:
  S   R 
d LCF =   (cm)
TPC   R 
  1025
.  1000
. 
d LCF =   (cm)
TPC  1000
. 

= (TPC used is for sea water) (7.25)
40 TPC
Equation 7.25 is known as the fresh water allowance, which is used when calculating the
freeboard of a vessel and is the difference between the S (summer) and the F (fresh) freeboard
lines associated with the vessel’s load line.
TF
F
T
FWA
L R S
W
WNA
Figure 7.9 Load line and freeboard marks. The vertical distance between the summer
load line (maximum permissible sea water draft) and the fresh water load line
is equal to the Fresh Water Allowance (FWA).
11 Draft Marks
Vessels which operate (commercially) at varying drafts and trim, and vessels which require the
assignment of a load line, are to possess draft marks located as near as practicable to the
perpendiculars, and in addition, for large vessels (typically over 100 m LBP) as near as practicable
to midships. Draft marks are provided for the purposes of the vessel’s operating personnel and
port authority surveyors, permitting indication of extreme draft for navigational requirements and
for the determination of the vessel’s displacement in the current loading condition.
Draft marks are arranged in a plane parallel to station planes and indicate the draft at that
location, measured from the underside of the keel, i.e., dUSK. Figure 7.10 shows alternative
methods approved for metric draft marks. In each case the numerals have a projected height of
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100 mm (when viewed from a point perpendicular to the centreline plane of the vessel), and have
a 100 mm vertical separation. Alternative (A) is that used most commonly in Australia while
alternative (C) is common in Europe and for smaller craft.
2 2 42
4M 100 mm
4.0 40
100 mm
8 8 38
6 6 36 3.55 m DRAFT
4 4 34
3.30 m DRAFT
2 2 32
3M 3.0 30
8 8 28 2.80 m DRAFT
6 6 26
(A) METRE DRAFT (B) METRE DRAFT (C) DECIMETRE DRAFT
MARKS MARKS MARKS
Figure 7.10 Approved versions of metric draft marks.
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TUTORIAL 7  ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIM
Question 1
A vessel of 125 m LBP displaces 12 000 tonnes. When a mass of 100 tonnes is moved 75 m from
forward to aft there is a change in trim of 65 cm by the stern. Calculate:
a) MCTC; (Ans. 115.4 t-m )
b) GML ; (Ans. 120.2 m )
c) the distance moved by the vessel’s centre of gravity. (Ans. GG1 = 0.625 m )
Question 2
A vessel 120 m LBP floats at drafts of 5.50 m forward and 5.80 m aft. The MCTC is 80 t-m, the TPC
is 13 t/cm and the LCF is 2.5 m forward of midships. Calculate the new drafts when a mass of 110
tonnes is added 24 m aft of midships.
(Ans. dF = 5.41.0 m, dA = 6.075 m )
Question 3
A vessel of 130 m LBP displaces 14 000 tonnes when floating at drafts of 7.50 m forward and 8.10 m
aft. GML = 125 m, TPC = 18, and the LCF = 3.0 m aft of M.S. Calculate the final drafts when a
mass of 180 tonnes positioned 40 m aft of midships is removed from the vessel.
(Ans. dF = 7.659 m, dA = 7.764 m )
Question 4
A vessel of 150 m LBP floats at drafts of 8.20 m forward and 8.90 m aft. MCTC = 260 t-m, TPC = 28
and LCF = 1.5 m aft of MS. In order to produce an even-keel condition a double-bottom tank with
centroid 60 m forward of MS is available for ballast. Calculate the mass of ballast water required and
final draft.
(Ans. 296 tonnes, dF = 8.663 m, dA = 8.663 m )
(continued)
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Question 5
The drafts of a vessel of 170 m LBP are 6.85 m forward and 7.50 m aft. MCTC = 300 t-m, TPC = 28
and LCF = 3.5 m forward of MS. Calculate the new drafts after the following changes in loading:
160 tonnes added 63 m aft of MS

200 tonnes added 27 m fwd of MS
120 tonnes removed 75 m aft of MS
(Ans. dF = 6.988 m, dA = 7.477 m )
Question 6
A vessel of 80 m LBP has a light displacement of 1050 tonnes and an LCG 4.64 m aft of MS. The
following items are then added:
Cargo 2150 tonnes lcg 4.71 m fwd of MS

Fuel 80 tonnes lcg 32.55 m aft of MS
Water 15 tonnes lcg 32.90 m aft of MS
Stores 5 tonnes lcg 33.60 m fwd of MS
The following hydrostatic particulars are available:
Draft  MCTC LCB from MS LCF from MS

(m) (t) (t-m) (m) (m)
5.00 3533 43.10 1.00 fwd 1.27 aft

4.50 3172 41.26 1.24 fwd 0.84 aft
Calculate the final drafts of the loaded vessel.
(Ans. dF = 4.495 m, dA = 4.850 m )
(continued)
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Question 7
A vessel of 82.5 m LWL has a light displacement of 2 650 tonnes and an LCG 1.440 m forward of MS.
The following items are then loaded:
Cargo 8 490 tonnes lcg 2.210 m aft of MS

Fuel 735 tonnes lcg 14.690 m fwd of MS
Water 65 tonnes lcg 32.480 m fwd of MS
dLCF  TPC MCTC LCBMS LCFMS

(m) (t) (t) (t-m) (m) (m)
6.80 12 035 28.4 131.3 0.685 (aft) 3.471 (aft)

6.70 11 950 28.0 127.5 0.662 (aft) 3.285 (aft)
6.60 11 867 27.7 122.8 0.645 (aft) 2.964 (aft)
a) Calculate the resulting forward and aft drafts of the loaded vessel.
b) Calculate the mass of ballast water required to achieve an even-keel condition
c) Calculate the final draft if a ballast tank with its centroid 24.30 m aft of MS is available.
(Ans: dF = 6.959 m, dA = 6.477 m; 292.24 tonnes; 6.803 m)
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114
The Partially Afloat Condition
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THE PARTIALLY AFLOAT CONDITION
8
UNIT

1 Introduction
Previous sections of this subject have focused on an intact vessel in the free-floating condition
where the vessel’s mass force is balanced by an equal and opposite force of buoyancy; a force
provided completely by the water in which the vessel floats. A vessel in a partially afloat
condition must, by implication, be partly supported via contact with some solid object, and
therefore the immersed hull volume is less than that in the free-floating condition. Consequently
the immersed geometry of the hull form is changed and therefore the hydrostatic characteristics
are similarly altered and significant issues of stability, trim (and structural stresses) arise.
A vessel which is partially afloat is therefore ‘aground’, either accidentally or intentionally.

Intentional grounding includes dry-docking, the transitional phase of launching, beaching of
landing-craft and certain phases of ice-breaking (particularly in breaching ice-ridges). The
following analyses of the partially-afloat condition focuses on the dry-docking case, however, the
same principles may be applied in any partially afloat condition.
2 The Dry-Docking Case
The particular issues of stability which arise during the dry-docking of a vessel are independent
of the type of dock used, i.e., graving or floating dock, or docking platform (e.g., Synchrolift ® ).
The transverse stability characteristics of the vessel change as support of its mass is gradually
transferred from buoyancy forces acting through the centre of buoyancy, to an upward-acting
force imposed directly on the vessel’s keel by the keel blocks. This effectively lowers the point
on the vessel’s centreline through which the upward forces act, MT, and hence the KMT value will
gradually reduce to zero as the displaced buoyancy disappears with the water level receding
relative to the vessel. Therefore at some point the vessel will lose positive transverse stability
and hence it is essential that prior to negative stability occurring, adequate support is provided to
prevent catastrophic toppling.
A vessel entering a dry-dock typically has a stern trim and hence the keel is inclined to the keel
blocks. Frequently the keel blocks themselves possess an inclination in their arrangement as a
consequence of gradient of the dock floor (declivity) provided to facilitate dock drainage. As the
water level falls during pump-out of the dock (or deballasting of a floating dock, or raising of a
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docking platform), the vessel’s keel initially contacts the keel blocks at the aft end of the keel or
skeg. This singular point of contact enables final alignment of the vessel with the keel blocks
(pivoting) prior to full-length contact with the blocks. The weight supported by the keel blocks
at any subsequent time is equal to the difference between the free-floating displacement and the
displacement to the waterline in the ‘aground’ condition. As the water continues to recede, the
slope of the keel gradually approaches the slope of the keel blocks. Most commercial or cargo-
carrier hull forms possess a significant flat of keel region mid-length and therefore contact with
bilge blocks will maintain an upright attitude and hence, provided the vessel maintains a positive
GM during this period, no additional side support may be necessary. Monohull vessels with
deadrise (rise of floor) throughout their length, and trimarans, however, may become unstable
before additional support can be provided, using bilge blocks (although these are usually
prepositioned) or side shores.
2.1 The Effects Upon Stability
When a vessel first contacts the keel blocks and the water level is continuously lowered, there is
a steady transfer of upthrust from the centre of buoyancy to the point of contact with the keel
blocks. The force exerted by the keel blocks has the same effect on the transverse metacentric
height, GM, as would the removal of a corresponding mass from a position at the vessel’s keel.
If the bilge blocks are considered as contributing to the vessel’s stability, the condition of
minimum stability occurs when the keel blocks first make contact throughout the entire length of
the keel just prior to contact with the bilge blocks or before bilge blocks are accurately
positioned.
SKEG BILGE BLOCKS KEEL BLOCKS
FLAT OF KEEL
Figure 8.1 Arrangement of keel and bilge blocks for a monohull vessel.
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If the weight on the keel blocks materially reduces the effective GM, a vessel with a small free-
floating GM may become unstable and list to an appreciable angle before the bilge blocks or
hydraulic side-shores are contacted. To avoid this situation, a vessel with minimal GM should be
trimmed as near as practicable to the slope of the keel blocks before it enters the dry-dock.
However, this is often not practicable, in which case the vessel should be handled with special
care during the critical interval between initial contact aft and contact with the bilge blocks. If
the trim is not excessive the vessel can usually be held upright by judicious use of side shores
until the keel bears fore and aft and when the bilge blocks are load bearing. If the vessel is
trimmed parallel with slope of the keel blocks, the vessel can then be lowered in such a manner
that all the blocks will contact the keel simultaneously. Bilge blocks are then also contacted
before appreciable loss in effective GM has occurred.
When a vessel has just contacted the keel blocks part of its mass is borne by the blocks and part
of it is waterborne. Consider the vessel in Figure 8.2 resting on the keel blocks with the
waterline at WL1 which is below the normal free-floating waterline WL0 .
GV
 WL0
G 0  P
WL1
P
B1
K
0
Figure 8.2 Transfer of upthrust from buoyancy to keel blocks.
Referring to Figure 8.2:
P = upward force exerted by keel blocks

M = transverse metacentre at waterline WL1
G = centre of gravity of the free-floating vessel
G V = virtual centre of gravity (due to effect of P) of the grounded vessel
 0 = displacement of the free-floating vessel, (i.e., mass of the vessel)
 0  P = displacement at waterline WL1
GV M = virtual metacentric height at waterline WL1
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If the force P (measured in tonnes) is considered as a mass of the same magnitude removed from
the vessel at point K , the centre of gravity of the vessel can be considered to rise to point Gv .
This point is the virtual centre of gravity of the partially afloat vessel.
An expression for GGv , is given as:
P KG
GGv = (8.1)
0  P
An expression for the height of the centre of the virtual centre of gravity above the keel, KGv , is:
KGv = KG  GGv
P KG
= KG 
0  P
KG  0
= (8.2)
0  P
The virtual metacentric height of the grounded vessel, Gv M, can therefore be expressed as:
Gv M = KM  KGv
KG  0
= KM  (8.3)
0  P
If the value of Gv M is low or negative, there is a danger that the vessel will assume a list before
any bilge blocks are contacted unless otherwise supported.
2.2 An Alternative Expression for GvM
Some authorities use the following expression for the virtual metacentric height:
P KM
Gv M = GM 0  (8.4)
0
The loss of metacentric height due to contacting the blocks can therefore be expressed as:
P KM
GGv = (8.5)
0
The virtual metacentric height, therefore can be expressed by:
Gv M = GM 0  GGv
P KM
= GM 0  (8.6)
0
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Equation 8.6 is the alternative expression used by some authorities for determining the virtual
metacentric height, where GM0 , KM and 0 are values corresponding to the vessel in its
trimmed and free-floating condition.
3 Calculating the Force P
When a vessel enters dry dock (usually with a stern trim), generally the most critical stage of
docking is at the time when the vessel’s keel comes into contact with the keel blocks throughout
its length. This is referred to as the critical instant. The force P at the critical instant can be
assessed as follows: (Refer to Figure 8.3.)
The vessel floats at an original waterline WL0 and is trimmed T cm by the stern and has a
displacement, 0 . The centre of flotation is located a distance FP from the point of contact with
the first keel block. As the water level in the dock continues to fall after first contact the vessel
will then commence to change trim to one parallel to the keel blocks, and P will increase until the
vessel is in contact with all keel blocks throughout its length.
WL1
WL0
T
LCF
FP
WL
LCF
P POINT OF INITIAL CONTACT
Figure 8.3 Above, the change in trim imposed on vessel being dry-docked, and below,
the vessel about to take the keel blocks throughout its length; the critical instant.
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The moment (P  FP) can be regarded as a moment causing a change in trim equal to the
difference between the original free-floating trim upon entry to the dry-dock and a trim parallel
to the keel blocks. Therefore:
P  FP
T (cm) = (8.7)
MCTC
T  MCTC
therefore: P = (8.8)
FP
This value of P at the critical instant can be used to assess the reduction in GM at the moment the
vessel takes the keel blocks throughout its length.
To investigate this special condition more accurately during the docking process and to
determine the force P at this stage, the following calculations may be made:
1 Determine the displacement and LCB of the free-floating vessel for the trim at which it
enters dry-dock.
2 If the vessel is trimmed by the stern and hence the aft end of the keel touches the keel blocks
first, calculate the moment of mass about the aft end of the keel. This will be the product of
the free-floating displacement and the horizontal distance from the aft keel block to a point
vertically below the LCB.
3 Generate several waterlines at an inclination to the keel equal to the slope of the dry dock
blocks representing different displacements ranging from the free-floating displacement to
one at minimal draft. Calculate the displacement and moment of buoyancy about the aft end
of the keel for each of these sloping waterlines. If the keel blocks should be level then these
waterlines will be parallel to the keel.
4 Plot a curve of the moment of buoyancy about the aft end of the keel, with displacements
along the x-axis and moments along the y-axis (ordinates). Additionally, plot the moment of
mass on the same graph (this will be a straight horizontal line). The intersection of the
moment of buoyancy, and moment of mass lines gives the displacement at the critical
instant. The difference between this displacement and the free-floating displacement is the
mass supported by the keel blocks; i.e., the force P. The virtual metacentric height can be
determined using expression 8.3 or 8.6.
4 Minimum GM0 and Maximum Trim for Dry-Docking
It is important to ensure that the vessel’s GM for the free-floating condition prior to entering the
dry-dock will maintain positive stability for a given docking trim. Therefore, the minimum free-
floating GM prior to docking may be expressed as:
GM 0  GGv
P KM
 (8.9)
0
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TUTORIAL 8  THE PARTIALLY AFLOAT CONDITION
Question 1
A vessel of 4 330 tonnes displacement and trimming 0.9 m by the stern is to be docked on level
blocks. The LCF is 60 metres from the aft point of the skeg and the MCTC is 122 t-m. The vessel’s
KG is 7.64 m and the transverse metacentre at contact is 8.45 m above the keel.
a) Estimate the pressure on the sternmost keel block when the keel is about to contact all blocks.
(Ans. 183 tonnes)
b) Determine the virtual metacentric height and the reduction in GM at the critical instant.
(Ans. 0.473 m; 0.337 m)
Question 2
A vessel of length 150 m and displacement 6500 tonnes with a 130 cm stern trim is to enter dry-dock.
If the minimum GM at the critical instant is to be 0.40 metres, determine the allowable GM prior to
entering the dry-dock. The LCF is 2.5 m aft of midships; MCTC is 150 t-m and KM is 7.5 m.
(Ans. 0.71m)
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DAMAGE STABILITY
9
UNIT

1 Introduction
Damage stability is a general term given to the prediction and analysis of the stability and trim
response of a vessel for a range of damaged conditions in which a compartment, or a number of
compartments within the hull have been flooded as a result of collision or grounding,
catastrophic structural failure affecting the hull shell, and deliberate flooding intended to mitigate
a pre-existing damaged condition.
IMO minimum damage stability criteria exist for commercial vessels and minimum requirements
are demanded by national defence administrations for naval vessels. Ostensibly prescribing
survivability characteristics, damage stability criteria impact significantly upon design of hull
internal arrangement, particularly in regard to number, location and extent of watertight
divisions.
2 Subdivision
All marine craft are subject to risk of sinking if watertight integrity is lost. Exceptions are certain
small craft constructed entirely of buoyant material with predominantly buoyant content, such as
rigid survival craft. Flooding of the hull can have 2 principal consequences. One is a loss of
buoyancy and change of trim, which if unchecked will lead to sinking, the other is a loss of
transverse stability, causing capsize.
Protection against the effects of accidental flooding is an essential design feature of all vessels.
The most effective defence is provided by internal subdivision via the inclusion of watertight
transverse and longitudinal bulkheads, watertight decks and double bottoms. The required
degree and arrangement of adequate internal subdivision is, however, fraught with uncertainty.
Location and extent of damage which may be hypothetically sustained is difficult, if not
impossible to predict and numerous permutations of loading conditions potentially exist for the
occasion when damage is possibly sustained.
Subdivision will impact upon the initial cost of a vessel and may effect operability. For example,
Ro-Ro vessels and aircraft carriers require hull compartments with considerable longitudinal and
transverse extent (vehicle decks and hangar spaces, respectively) in order to perform their roles
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Damage Stability
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efficiently. Watertight divisions subdividing these spaces would arguably impede efficient
operation. Consequently, the level of subdivision integrated into a design involves a degree of
compromise between cost and guarantee of survivability, with minimum thresholds imposed via
IMO or national requirements based on a probability approach with respect to the arrangement
and degree of subdivision required.
3 Definitions of Fundamental Terminologies
3.1 Bilging
Bilging is the term used for the accidental flooding of a hull compartment or compartments as a
consequence of rupture of the hull shell due to collision or stranding, or due to the failure of shell
plating or piping which allows ingress of sea water. The flooded compartment may be located
wholly below, or extend above, the waterline.
3.2 Reserve Buoyancy
Reserve buoyancy is the potential buoyancy of a vessel and is formed by the intact watertight
volume above the waterline. When a mass is added to a vessel, or buoyancy is lost due to
bilging, a proportion of the reserve buoyancy is converted into active buoyancy (immersed
volume) by the increase in draft. If a loss in buoyancy exceeds the reserve buoyancy the vessel
will sink.
ENCLOSED VOLUME
ABOVE WATERLINE
(RESERVE BUOYANCY)
WL
Figure 9.1 Reserve buoyancy provided by watertight volume above the waterline.
3.3 Permeability ()
Permeability of a compartment is the proportion of the immersed volume of that compartment

which can be occupied by water. It is normally expressed as a percentage of the total
compartment volume. Thus the permeability of a completely empty compartment is 1.0, and a
tank completely full of intended contents would have a permeability of 0 (zero). IMO
recommended values for certain dedicated compartments are provided in Table 9.1.
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SPACES PERMEABILITY 
Accommodation spaces 0.95
Machinery spaces 0.85
Dry cargo spaces 0.70
Stores spaces 0.60
Void spaces 0.95

†
Tank spaces 0.0 or 0.95
† whichever results in the more severe requirements
Table 9.1 IMO recommended values of permeability.
4 Bilging Effects on Stability & Trim
The effects on a vessel’s transverse stability and trim due to bilging of a compartment depend
upon the location of the flooded compartment relative to the intact vessel’s centres of flotation
and buoyancy, the volume of the bilged compartment relative to the intact vessel’s volumetric
displacement, and any changes in the intact waterplane area.
4.1 Added Mass & Lost Buoyancy Methods of Hydrostatic Assessment
The flooding of a compartment may be considered as lost buoyancy or as added mass. Either
approach may be used to determine the vessel’s resulting damaged condition.
The added mass method of assessment of damaged stability is, however, generally more involved
than the lost buoyancy method and is difficult to apply in circumstances where the flooded
compartment extends above the intact waterline where free surface effects need consideration.
The ingress of water into the compartment is considered as added mass borne by the hull which
sinks bodily in response to the increased displacement.
Application of the lost buoyancy method assumes that the mass distribution remains constant
(i.e., as for the intact hull) but the buoyancy and waterplane area distributions change. The
damaged compartment is considered as open to the sea and therefore no longer contributing to
the vessel’s buoyancy. Resulting drafts and stability characteristics are determined for the
changed volumetric and waterplane area values.
The different approaches are best illustrated and compared by example, where for simplicity, a
vessel’s full-breadth double bottom tank (with compartment limits wholly below the waterline) is
bilged. The tank is assumed to vent to the atmosphere and hence can be completely flooded (thus
precluding free surface effects), and permeability is assumed as 1.0. The tank centroid is directly
below the LCF and hence no change in trim results from the flooding of the compartment
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Damage Stability
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4.2 Illustrative Comparison Between Added Mass & Lost Buoyancy Methods
WL1
WL
FLOODED COMPARTMENT
DOUBLE-BOTTOM TANK
(FULL BREADTH)
Figure 9.2 Vessel with a single full-breadth bilged compartment amidships and
wholly below the waterline.
Vessel Particulars (Intact Condition)
LWL 54.00 m TPC 4.35 tonnes

BWL 10.80 m KG0 5.16 m
dLCF 4.70 m KB0 2.85 m
0 1 850 tonnes KM0 6.11 m
0 1 805 m3 BM0 3.26 m
ICL of AW 5 884.3 m4 GM0 0.95 m
Tank volume 105 m3

Tank centroid 0.63 m above K
.1 Added Mass Method
The mass, m, of water flooding the bilged compartment is regarded as mass added to the
displacement:
m = vT   SW
= 105  1025
.
= 107.63 tonnes
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Damage Stability
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m
d LCF =
TPC
107.63
=
4.35
= 24.7 cm
1 = 1 850 + 107.63
= 1 957.63 tonnes
1 957.63
1 =
1025
.
= 1 909.6 m3
The new KG can be determined by taking moments of mass about the keel:
KG1 =
 0  KG0   m  kg T 
1
=
1 850  516
.   107.63  0.63
1 957.63
= 4.911 m
The centroid above the keel, kb , of the added volumetric displacement, , resulting from the
bodily sinkage may be assumed to be located at a point midway between the original and new
waterlines.
d LCF
kb = d LCF0 
2
0.247
= 4.70 
2
= 4.824 m
Therefore the new KB can be determined by taking moments of volume about the keel:
 0  KB0     kb 

KB1 =
1
=
1 805  2.85  105  4.824
1 909
= 2.960 m
Although the waterplane area and its moment of inertia about the centreline are assumed to
remain constant, the metacentric radius, BM, will decrease due to the increase in volumetric
displacement, .
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Damage Stability
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I CL
BM 1 =
1
5 884.3
=
1 909.6
= 3.081 m
The new metacentric height resulting from the flooding of the bilged compartment can be
determined:
GM 1 = KB1  BM1  KG1
= 2.96 + 3.081  4.911

= 1.130 m
.2 Lost Buoyancy Method
The mass, m, of water flooding the bilged compartment is:
m = vT   SW
= 105  1025
.
= 107.63 tonnes
m
d LCF =
TPC
107.63
=
4.35
= 24.7 cm
The mass displacement remains constant and there is no shift in G, however, there is a transfer of
105 m3 of volumetric displacement from the bilged compartment to the bodily sinkage layer.
KB is increased as a consequence of the resulting deeper draft. This is not to be construed as an
increase in volumetric displacement, , which must also remain constant, but rather as a
redistribution of buoyant volume.
The centroid above the keel, kbv , of the transferred volumetric displacement, vL , resulting from
the bodily sinkage may be assumed to be located at a point midway between the original and new
waterlines. The transferred volumetric displacement, vL , is of course, equal to the buoyancy
(volume) lost from the bilged tank, i.e., vL = vT .
d LCF
kbv = d LCF0 
2
0.247
= 4.70 
2
= 4.824 m
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Damage Stability
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The new KB can be determined by taking moments of volume about the keel:
KB1 =
 0  KB0   vT  kgT   v L  kbv 
0
=
1 805  2.85  105  0.63  105  4.824
1 805
= 3.094 m
The waterplane area and its moment of inertia about the centreline are assumed to remain
constant, and since the vessel’s volume of displacement, , also remains constant, then so too
does the metacentric radius, BM.
The new metacentric height resulting from the flooding of the bilged compartment can be
determined:
GM 1 = KB1  BM 0  KG0
= 3.094 + 3.26  5.16

= 1.194 m
.3 Comparison of Results
The 2 methods of assessing the transverse stability of a damaged hull may initially appear to
produce different results as the GM1 values do not agree. However, if the true measure of
transverse stability is the righting moment, RM, then the 2 methods will be found to be in close
agreement.
Where: RM =   GZ
=   GM sin 
RM ADDED MASS =  1  GM1 sin 
. sin 
= 1 957.63  113
= 2 212.1 sin  t-m
RM LOST BOUY'Y =  0  GM1 sin 
= 1 850  1194
. sin 
= 2 208.9 sin  t-m
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4.3 Bilging a Compartment Extending Above the Waterline
The illustrative treatments of section 4.2 employed a compartment which had its upper watertight
limit (inner bottom) below the waterline therefore the flooded volume was limited to the volume
of the ruptured tank and hence readily determined. Where a compartment extending above the
waterline is bilged, however, determination of the volume (and hence mass) is not so straight
forward. It is this case which exposes difficulties in the application of the added mass method.
As a first approximation all permeable space in the damaged compartment below the intact
waterline only is considered flooded. Consequently trim and drafts change and submerge the
damaged space further, resulting in progressive flooding until the waterline inside the
compartment corresponds to that at which the hull is floating. This additional flooding must then
be added to the first estimate and thus the calculation is reiterative. Unless numerous iterations
are performed the added mass calculated remains imprecise.
Utilising the lost buoyancy approach in such a case proves more satisfactory and is therefore
recommended. Mass distribution remains as for the intact hull, however buoyancy and
waterplane area distributions change. Bilging of the compartment results in a loss of buoyancy
equal to the mass of water which floods into the compartment below the intact waterline. The
bodily sinkage of the damaged hull is distributed over the reduced waterplane area (i.e., the intact
waterplane) and damaged stability and trim characteristics are based upon this reduced
waterplane area. It should be noted that the volume above the intact waterline in the damaged
compartment does not act as reserve buoyancy because the space can no longer be regarded as
enclosed.
RESERVE BUOYANCY
REMAINING
WL1
WL0
LOST BUOYANCY BILGED COMPARTMENT BOUNDARY
INTACT WATERPLANE
AREA
Figure 9.3 Vessel with a single full-breadth bilged compartment amidships

extending above the waterline.
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5 Implications for Stability & Trim
Accidental flooding of sections of a vessel’s hull is obviously a serious event but whether or not
this necessarily leads to sinking depends upon the vessel’s particular circumstances. Bilging the
hull always reduces reserve buoyancy as a consequence of bodily sinkage, which alone may lead
to the vessel sinking, and it will also reduce the range of positive stability. However, the vessel’s
upright transverse stability may be actually enhanced by the flooding (as seen in the illustrative
example in section 4.2) as the increase in KB may be greater than the reduction in BM.
5.1 Cross-Flooding Requirement
Loss of transverse stability is not necessarily a problem, however, asymmetrical flooding due to
bilging a side compartment poses significant danger as the angle of list created may be fatal
when associated with the reduced range of positive stability existing. An element of the rationale
underpinning enforced damage stability criteria for commercial vessels is to prevent or delay the
loss of a vessel in order to facilitate both the evacuation of personnel and salvage attempts. To
achieve this, cross-flooding of compartments must be possible in order to prevent or minimise
asymmetrical flooding and the concomitant list generated.
Facilitating cross-flooding implies that an increased amount of ingress (flooded volume) may be
deliberately permitted in order to maintain an upright condition albeit significantly trimmed.
Provision of cross-flooding ability is therefore a key requirement integral to the design of a
vessel’s subdivision, particularly in passenger vessels where damage stability criteria are
rigorously imposed.
6 IMO Subdivision Requirements for Dry-Cargo & Passenger Vessels
The rules governing the subdivision of cargo vessels (and passenger vessels as of 1st January
2008) of LS  80 m are based on a concept of the probability of any compartment(s) being
damaged and of vessel survival. Dry-cargo vessels of LS  80 m, tankers and other non-
passenger vessels are required to comply with other IMO instruments developed specifically for
the appropriate vessel type, such as MARPOL, International Bulk Chemical Code, International
Gas Carrier Code, Code of Safety for Special Purpose Ships, or to the 1966 Load Line
Convention in regard to their subdivision.
6.1 An Outline of the Probabilistic Concept
The SOLAS regulations on subdivision and damage stability, as contained in part B-1 of SOLAS
chapter II-1, are based on the probabilistic concept which takes the probability of survival after
collision as a measure of a vessel’s safety in the damaged condition, referred to as the attained
subdivision index, A.
This is an objective measure of vessel safety and therefore there is no need to supplement this
index by any deterministic requirements. These regulations are therefore primarily based on the
probabilistic approach with only a very few deterministic elements which are necessary to make
the concept practicable. The philosophy behind the probabilistic concept is that 2 different
vessels with the same index of subdivision are of equal safety and therefore there is no need for
special treatment for specific parts of the vessel. The only areas given special attention in these
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Damage Stability
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regulations are the forward and bottom regions which are dealt with by special rules concerning
subdivision which are provided for the cases of ramming and grounding.
In the probabilistic approach, the damage and survivability indexes are calculated for each
possible bilging scenario and then a product of such indexes determined. The attained
subdivision index, A, is the sum of these products and must exceed a calculated required
subdivision index, R.
In calculating A , level trim is used and the summation indicated is to be taken over the vessel’s
length for all cases of flooding in which a single compartment or 2 or more adjacent
compartments are involved. The assumed vertical extent of damage is to extend from the
baseline upwards to any watertight horizontal division above the waterline or higher. If pipes,
ducts, etc., are situated within assumed flooded compartments, arrangements are to be made to
ensure that progressive flooding cannot thereby extend to those compartments assumed not
flooded. In all flooding calculations undertaken, only one breach of the hull need be assumed.
In order to develop the probabilistic concept of vessel subdivision, it is assumed that the vessel is
damaged. Since the location and size of damage is random, it is not possible to state which part
of the vessel becomes flooded. However, the probability of flooding a compartment can be
determined if the probability of occurrence of certain damages is known. The probability of
flooding a compartment is equal to the probability of occurrence of all such damages which just
open the considered space. A compartment is a part of the volume of the vessel which is
bounded by undamaged watertight structural divisions.
Having assumed that the vessel is damaged, it is also assumed that a particular compartment is
flooded. In addition to certain characteristics of the vessel, in such a case there are various
factors which influence whether the vessel can survive such flooding. These other influences
include the initial draft and GM0 , the permeability of the compartment (), and the prevailing
weather conditions, all of which are random at the time when the vessel is damaged. Provided
that the limiting number of combinations of these variables and the probability of their
occurrence are known, the probability that the vessel will not capsize or sink (with that
considered compartment flooded) can be determined.
The probability of survival is determined to be the sum of the products for each compartment (or
group of compartments) of the probability that a compartment is flooded, multiplied by the
probability that the vessel will not capsize or sink, with the considered compartment (or group of
compartments) flooded.
Damage location in the longitudinal sense and damage length are random variables. Their
distribution density can be derived from damage statistics. [The IMO examined the cases of 296
collisions involving ramming (one vessel colliding end-on into the hull of another) for the
development of the probabilistic concept.] Consideration of only damage location and length
would be fully correct in the case of vessels with only transverse divisions, however, there are
very few, if any, such vessels  all normally possessing a double bottom arrangement, at least. In
such a case, the probability of flooding a compartment should be split up into the following 3
components: the probability of flooding the double bottom only, the probability of flooding the
space above the double bottom only, and the probability of flooding both the space above and the
double bottom itself. For each of these cases there may be a different probability that the vessel
will survive in the flooded condition.
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TUTORIAL 9  DAMAGE STABILITY
Question 1
A vessel’s full-breadth double bottom tank (with compartment limits wholly below the waterline) is
precluding free surface effects), and permeability of the tank is 0.95. The tank centroid is directly
below the LCF and hence no change in trim results from the flooding of the compartment.
Using the vessel’s particulars below, determine the metacentric height and righting moment for the
damaged condition in seawater:
a) Using the added mass method; (Ans: 1.016 m, 4 720.9 sin  t-m)
b) Using the lost buoyancy method. (Ans: 1.074 m, 4 721.7 sin  t-m)

BWL 16.00 m KG0 6.45 m
dLCF 5.50 m KB0 3.01 m
0 4 397.25 t BM0 4.23 m
GM0 0.79 m Tank volume 256 m3
Tank centroid 0.63 m above K
Question 2
A full-breadth double-bottom tank with compartment limits wholly below the waterline is bilged. The
tank vents to the atmosphere and can therefore be completely flooded (preventing free surface
effects). The permeability of the tank is 0.95. The tank centroid is directly below the LCF. The
vessel floats in water of density 1.025 t/m3 and has the following particulars in the intact condition:
LWL 85.00 m 0 4 225 tonnes GM0 1.05 m

BWL 16.00 m KG0 6.13 m BM0 3.48 m
dLCF 5.65 m KB0 3.70 m TPC 10.9 tonnes
Tank geometric volume 145 m3 Tank centroid 0.82 m above K
For the damaged condition, using the lost buoyancy method and the particulars above, determine:
a) the metacentric height, (Ans: 1.214 m)
b) righting moment (in terms of sin  ). (Ans: 5 129.2 sin  t-m)
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Damage Stability
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Resistance & Propulsion
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RESISTANCE & PROPULSION
10 UNIT
1 Introduction
When a vessel moves through the water at any speed, a force or resistance is exerted by the water
on the hull. The vessel must therefore exert an equal thrust to overcome the resistance and travel
at that speed. The total resistance RT of a vessel may be divided into 2 main parts:
• Frictional resistance RF ;
• Residuary resistance RR .
Hence: RT = RF + RR (10.1)
2 Frictional Resistance
As a vessel moves through the water, friction between the hull and the water causes a belt of
eddying water adjacent to the hull to be drawn along with the vessel, although at somewhat
reduced speed. The belt moves aft and new particles of water are continually set in motion; the
force required to produce this motion being provided by the vessel. The frictional resistance
depends upon:
• the speed of the vessel;

• the wetted surface area;
• the length of the vessel;
• the surface roughness of the hull;
• the density of the water.
In the 1870’s William Froude developed the formula:
RF = f SV n (Newtons) (10.2)
where: f = a coefficient dependent upon: the vessel length L,

the hull surface roughness,
the water density,
S = wetted surface area (m2)
V = vessel speed (knots)
n = an index (approximately 1.825)
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The value of f for a mild steel hull in seawater is given by:
0.773
f = 0.417  (10.3)
L  2.862
Thus f is reduced as the length of the ship is increased.
In a slow or moderate-speed vessel the frictional resistance forms the major part of the total
resistance and may be as much as 75% of RT . The importance of surface roughness is best
illustrated when a ship is badly fouled with marine growth or heavily corroded and the ship’s
speed is considerably reduced.
A vessel with a wetted surface area of 5150 m2 travels at 15 knots. Calculate the frictional
resistance and the power required to overcome this resistance given that f is 0.422.
Solution
RF = f SV n N
= 0.422  5150  151.825

= 303 700 N
= 303.7 kN
Note:
1 knot = 1.852 km/h

= 0.5144 m/s
Power = RF (N)  V (m/s)

= 303 700  15  0.5144
= 2 343 349 W
= 2 344 kW
3 Residuary Resistance
The residuary resistance of a vessel may be divided into the following:
• Form resistance: The water particles moving past the hull in their streamlines cannot
always exactly follow the ships form precisely and break away. The pressure acting on the
stern is reduced so that there arises a resultant force opposing the forward motion. This
force is the form drag or resistance.
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• Eddy resistance is caused by discontinuities in the hull form, i.e., abrupt changes in shape.
This component of resistance is small in a hull form where careful attention is paid to detail.
Eddy resistance due to a rectangular trailing edged sternframe and single-plate rudder may
be as much as 5% of the total resistance of the vessel. By streamlining the stern frame or
skeg and fitting a faired section double-plate rudder, eddy resistance is practically
negligible.
• Wavemaking resistance is that component caused through the formation of waves. In slow
or moderate-speed vessels the wavemaking resistance is small compared with the frictional
resistance. At higher speeds, however, the wavemaking resistance is considerably increased
and may be 50% or 60% of the total resistance.
There are 2 types of waves generally formed when a vessel moves through still water,
namely bow and stern divergent waves and transverse waves, as shown in Figure 10.1. The
wave system arises from the pressure field around the ship and the energy possessed by it is
derived from the vessel. The transfer of energy manifests itself as a force opposing forward
motion. This force is the wavemaking resistance.
transverse waves diverging waves
sten wave bow wave

system system
Figure 10.1
4 Froude’s Law of Comparison
Froude’s Law of Comparison states that the residuary resistance of similar ships are in the ratio
of the cube of their linear dimensions if their speeds are in the ratio of the square root of their
linear dimensions.
3
R R1 L  V1 L1
Thus: =  1  if: = (10.4)
RR 2  L2  V2 L2
1
R R1  V1  6
or: = 1 if: =  1 (10.5)
RR 2 2 V2  2 
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where: V1 and V2 are termed corresponding speeds.

Thus at corresponding speeds:
V1 V2
= (10.6)
L1 L2
V
where: is known as the speedlength ratio, where V is in knots and L in metres.
L1
Froude’s Law of Comparison is an important law which makes it possible to estimate the
residuary resistance of a vessel from that of its model, or from that of a ship of the same form but
different size.
The residuary resistance of a model 7 m long is 20 N when towed at 3.5 knots. Calculate the
power to overcome the residuary resistance of a similar ship 140 m long at its corresponding
speed.
Solution
L2
V2 = V1
L1
140
. 
= 35
7
= 15.65 knots (corresponding speed)
3
L 
RR 2 = RR1  2 
 L1 
3
 140 
= 20 
 7 
= 160 000 N
Power = RR  V
= 160 000  15.65  0.5144

= 1 288 kW
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5 Effective Power
The calculation of residuary resistance is usually based on the results of model experiments. A
model of the vessel is towed at its corresponding speed in a towing tank and the total resistance
of the model measured. The frictional resistance of the model is calculated and subtracted from
the total resistance, leaving the residuary resistance. The residuary resistance of the model is
then used to determine the residuary resistance of the ship. Once the total resistance of the ship is
known it is possible to determine the power required to overcome this resistance. This known as
the effective power (ep) of the ship.
The model is tested without appendages such as rudder and bilge keels. An allowance must be
made for these appendages and also the general disturbance of the water at sea compared with
tank conditions. This allowance is known as the ship correlation factor (SCF). The power
obtained directly from the model tests is known as the effective power (naked) or (epN). The true
effective power is the epN multiplied by the ship correlation factor.
A 6.0 m model of a ship has a wetted surface area of 8 m2. When towed at a speed of 3 knots in
fresh water the total resistance is found to be 38 N. If the ship is 130 m long, calculate the
effective power at the corresponding speed. Assume n = 1.825, SCF = 1.15, and calculate f
using Froude’s formula.
Solution
Model: RT = 38 N in fresh water
= 38  1.025
= 38.95 N in sea water
0.773
Model: f = 0.417 
L  2.862
0.773
= 0.417 
6  2.862
= 0.504
Model: RF = f SV n (N)
= 0.504  8.0  31.825

= 29.94 N
Model: RR = RT  RF
= 38.95  29.94
= 9.01 N
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3
R R1 L 
Using: =  1  where subscript (1 ) is for the model, and subscript (2 ) for the ship
RR 2  L2 
3
L 
RR 2 = R R1   2 
 L1 
3
 130 
= 9.01   
 6 
= 91 600 N
2
S1 L 
Using: =  1  where subscript (1 ) is for the model, and subscript (2 ) for the ship
S2  L2 
2
L 
S2 = S1   2 
 L1 
2
 130 
= 8.0   
 6.0 
= 3 755 m2
L2
Using: V2 = V1
L1
130
= 3.0 
6
= 13.96 knots (corresponding speed)
0.773
Ship: f = 0.417 
L  2.862
0.773
= 0.417 
130  2.862
= 0.4228
Ship: RF = f SV n (N)
= 0.4228  3 755  13.961.825

= 195 000 N
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Ship: R T = RF  RR
= 195 000 + 91 600
= 286 600 N
ep N = RT  V
= 286 600  13.96  0.5144

= 2 058 081 W
= 2 058 kW
ep = epN  SCF
= 2 058  1.15
= 2 368 kW
6 Propulsors
The selection of the appropriate type of propulsor for any powered vessel requires consideration
be given to the vessel’s required service speed(s), manoeuvrability requirements, hull form,
displacement, operating draft(s), acoustic/stealth requirements and operational economics.
Options available are:
• Screw propeller • Single or multiple format (i.e., propulsor number);

• Open or ducted;
• Fixed- or controllable pitch;
• Azimuthing (including podded drive).
• Uni-, tandem or contrarotating;
• Vertical axis (cycloidal)

• Jet (axial flow pump)
The following notes are intended only as an introduction to the general characteristics of each
propulsor type.
6.1 Screw Propeller
The screw propeller is the most common form of marine propulsor and in general is the most
efficient. A screw propeller has 2 or more blades projecting from a hub or boss which in turn is
secured on a shaft driven by the propelling machinery. The blades can be integral with the hub,
detachable and mounted to the hub, or movable on the hub (controllable-pitch).
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6.2 Single-screw format
The propeller should have a diameter such that when the vessel is in the fully loaded or service
condition, it is sufficiently submerged to avoid the phenomena of airdrawing (with consequential
cavitation) and racing of the propeller during pitching. An approximate rule-of-thumb for a
single-screw vessel is that the propeller diameter must be less than two-thirds of the stern draft.
Most moderate to large commercial vessels employ a single centreline propeller. A maximum
propeller efficiency of about 70% can be obtained with the 30% losses split almost equally into
10% momentum loss, 10% friction losses, and 10% due to rotation in the propeller race.
The individual losses can be decreased in different ways, however, usually one or both of the
other losses are increased or new losses added, offsetting the gain. A single propeller can
transform a power of 50 000 kW to thrust, but not without problems. High power means higher
risk of cavitation, vibration and noise. Essentially the task in gaining maximum efficiency and
propeller performance is to match the lowest possible rotative speed with maximum possible
propeller diameter. Issues arise in reconciling the required aperture with a practical sternform at
the operating draft. Under such circumstances, and quite apart from manoeuvrability
considerations, it may be necessary to adopt a multiple screw (shaft) format.
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
LEADING EDGE TRAILING EDGE LEADING EDGE
FACE BACK
HUB BOSS
PROPELLER DISC
Figure 10.2 4-bladed marine screw propeller.
6.3 Twin-screw format
When large propulsive power is to be installed and insufficient aperture is available for a single-
screw arrangement, then a twin-screw format may be adopted. The propeller efficiency is then
improved (compared to an over-speed single propeller), however, part of the gain is offset by a
loss in hull efficiency. If a twin-screw arrangement is selected then sternform design needs to be
investigated with respect to the adoption of the V-form afterbody or a twin-skeg form.
In twin-screw arrangements the propellers are usually designed to be outward turning, i.e., the
starboard propeller is right-hand (clockwise turning when viewed from aft) and the port propeller
is left-hand (counter-clockwise turning). With typical shaft separation being approximately 30%
of the waterline breadth a significant turning lever is gained. At low (manoeuvring) speeds with
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one propeller thrusting astern and the other ahead, both propellers are therefore rotating in the
same direction. At these low manoeuvring speeds a ‘paddle-wheeling’ effect is produced, which,
when combined with both the opposite thrust from each propeller and the turning lever, a twin-
screw vessel is significantly more manoeuvrable than a single-screw counterpart. This degree of
manoeuvrability can be further enhanced with the adoption of twin high performance rudders.
6.4 Fixed-pitch (FP) versus controllable-pitch (CP) propellers
The special feature of the CP propeller is that each blade can be turned about its own (spindle)
axis which is normally perpendicular to the propeller shaft. The blades are turned simultaneously
via a mechanical or hydraulic hub mechanism, operated through the hollow propeller shaft. The
angular turning range of the blades is sufficiently large to include astern pitch angles and
consequently reversing the direction of rotation is not required for astern manoeuvres. With FP
propellers it is not possible to utilize the full power at all propeller loadings. This difficulty is
obviated with CP propellers where the full engine power can always be absorbed despite varying
loadings (e.g., changes in draft or trim, free-running conditions without tow, towing, ice
breaking, weather or water depth). The CP propeller has many advantages particularly for vessels
operating on short voyages with numerous manoeuvres.
The CP propeller does have some drawbacks, however, these have been overstated. For
example, the hub/diameter ratio (0.23  0.30) is larger than for a FP propeller (0.20). For ratios
not exceeding 0.3 the loss in efficiency due to the hub size is 1  2% (relative). Additionally, the
increased complexity of the CP hub and shafting has implications for increased maintenance
requirements and for mechanical vulnerability generally but especially in ice conditions. The CP
propeller implies a large investment, however, this is compensated by better operational
economy; e.g., less engine wear due to fewer starts, less need for tug assistance, better adaptation
to different conditions of operation and the possibility of employing a shaft generator.
Advantages of the CP propeller may be summarized as follows:
• Good acceleration, stopping and manoeuvring qualities;

• Constant thrust obtainable at varying degrees of loading;
• Improved economy for the vessel operating at widely diverging speeds;
• Facilitation of uni-directional (non-reversible) drives;
• Drives (especially diesels) can be operated at their optimum rpm and rating.
Disadvantages of the CP may be summarised as:
• Increased complexity of construction and supporting systems;

• Expensive installation relative to a comparable FP arrangement;
• Higher maintenance demands.
6.5 Ducted Propellers (Nozzles)
A ducted propeller consists of a propeller surrounded by a hydrodynamically streamlined duct or

nozzle. A low pressure field exists forward of a working propeller and astern of the propeller
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there is a contraction of the flow. At increasing propeller load the pressure decreases and the
contraction increases. When a nozzle is fitted around the propeller the forward part of the nozzle
is affected by the underpressure and an inward and forward directed force acts upon the nozzle.
The forward component adds to the propeller thrust. The aft region of the duct, astern of the
propeller is cylindrical or opens slightly towards the trailing edge. This prevents contraction of
the flow and according to impulse law the thrust increases.
resultant (lift) force
forward component
(additional thrust)
Figure 10.3 Forces on a nozzle
The nozzle is particularly suitable for highly loaded propellers and it is used mainly on tugs and
trawlers, but it may also be used on other vessel types such as research and survey vessels and
SAR craft. The nozzle is precluded from adoption in high-speed vessels as the thrust increase is
counteracted by the frictional resistance of the nozzle itself.
6.6 Rotating (Azimuth) Thrusters
A rotatable thruster is a propeller (FP or CP), with or without a nozzle, mounted on a pod which
may be rotated (in azimuth) through 360 by hydraulic motors. Developed primarily as aids to
manoeuvring and dynamic positioning (DP), rotating thrusters have made significant inroads into
the primary propulsor field since 1985. The largest area of application of rotatable thrusters is in
offshore support vessels and tugs, however, increasingly they are being adopted as the main
propulsors in research and cruise vessels.
The most recent development of the rotatable thruster involves the integration of an electric drive
motor into the hub or pod. This thruster format, referred to as a podded drive, certainly removes
the transmission losses within the shafting system of Z or Ldrives and furthermore is claimed
to free up valuable internal hull volume via the relocation of the drive to the thruster pod itself.
This internal volume saving may however, be at least partially offset by the required circulated
air and cooling water (CACW) system for the electric drive. This CACW system requires
substantial volume and is located above the thruster unit. This volume requirement may be
reduced through the adoption of direct seawater cooling of the drive.
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Figure 10.4 Podded propulsor (‘Mermaid’) from KaMeWa / Cegelec.
6.7 Contrarotating Propellers
Approximately 10% loss of propeller efficiency is due to the rotation of fluid in the propeller
race. This is the case for a single propeller per shaft (uni-propeller) arrangement. The theoretical
ideal propulsor would produce a totally linear (horizontal) thrust vector, however, in reality and
due to the rotative functioning of the propeller, a degree of swirl in the race results. The radial
component of the thrust vector due to swirl represents lost thrust. Contrarotating propellers (2
propellers on concentric shafts with opposite rotation) reduce the losses via the aft propeller
regaining the slipstream swirling loss of the forward propeller. Contrarotating propellers have a
smaller diameter than that of a single propeller designed for the same power and shaft speed. In
a contrarotating arrangement the diameter of the aft propeller is smaller than forward propeller as
it operates in the contracted slipstream of the forward propeller. Different blade numbers on
each propeller are adopted to avoid synchronised passing which would lead to vibration
problems. The efficiency for a contrarotating format is higher than for a single propeller but not
as high as when the power is distributed on 2 (twin) shafts.
6.8 Vertical Axis (Cycloidal) Propulsors
The vertical axis propeller has a number of airfoil section blades connected perpendicularly to a
disc with its axis of rotation approximately vertical. The disc is mounted flush with the hull
surface. The blades (vanes) can be turned about their own vertical axes in such a way that a line
perpendicular to the chord of the vane always passes through a control point which can be
located at any point within a circle having a radius of 90% of the vane circle. During one
revolution the vanes are turned to produce thrust in a certain direction during nearly the entire
revolution. By shifting the control point the thrust can be directed in any horizontal direction and
varied from zero to maximum. The Voith-Schneider propeller is the best known of the
cycloidal propellers and due to its unrivalled degree of resultant manoeuvrability it has been
adopted widely for tug propulsion and some double-ended ferries. The vertical axis propeller is
however, considerably less efficient than a conventional screw propeller. Additionally it
increases substantially the extreme draft, is vulnerable to ice damage, and because of the
mechanical complexity of the system may be regarded as mechanically vulnerable.
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Figure 10.5 The function of the vertical axis propeller.
6.9 Waterjet Propulsion
A jet propulsion unit consists of an axial flow pump impeller mounted within a tube which draws
in water through an inlet in the hull bottom, imposes an acceleration on it, and discharges it
through a nozzle at the transom, driving the vessel forward by the reaction force. Steering is
achieved by turning the nozzle about a vertical spindle directing the jet at an angle, and astern
manoeuvres are achieved by turning a ‘bucket’ into the jet behind or inside the nozzle, deflecting
the discharge flow forward and downward under the transom.
Jet propulsion is not suitable for low-speed displacement vessels as the efficiency is lower than
that of a propeller at low speeds. However, for high-speed small craft it has many advantages
including excellent manoeuvrability, no hull appendages and hence is suitable for shallow draft
vessels, and it generally exhibits low noise and vibration levels. For high-speed (planing) craft,
the efficiency of a waterjet unit exceeds that of a propeller at speeds greater than 25  30 knots.
To enable self-priming upon start-up the jet nozzle is mounted at the transom with its centreline
axis at the nil-speed waterline. At speed the transom is dry and the nozzle is entirely above the
water surface. If the transom and nozzle were submerged, the water surrounding the jet would be
entrained causing a reduction in pressure on the transom which would increase the thrust
deduction fraction. Equally, the nozzle should not be located too high as the lifting of the water
implies an energy loss.
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.1 Merits of Waterjets
.1 Reduced hull drag
The waterjet itself is an active steering/reversing device and rudders are therefore not required,
and additionally, no struts or shafts protrude from the hull resulting in lower hull resistance.
.2 Reduced draft
As there is no need for a propeller or underwater appendages; waterjets are therefore attractive
for vessels (not necessarily high-speed) operating in shallow waters.
.3 Good acceleration
A correctly selected waterjet with sufficient margin for cavitation has the ability to generate high
thrust at lower vessel speeds. The acceleration is proportional to the difference between the
thrust and the resistance of the vessel at each specific vessel speed.
.4 Enhanced manoeuvrability at low speed & high speeds
The high thrust available at low vessel speeds can be deflected by about 30 to either side and
simultaneously reversed by the steering/reversing jetavator. This facility results in high
steering/reversing forces at zero craft speeds. The turning side-force in high speed transit mode
does not decrease during the turning circle, unlike a conventional rudder.
.5 Enhanced crash-stop capability
Full astern thrust is available within seconds of reversing the jet flow at full ahead, making
stopping possible within a few ship lengths.
.6 Simplified gear requirements
As with the CP propeller, the direction of the waterjet shaft rotation is always the same. The
reverse bucket within the jetavator deflects the jet flow forward to propel the vessel in the astern
direction, eliminating the need for a reversing gear unit or reversible engine.
.7 Torque/speed/power characteristics
In the event of increased hull resistance (based on the design point) due to hull fouling, adverse
weather or higher loading, a FP propeller will operate at a lower speed coefficient. From the
open water characteristics it will be seen that the propeller will run at a higher thrust and torque
coefficient. When the engine reaches its torque limit line the fuel rack/rpm has to be reduced in
order not to thermally overload the engine. For a mixed flow waterjet pump design at lower
vessel speed (lower flow rate), however, the power absorption remains almost constant at higher
head. Power absorption is therefore almost insensitive to the vessel’s speed. Significant
advantages in terms of maintenance costs and engine life are thus derived from no possible
overloading of the engine.
.8 Reduced noise & vibration
The pressure pulses generated by rotating machinery with a specific number of blades are
transmitted through the water. The intensity is linear to the distance from the source; the noise
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energy transmits with the square of the distance to the source. The enclosure of the waterjet
pump impeller within the hull is therefore beneficial in this respect, the associated low
hydroacoustic noise being particularly attractive for naval craft and certain types of fishing
vessel. In high-speed craft with conventional propellers, noise due to cavitation of the
propellers is an unavoidable problem. A waterjet impeller with a well-designed inlet works in a
more uniform flow, reducing the pressure impulses induced by the blades. Fast waterjet-driven
craft demonstrate a significant noise reduction over propeller-driven vessels.
7 Marine Screw Propeller Parameters
7.1 Propeller Diameter (D)
The diameter of a propeller is the diameter of the propeller disc; the disc perpendicular to the
shaft axis traced by the blade tips. With a view to obtaining the highest possible propulsive
efficiency the largest possible propeller diameter will normally be preferred. There are, however,
special conditions to be considered. The aftbody of the hull can vary greatly in form depending
on the vessel type and design. Bulk carriers and tankers, for example, often operate in a ballast
condition where full propeller immersion is still required and therefore operating draft(s) place a
restriction on the selected propeller diameter. Propeller manufacturing considerations may also
restrict the selected diameter or the maximum diameter available. Diameters rarely exceed 8.5 m
although the largest propeller manufactured has a 12 m diameter.
7.2 Pitch (P)
The pitch of a propeller may be considered as the axial distance the propeller would ‘screw’ itself
forward through the water per revolution  provided there was no slip; i.e., if the water was
considered as a solid material. The pitch may vary with increasing blade radius.
7.3 Pitch/Diameter Ratio (P/D)
The pitch/diameter ratio expresses the ratio between the propeller pitch and its diameter, i.e.,
P/D. The pitch/diameter ratio is normally quoted using the pitch value at 0.7 of the propeller
radius. To achieve the best propulsive efficiency for a given propeller diameter, an optimum
pitch/diameter ratio is to be found which corresponds to a particular design rate of revolution. If,
for example, a lower design rate of revolution is desired, the P/D ratio has to be increased, and
vice versa, at the cost of efficiency. Alternatively, if a lower design rate of revolution is desired
and the vessel’s draft permits, the choice of a larger propeller diameter may permit lower design
rate of revolution and even increase propulsive efficiency at the same time.
8 Flow Conditions for the Propeller
8.1 Wake Fraction (w)
When the vessel is moving through the water the friction of the hull creates a boundary layer
around the hull. Within this boundary layer the velocity of the water on the surface of the hull is
equal to that of the vessel, and with increased distance from the hull surface reduces to zero (the
surrounding water velocity). The thickness of the boundary layer increases with increased
distance from the bow and is approximately proportional to ship length. This means that there
will be a certain wake velocity caused by hull friction where the term wake refers to that
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portion of water surrounding the vessel that is given a velocity component vector having the
same sense (direction) as that of the vessel. Therefore the water at the propeller will have an
effective wake velocity, Vw which has the same direction as the vessel’s speed, V. This means
that the velocity of water arriving at the propeller, VA (referred to as the speed of advance and
given as the average velocity over the propeller disc area) is less than the vessel’s speed V.
(Refer to Fig. 10.6.)
VW VA
V ( = vessel speed )
Figure 10.6 Velocity vectors at the propeller disc.
The effective wake velocity at the propeller is therefore:
VW = V  VA (10.7)
and may therefore be expressed in a dimensionless form using a wake fraction coefficient as
defined by Taylor, and referred to as the Taylor wake fraction (w) :
V  VA
w = (10.8)
V
The value of the wake fraction greatly influences the propeller’s efficiency and depends largely
on the shape of the hull but also on propeller location and size. The propeller diameter, or the
propeller diameter/LWL ratio (D/LWL) has some influence on the wake fraction as D/LWL gives an
approximate indication of the degree to which the propeller works in the hull’s wake field.
Therefore the larger is D/LWL the lower the wake fraction, w .
For single-screw vessels the wake fraction is normally in the region of 0.20 to 0.45,
corresponding to a flow velocity to the propeller, VA of 0.80 to 0.55 of the vessel’s speed, V.
Vessels with large block coefficients have large wake fractions. On twin-screw vessels and a
conventional aftbody hull form the propellers will normally be positioned outside the boundary
layer and hence the wake fraction will be significantly lower.
A large wake fraction increases the risk of propeller cavitation as the distribution of water
velocity around the propeller is generally non-homogeneous under such conditions. A more
uniform wake field for the propeller (also involving a higher speed of advance, VA ) may be
needed and can be obtained in several ways, such as through the use of nozzles. Obviously the
best method is to ensure that the aft hull section is designed to achieve an optimal wake field.
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9 Slip Ratio
A propeller with a pitch P turning at n revolutions in unit time would advance at a speed Pn if
the fluid did not yield somewhat (accelerate aft) when the propeller developed thrust. However,
as the water does accelerate aft the propeller’s real speed decreases and equals the vessel’s speed
V and the propeller slip can thus be expressed as P  n  V.
9.1 Apparent Slip Ratio (SA)
The apparent slip ratio which is dimensionless, is defined as:
P  n V V
SA = = 1 (10.23)
Pn Pn
The apparent slip ratio is that slip ratio often recorded aboard the vessel during the course of a
voyage as it provides useful guidance regarding the loads applied to the propeller under different
operating conditions. The apparent slip ratio increases when the vessel encounters oncoming
wave and wind conditions, when the hull is fouled and when the vessel accelerates.
9.2 Real Slip Ratio (SR)
The real slip ratio is defined as:
VA V  1  w
SR = 1  = 1 (10.24)
Pn Pn
This real slip ratio will be greater than the apparent slip ratio because the true speed of advance
(VA) of the propeller is, as previously mentioned, less than the vessel’s speed, V. The real slip
ratio provides a truer guide to the propeller and vessel function but requires a knowledge of the
wake fraction, something not practical in the normal operation of a vessel in a sea state. Both
slip ratios are normally expressed as a percentage.
pitch P
slip
SPn
Pn
Figure 10.7 Slip ratio of a marine propeller.
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TUTORIAL 10  RESISTANCE & PROPULSION
Question 1
A ship has a wetted surface area of 3 200 m2. Calculate the power required to overcome the frictional
resistance at 17 knots if n = 1.825 and f = 0.424.
(Ans. 2 089.1 kW)
Question 2
A ship 125 m long, 16 m beam floats at a draft of 7.8 m. The CB is 0.72. Calculate the power
required to overcome frictional resistance at 17.5 knots if n = 1.825 and f = 0.423. Use Taylor’s
formula for wetted surface with c = 2.55.
(Ans. 2 161.9 kW)
Question 3
The residuary resistance of a 1/20th scale model in sea water is 36 N when towed at 3.0 knots.
Calculate the residuary resistance of the ship at its corresponding speed and the power required to
overcome it.
(Ans. RR = 288 kN, 1 987.8 kW )
Question 4
A 6.0 m model of a ship has a wetted surface area of 7 m2, and when towed in fresh water at 3.0 knots
has a total resistance of 35 N. Calculate the effective power of the ship 120 m long at its
corresponding speed. Use n = 1.825, SCF = 1.15 and gain f from the formula.
(Ans. ep = 1 688.4 kW )
Question 5
A ship propeller has a diameter of 4.0 m and a pitch/diameter ratio of 0.7 and revolves at 150 rpm. If
the vessel’s speed is 12 knots and the Taylor wake fraction is 0.24 calculate the apparent and true slip.
(Ans. 11.76%, 32.94% )
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Question 6
Calculate the required engine brake power for a vessel with a wake fraction of 0.17, thrust deduction
coefficient of 0.19, propeller efficiency 65%, relative rotation efficiency 1.1. Shaft losses are 1.5%
and the total resistance is 350 kN at a service speed of 18 knots at a shaft speed of 100 rpm.
(Ans. 4715 kW )
Question 7
and the total resistance is 30 kN at a service speed is 12 knots. The reduction gear unit efficiency is
90% and a 30 kW PTO is required at the front end of the engine.
(Ans. 446.9 kW )
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RUDDERS
11 UNIT
1 General
All vessels must possess some means of directional control. In the vast majority of cases this is
exercised through control surfaces (rudders) fitted at the aft end, however, in some cases rudders
are augmented by other lateral force devices at the bow and perhaps additionally at the stern.
Rudder design includes a number of specialised high-lift variants intended to compete with, or
reduce the requirement for these additional manoeuvring systems The following notes are
however devoted to the conventional rudder arrangements.
2 Geometry & Forces
The purpose in having a control surface on a vessel is to control its motion. The control surface
may be composed entirely of a single movable surface or of a combination of fixed and movable
portions. It may typically be a rudder used to control the horizontal motion of a surface vessel
or a diving plane to control vertical motions of a submarine, or an activated fin to reduce the
rolling motion of a vessel.
A control surface has one sole function to perform; to develop a control force in consequence of
its orientation and movement relative to the water. The control force exerted by a rudder at the
stern of a vessel creates a moment on the vessel which causes it to rotate and orientate itself at an
angle of attack to the flow. The forces and moments generated as a result of this rotation and
attack angle then determine the manoeuvring characteristics of the vessel.
2.1 Definitions & Nomenclature
The simplest and most common type of control surface is the all-movable surface as illustrated in
Figure 1. Following aeronautical nomenclature, the edge of a control surface adjacent to the hull
to which it is attached is referred to as the root and the opposite edge is the tip. Hence there is a
root chord and a tip chord and their average is the mean chord. Similarly there are defined
thickness dimensions. The mean span is the average of the spans of the leading and trailing
edges.
The ratio of mean span divided by mean chord is the geometric aspect ratio. The thickness-
chord ratio is the mean thickness divided by the mean chord and the taper ratio is the tip chord
divided by the root chord. The profile area may be taken as the mean span multiplied by the
mean chord and the sweepback angle (if applicable) is that angle between the vertical axis and
the quarter-chord line.
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ROOT SECTION
centreplane
axis of rotation
root chord centreplane

hull line
CR/4 root thickness
trailing edge CoP leading edge

mean thickness
mean span
mean geometric chord
quarter chord line
tip thickness
CT/4
tip chord
PROFILE EDGE PROFILE
Figure 11.1 Dimensions & nomenclature for an all-movable control

surface (rudder).
2.2 Hydrodynamics of a Control Surface
Consider, initially the section shape of an airfoil section (aircraft wing) as shown in Figure 11.2.
The pressure distribution around the section as a consequence of the fluid velocity and pressure
drag is such that on the lower surface the pressure is increased above that in the free stream,
being greatest quite close to the leading edge. On the upper surface of the airfoil the pressure is
decreased and has a marked peak some short distance from the leading edge. The lift force
generated is the result of the differences in pressure of the 2 surfaces and for the type of pressure
distribution shown it is clear that they reinforce one another and that the reduction of pressure on
the upper surface contributes more to the lift than does the increase on the lower surface.
In contrast to an aircraft wing, a control surface must usually be capable of developing lift in
either of 2 opposed directions. Hence the section shape shown in Figure 11.1 (and Figure 11.3)
is symmetrical about the centreplane of the control surface.
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-ve
pressure pressure on upper surface
+ve
pressure pressure on lower surface
Figure 11.2 Pressure distribution on an airfoil section.
Considering the rudder completely immersed in a fluid orientated with a positive angle of attack
to the uniform flow velocity of the fluid, unaffected by the vessel’s hull or propeller, as
illustrated in Figure 11.3. According to 2-dimensional (infinite aspect ratio) flow theory, the
combination of forward velocity and angle of attack will induce a circulation about the rudder
which in turn produces a lift force. However, as rudders have a finite aspect ratio, 2-D theory
does not accurately predict the forces acting on them. When the rudder is at an angle of attack
vortices are shed over the root of the rudder (unless the root is close enough to the hull to prevent
vortex formation), and over the rudder tip. These induce velocities which when added to the
stream velocity cause an induced drag force. Additionally, friction and separation forces arise
due to the viscosity of the water. While the frictional force acts tangentially to the surface of the
rudder the direction of the force caused by separation of the viscous boundary layer cannot be
predicted precisely. One effect of viscosity is to introduce a so-called eddy or form drag into the
force system acting on the control surface.
normal force, F
total resultant force

lift, L
rudder stock
drag, D
ambient stream
 velocity
axial force d
CoP x
Figure 11.3 Rudder force components.
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The total resultant hydrodynamic force arising from the effects as previously described acts at a
single point called the centre of pressure (CoP). The total resultant force is nearly normal
(perpendicular) to the centreplane of the rudder. This force may be resolved into any number of
components. Three components of interest in ship control are a lift component (L) normal to the
direction of motion, a drag component (D), parallel to the direction of motion, and a component
normal to the axis of the vessel. This latter component (sometimes referred to as the Y-
component) is the reason for having a rudder. If there were no interaction between the pressure
field around the rudder and the adjacent hull and its appendages, this Y-component would be the
control force.
It is important to appreciate that it is not the rudder forces in themselves that directly cause the
vessel to turn. Rather, the rudder acts as a servo-system which causes the hull to take up an
attitude in which the required forces and moments are generated hydrodynamically on the hull.
Rudders are generally fitted aft as in this position they are most effective in causing the hull to
assume the required attitude and additionally they benefit from the increased water velocity
induced by the propeller(s). The modern rudder is streamlined in form to produce a large lift
force with minimum drag and with leading edge sections designed to reduce the variation in this
lift force with angle of attack.
2.3 Influence of Fixed Structure & Control Flaps
The all-movable rudder has several important variants. If a fixed structure is placed just ahead of
the rudder as shown in Figure 11.4, the forces and moments acting on the rudder as well as the
forces and moments acting on the vessel’s hull differ from those if the fixed structure were
absent. A rudder consisting of both a fixed and a movable portion will generally produce a larger
control force (with the vessel moving ahead) than if the fixed portion were missing. By analogy
with the aircraft wing, a rudder consisting of a combination of movable and fixed portions
develops its lift by means of varying its camber as well as by varying its angle of attack
AIRCRAFT WING
Lift developed by fixed camber
RUDDER behind FIXED STRUCTURE

Lift developed by variable camber
Figure 11.4 Variations of lifting surfaces.
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The favourable effect on lift of the fixed structure ahead of a rudder in the ahead condition has
been analysed in experiments. At rudder angles of 30  40 a 25% fixed 75% movable rudder
combination produced more than 90% of the lift produced by an all-movable rudder of the same
total area. Generally in the practical case, the movable portion incorporates some balance area
forward of the rudder stock in order to reduce the torque on the rudder. With balance some gap
is inevitable between fixed and movable sections at large deflection angles which may result in
approximately 8% less lift being developed than if there was no balance and no resulting gap.
PROFILE
fixed area
(rudder horn)
section horizontal break

balance area
SECTION
Figure 11.5 Typical semi-balanced rudder with fixed section.
Tests performed on flapped control surfaces (Kerwin 1972) showed that the lift coefficient for
the total control surface can be increased significantly (nearly double) the maximum lift
coefficient of the parent unflapped rudder. The doubly all-movable rudder, with even a small
unbalanced flap has a much larger lift coefficient than an all-movable rudder with no flap,
however, the increase in lift is achieved at the expense of large increases in rudder hinge
moments and somewhat increased drag. Flap hinge moments are, however substantially less than
the maximum rudder moments of the zero-flap rudder.
In practice, the fixed structure, if used, usually involves a faired rudder horn or even the skeg of
the vessel itself. In this latter case the movable rudder area is small indeed compared to that of
the fixed structure ahead of it. From a hydrodynamic point of view the performance of such a
rudder can be predicted only if the entire vessel ahead of the rudder is treated as the fixed
portion.
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3 Rudder Design
3.1 Rudder Type
All-movable rudders are desirable for their ability to produce large turning forces for their size.
The following ranges of numerical values can be used as an approximate first guide in selecting a
balance ratio according to block coefficient. [Balance ratio is the rudder area forward of the
rudder stock divided by the total rudder area.]
CB Balance ratio range
0.60 0.250  0.255
0.70 0.256  0.260
0.80 0.265  0.270
Figure 11.6 illustrates the 3 major rudder types in current use in commercial vessels and may be
used with either single or twin screws. The simple fully-balanced type shown in Fig. 11.6(a),
however, is now really limited to the smaller single-screw fishing vessels. Fig. 11.6(b) is the
very common semi-balanced rudder with shallow rudder horn intended to facilitate easy removal
of the propeller shaft. Fig. 11.6(c) illustrates the fully-balanced spade rudder common on naval
vessels and fast craft. In fast craft the aspect ratio is generally less than that shown due to the
shallower draft of such vessels.
(a) FULLY BALANCED (b) SEMIBALANCED (c) FULLY BALANCED

(all-movable) (underhung shallow horn) (spade-type all-movable)
Figure 11.6 Three major rudder types in current use.
3.2 Rudder Location
Every effort should be made to place the rudder aft of the propeller at the stern. At zero or low
ship speed the propeller stream increases rudder effectiveness significantly. Care should be
taken, however, to avoid positioning the rudder too close to the propeller where any propeller
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hub vortices may impinge upon the rudder’s leading edge causing cavitation and pitting of the
rudder plating.
3.3 Rudder (Profile) Area
A suitable rudder area for a given hull form can be selected to satisfy desired degrees of dynamic
stability and manoeuvring performance in calm water. Since full-form vessels are generally less
stable relatively more rudder area for these vessels is required for meeting course stability
requirements. The final determination for rudder area should reflect the fact that relatively large
rudders provide superior performance under adverse wind and wave conditions.
The Det norske Veritas (DnV) value for minimum rudder area is:
d  LBP   B  
2
AR = 1  25   (11.1)
100   LBP  
 
3.4 Rudder Height
Although rudder height is generally limited by the stern shape and draft, rudder height should be
the maximum practicable to obtain the more efficient higher aspect ratio. The rudder tip is kept
above the level of the keel for protection with high clearances in cases where there is frequent
operation with stern trim.
3.5 Rate of Swing
In addition to the size and hydrodynamic efficiency of the rudder design, the rate of swing must
always be considered. The effect of an increase over the 2.33/sec standard rate is greatest on
fast and responsive vessels.
4 Empirical Formulae for Rudder Calculations
The method of Joessel (1939) has gained wide acceptance (despite its shortcomings) for
estimating the rudder force, F.
F = 577 ARV 2 sin  (N) (11.2)
where: AR = rudder profile area (m2)

V = velocity of water past rudder (m/s)
= 1.3  vessel speed (m/s) when rudder is behind the propeller
 = rudder angle of attack ( )
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For purposes of rudder design, the component of the total rudder force, excluding interaction
effects, which is normal to the rudder centreplane and designated F in Figure 11.3, is of
importance. The product of this component and the distance of the CoP from the centreline of
the rudder stock is the hydrodynamic torque experienced by the stock.
The hydrodynamic torque (TR) on the rudder stock is therefore:
TR = F  x  d  Nm (11.3)
where: F = rudder normal force (N)

x = distance of CoP from leading edge (m)
d = distance of rudder stock centreline from leading edge (m)
For a flat plate, Joessel suggested that the location of the CoP relative to the leading edge (x)
can be given by:
x = 0195
.  0.305 sin    b (m) (11.4)
where: b = mean geometric chord of rudder (m)
For rudders of hydrodynamically faired section the geometry of the cross-section has an
influence on the location of the CoP, however, Joessel’s expression may be used as a first
estimate.
The bending moment (MR) on the rudder stock about the root section is given by:
MR = L2  D 2  z Nm (11.5)
where: L = lift force (N)

D = drag force (N)
z = distance of CoP from root section (m)
The maximum anticipated values of these moments are used in the design of the rudder stock,
rudder bearings and steering gear. The rudder stock diameter, in turn, determines the root
thickness of the rudder itself. The maximum torsional stress which governs scantlings for the
rudder stock in the rudder types shown in Fig. 11.6 (a) and (b) may be given by:
TR  r
 = (Pa) (11.6)
J
where: TR = torque on rudder stock (Nm)
r = rudder stock radius (m)
J = polar moment of inertia of rudder stock (m4)
  r4
=
2
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These latter expressions can be rearranged to produce an expression for the minimum rudder
stock radius given a maximum permissible torsional stress:
2T
r = 3 (m) (11.7)
   allowable
For spade-type rudders, bending stress predominates the determination of scantlings because the
hydrodynamic force has a large lever arm for bending (approximately half the rudder height) but
only a small lever for torsion (a few percent of the mean chord length). Stress is inversely
proportional to sectional moment of inertia. For torsion the polar inertia is used, which is double
the moment of inertia for flexure. In such cases the bending stress must be computed and
properly combined with the torsional stress.
The bending stress is given by:
MR r
 = (Pa) (11.8)
I
  r4
where: I = (m4)
4
The 2 stresses can be combined as follows:
0.5
   2
 
 combined =      2  (Pa) (11.9)
2  2  
5 Steering Gear
The vessel’s steering gear must be able to deliver adequate torque to drive the rudder stock
against the rudder force while overcoming friction forces in the rudder stock bearings at the
minimum required swing rate as prescribed by the classification societies (2.33 /sec). During
sea trials the main steering gear must be capable of moving the rudder from 35 on one side to
35 on the other while underway at maximum continuous rated shaft speed and take no more
than 28 seconds between 35 on one side and 30 on the other (ABS).
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TUTORIAL 11  RUDDERS
Question 1
A vessel of 125 metres LBP , block coefficient 0.78, and beam 20.5 metres operates under normal
service conditions at a draft of 6.45 m. The vessel possesses a simple, fully-balanced, all-movable
type rudder, rectangular in profile with a mean chord of 2.40 m and a balance ratio of 0.262. The
rudder is located immediately astern of the vessel’s centreline propeller.
a) Calculate the required minimum rudder area (AR) according to DnV recommendations;
(Ans. 13.484 m2 )
b) Calculate the rudder force (F) for a vessel speed of 16.5 knots and a rudder angle of 25
assuming the minimum required profile area has been adopted.
(Ans. 400.3 kN )
c) Calculate the hydrodynamic torque (TR) on the rudder stock at 25 rudder angle.
(Ans. 59.24 kNm )
d) Calculate the minimum rudder stock diameter if the maximum allowable torsional stress in the
stock is 40 MPa.
(Ans. 196 mm )
Question 2
Calculate the rudder force and hydrodynamic torque on the simplified semi-balanced rudder shown in
Figure 1 for a vessel speed of 15.5 knots and maximum rudder angle of 35 behind the propeller race.
(Ans. 307 kN; 37.105 kNm )
1.85
0.25
1.10 fixed section
0.40
3.80
0.3
2.30
2.6
Figure 1.
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Framing Systems & Components
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SHIP STRUCTURAL FRAMING SYSTEMS
& COMPONENTS 12 UNIT
1 Introduction
In addition to being the largest moving structures designed by man, the design of vessels differs
considerably from that of other structures for several reasons. Unlike many fixed land-based
structures to which known loads from wind, snow and ice, static loads, etc., can be applied with
reasonable accuracy, the most critical loading on a vessel’s structure is imposed by the sea. This
is additional to the known loads but its magnitude is uncertain. Furthermore, the sea loading is
made even more complex by the motions of the vessel itself in response to the sea state. A
vessel’s structure is complex, its geometry unique; it cannot be expressed in mathematical terms.
Most of the structure consists of broad expanses of plating, stiffened by a variety of structural
profiles, whereas other large structures contain little plating. Optimum distribution of material is
a matter of higher priority in vessel design than in many other structures.
An additional important requirement is that the structure must provide for the containment of
liquids within and the exclusion of water from without, besides having sufficient strength to
withstand the pressures imposed by these liquids. Furthermore, allowance must be made for the
imprecise yet significant way all the foregoing requirements are affected by the corrosive nature
of the marine environment in which the structure operates. A design meeting the requirements of
global and local loadings then has to be reconciled with the resistance considerations for the
immersed hull and aesthetic requirements.
2 Functions of Hull Structural Elements
The strength deck, bottom and side shell of a vessel act as a box girder in resisting bending and
other loads in addition to forming a watertight envelope to provide essential buoyancy. The
remaining structure contributes directly or indirectly to these functions by maintaining the
position and integrity of these main members and enabling their efficient function.
2.1 Bottom Plating (incl. inner bottom)
The bottom plating is a principal longitudinal member constituting the lower flange of the hull
girder and being part of the watertight envelope is subject to the local hydrostatic pressure. In
the forward region it must withstand the additional dynamic pressure associated with slamming.
When fitted, the inner bottom makes a significant contribution to the strength of the lower flange.
Inner and outer bottom plating, together with bottom girders and floors, function as a double-
plate panel to distribute secondary bending effects (caused by external hydrostatic, internal fluid
and cargo loads) to main supporting boundaries, i.e., bulkheads and side shell.
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2.2 Decks
One or more strength decks form the principal members of the hull girder upper flange and
usually the upper watertight boundary and may be subject to local water, cargo and equipment
loadings. Other decks, depending upon longitudinal extent, vertical distance from the hull’s
neutral axis, and their effective attachment, contribute to a lesser extent in resisting longitudinal
bending. Locally, internal decks are subject to the loads imposed by cargo, machinery, stores,
and liquid pressure if forming a tank boundary or barrier against progressive flooding.
2.3 Shell Plating
The side shell provides the webs for the main hull girder and is an important part of the
watertight envelope, being subject to static water pressures and dynamic loadings due to wave
action and vessel motion, particularly impact loadings (slamming, berthing and tug landings). In
the stern region, extra plate thickness is beneficial in way of rudder and shaft strut mountings and
stern tubes, for increased strength and panel stiffness and for the reduction of vibration. In ice-
capable vessels the ice belt plating is required to withstand ice loadings and abrasion.
2.4 Bulkheads
Bulkheads are one of the major components of internal structure. Their function in the hull
girder depends on their orientation and extent. Main transverse bulkheads act as internal
stiffening diaphragms for the girder and resist in-plane torsion (racking) loads but do not
contribute directly to longitudinal strength. Longitudinal bulkheads, if extending more than
about 10% of the hull length, do contribute to longitudinal strength and may be as effective as the
side shell itself.
Bulkheads generally serve other structural functions such as tank boundaries, deck support,
superstructures and major load-inducing installations (e.g., crane pedestals), and add rigidity to
reduce vibration. Transverse watertight bulkheads additionally provide subdivision to prevent
progressive flooding, and both transverse and longitudinal bulkheads provide fire integrity
forming divisions between fire zones.
2.5 Double Bottom Construction
Cargo vessels of gross tonnage 500 tons and greater, and passenger vessels (other than high-
speed light craft) require a double bottom construction, in most cases between collision and aft
peak bulkheads. The inner bottom, other than contributing to the strength of the lower flange of
the hull girder, provides improved watertight integrity and protection against flooding in the
event of bottom damage. The double bottom is given a cellular construction which enables the
enclosed volume(s) to be utilised for ballast and fuel storage.
Vertical plating connects the bottom shell and inner bottom. Those fitted transversely are called
floors and those fitted longitudinally are centre girders or side girders, as appropriate. These
vertical orthogonally arranged plates, if watertight, may form the boundaries of tanks, and
irrespective of watertight integrity additionally provide the main points of support for the vessel
during dry-docking. Floors and girders are stiffened vertically, usually employing flat bar
stiffeners.
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2.6 Stiffening of Major Elements
The foregoing structural elements are essentially large plate sections whose thicknesses are very
small compared with their other dimensions and which generally carry both in-plane and normal
loads. These large planar or curved plate sections must be stiffened appropriately in order to
perform their required function efficiently. Stiffening usually involves the welding of sections of
a selected sectional profile to the plate, forming an orthogonal grillage. Corrugations in bulkhead
plating may however be employed to provide stiffening in the primary direction of loading.
The various stiffening members have several functions. For example, in deck structure,
longitudinal frame stiffeners provide stiffness to the plating, transverse beams support the
stiffeners, and girders (longitudinal) in turn support the transverse beams transferring the load to
transverse bulkheads. In a transversely-framed side shell, the transverse frames (vertically
orientated) stiffen the side shell plating and support the ends of transverse deck beams and the
transverse side frames are supported by decks and stringers.
2.7 Interaction of Structural Components
Stiffening members do not act independently of the plating to which they are attached. A portion
of the plate either side of the stiffener serves as one flange of the stiffener and properties such as
section modulus and moment of inertia used in strength analysis must reflect this. Stiffening
members serve 2 functions, depending upon their loading. In the case of loads normal to the
plate (e.g., hydrostatic loading on a transverse bulkhead) the stiffeners provide edge restraint for
the plate. In the case of in-plane loads [e.g., compressive loads imposed on deck structure due to
bending (sagging) of the hull girder] longitudinal stiffeners serve to resist buckling and hence
maintain the deck plating in its designed shape. Longitudinal stiffeners sustain the same bending
stress as the plating and contribute substantially to the hull girder strength.
Decks, side shell, inner and outer bottoms, and bulkheads interact to provide overall edge
restraint for each other. For example, the ultimate support for a transverse bulkhead is provided
by the side shell, decks and bottom. Simultaneously, the bulkhead provides edge restraint for
the large stiffened plate panels of the decks, side shell, longitudinal bulkheads and bottom which
span major transverse elements such as bulkheads. Pillars may be used to support deck girders
or deck transverses. These supports, in addition to carrying local loadings from cargo, machinery
installations, etc., serve to maintain geometric separation of decks and bottom during longitudinal
bending of the hull girder and hence may sustain significant buckling (axial compressive) loads.
This interaction between structural components creates complex stress patterns at intersections of
stiffened plate elements, and between pillars and adjacent components. All structural elements
act together; both distributing and contributing static and dynamic loads and hence thorough and
adequate structural analyses are required to ensure a structurally sound vessel.
3 Systems of Framing
The term framing used in this context may, more accurately, refer to the method (orientation) of
stiffening the hull shell plating, i.e., deck, side and bottom plating. There are 3 systems available
to the designer, however, only 2 are ever considered in contemporary design due to the
inefficiencies of the third (transverse) system. The framing system adopted is primarily driven
by vessel length and type.
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3.1 Transverse System of Framing
The transverse system of hull framing may be considered as merely a continuation of the
traditional method of framing used in wooden vessels adapted to vessels of all-metal construction
with the introduction of iron-hulled vessels in the 1830’s and then steel vessels (1870’s).
Transverse framing may be used quite successfully in small pleasure craft, inshore and harbour
service craft and in the smaller fishing vessels where the vessel’s length to depth ratio is small
and coupled with low to moderate sea-states longitudinal bending stresses (and the associated
buckling stresses) may considered insignificant.
Essentially the transverse system of framing consists of a series of closely spaced ribs encircling
the hull. These ribs, comprising of vertical side frames, horizontal deck beams and floors in the
bottom, provide the stiffening of the shell and deck plating upon which the longitudinal strength
of the vessel primarily depends. The encircling ribs and their integral components also provide
support of hydrostatic and local loadings and maintain the geometric integrity of the hull.
deck plating deck transverse

(integral to web frame)
beam knee
(or bracket) web frame deck girder
deck girder deck beam
side stringer side stringer
side frame (‘tween deck) deck transverse

beam knee
(or bracket) deck girder deck beam deck girder
side plating
side frame (main frame)

web frame
tank side bracket floor inner bottom plating
centre girder
side girder bottom plating

(intercostal)
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

[ordinary transverse frame] [web frame]
Figure 12.1 Transverse framing system showing an ordinary frame, and web frame.
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Side stringers and deck girders may be employed where deck spacing and beam span
respectively necessitate support of side frames and deck beams. Web frames, or alternatively
deep frames (frames of intermediate size) are fitted every 2 or 4 frame spaces to support stringers
and girders with the side stringers and deck girders fitted intercostally. Spacing of transverse
frames is rarely permitted to be greater than 1000 mm in larger vessels and in smaller craft may
be as little as 300 mm. Floors in the bottom structure (whether single or double) should be
aligned immediately below the side frames to provide support and structural continuity.
In larger vessels, the transverse system of framing provides insufficient resistance to buckling of
deck and bottom plating induced by axial (in plane) compression arising from the sagged or
hogged conditions respectively. As the combined loadings of the stillwater and wave bending
moments and shear forces are frequently those of greatest magnitude to be sustained by the hull,
the transverse system of framing has been superseded by the longitudinal and combined systems
of framing.
deck girder deck plating deck beam (transverse)
bracket stringer
web frame side frame
deck girder ‘tween deck plating deck beam (transverse)
bracket
web frame side frame transverse bulkhead
stringer
tank side bracket inner bottom plating reverse frame

(inner bottom)
20 25 30
bracket floor plate floor bottom plating side girder (intercostal) bottom frame
Figure 12.2 Longitudinal section of a transversely framed hull showing side structure.
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3.2 Longitudinal System of Framing
Although a number of early iron- and steel-hulled vessels of the late 19th century used a
longitudinal system of framing it did not gain prominence until 1906 with the introduction of the
Isherwood system; the forerunner of the contemporary longitudinal system.
When the frames which stiffen and support the shell (and inner bottom when adopted) and
members which stiffen and support the decks are run longitudinally instead of transversely, and
are made effectively continuous through transverse bulkheads, they contribute significantly to the
section modulus of the hull girder and hence assist in resisting the longitudinal bending of the
hull. Where the primary plating is subject to high in-plane compressive stress, longitudinal
stiffeners also increase the critical buckling strength of the plating to which they are attached. It
is in this regard that the longitudinal system is considerably more structurally efficient than the
transverse system and hence is used exclusively in vessels such as tankers and bulk carriers and
in vessels over 100 m in length unless the combination system of framing (refer to 2.3) is
preferable.
deck beam
deck plating (transverse)
deck stiffener deck girder
side transverse deck beam

(‘tween deck) (transverse)
side plating
deck stiffener deck girder
side transverse
side shell stiffener
inner bottom stiffener inner bottom plating
centre girder
side girder bottom stiffener floor (intercostal) bottom plating
12.3 Longitudinal framing system.
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The longitudinal system of framing comprises longitudinal stiffeners attached to deck, side-shell,
bottom and inner bottom plating. The longitudinal deck stiffeners are supported by transverses
(beams) and the side-shell stiffeners are supported by side transverses. These side transverses are
normally significantly deeper than a web-frame used in the transverse framing system. Both
deck- and side-transverses are spaced at intervals not exceeding 3800 mm. Bottom (and when
adopted, inner bottom) stiffeners are supported by intercostal floors.
Where spans of transverses are large, deck girders (or longitudinal bulkheads) provide support,
spanning intervals between transverse bulkheads. The longitudinal system of framing, being the
more efficient of the 2 alternatives is generally employed in naval combatants and high-speed
commercial craft where strength and weight saving is of paramount importance and the system is
invariably used in oil tankers.
deck girder deck longitudinal deck plating deck transverse (beam)
bracket side longitudinal side transverse
bracket
deck longitudinal
deck girder ‘tween deck plating
bracket
side transverse bracket

side longitudinal
transverse bulkhead
inner bottom longitudinal
floor stiffener inner bottom plating side girder
20 25 30
transverse bilge bracket bottom longitudinal plate floor bottom plating bracket
Figure 12.4 Longitudinal section of a longitudinally-framed hull showing side structure.
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169
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deck deck transverse deck plating longitudinal sheer strake

longitudinal bulkhead
vertical web vertical web web stiffener
WING BALLAST CENTRE WING

TANK CARGO TANK CARGO TANK
horizontal cross tie side shell longitudinal

girder
hull shell plating

inner hull DOUBLE BOTTOM
longitudinal BALLAST TANK
inner hull plating
inner bottom inner bottom

plating longitudinal plate floor
HOPPER TANK bottom centre girder duct keel keel plate bottom bottom shell bilge strake
longitudinal side girder
Figure 12.5 Transverse section of a double-hulled oil-tanker

showing longitudinal framing system.
3.3 Combination System of Framing
Longitudinal framing is so efficient that it might be expected to have become standard practice.
For many types of commercial vessel, the deep side transverses required to support the
longitudinal side framing can have serious disadvantages.
In certain cargo vessels, e.g., roll-on roll-off and refrigerated cargo vessels they may be regarded
as interfering with the stowage and movement of cargo. In large cruise vessels the deep side
transverses may not readily facilitate the preferred arrangement of accommodation outfit and its
integral joinery and deck girders may interfere with the transverse branches of piping and air-
conditioning ducts.
In such cases a practical solution may then be to longitudinally frame the bottom shell, inner
bottom and strength deck and to transversely frame the side shell and ‘tween decks. In some
vessel types all decks may be longitudinally framed and only the side shell is transversely
framed. In either case, this hybrid system of framing is referred to as the combination system of
framing.
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Single-hull (side-shell) bulk-carriers employ the combination system (albeit modified to cater for
their topside and hopper tanks) because the transverse side framing does not trap the bulk cargo
as would longitudinal side frames.
deck plating deck transverse

bracket
web frame deck girder
deck girder deck stiffener
side frame (‘tween deck) deck transverse

bracket
deck girder
deck girder deck stiffener
side plating web frame
side frame (main frame)
tank side bracket inner bottom stiffener inner bottom plating floor (intercostal)
transverse bracket
centre girder
side girder bottom stiffener bottom plating transverse bracket
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

[section at transverse main frame] [section at web frame]
Figure 12.6 Combination framing system (Ro-Ro vessel).
Icebreaking vessels will adopt the combination system of framing as the transversely framed side
shell and the integral web frames most efficiently resist lateral ice pressure in the region of the
ice belt while the longitudinally framed bottom and deck structure provide efficient flexural
strengthening required for the very high loadings on the hull during ramming of pressure ridges.
The Swedish icebreaker Oden, completed in 1988, employed the combination system of framing
from the ice-belt to the keel, while above the ice belt the hull was framed utilising a longitudinal
system. This hybrid system of structure facilitated maximum efficiency in response to the full
envelope of hull loadings and could be considered in other vessel types.
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deck longitudinal deck plating deck beam (transverse)
bracket
stringer deck girder web frame side frame
deck longitudinal ‘tween deck plating deck beam (transverse)
stringer deck girder web frame side frame transverse bulkhead
inner bottom longitudinal side girder inner bottom plating tank side bracket bracket
20 25 30
bottom longitudinal transverse bilge bracket floor stiffener plate floor bottom plating
Figure12.7 Longitudinal section of a combination-framed hull showing side structure.
Figure 12.8 illustrates the typical cross-section of a single-hull bulk carrier. Although a
specialised form of the combination system of framing (where longitudinal stiffening is
employed over the upper and lower regions of the side shell within the ballast tank spaces and
transverse frames are used in the cargo hold space) the system of framing has been the standard
structural arrangement for such vessels for 4 decades. Ostensibly the transverse system of
framing within the cargo holds was adopted to prevent side structure from trapping bulk cargo
material.
Recently, however, double-hulled bulk carrier designs are being promoted which enable a fully
longitudinal system of framing to be adopted. This facilitates improved structural efficiency,
reduced damage and corrosion to structural members within the hold (normally consequential of
discharge grab damage), improved accessibility to survey side-shell structure (from within the
side tank) and significantly reduced fatigue ‘hot spots’ (e.g., bracket toes of side frames). The
combination system may still be adopted with double-hulled bulk carriers although the logic for
doing so may be questioned.
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__________________________________________________________________________________________
sheer strake deck plating hatch coaming deck topside tank

longitudinal
topside tank topside tank cross deck topside tank

transverse vertical plate structure longitudinal
topside tank plating

side shell
longitudinal
side shell frame CARGO HOLD side shell plating
hopper side transverse hopper tank plating
inner bottom inner bottom plate floor hopper tank

plating centre girder longitudinal longitudinal
bilge strake bottom bottom shell duct keel keel plate bottom hopper tank
side girder longitudinal
Figure 12.8 Midship section of a single-hulled bulk carrier

showing the combined system of framing.
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References
Taggart, R. (Editor)
Ship Design & Construction
S.N.A.M.E., New York 1980
Hughes, O.F.,
Ship Structural Design
S.N.A.M.E., New Jersey 1988
Eyres, D.J.
Ship Construction
Heinemann, London 1978
IACS  International Association of Classification Societies

Bulk Carriers: Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment & Repair of Hull Structure
Witherby, London 1995
IACS  International Association of Classification Societies

Shipbuilding & Repair Quality Standard
IACS, London 1998
Rules & Regulations for the Classification of Ships

Parts 3 and 4
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, London 1995
High Speed Light Craft Rules

Part 3, Ch. 9 Direct Calculation Methods
DNV, Høvik 1996
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174
Solutions to Tutorial Questions
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SOLUTIONS
TO
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
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175
Solutions to Tutorial Questions
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176
Tutorial 1  Geometry of Surface Vessels  Solutions
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TUTORIAL 1  SOLUTIONS
GEOMETRY OF SURFACE VESSELS
Question 1
A raft 3 m long and 2 m wide is constructed of timber 0.25 m thick having a relative density of 0.7.
The raft floats in water of density 1018 kg/m3. Calculate the minimum mass which must be placed on
top of the raft to sink it.
Solution
The raft has a mass (in air) which can be easily calculated and when placed in the water the raft will
float at some particular draft. To qualify as ‘sunk’ means to just completely submerge the raft to its
full depth. The displacement of the raft can be calculated for this condition quite easily. The mass
which would be required to sink the raft from its original draft to this completely submerged condition
is therefore the difference between its mass in air and its mass displacement when just completely
submerged.
Mass of raft (in air): = L  B  D   wood
= 3.0  2.0  0.25  (0.7  1000)

= 1050 kg
Mass displacement of raft when completely submerged:

 =    water
= L  B  D   water
= 3.0  2.0  0.25  1018

= 1527 kg
Additional mass required to submerge raft:

= displacement of raft when completely submerged  mass of raft (in air)
= 1527  1050 kg
= 477 kg
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Question 2
A box barge 65 m long and 12 m wide floats at a draft of 5.50 m in sea water. Calculate:
a) the displacement of the barge;

b) the draft of the barge in fresh water.
Solution
a) Calculating displacement :
 = 
= L Bd 
= 65  12  5.5  1025
= 4 397 250 kg
= 4 397.25 tonne
b) Calculating the draft (d) in FW:
 SW
d = d SW 
 FW
1025
. 
= 55
1000
= 5.637 m
Question 3
A vessel 53 m LBP and beam 11 m, has a draft of 3.2 m and a CB = 0.73. Calculate the vessel’s
displacement in sea water.
Solution
Using:  = 
where:  = L  B  d  CB and  = 1.025 t/m3
therefore:  = 53  12  3.2  0.73  1.025

= 1 395.94 tonnes
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Question 4
A ship 150 m LBP and 20.5 m beam floats at a draft of 8 m and displaces 19 500 tonne. The midship
section area coefficient (CM ) is 0.94. Calculate the block and prismatic coefficients.
Solution
a) Calculating the block coefficient CB:

Using: CB =
LBd

where:  = (from:  =  )

19500
=
1025
.
= 19 024 m3
19024
therefore: CB =
150  20.5  8
= 0.773
b) Calculating prismatic coefficient CP :
CB
Using: CP =
CM
0.773
=
0.94
= 0.822
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180
Tutorial 2  Tabular Integration, Areas, Volumes & Centroids Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TABULAR INTEGRATION, AREAS, VOLUMES & CENTROIDS
Question 1
The halfbreadths of a vessel’s waterplane are: 2.0, 7.3, 9.8, 10.4, 10.6, 10.7, 10.6, 9.9, 7.8, 4.2,
and 0.2 metres respectively. The length of the waterline is 122 m. Determine the total area of the
waterplane.
Solution
Station No. Half-breadth SM Product for area
0 2.0 1 2.0
1 7.3 4 29.2
2 9.8 2 19.6
3 10.4 4 41.6
4 10.6 2 21.2
5 10.7 4 42.8
6 10.6 2 21.2
7 9.9 4 39.6
8 7.8 2 15.6
9 4.2 4 16.8
10 0.2 1 0.2
A = 249.8
h
3
122
where: h =
10
= 12.2
12.2
therefore: AW =  249.8  2
3
= 2 031.7 m2
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Tutorial 2  Tabular Integration, Areas, Volumes & Centroids  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 2
A vessel 140 m long and 18 m beam floats at a draft of 9 m. The immersed cross-sectional areas at
equal intervals are: 5, 60, 116, 145, 152, 153, 153, 151, 142, 85 and 0 m2 respectively.
Calculate: a) displacement;
b) block coefficient;
c) midship section area coefficient;
d) prismatic coefficient.
Solution
In order to calculate the required coefficients it is first necessary to calculate the immersed volume:
Station Hull CSA SM Product

2
No. (m ) for volume
0 5 1 5
1 60 4 240
2 116 2 232
3 145 4 580
4 152 2 304
5 153 4 612
6 153 2 306
7 151 4 604
8 142 2 284
9 85 4 340
10 0 1 0
V = 3507
140
Common interval: h =
10
= 14 m
h
Vol. of displacement  =  V 
3
14
= 3507
3
= 16 366 m3
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a) Displacement:  = 
= 16 366 m3  1.025 t/m3
= 16 775 tonne

b) Block coefficient: CB =
LBd
16366
=
140  18  9
= 0.722
AM
c) Midship Area Coef. CM =
Bd
153
=
18  9
= 0.944
CB
d) Prismatic Coefficient: CP =
CM
0.722
=
0.944
= 0.764
Question 3
The halfbreadths of a vessel’s waterplane 120 m long are as follows:
Stn AP 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 FP

Ord 1.2 3.5 5.3 6.8 8.0 8.3 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.4 8.2 7.9 6.2 3.5 0
Calculate:
a) waterplane area;
b) distance of centroid from amidships.
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Solution
Station Half- SM Prod. leverMS Prod.

No. breadth for area for F.M.
Aft 0 1.2 0.5 0.6 +5 3.0

0.5 3.5 2 7.0 + 4.5 31.5
1 5.3 1 5.3 +4 21.2
1.5 6.8 2 13.6 + 3.5 47.6
2 8.0 1.5 12.0 +3 36.0
3 8.3 4 33.2 +2 66.4
4 8.5 2 17.0 +1 17.0
Midships 5 8.5 4 34.0 0 0
6 8.5 2 17.0 1  17.0
7 8.4 4 33.6 2  67.2
8 8.2 1.5 12.3 3  36.9
8.5 7.9 2 15.8  3.5  55.3
9 6.2 1 6.2 4  24.8
9.5 3.5 2 7.0  4.5  31.5
Fwd 10 0 0.5 0.0 5 0
A = 214.6 FM =  10
120
Common interval: h =
10
= 12 m
h
a) Waterplane area: AW =  A  2 for both sides
3
12
= 214.6  2
3
= 1 716.8 m2
h2
b) FMA =  FM   2
3
12 2
=  10  2
3
=  960 m3 (ve sign indicating centroid will be forward of MS)
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184
__________________________________________________________________________________________
FMA
Centroid from MS =
AW
960
=
1716.8
=  0.559 m (ve sign indicating forward of MS)
Question 4
A vessel 160 m long has halfbreadths of waterplane of 1.6, 5.7, 8.8, 10.2, 10.5, 10.5, 10.5, 10.0,
8.0, 5.0 and 0 m respectively. Calculate the second moment of area of the waterplane about the
centreline.
Solution
3
Stn Half- (Half-breadth) SM Prod.
No. breadth for I
0 1.6 4.1 1 4.1

1 5.7 185.2 4 740.8
2 8.8 681.5 2 1 363.0
3 10.2 1 061.2 4 4 244.8
4 10.5 1 157.6 2 2 315.2
5 10.5 1 157.6 4 4 630.4
6 10.5 1 157.6 2 2 315.2
7 10.0 1 000.0 4 4 000.0
8 8.0 512.0 2 1 024.0
9 5.0 125.0 4 500.0
10 0.0 0 1 0
I = 21 137.5
h
I =  I  2 (for both sides)
9
160
where: h =
10
= 16 m
16
therefore: I CL =  21137.5  2
9
= 75 155 m4
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185
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Question 5
The offsets of a vessel’s waterplane at stations 10.5 m apart, commencing from aft are:
Stn AP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 FP
Ord 0.2 7.4 8.7 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.1 8.6 7.8 5.1 0
Determine:
a) the area of the waterplane;
b) the position of the centre of flotation relative to amidships;
c) the moment of inertia about the centre of flotation.
Solution
Station Offset SM Prod. leverMS Prod. leverMS Prod.

No. for area for F.M. for I
Aft 0 0.2 1 0.2 +5 1.0 +5 5.0

1 7.4 4 29.6 +4 118.4 +4 473.6
2 8.7 2 17.4 +3 52.2 +3 156.6
3 9.0 4 36.0 +2 72.0 +2 144.0
4 9.1 2 18.2 +1 18.2 +1 18.2
MS 5 9.2 4 36.8 0 0 0 0
6 9.1 2 18.2 1  18.2 1 18.2
7 8.6 4 34.4 2  68.8 2 137.6
8 7.8 2 15.6 3  46.8 3 140.4
9 5.1 4 20.4 4  81.6 4 326.4
Fwd 10 0.0 1 0 5 0 5 0
A = 226.8 FM = + 46.4 I = 1420.0

249.8
h
Total waterplane area, AW =  A  2 (for both sides) where: h = 10.5 m
3
10.5
=  226.8  2
3
= 1587.6 m2
h2
3
10.52
=  46.4  2
3
= 3410.4 m3
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186
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FMAMS
LCFMS =
AW
3410.4
=
1587.6
= 2.148 m aft of amidships (since FM was +ve)
h3
I about amidships I MS =  I  2 (for both sides)
3
10.53
=  1420  2
3
= 1 095 885 m4
I about centroid I CF = I MS  Ax 2
= 1 095 885  [1 587.6  (2.148)2 ]
= 1 088 560 m4
Question 6
The immersed cross-sectional areas of a vessel 120 m long commencing from aft are: 2, 40, 79,
100, 103, 104, 104, 103, 97, 58, and 0 m2. Calculate:
a) the vessel’s displacement;

b) the position of the longitudinal centre of buoyancy.
Solution
Stn CSA SM Prod. leverMS Prod.
No. for vol. for F.M.
Aft 0 2 1 2 +5 10
1 40 4 160 +4 640
2 79 2 158 +3 474
3 100 4 400 +2 800
4 103 2 206 +1 206
Midships 5 104 4 416 0 0
6 104 2 208 1  208
7 103 4 412 2  824
8 97 2 194 3  582
9 58 4 232 4  928
Fwd 10 0 1 0 5 0
V = 2 388 FM =  412

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187
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h
Vol. of displacement  =  V where: h = 12 m
3
12
therefore: =  2388
3
= 9 552 m3
a) Displacement:  = 
= 9 552  1.025
= 9 790.8 tonnes
h2
FMV about amidships =  FM
3
12 2
=  412
3
=  19 776 m3m
FMVMS
b) LCB from amidships: =

19776
=
9552
Question 7
A vessel of LWL = 130 m has waterplane areas at 1.30 m intervals as follows:
WL 1.3 2.6 3.9 5.2 6.5 metres above baseline

AW 1460 1630 1740 1790 1800 m2
The immersed cross-sectional areas for the complete hull at equi-spaced stations are:
Stn 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
CSA 0 37 78 100.5 107 107.8 107.5 105 87 44.2 0
The section of the hull below the 1.30 m waterline is treated as an appendage having a displacement
of 1310 tonnes in seawater and a VCB of 0.67 m.
Determine: a) the displacement at an even-keel draft of 6.50 m;

b) the corresponding KB for the vessel;
c) the corresponding LCB for the vessel.
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188
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Solution
The volume of displacement of the hull between waterplanes 1.3 and 6.5 m needs to be calculated
initially in order to determine its mass displacement. Combining this mass displacement with that for
the appendage section will produce the total mass displacement.
Determining the volume and centroid for the part between the 1.3 and 6.5 m waterplanes:
W.L. AW SM Prod. leverK Prod.

for vol. for F.M.
1.3 1 460 1 1 460 +1 1 460

2.6 1 630 4 6 520 +2 13 040
3.9 1 740 2 3 480 +3 10 440
5.2 1 790 4 7 160 +4 28 640
6.5 1 800 1 1 800 +5 9 000
V = 20 420 FM = 62 580
h
Vol. of displacement  =  V for the part between the 1.3 and 6.5 m waterplanes
3
where: h = 1.3 m
13
.
therefore:  =  20 420
3
= 8 848.67 m3
The mass displacement of the volume between the 1.3 and 6.5 m waterplanes is:
 = 
= 8 848.67  1.025
= 9 069.9 tonnes
Therefore the mass displacement of the complete hull is:
 TOTAL = 9 069.9 +  APP

= 9 069.9 + 1 310 tonnes
= 10 379.9 tonnes
To determine the KB for the complete hull (i.e., the combined parts of the appendage and the part
between the 1.3 and 6.5 m waterplanes), it is necessary to take moments of volume about K.
However, it is initially required to determine the centroid of the volume between the 1.3 and 6.5 m
waterplanes, relative to the keel (K).
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189
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h2
FMV about K =  FM
3
. 2
13
=  62 580
3
= 35 253.4 m3m
The centroid of volume of this part, relative to K is:
FMV
=
 1.3 - 6.5 m
35 253.4
=
8 848.67
= 3.984 m (above K)
The volume of the appendage has to be determined, simply using:

 APP =

1 310
=
1.025
= 1 278.1 m3
Taking moments of the 2 discrete volumes about the keel:
Item  vcbK Mom. of vol.
Main part 8 848.67 3.984 35 253.4

Appendage 1 278.10 0.670 856.3
V = 10 126.8 MV = 36 109.7
Therefore, the VCB (i.e., KB) for the total hull is:
MV
KB =
V
36 109.7
=
10 126.8
= 3.566 m
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To determine the LCB for the hull, relative to midships, Simpson’s First Rule is applied to the
immersed cross-sectional areas to determine moments of volume about midships. (The total volume
of displacement may be calculated enroute which, of course, should agree exactly with that calculated
earlier):
Stn CSA SM Prod. leverMS Prod.

No. for vol. for F.M.
Aft 0 0 1 0.0 +5 0.0

1 37 4 148.0 +4 592.0
2 78 2 156.0 +3 468.0
3 100.5 4 402.0 +2 804.0
4 107 2 214.0 +1 214.0
Midships 5 107.8 4 431.2 0 0.0
6 107.5 2 215.0 1  215.0
7 105 4 420.0 2  840.0
8 87 2 174.0 3  522.0
9 44.2 4 176.8 4  707.2
Fwd 10 0 1 0.0 5  0.0
V = 2 337.0 FM =  206.2
h
Vol. of displacement  =  V where: h = 13 m
3
13
therefore:  =  2 337.0
3
= 10 127 m3
h2
FMV =  FM
3
132
=  206.2
3
=  11 615.93 m3 m
FMV
LCB =

11 615.93
=
10 127
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191
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192
Tutorial 3  Mass Addition, Removal & Transfer  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
MASS ADDITION, REMOVAL & TRANSFER
Question 1
The KG of a vessel of 5000 tonnes displacement is 6.0 m and the LCG is 1.5 m forward of midships.
Calculate the new position of the G if 500 tonnes of cargo are placed 10 m above the keel and 36 m
aft of midships.
Solution
Item Mass vcg Vert. Mom. lcg Long’l Mom.

(tonnes) (m) (t-m) (m) (t-m)
ship 5 000 6.0 30 000 1.5  7 500

cargo 500 10.0 5 000 36.0 18 000
= 5 500 VM = 35 000 LM = 10 500
New  = 5 500 tonnes
VM
New KG =

35000
=
5500
= 6.364 m
LM
New LCG =

10500
=
5500
= 1.909 m (i.e., aft of midships since +ve)
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193
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Question 2
A vessel has 300 tonnes of cargo in a hold 24 m forward of midships. The displacement of the vessel
is 6000 tonnes and its G is 1.2 m forward of midships. Find the new position of G if this cargo is
moved to an aft hold 40 m from midships.
Solution
m  gg1
GG1 =

300  24  40
=
6000
= 3.2 m aft
New LCG =  1.20 + 3.20 m

= 2.00 m aft of M.S. (since +ve)
Question 3
A small products shuttle tanker of 17 000 tonnes displacement has its G 1.0 m aft of midships and has
250 tonne of oil fuel in its forward deep tank 75 m from midships. This fuel is transferred to a fuel
tank with its centre 50 m from midships. 200 tonnes of fuel from that aft fuel tank is then consumed.
Calculate the new position of G:
a) after the fuel oil has been transferred;

b) after the fuel oil has been consumed.
Solution
a) Shift in G due to oil transfer:
m  gg1
GG1 =

250  75  50

=
17000
= 1.838 m (aft)
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194
__________________________________________________________________________________________
b) Shift in G due to oil consumption:
Item Mass lcg Long’l Mom.

(tonnes) (m) (t-m)
ship 17 000 2.838 48 246

fuel 200 50.0  10 000
= 16 800 LM = 38 246
LM
New LCG =

38246
=
16800
Question 4
A vessel of 3000 tonnes displacement has 500 tonnes of cargo on board. This cargo is lowered 3.0 m
and an additional 500 tonne of cargo is loaded and positioned 3.0 m vertically above the original
position of G. Determine the nett shift in G.
Solution
m  gg1
Shift in G due to lowered cargo =

500  3
=
3000
= 0.5 m (downwards)
Shift in G due to added cargo:

(3000  0)  (500  35
.)
(taking moments about new G) =
(3000  500)
1750
=
3500
= 0.5 m (upwards)
i.e., there is no nett shift in G.
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195
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Question 5
A vessel of 8000 tonnes displacement has 75 tonnes of cargo on the deck. It is lifted by a crane with
its jib-head 10.5 m above the G of the cargo and placed in the lower hold 9.0 m below the deck and 14
metres forward of its original position. Calculate the shift in the vessel’s G from its original position
when the cargo is:
a) just clear of the deck;

b) at the jib-head;
c) in its final position.
Solution
a) Shift in G when just clear of the deck:
Since the centre of gravity of a suspended mass is at the point of suspension, the mass is virtually
raised to the jib-head. Therefore:
m  gg1
GG1 =

75  10.5
=
8000
= 0.0984 m (upwards)
b) Shift in G when at the jib-head:
When the mass is at the jib-head there is no further movement of the centre of gravity.
c) Shift in G when its final position:
m  gg1
vertical shift GG1 =

75  9
=
8000
= 0.0844 m (downward)
m  gg1
longitudinal shift GG1 =

75  14
=
8000
= 0.1313 m (forward)
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196
Tutorial 4  Elementary Principles of Transverse Stability  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRANSVERSE STABILITY
Question 1
Calculate the metacentric radius for a box-shaped barge of LWL = 48.30 m, BWL = 9.80 m, d = 4.80 m.
Solution
3
LWL BWL
I CL =
12
48.30 9.80
3
=
12
= 3 788.298 m4
 = LWL  BWL  d
= 48.30  9.80  4.80
= 2 272.032 m3
I CL
BM 0 =

3 788.298
=
2 272.032
= 1.667 m
Question 2
A vessel has  = 5000 tonnes, KG = 4.572 m, KM = 5.84 m. A double-bottom ballast tank holding
100 tonnes of seawater (vcg = 0.61 m) is emptied. Determine the new metacentric height.
Solution
Item Mass kg V. Mom
(tonnes) (m) (t-m)
vessel 5 000 4.572 22 860

ballast 100 0.61  61
__________________________________________________________________________________________
197
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 4 900 VM = 22 799

VM
KG1 =

22 799
=
4 900
= 4.653 m
GM = KM  KG
= 5.84  4.653
= 1.187 m
Question 3
KB = 4.80 m, KG = 8.00 m,  = 7680 tonnes, LWL = 140.00 m
Stn AP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 FP
Ord 1.2 3.5 5.7 7.5 8.2 8.2 8.0 7.1 5.2 2.4 0
Solution
3
No. breadth for I
0 1.2 1.728 1 1.728

1 3.5 42.875 4 171.500
2 5.7 185.190 2 370.380
3 7.5 421.875 4 1 657.500
4 8.2 551.370 2 1 102.740
5 8.2 551.370 4 2 205.480
6 8.0 512.000 2 1 024.000
7 7.1 357.900 4 1 431.600
8 5.2 140.610 2 281.220
9 2.4 13.824 4 55.296
10 0.0 0.000 1 0.000
I = 8 331.440
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198
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h
I CL =  I  2 (for both sides)
9
140
where: h =
10
= 14.0 m
14
I CL =  833144
. 2
9
= 25 920.04 m4

 =

7 680
=
1025
.
= 7 492.7 m3
I CL
BM =

25 920.04
=
7 492.7
= 3.459 m
KM = KB  BM
= 4.80 + 3.459
= 8.259 m
GM 0 = KM  KG
= 8.259  8.0
= 0.259 m
Question 4
KB = 3.00 m, KG = 4.80 m,  = 1 000 tonnes, LWL = 85.00 m
Stn AP 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 FP

Ord 0.3 0.9 1.2 1.8 2.7 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 3.8 2.7 1.8 1.0 0.6 0
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199
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Solution
3
No. breadth for I
0 0.3 0.027 0.5 0.014

0.5 0.9 0.729 2 1.458
1 1.2 1.728 1 1.728
1.5 1.8 5.832 2 11.664
2 2.7 19.683 1.5 29.525
3 4.1 68.921 4 275.684
4 4.2 74.088 2 148.176
5 4.2 74.088 4 296.352
6 4.2 74.088 2 148.176
7 3.8 54.872 4 219.488
8 2.7 19.683 1.5 29.525
8.5 1.8 5.832 2 11.664
9 1.0 1.000 1 1.000
9.5 0.6 0.216 2 0.432
10 0.0 0.000 0.5 0.000
I = 1 174.886
h
I CL =  I  2 (for both sides) where: h = 8.5 m
9
8.5
=  1174.886  2
9
= 2 219.229 m4

 =

1 000
=
1025
.
= 975.61 m3
I CL
BM =

2 219.229
=
975.61
= 2.275 m
__________________________________________________________________________________________
200
__________________________________________________________________________________________
KM = KB  BM
= 3.0 + 2.275
= 5.275 m
GM 0 = KM  KG
= 5.275  4.80
= 0.475 m
Question 5
Determine the transverse metacentric height for a catamaran formed by 2 rectangular box-shaped
demi-hulls each having a LWL = 40.00 m, BWL = 3.00 m and with a 7.00 m separation between their
centrelines. The catamaran floats at an even-keel draft of 2.00 m and has a KG = 4.00 m.
Solution
AWDH = 40  3
= 120 m2
3
LWL BWL
I CL DH =
12
40  33
=
12
= 90.0 m4

I CLVESSEL = 2 I CLDH  AWDH y 2  where: y = 3.50 m

= 2 90  12035
.
2

= 3 120 m4
 = 240  3  2
= 480 m3
I CL
BM 0 =

3 120
=
480
= 6.5 m
d
KB = 1.0 m (i.e. KB @ for a box-shaped hull form)
2
__________________________________________________________________________________________
201
__________________________________________________________________________________________
KM = KB  BM
.  65
= 10 .
= 7.5 m
GM 0 = KM  KG
= 7.5  4.0
= 3.5 m
Question 6
The GZ values for a vessel at a particular load condition are as follows:
 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

GZ 0.0 0.34 0.83 1.26 1.34 1.20 0.87 metres
a) If the initial GM is 1.65 m and the angle of downflooding is 43, check the vessel’s compliance
with the IMO minimum intact stability criteria;
b) If the vessel’s displacement at this load condition is 5 128.5 tonnes, determine the dynamical
stability to 60 heel; i.e., the energy required to heel the vessel to 60.
Solution
a) Area under the GZ curve from 0 to 30:
h 1y 0  3 y1  3 y 2  1y 3 
3
A0 - 30 =
8
3(10)
=
8
1(0)  3(0.34)  3(0.83)  1(126
. )
= 17.89 metre-degrees
= 0.312 m-rads [complies ( A0 -30 > 0.055 m-rads)]
Area under the GZ curve from 0 to 40:
1y0  4 y1  2 y2  4 y3  1y4 
h
A0 - 40 =
3
10
=
3
1(0)  4(0.34)  2(0.83)  4(126 . )
. )  1(134
__________________________________________________________________________________________
202
__________________________________________________________________________________________
A30 - 40 = 0.547  0.312

When plotted, the maximum GZ occurs between 30 and 40
[complies ( GZMAX @  > 25, pref. 30)]
GZ @ 30 = 1.26 m [complies ( GZ30 > 0.20 m)]
GM0 = 1.65 m [complies ( GM0 > 0.15 m)]
b) Dynamical stability to 60:
1y0  4 y1  2 y2  4 y3  2 y4  4 y5  1y6 
h
A0 - 60 =
3
10
=
3
1(0)  4(0.34)  2(0.83)  4(126
. )  2(134 . )  1(0.87)
. )  4(120
= 0.955 m-rads
Dynam. stability =   ACURVE
= 5 128.5 tonnes  0.955 m-rads

= 4 895.8 tonne-metre radians
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203
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204
Tutorial 5  Heeling Moments, Angles & Free Surface Effects  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
HEELING MOMENTS, ANGLES & FREE SURFACE EFFECTS
Question 1
A vessel of  = 10 000 tonnes, KG of 4 m, initially upright, loads deck cargo of 4000 tonnes with its
kg = 10 m and tcg = 1.5 m to starboard of the centreline. Calculate the resulting KG and TCG of the
vessel plus cargo, and the resulting angle of list if the vessel’s KM of 9.0 m remains unchanged.
Solution
Item Mass vcg Vert. tcg Transv.

(tonnes) (m) Mom. (m) Mom.
vessel 10 000 4.0 40 000 0.0 0.0

cargo 4 000 10.0 40 000 1.5 6 000
= 14 000 VM = 80 000 TM = 6 000
VM
New KG =

80 000
=
14 000
= 5.714 m
TM
New TCG =

6 000
=
14 000
= 0.429 m (to starboard)
GM = KM  KG
= 9.0  5.714
= 3.286 m
TCG
tan  =
GM
0.429
=
3.286
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205
__________________________________________________________________________________________
 = 7.44 
Question 2
In order to correct the list in the vessel in Question 1, water ballast is pumped from wing tanks on the
starboard side to wing tanks on the port side. If the transverse distance between the centroids of these
tanks is 5.0 m and the kg of the tanks are all the same, how much ballast must be transferred ?
Solution

HEELING LEVER
G 
G1
GT
(TCG)
m gg1 TCG
Using:  GT = and tan  =
 GM
where  GT = transverse shift in G from the centreline due to an offset concentration of
mass, where gg1 is the transverse distance that the mass concentration is
moved
m gg1
Since  GT = TCG =

and TCG = GM tan 
m gg1
therefore tan  =
 GM
 GM tan   GT 
hence m = or, alternatively: m =
gg1 gg1
14 000 (3.286) tan 7.44  0.429 (14000)

= =
5 5
= 1 201.5 tonnes = 1 201 tonnes
__________________________________________________________________________________________
206
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 3
Determine the angle of loll of a box-shaped barge of length 25 m and breadth 5 m when floating at an
even-keel draft of 1.50 m and with a KG of 2.18 m.
Solution
2 GM 0
Using: tan  =
BM 0
I CL
where BM 0 =

LB 3
and I CL =
12
25(5) 3
=
12
= 260.42 m4
and  = 25  5  1.50
= 187.5 m3
260.42
therefore BM 0 =
187.5
= 1.389 m
Now using GM 0 = KM  KG
and KM = KB  BM
d
where KB = (for a box-shaped barge)
2
150
.
=
2
= 0.75 m
KM = 0.75 + 1.389
= 2.139 m
therefore GM 0 = 2.139  2.18
=  0.041 m
2 0.041
Thus tan  =
1389
.
 = 13.7 
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207
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 4
A vessel of  = 10 000 tonnes, floating in sea water, with KG = 8.9 m and KM = 9.4 m, loads ballast
water of density 1.010 t/m3 into a rectangular double-bottom tank space measuring L 30 m  B 20 m
 D 2 m to a depth of 1.0 m. The tank space has a centreline division. Determine the fluid GM.
Solution
Ballast mass = v  
= (30  20  1.0)  1.010

= 606 tonnes
Item Mass kg Vert. Mom.

(tonnes) (m) (t-m)
vessel 10 000 8.9 89 000

ballast 606 0.5 303
= 10 606 VM = 89 303
VM
New KG =

89 000
=
10 606
= 8.420 m
New GMSOLID = KM  KG
= 9.40  8.42
= 0.98 m
30  20 3
iT =
12
= 20 000 m4
iT  T 1
FSE = 
 n  1 2
20 000 (1.01) 1
= 
10 606 1  1 2
= 0.476 m
GM F = GM SOLID  FSE
= 0.98  0.476
__________________________________________________________________________________________
208
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 0.504 m
Question 5
A vessel of  = 11 000 tonnes, KG = 8.0 m and KM = 9.0 m. A rectangular double-bottom tank with
L 12 m  B 6 m, with its centroid 4.0 m to starboard of the vessel’s centreline, is partially filled with
72 tonnes of fresh water to a depth of 1.0 m. Determine the GMF and resulting angle of list.
Solution
Item Mass kg Vert. Mom.

(tonnes) (m) (t-m)
vessel 11 000 8.0 80 000

fresh water 72 0.5 36
= 11 072 VM = 80 036
VM
New KG =

88 036
=
11 072
= 7.951 m
New GMSOLID = KM  KG
= 9.0  7.951
= 1.049 m
12  6 3
iT =
12
= 216 m4
iT  T
FSE =

216 (1.000)
=
11 072
= 0.019 5 m
Therefore GM F = GM SOLID  FSE
= 1.049  0.019 5
= 1.03 m
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209
__________________________________________________________________________________________
(continued)
 m gg1 
 LIST = tan 1  
  GM 
 72  4 
= tan 1  
 11 072 103
. 
= 1.45 
Question 6
Plot the GZF curve for the following vessel and compare with the IMO criteria;
 = 196 866 tonnes, KG = 10.17 m, FSC = 0.07 m,KM = 12.42 m
 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

KN 2.19 4.44 6.67 8.65 10.23 11.20 11.55 11.32 10.63
Solution
KGF = KG  FSC
=10.17 + 0.07
= 10.24 m
GM F = KM  KGF
=12.42  10.24
= 2.18 m
Using equation 4.28 with fluid values, the following table is produced:
 sin  KN KGF sin  GZF
10 0.1736 2.19 1.778 0.412
20 0.3420 4.44 3.502 0.938
30 0.5000 6.67 5.120 1.550
40 0.6428 8.65 6.582 2.068
50 0.7660 10.23 7.884 2.386
60 0.8660 11.20 8.868 2.332
70 0.9397 11.55 9.622 1.928
80 0.9848 11.32 10.084 1.236

90 1.000 10.63 10.240 0.390
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210
__________________________________________________________________________________________
h1y 0  3 y1  3 y 2  1y 3 
3
A0 - 30 =
8
3(10)
=
8
1(0)  3(0.412)  3(0.938)  1(155
. )
= 21 metre-degrees
1y0  4 y1  2 y2  4 y3  1y4 
h
A0 - 40 =
3
10
=
3
1(0)  4(0.412)  2(0.938)  4(155
. )  1(2.068)

A30 - 40 = 0.686  0.366
Maximum GZ occurs at 55 [complies ( GZMAX @  > 25, pref. 30)]
GZ @ 30 = 1.55 m [complies ( GZ30 > 0.20 m)]
GMF = 2.18 m [complies ( GM0 > 0.15 m)]
Question 7
In a vessel of  = 8 100 tonnes with GM = 0.61 m and KG = 5.65 m, it is intended to empty a double-
bottom ballast tank containing sea water. The tank has L = 13 m, B = 12 m and D = 1.06 m. For the
vessel floating in sea water:
a) Determine the GMF when the water level has fallen 0.6 m in the tank.
b) Determine the loss of GM if the tank under consideration had a watertight centreline division.
c) Determine the GMF and angle of heel if the tank had a watertight centreline division and the
water level in the starboard half is lowered 0.6 m and the port half remains full.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
211
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Assume KM remains unchanged.

Solution
a) mass of water discharged = 13  12  0.6  1.025

= 96 tonnes
centroid of water discharged = 1.06  0.3 m

= 0.76 m (above keel)
Finding new KG:

Mass LeverK Vert. Mom.
Initial Displacement 8 100 5.65 45 765

Ballast discharged  96 0.76  73
= 8 004 VM = 45 692
45692
New KG =
8004
= 5.709 m
Assuming KM is constant:
KM = KGoriginal  GM
= 5.65 + 0.61 m
= 6.26 m
New GM = KM  KGnew
= 6.26  5.709
= 0.551 m
l b3
iT =
12
13  12 3
=
12
= 1872 m4
8004
 =
1025
.
= 7808.8 m3
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212
__________________________________________________________________________________________
(continued)
i
therefore: FSE = T

1872
=
7808.8
= 0.239 m
therefore: GM F = 0.551  0.239 m

= 0.312 m
iT 1
b) with 1 division: FSE = 
 n  1 2
1 872 1
= 
7 808.8 1  1 2
= 0.06 m
c) water mass discharged = 13  6  0.6  1.025

= 48 tonnes
centre of mass disch. = 1.06  0.3 m

= 0.76 m
Finding new KG:

Mass LeverK Vert. Mom.
Initial Displacement 8 100 5.65 45 765

Ballast discharged  48 0.76  36
= 8 052 VM = 45 729
45729
New KG =
8052
= 5.679 m
Assuming KM is unchanged at 6.26 m:
New GM = KM  KGnew
= 6.26  5.679 m
= 0.581 m
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213
__________________________________________________________________________________________
13  6 3
iT =
12
= 234 m4
8052
 =
1025
.
= 7855.6 m3
iT
therefore: FSE =

234
=
7855.6
= 0.03 m
therefore: GM F = GM  FSE
= 0.581  0.03 m
= 0.551 m
Finding the angle of heel:
Taking horizontal moments about the centreline: (stbd +ve, port ve)
Mass LeverCL Transv. Mom.
Initial Displacement 8 100 0.0 0

Ballast discharged  48 + 3.0  144
= 8 052 TM =  144
144
Therefore: new TCG =
8052
=  0.0179 m (i.e., to port)
TCG
Using: tan  =
GM
0.0179
=
0.551
= 0.0325
 = tan1 0.0325
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214
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 1.9 (to port)

Question 8
Estimate the resulting heel angle of a fast ferry travelling at 28.0 knots in a high-speed turn of radius
70 m. The vessel has an operating draft of 1.20 m, KM = 4.20 m, KG = 2.05 m and the total free
surface effect has been determined to be 0.18 m.
Solution
Taking the free surface effect into consideration (i.e., using fluid values):
 v 2  GL
Using: sin  =  
 g r  GM
KGF = KG  FSC
= 2.05 + 0.18
= 2.23 m
GM F = KM  KGF
= 4.20  2.23
= 1.97 m
GF L = KGF  KL
d
= KGF 
2
= 2.23  0.6
= 1.63 m
v = 28.0  0.5144
= 14.4032 ms1
 v 2  GL
sin  =  
 g r  GM
 14.4032 2  163
=  .
 9.81  70  197
  .
= 0.24996
Therefore:  = sin1 (0.24996)

= 14.5
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215
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216
Tutorial 6  The Inclining Experiment  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
THE INCLINING EXPERIMENT
Question 1
During an inclining experiment on a vessel of 4300 tonnes displacement, a mass of 6 tonnes is placed
aboard and moved transversely a distance of 14 m. Immediately after the mass shift the deflection of
an 11 metre pendulum is found to be 120 mm. KMT is 7.25 m. Determine the vessel’s KG.
Solution
m  gg1
GM =
 tan 
m  gg1  l
=
a
6  14  110.
=
4306  012.
= 1.788 m
KG = KM  GM
= 7.250  1.788 m
= 5.462 m
Question 2
An inclining experiment was undertaken on a vessel of 8 000 tonnes displacement. A mass of 10

tonnes was placed aboard and moved 14 m across the deck causing a pendulum 8.50 m long to deflect
110 mm. KMT is 7.15 m. Calculate the GM and the KG values.
Solution
m  gg1
GM =
 tan 
a
tan  =
l
0.11
=
8.5
= 0.01294
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Tutorial 6  The Inclining Experiment  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
10  14
therefore: GM =
8010  0.01294
= 1.351 m
KG = KM  GM
= 7.15  1.351
= 5.799 m
Question 3
A vessel with a light ship displacement of 3 550 tonnes during an inclining experiment recorded an
angle of heel of 1.3 degrees when 6 tonnes was moved transversely a distance of 10 metres. The KM
at this displacement was 8.5 m. Determine the height of the centre of gravity above the keel.
Solution
m  gg1
GM =
 tan 
6  10
=
3556  tan 13
.
= 0.744 m
KG = KM  GM
= 8.500  0.744
= 7.756 m
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218
Tutorial 7  Elementary Principles of Trim  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIM
Question 1
A vessel of 125 m LBP displaces 12 000 tonnes. When a mass of 100 tonnes is moved 75 m from
forward to aft there is a change in trim of 65 cm by the stern. Calculate:
a) MCTC;
b) GML ;
c) the distance moved by the vessel’s centre of gravity.
Solution
m gg1
Using: T =
MCTC
m gg1
MCTC =
T
100  75
=
65
= 115.4 tm
  GM L
Using: MCTC =
100 LBP
100LBP  MCTC
where: GM L =

100  125  115.4
=
12000
= 120.2 m
m gg1
Using: GG1 =

100  75
=
12000
= 0.625 m
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219
Tutorial 7  Elementary Principles of Trim Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 2
A vessel 120 m LBP floats at drafts of 5.50 m forward and 5.80 m aft. The MCTC is 80 t-m, the TPC
is 13 t/cm and the LCF is 2.5 m forward of midships. Calculate the new drafts when a mass of 110
tonnes is added 24 m aft of midships.
Solution
mass
d LCF =
TPC
110
=
13
= 8.46 cm
m gg1
T =
MCTC
110  (2.5  24)
=
80
= 36.44 cm (by the stern)
T
d F =   FFP
LBP
36.44  120 
=    2.5
120  2 
=  17.46 cm
T
d A =   FAP
LBP
36.44  120 
=    2.5
120  2 
= + 18.98 cm
New draft fwd = d F0  d LCF  d F
= 5.50 + 0.085 + (0.175)

= 5.41 m
New draft aft = d A 0  d LCF  d A
= 5.80 + 0.085 + (+0.19)

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220
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 6.075 m
Question 3
A vessel of 130 m LBP displaces 14 000 tonnes when floating at drafts of 7.50 m forward and 8.10 m
aft. GML = 125 m, TPC = 18, and the LCF = 3.0 m aft of M.S. Calculate the final drafts when a
mass of 180 tonnes positioned 40 m aft of midships is removed from the vessel.
Solution
m
d LCF =
TPC
180
=
18
= 10.0 cm
 GM L
MCTC =
100 LBP
14000  125
=
100  130
= 134.6 tm
m gg1
T =
MCTC
180  (40  3)
=
134.6
=  49.48 cm (ve implies by the bow)
T
d F =   FFP
LBP
49.48  130 
=    3.0
130  2 
= + 25.88 cm
T
d A =   FAP
LBP
49.48  130 
=    3.0
130  2 
=  23.60 cm
__________________________________________________________________________________________
221
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 7.50 + ( 0.1) + (+ 0.259)

= 7.659 m
= 8.10 + ( 0.1) + (0.236)

= 7.764 m
Question 4
A vessel of 150 m LBP floats at drafts of 8.20 m forward and 8.90 m aft. MCTC = 260 t-m, TPC = 28
and LCF = 1.5 m aft of MS. In order to produce an even-keel condition a double-bottom tank with
centroid 60 m forward of MS is available for ballast. Calculate the mass of ballast water required and
final draft.
Solution
required T = 8.90  8.20 m
= 0.70 m
= 70 cm (by the bow)
m gg1
Using: T =
MCTC
T  MCTC
m =
gg1
70  260
=
(60  15
.)
= 296 tonnes
m
d LCF =
TPC
296
=
28
= 10.57 cm
T
d F =   FFP
LBP
70  150 
=    15
.
150  2 
= + 35.7 cm
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222
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T
d A =   FAP
LBP
70  150 
=    15
.
150  2 
=  34.3 cm
= 8.20 + 0.106 + 0.357

= 8.663 m
= 8.90 + 0.106 + (0.343)

= 8.663 m
Question 5
The drafts of a vessel of 170 m LBP are 6.85 m forward and 7.50 m aft. MCTC = 300 t-m, TPC = 28
and LCF = 3.5 m forward of MS. Calculate the new drafts after the following changes in loading:
160 tonnes added 63 m aft of MS

200 tonnes added 27 m fwd of MS
Solution
Mass Dist. from F Mom.
(tonnes) (t-m)
+ 160 66.5 10 640

+ 200 23.5  4 700
 120 78.5  9 420
 70 19.5  1 365
+ 170  4 845
m
d LCF =
TPC
170
=
28
= 6.07 cm
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223
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T =
 m Fg  (cm)
MCTC
4845
=
300
=  16.15 cm (i.e., by the bow since trimming moment ve)
T
d F =   FFP
LBP
1615
.  170 
=    35
170  2 
= + 7.74 cm
T
d A =   FAP
LBP
1615
.  170 
=    35
.
170  2 
=  8.41 cm
= 6.85 + 0.061 + 0.077

= 6.988 m
= 7.50 + 0.061 + (0.084)

= 7.477 m
Question 6
A vessel of 80 m LBP has a light displacement of 1050 tonnes and an LCG 4.64 m aft of MS. The
following items are then added:
Cargo 2150 tonnes lcg 4.71 m fwd of MS

Fuel 80 tonnes lcg 32.55 m aft of MS
Water 15 tonnes lcg 32.90 m aft of MS

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224
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Draft  MCTC LCB from MS LCF from MS

(m) (t) (t-m) (m) (m)
5.00 3533 43.10 1.00 fwd 1.27 aft

4.50 3172 41.26 1.24 fwd 0.84 aft
Calculate the final drafts of the loaded vessel.
Solution
(tonnes) (m) (t-m)
lightship 1 050 4.64 4 872.0

cargo 2 150  4.71  10 126.5
fuel 80 32.55 2 604.0
water 15 32.90 493.5
stores 5  33.60  168.0
= 3 300 LM =  2 325.0
LM
New LCG =

2325
=
3300
=  0.704 m (i.e., fwd of midships since ve)
The mean draft, MCTC, LCB and LCF may be found by interpolation from the tabulated values.
 3300  3172 
Mean draft for  = 3 300 tonnes: = 4.50    (5.00  4.50)
 3533  3172 
= 4.677 m
 3300  3172 
MCTC for  = 3 300 tonnes: . 
= 4126  (431
.  4126
. )
 3533  3172 
= 41.91 t-m
 3300  3172 
LCB for  = 3 300 tonnes: . 
= 124  (100
.  124
. )
 3533  3172 
= 1.155 m fwd of MS
 3300  3172 
LCF for  = 3 300 tonnes: = 0.84    (127
.  0.84)
 3533  3172 
= 0.993 m aft of MS
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225
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Trimming lever: GB = LCG1  LCB
=  0.704  (1.155)
= + 0.451 m
Trimming moment TM =  GB
= 3 300  0.451
= 1 488.3 t-m (+ve since GB positive)
 GB
T = (cm)
MCTC
1 488.3
=
4191
.
= 35.51 cm
T
d F =   FFP
LBP
3551
.  80 
=     0.993
80 2 
=  18.20 cm
T
d A =   FAP
LBP
3551
.  80 
=     0.993
80 2 
= + 17.31 cm
New draft fwd = d LCF  d F
= 4.677 + ( 0.182)
= 4.495 m
New draft aft = d LCF  d A

= 4.677 + (+0.173)
= 4.850 m
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226
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 7
A vessel of 82.5 m LWL has a light displacement of 2 650 tonnes and an LCG 1.440 m forward of MS.
The following items are then loaded:
Cargo 8 490 tonnes lcg 2.210 m aft of MS

Fuel 735 tonnes lcg 14.690 m fwd of MS
Water 65 tonnes lcg 32.480 m fwd of MS
dLCF  TPC MCTC LCBMS LCFMS

(m) (t) (t) (t-m) (m) (m)
6.80 12 035 28.4 131.3 0.685 (aft) 3.471 (aft)

6.70 11 950 28.0 127.5 0.662 (aft) 3.285 (aft)
6.60 11 867 27.7 122.8 0.645 (aft) 2.964 (aft)
a) Calculate the resulting forward and aft drafts of the loaded vessel.
b) Calculate the mass of ballast water required to achieve an even-keel condition
c) Calculate the final draft if a ballast tank with its centroid 24.30 m aft of MS is available.
Solution

(tonnes) (m) (t-m)
lightship 2 650  1.440  3 816.00

cargo 8 490 2.210 18 762.90
fuel 735  14.690  10 797.15
water 65  32.480  2 111.2
stores 9  30.600  275.4
1 = 11 949 LM = 1 763.15
LM
LCG1 =

1 76315
.
=
11 949
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227
__________________________________________________________________________________________
dLCF , MCTC, LCB, LCF and TPC may be found by interpolation from the tabulated values.
 11 949  11 867 
dLCF for  = 11 949 tonnes: = 6.60    (6.70  6.60)
 11 950  11 867 
= 6.699 m
 11 949  11 867 
MCTC for  = 11 949 tonnes: = 122.8    (127.5  122.8)
 11 950  11 867 
= 127.44 t-m
 11 949  11 867 
LCB for  = 11 949 tonnes: = 0.645    (0.662  0.645)
 11 950  11 867 
= 0.662 m aft of MS
 11 949  11 867 
LCF for  = 11 949 tonnes: = 2.964    (3.285  2.964)
 11 950  11 867 
= 3.281 m aft of MS
 11 949  11 867 
TPC for  = 11 949 tonnes: = 27.7    (28.0  27.7)
 11 950  11 867 
= 27.996 tonnes
GB = LCG1  LCB1
= +0.148  (+0.662)
=  0.514 m
 GB
T = (cm)
MCTC
11 949  ( 0.5140)
=
127.44
=  48.2 cm
T
d F =   FFP
LWL
  48.2   82.5 
=     3.281
 82.5   2 
= + 26.02 cm
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228
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T
d A =   FAP
LWL
  48.2   82.5 
=     3.281
 82.5   2 
=  22.2 cm
New draft fwd = d LCF  d F

= 6.699 + (+ 0.260)
= 6.959 m
New draft aft = d LCF  d A
= 6.699 + (0.222)
= 6.477 m
b) req’d T = 6.959  6.477 m

= 0.482 m
= 48.2 cm (by the stern)
T  MCTC
m =
gg1
48.2  127.44
=
(24.3  3.281)
= 292.24 tonnes
m
c) Using: d LCF =
TPC
292.4
=
27.996
= 10.44 cm
T
Using: d F =   FFP
LWL
  48.2   82.5 
=     3.281
 82.5   2 
=  26.02 cm
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229
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T
d A =   FAP (done as a check only)
LWL
  48.2   82.5 
=     3.281
 82.5   2 
= + 22.2 cm
Final draft fwd = d F0  d LCF  d F
= 6.959 + 0.104 + ( 0.260)

= 6.803 m
Final draft aft = d A 0  d LCF  d A (done as a check only)
= 6.477 + 0.104 + (+ 0.222)

= 6.803 m
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230
Tutorial 8  The Partially Afloat Condition Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
THE PARTIALLY AFLOAT CONDITION
Question 1
A vessel of 4 330 tonnes displacement and trimming 0.9 m by the stern is to be docked on level
blocks. The LCF is 60 metres from the aft point of the skeg and the MCTC is 122 t-m. The vessel’s
KG is 7.64 m and the transverse metacentre at contact is 8.45 m above the keel.
a) Estimate the pressure on the sternmost keel block when the keel is about to contact all blocks.
b) Determine the virtual metacentric height and the reduction in GM at the critical instant.
Solution
T MCTC
a) Using: P =
FP
122  90
=
60
= 183 tonnes
KG   0
b) Using: Gv M = KM 
0  P
7.64  4330
= 8.45 
4330  183
= 0.473 m
GGv = GM 0  Gv M
= 0.81  0.473
= 0.337 m
Question 2
A vessel of length 150 m and displacement 6500 tonnes with a 130 cm stern trim is to enter dry-dock.
If the minimum GM at the critical instant is to be 0.40 metres, determine the allowable GM prior to
entering the dry-dock. The LCF is 2.5 m aft of midships; MCTC is 150 t-m and KM is 7.5 m.
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231
Tutorial 8  The Partially Afloat Condition  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Solution
KG is unknown, so using the alternative expression for virtual metacentric height:
P  KM
Gv M = GM 
0
= GM  GGv
P  KM
GGv =
0
T  MCTC
P =
FP
130  150
=
72.5
= 269 tonnes
269  7.5
GGv =
6500
= 0.31 m
Minimum GM 0 = Gv M  GGv (prior to entering dock)

= 0.40 + 0.31
= 0.71 m
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232
Tutorial 9  Damage Stability  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
DAMAGE STABILITY
Question 1
A vessel’s full-breadth double bottom tank (with compartment limits wholly below the waterline) is
precluding free surface effects), and permeability of the tank is 0.95. The tank centroid is directly
below the LCF and hence no change in trim results from the flooding of the compartment
Using the vessel’s particulars below, determine the metacentric height and righting moment for the
damaged condition in seawater:
a) Using the added mass method;
b) Using the lost buoyancy method.

BWL 16.00 m KG0 6.45 m
dLCF 5.50 m KB0 3.01 m
0 4 397.25 t BM0 4.23 m
GM0 0.79 m
Tank volume 256 m3 Tank centroid 0.63 m above K
Solution
a) Added Mass Method
m = vT     SW
= 256  0.95  1025
.
= 249.3 tonnes
m
d LCF =
TPC
249.3
=
9.2
= 27.1 cm
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233
__________________________________________________________________________________________
1 = 4 397.25 + 249.3
= 4 646.55 tonnes
4 646.6
1 =
1025
.
= 4 533.2 m3
KG1 =
 0  KG0   m  kg T 
1
=
4 397.25  6.45  249.3  0.63
4 646.6
= 6.138 m
The centroid above the keel, kb , of the added volumetric displacement, , resulting from the
bodily sinkage is assumed to be located at a point midway between the original and new waterlines.
d LCF
2
0.271
. 
= 55
2
= 5.636 m
 0  KB0     kb 

KB1 =
1
=
4 290  3.01  256  0.95  5.636
4 533.2
= 3.151 m
I CL = BM 0   0
= 4.23  4 290
= 18 146.7 m4
I CL
BM 1 =
1
18 146.7
=
4 533.2
= 4.003 m
__________________________________________________________________________________________
234
__________________________________________________________________________________________
GM 1 = KB1  BM1  KG1
= 3.151 + 4.003  6.138

= 1.016 m
RM ADDED MASS =  1  GM1 sin 
= 4 646.6  1016
. sin 
= 4 720.95 sin  t-m
b) Lost Buoyancy Method
From part a): m = 249.3 tonnes
d LCF = 27.1 cm
kb = 5.636 m
v T = 256  0.95
= 243.2 m3
= vL
KB1 =
 0  KB0   vT  kgT   v L  kbv 
0
=
4 290  3.01  243.2  0.63  243.2  5.636
4 290
= 3.294 m
As AW and ICL are assumed to remain constant, and since  also remains constant, then BM is
unchanged.
GM 1 = KB1  BM 0  KG0
= 3.294 + 4.23  6.45

= 1.074 m
= 4 397.25  1074
. sin 
= 4 721.7 sin  t-m
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235
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 2
A full-breadth double-bottom tank with compartment limits wholly below the waterline is bilged. The
tank vents to the atmosphere and can therefore be completely flooded (preventing free surface
effects). The permeability of the tank is 0.95. The tank centroid is directly below the LCF. The
vessel floats in water of density 1.025 t/m3 and has the following particulars in the intact condition:
LWL 85.00 m 0 4 225 tonnes GM0 1.05 m

BWL 16.00 m KG0 6.13 m BM0 3.48 m
dLCF 5.65 m KB0 3.70 m TPC 10.9 tonnes
Tank geometric volume 145 m3 Tank centroid 0.82 m above K
For the damaged condition, using the lost buoyancy method and the particulars above, determine:
a) the metacentric height,

b) righting moment (in terms of sin  ).
Solution
m = vT     SW
= 145  0.95  1025
.
= 141.2 tonnes
m
d LCF =
TPC
1412
.
=
10.9
= 12.95 cm
d LCF
2
01295
.
= 5.65 
2
= 5.715 m
v T = 145  0.95
= 137.75 m3
= vL
KB1 =
 0  KB0   vT  kgT   v L  kbv 
0
=
4 121.95  3.01  137.75  0.82  137.75  5.715
4 12195
.
= 3.864 m
__________________________________________________________________________________________
236
__________________________________________________________________________________________
GM 1 = KB1  BM 0  KG0
= 3.864 + 3.48  6.13

= 1.214 m
= 4 225  1214
. sin 
= 5 129.2 sin  t-m
__________________________________________________________________________________________
237
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
238
Tutorial 10  Resistance & Propulsion  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
RESISTANCE & PROPULSION
Question 1
A ship has a wetted surface area of 3 200 m2. Calculate the power required to overcome the frictional
resistance at 17 knots if n = 1.825 and f = 0.424.
Solution
RF = f S V n
= 0.424  3200  171.825

= 238 900 N
Power = RF  V
= 238 900  (17  0.5144)

= 2 089 133 W
= 2 089.1 kW
Question 2
A ship 125 m long, 16 m beam floats at a draft of 7.8 m. The CB is 0.72. Calculate the power
required to overcome frictional resistance at 17.5 knots if n = 1.825 and f = 0.423. Use Taylor’s
formula for wetted surface with c = 2.55.
Solution
S = c L
= 2.55 125  16  7.8  0.72  1025

.   125
= 3 059 m2
RF = f S V n
= 0.423  3 059  17.51.825

= 240 140 N
Power = RF  V
= 240 140  (17.5  0.5144)

= 2 161 900 W
= 2 161.9 kW
__________________________________________________________________________________________
239
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 3
The residuary resistance of a 1/20th scale model in sea water is 36 N when towed at 3.0 knots.
Calculate the residuary resistance of the ship at its corresponding speed and the power required to
overcome it.
Solution
3
L 
RR 2 = RR1  2 
 L1 
3
 20 
= 36   
 1
= 288 000 N
= 288 kN
L2
V2 = V1 
L1
20
= 3
1
= 13.417 knots
Power = RR  V
= 288 000  (13.417  0.5144)

= 1 987 800 W
= 1 987.8 kW
Question 4
A 6.0 m model of a ship has a wetted surface area of 7 m2, and when towed in fresh water at 3.0 knots
has a total resistance of 35 N. Calculate the effective power of the ship 120 m long at its
corresponding speed. Use n = 1.825, SCF = 1.15 and gain f from the formula.
Solution
Model: RT = 35 N in FW
= 35  1.025 N in SW
= 35.875 N
0.773
f = 0.417 
L  2.862
0.773
= 0.417 
6.0  2.862
__________________________________________________________________________________________
240
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 0.5042
RF = fSVn
= 0.5042  7.0  31.825

= 26.208 N
RR = RT  RF
= 35.875  26.208
= 9.667 N
3
L 
Ship: RR 2 = RR1  2 
 L1 
3
 120 
= 9.667   
 6 
= 77 336 N
2
L 
S2 = S1   2 
 L1 
2
 120 
= 7.0   
 6 
= 2 800 m2
L2
V2 = V1 
L1
120
= 3
6
= 13.416 knots
0.773
f = 0.417 
L  2.862
0.773
= 0.417 
120  2.862
= 0.4233
RF = f S V n
= 0.4233  2800  13.4161.825

__________________________________________________________________________________________
241
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 135 400 N
R T = RF  RR
= 135 400 + 77 336
= 212 736 N
ep = epN  SCF
= RT  V  SCF
= 212 736  (13.416  0.5144)  1.15

= 1 688.4 kW
Question 5
A ship propeller has a diameter of 4.0 m and a pitch/diameter ratio of 0.7 and revolves at 150 rpm. If
the vessel’s speed is 12 knots and the Taylor wake fraction is 0.24 calculate the apparent and true slip.
Solution
150 rpm = 2.5 rps

P
= 0.7
D
P
= 0.7
4.0
P = 0.7  4.0
= 2.80 m
V
Apparent Slip SA = 1 
Pn
12  0.5144
= 1
2.8  2.5
= 0.118
= 11.8 %
V  1  w
Real Slip SR = 1 
Pn
12  0.5144  1  0.24
= 1
2.8  2.5
= 0.33
= 33 %
__________________________________________________________________________________________
242
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Question 6
and the total resistance is 350 kN at a service speed of 18 knots at a shaft speed of 100 rpm.
Solution
There are a number of routes to take in solving this question; one such route is given below:
V  VA
Using w =  VA = V 1  w
V
= 18  0.51441  017
. 
= 7.685 m/s
T  RT RT
Using t =  T =
T 1- t
350
=
1- 0.19
= 432.1 kN
B
Using R =   B =  R  O
O
.  0.65
= 11
= 0.715
T VA 432.1  7.685
Using PD =  PD =
B 0.715
= 4644.32 kW
PD PD
Using S =  PB =
PB S
4644.32
=
0.985
= 4 715 kW
Question 7
__________________________________________________________________________________________
243
__________________________________________________________________________________________
and the total resistance is 30 kN at a service speed is 12 knots. The reduction gear unit efficiency is
90% and a 30 kW PTO is required at the front end of the engine.
Solution
VA = V 1  w
= 12  0.51441  018
. 
= 5.062 m/s
RT
T =
1- t
30
=
1- 0.17
= 36.14 kN
 B =  R  O
.  0.45
= 11
= 0.495
T VA
PD =
B
.  5.062
3614
=
0.495
= 369.6 kW
PD
PB = (brake power required for propulsion)
S
369.6
=
0.985
= 375.23 kW
PB
PB =  PTO (brake power required in total)
G
375.2
=  30
0.9
= 446.9 kW
__________________________________________________________________________________________
244
Tutorial 11  Rudders  Solutions
__________________________________________________________________________________________
TUTORIAL 11  RUDDERS
SOLUTIONS
Question 1
A vessel of 125 metres LBP , block coefficient 0.78, and beam 20.5 metres operates under normal
service conditions at a draft of 6.45 m. The vessel possesses a simple, fully-balanced, all-movable
type rudder, rectangular in profile with a mean chord of 2.40 m and a balance ratio of 0.262. The
rudder is located immediately astern of the vessel’s centreline propeller.
a) Calculate the required minimum rudder area (AR) according to DnV recommendations;
b) Calculate the rudder force (F) for a vessel speed of 16.5 knots and a rudder angle of 25
assuming the minimum required profile area has been adopted.
c) Calculate the hydrodynamic torque (TR) on the rudder stock at 25 rudder angle.
d) Calculate the minimum rudder stock diameter if the maximum allowable torsional stress in the
stock is 40 MPa.
Solution
d  LBP   B  
2
a) Using: AR = 1  25  
100   BP  
L

6.45  125   20.5  

2
= 1  25  
100   125  
= 13.484 m2
b) Using: F = 577 ARV 2 sin 
= 57713.484165 .  sin 25

.  0.5144  13
2
= 400 312.7 N
c) Determining CoP position from leading edge:
Using: x = 0.195  0.305 sin    b

= 0195
. 
 0.305 sin 25  2.40
= 0.777 m from leading edge

__________________________________________________________________________________________
245
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Balance ratio = 0.262

Therefore: d = 0.262  2.4
= 0.629 m
Using: TR = F  x  d 
= 4003130.777  0.629
= 59.24 kNm
2T
d) Using: r = 3
   allowable
= 3

2 59.24  10 3 
  40  10 6
= 0.098 m
Therefore diam. = 2  0.098 m

= 0.196 m
= 196 mm
Question 2
Calculate the rudder force and hydrodynamic torque on the simplified semi-balanced rudder shown in
Figure 1 for a vessel speed of 15.5 knots and maximum rudder angle of 35 behind the propeller race.
1.85
0.25
1.10 fixed section
0.40
3.80
0.3
2.30
2.6
__________________________________________________________________________________________
246
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 1.
Solution
The rudder needs to be divided into 3 separate areas because there are 3 leading edges
1.85
0.25
1.10 A1 fixed section
0.05
0.40 A2
1.55
0.3
2.3 A3 1.0 2.30
2.6
Preliminary calculations to simplify each stage:
A1 = 1.1  1.85 = 2.035 m2 V 2 = (15.5  0.5144  1.3)2 = 107.44
A2 = 0.4  1.55 = 0.62 m2 (0.195 + 0.305 sin ) = 0.37
A3 = 2.3  2.60 = 5.98 m2
Force on area A1 = F1 = 577 A1V 2 sin 
= 5772.035107.44 sin 35
= 72 259.8 N
CoP1 = x1 = 0.195  0.305 sin    b1

= 0.37  185
.
= 0.6845 m from leading edge of area A1
TR1 = F1  x1  d1 
= 72359.80.6845  0.25
= 31 440.3 Nm
__________________________________________________________________________________________
247
__________________________________________________________________________________________
= 5770.62107.44 sin 35
= 22 045.7 N
CoP2 = x2 = 0195
.  0.305 sin    b2
= 0.37  155
.
TR 2 = F2  x2  d 2 

= 22045.7 0.5735   0.05 
= 13 745.5 Nm
= 5775.98107.44 sin 35
= 212 634.8 N
CoP3 = x3 = 0195
.  0.305 sin    b3
= 0.37  2.60
TR 3 = F3  x3  d 3 
= 212634.80.962  100
. 
=  8 080.1 Nm
FR T = F1  F2  F3 = 72 359.8 + 22 045.7 + 212 634.8 N
= 307 040.3 N
TR T = TR1  TR2  TR3 = 31 440.3 + 13 745.5  8 080.1
= 37 105.7 Nm
__________________________________________________________________________________________
248

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ADVANCED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

& SHIP CONSTRUCTION

PAUL FURNESS (EDITOR)

ADVANCED NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

BACELOR OF APPLIED SCIENCE

PAUL FURNESS B.ENG (HONS)

ALL RIGHTS OF ISSUE

• Lewis, E.V., (Editor)

• Explanatory notes to the SOLAS regulations on Subdivision and Damage Stability

1 The Lines Drawing . . . . . . . 1

3 Significant Datum, Dimensions & Features of Form . . . . 4

4 Displacement & Weight Relationships . . . . . 6

UNIT 2 TABULAR METHODS OF INTEGRATION

2 Simpson’s Rules (Simpson’s First Rule) . . . . . 15

3 Simpson’s Second Rule . . . . . . 20

5 Application of the Parallel Axis Theorem . . . . . 25

6 Application of Simpson’s Rules to Volumes . . . . 27

UNIT 3 MASS ADDITION, REMOVAL & TRANSFER

3 Shift in Centre of Gravity due to Addition (or Removal) of Mass . . 39

4 Shift in Centre of Gravity due to Movement of On-board Mass . . 41

5 Effect of a Suspended Mass . . . . . . 43

UNIT 4 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRANSVERSE INTACT STABILITY

2 Equilibrium (Positive, Neutral & Negative Stability) . . . 47

3 Metacentric Height (GM) & Transverse Metacentre (M) . . . 51

4 Curves of Statical Stability (GZ Curves) . . . . . 53

5 Tracking the Centre of Buoyancy . . . . . 58

6 KN & Cross Curves of Stability . . . . . 59

UNIT 5 HEELING MOMENTS & ANGLES, & FREE SURFACE EFFECTS

2 Heeling Moment Curves . . . . . . 66

3 Heeling due to an Offset G (Angle of List) . . . . 67

5 Free Surface Effect & Moments . . . . . 69

UNIT 6 THE INCLINING EXPERIMENT

3 IMO Res. A.749 Chapter 7 Extracts (Determination of Centre of Gravity) . 79

5 Inclining Test Procedure . . . . . . 87

UNIT 7 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF TRIM

2 Longitudinal Centre of Flotation . . . . . 93

3 Tonnes Per Centimetre Immersion . . . . . 95

5 Trimming Moment (& MCTC) . . . . . . 97

6 Longitudinal Transfer of Onboard Mass . . . . 101

7 Change in Trim due to Addition/Removal of Small Masses . . . 102

8 Change in Drafts due to Change in Trim . . . . . 103

9 Determination of Drafts after Addition/Removal of Large Masses . . 105

10 Change in Trim due to Change in Density (& FWA) . . . 108

11 Draft Marks . . . . . . . 109

UNIT 8 THE PARTIALLY  AFLOAT CONDITION

2 The Dry-Docking Case . . . . . . 115

3 Calculating the Force P . . . . . . 119

4 Minimum GM0 and Maximum Trim for Dry-Docking . . . 120

UNIT 9 DAMAGE STABILITY

3 Definitions of Fundamental Terminologies . . . . 124

4 Bilging Effects on Stability & Trim . . . . . 125

5 Implications for Stability & Trim . . . . . 131

6 IMO Subdivision Requirements for Dry-Cargo & Passenger Vessels . . 131

UNIT 10 RESISTANCE & PROPULSION

2 Frictional resistance . . . . . . . 135

3 Residuary resistance . . . . . . 136

4 Froude’s Law of Comparison . . . . . 137

5 Effective Power . . . . . . . 139

7 Marine screw parameters . . . . . . 148

8 Flow conditions for the propeller . . . . . 148

9 Slip ratio . . . . . . . . 150

2 Geometry & Forces . . . . . . . 153

3 Rudder Design . . . . . . . 158