SPC

Presentation

by

MQS Office

Mahindra Quality System (A. S.)

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 What is Statistics ?

A science which deals with

• Collection of data

• Summarizations of data

• Analysis of data

• Drawing information from data

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 Why Statistics?

• It is more economic to assess a sample of product and

use the result to predict the properties of the whole lot.

• It leads to predictions with a high degree of precision.

Base Population Measurement

Sample Data

Taking actions
STUDY
Judgement Information

Population-Sample Model

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 What is process ?

Input Transformation Output

Material
man
Method
Machine Product and services
Equipment
Environment

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 What is a Process ?

A business is a network of related processes that

change input resources into output products & services.

Processes are work activities that change or mix

process inputs, add value & produce products &
services.

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 Data Gathering Plan

What data How How much How often Where Method Who

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 What is a Defect ?

Defect is traditionally a deviation from engineering specifications.

In reality defect is deviation from the targeted value of a

characteristics.

The closer we go to the target , more is the customer satisfied and

farther we go, we’ve dissatisfied customers.

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 DEFECT PREVENTION MODEL

VOICE OF THE PROCESS

STATISTICAL
METHODS

PEOPLE
EQUIPMENT The way we work /
MATERIAL CUSTOMERS
Blending of PRODUCTS /
METHOD resources SERVICES
Identifying
ENVIRONMENT changing
needs &
expectations
PROCESS / SYSTEM

INPUTS OUTPUT

VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER

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 Defect prevention
 Is pro-active

 Is analytical based

 Involves action on process or process parameters

 Provides timely feedback

 Cost effective

 Focuses on target value

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 Quality Assurance Methods :

1. By Inspection
100% Inspection, Sampling Inspection, Patrol Inspection

2. By the Process
Process Control, Process Capability Study

3. During New-Product Development

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 Few fundamentals of Descriptive Statistics

 Mean - It is arithmetic average of all

observations.
 Mid-range - It is mid-point between the highest &
lowest observations.
 Mode -It is most commonly occurring
observations.
 Median - It is the middle observation
when all observations are arranged
in order of magnitude
 Standard Deviation- Standard Deviation is a
statistical measure of spread or variation that is
present in the group data.

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 Statistical Definitions

Sample Size n = The total number of values

Mean x= x
n

Range R = Max - Min

= (x – x)2
Variance s2

n-1

Standard Deviation s= s2

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 Histogram

Uses of Histogram
1.It provides the information about the
distribution of data

2.It provides information about the spread or

variation of data.

3.It provides information about the location or

centrality of distribution.

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 Quick steps in making a histogram

Histogram is the primary assessment of process

centering, spread and shape of the data .

Quick steps in making a histogram:

Gather data (real-time observations)
Tabulate the data
Count the number of data points ‘n’
Determine the range ‘R’
R = Xmax. (maximum reading) – Xmin. (minimum
reading)
Determine the number of Class Intervals ‘k’

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 Quick steps in making a histogram
‘k’ can be determined from the following table,

When ‘n’ is Value of ‘k’

between
Under 50 5-7
50 to 100 6 - 10
100 to 250 7 - 12

250 and above 10 - 20

Determine the Class Width ‘H’

• H = R / k, and round off the number to the nearest
value with same number of decimals

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 Quick steps in making a histogram

 Determine the Class Boundaries

 Use the smallest data point ‘Xmin.’ and correct to the
nearest lower value
 Add the Class Width ‘H’
 Have mutually exclusive Class Intervals.
 Determine the frequency, i.e. number of readings in
each class boundary
 Draw a histogram with,
 Class width ‘H’ (or the reading in certain cases) on
the X-axis, and,
 Corresponding frequency on the Y-axis

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 Normal Distribution
99.994%

99.73%

95.44%

68.26%

s is Standard m is Mean
Deviation (Average)

m
s s
2s 2s
3s 3s
4s 4s

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 Variation
•Is the cause of all quality problems
•Is a natural phenomenon
- in nature
- in industry
•Its detection depends upon
- Precision of measurement
- Skill of personnel
•It can be reduced but not eliminated.
•Lower variation means higher possibility of
conformance
•No two product or characteristics are ever alike.
•Difference may be large or they may be unmeasurably
small, but is always present.

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 Main sources of variation
Where from variation comes ?

In all processes variation is inevitable difference

between individual outputs of a process.

A process contains many sources of variability.

The main sources of variability are Machine ,
Method , Material , Men, Environment etc.

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 Sources of Variation
Material Environment
•Assemblies Methods
•Noise level
•Components •Procedures
•Humidity
•Suppliers •Temperature
•Consumables •Lighting

Variation

People Machine Measurement

•Training •Technology
•Instruments
•Experience •Variability
•Gauging
•Skill •Tooling
•Tests
•Attitude •Fixtures

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 Causes of Variation
There are two causes of variation

 Common cause
 Special causes

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 Causes of Variation
Characteristics of processes with only common causes of
variation
 The processes are stable I.e. under control
 Process outcomes are predictable.
 The effects of common cause variation can only be
eliminated by action on the system.

Common causes of variation

 Are associated with the majority 85% of process
concerns.
 Arise from many small sources.

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 Common causes of Variation
If only common causes of variation are present ,the
output of a process forms a distribution that is stable
over time. It is predictable.

 Variation from common cause is predictable.

 Variation from common cause is stable

The mean is unchanged over time.
The spread is unchanged over time.
The shape is unchanged over time .

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 Special causes of variation
If special causes of variation are present ,the
output of a process forms a distribution that is not
stable over time. It is not predictable.

Variation from special cause is unpredictable.

Variation from special cause is unstable

The mean changes over time.
The spread changes over time.
The shape varies over time.

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 Stable Process
A stable process is the one if only common causes
of variation are present .

Behaviour of stable process is predictable.

A process may be stable, but may produce defective

output.

A stable process is not an end to improvement.

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 Examples Special Causes
People :Fatigue, Illness, Lack of training, Lack of
discipline,Lack of motivation, attitudes
Plant / Machines: Differences in measuring devices,
Lack of scheduled maintenance
Methods: Unsuited techniques of production, untried
production process, changes in inspection methods
Materials:Mixing of parts, Accumulation of waste
products, changes in sources of supply.
Environment: Gradual deterioration of conditions,
seasonal changes, variations in temperatures /
humidity, dust noise etc.

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 Examples - Common Causes
•Poor product design.
•Machine not suitable for requirements.
•Inherent Vibrations.
•Incoming material not suitable for requirements

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 SPC for Variable Data
Collect Data

Plot Histogram

Identify & eliminate

Check for Not OK Common / Special
Normality Causes
OK

Pp / Ppk Not OK
Study

OK
Collect Data in sub groups

Plot Control Chart

Identify & eliminate

Cp / Cpk Not OK Common / Special
Study Causes
OK

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 Sample sizes- Guidelines

Histogram 50

X bar & R Sub group = 2- 5

(Ideal 4)
Number of subgroups=25

X & MR 25

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 Process Capability (cp)

Inherent variability of the process

It measures potential capability assuming that process is

centered and is in state of statistical control.

Cp = USL – LSL

6S

State of statistical control :

When all assignable causes are eliminated and process is

having variability due to chance causes only.

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 Indices for on-going Process Capability

USL - LSL
Cp = 6s

D Krit
Cpk = 3s

Where D Krit = Min (USL - X, X- LSL)

Desirable

Cp, Cpk > 1.33

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 Process Capability vs. Specification Tolerance

Relationship Probable Action / Decisions

P.C. < (U-L) (i) Use of less precise process

L U (ii) Possibility of squeezing Tolerance
(iii) Inspection can be reduced
(iv) Process average can be set at an
economic level
(use of modified control limits)

P.C. = (U-L) (i) Attempt to reduce variability

L (ii) Greater attention (constant

U to centering of the process
(iii) Set the process at most economic level
(iv) Provide for sorting the product,
When the distribution changes
(v) If possible (as a last resort), review
specifications

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 Process Capability vs. Specification Tolerance

P.C. > (U-L) (i) Non- conformance inevitable

L U (ii) 100% Inspection strongly
recommended
(iii) Attempt to reduce variability
(iv) Switch over to more precise
process
(v) Set the process at most
economic level
(vi) If possible (as a last resort),
review specifications

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 Desired Level of Cpk

Cpk VALUE JUDGEMENT

0.67 < Cpk < 1.0 Lacking

1.0 < Cpk < 1.33 Insufficient

1.33 < Cpk < 1.67 Sufficient

1.67 < Cpk < 2.0 Good

2.0 < Cpk Excellent

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 Relation between Cpk and PPM
levels.
Cpk Sigma (s) Total No. of defectives (ppm)
Quality Tolerance
Level Band (s)
0.33 1 2 317310
0.67 2 4 45500
1.00 3 6 2699
1.33 4 8 63
1.67 5 10 0.574
2.00 6 12 0.002
2.33 7 14 0.000003
2.67 8 16 0.0000000001
3.00 9 18 0.00000000002

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 Relationship between Control Limits & Spec.
Limits

The above two are comparable

quantities for stable processes because
they are both measured with respect to
the individual units of output generated
by the process under study.
There are four basic relationships
between the two.

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 Relationship between Control Limits &
Spec. Limits

LSL m USL

m - 3s m + 3s
Nominal
Process natural limits are inside specification limits
and the process is centered nominal

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 Relationship between Control Limits & Spec. Limits

LSL m

m - 3s Nominal m+
3s
Process natural limits are inside specification limits
and the process is not centered nominal
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 Relationship between Control Limits & Spec. Limits

LSL m USL

Out of Out of
spec spec

m - 3s m+
Nominal 3s
Process natural limits are outside specification limits
and the process is centered nominal

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 Relationship between Control Limits & Spec. Limits

LS m USL
L

m- Nominal m+
3s 3s
Process natural limits are outside specification limits
and the process is not centered nominal
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 Process capability for Bilateral tolerance
Process Capability Indices

Index Estimation Equation Purpose Assumptions

Cp USL - LSL Summarize process 1.Stable process

potential to meet 2. Variable data
6s
acceptable tolerances 3.Centrered
USL-LSL process

USL - m Summarize process 1.Stable Process

Cpu 3s potential to meet only 2.Variable data
one sided upper
specification limit.
Cpl m  LSL Summarize process 1.Stable Process
3s potential to meet only 2.Variable data
one sided lower
specification limit.
Cpk Nearer SL - m 1. Summarize process 1.Stable Process
3s potential to meet two 2.Variable data
sided specification
limits.
2. It summarizes
centering of the
process

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 Process Capability for unilateral tolerance

For unilateral Tolerances

Index Formula Purpose Assumption

CPU USL - m Specification limit Stable

3s on maximum value process

CPL m  LSL Specification limit Stable

3s on minimum value process

Cpk m  USL Smaller the better Stable

3s characteristics process

Cpk m - LSL Larger the better Stable

3s characteristics process

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