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Genetica 104: 85-132, 1998


1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

The AIDS dilemma: drug diseases blamed on a passenger virus


Peter Duesberg & David Rasnick
D e p a r t m e n t o f M o l e c u l a r a n d C e l l B i o l o g y , S t a n l e y H a l l , U C B e r k e l e y , B e r k e l e y , C A 9 4 7 2 0 , U S A (P h o n e : (5 1 0 )
6 4 2 - 6 5 4 9 ; F a x : (5 1 0 ) 6 4 3 - 6 4 5 5 ; E - m a i l : d u e s b e r g @ u c l i n k 4 . b e r k e l e y . e d u )
Received 2 April 1998 Accepted 6 July 1998

Abstract
Almo st two decades of unp recedented effo rts in research costing US taxp ayers over $50 billion have
failed to d efeat Acq uir ed I mmune Deficiency Synd r o me ( AI DS) and have failed to exp lain the
chr o no lo gy and ep id emio lo gy o f AI DS in Amer ica and Eur o p e. T he failur e to cur e AI DS is so co mp lete
that the lar gest Amer ican AI DS fo und atio n is even exp lo iting it fo r fund r aising: 'Latest AI DS statistics
- 0,000,000 cured. Support a cure, support AMFAR.' T he scientific basis of all these unsuccessful
effo r ts has b een the hyp o thesis that AI DS is caused b y a sexually tr ansmitted vir us, ter med Human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and that this viral immunodeficiency manifests in 30 previously kno wn
microbial and no n-microbial AI DS diseases.
I n o r d er to d evelo p a hyp o thesis that exp lains AI DS we have co nsid er ed ten r elevant facts that
Amer ican and E ur o p ean AI DS p atients have, and d o no t have, in co mmo n: ( 1 ) AI DS is no t co ntagio us.
Fo r example, no t e ve n o ne he a lth c a r e wo rke r has c ontra c te d AI DS fr om ove r 800,000 AI DS patients in
Amer ica and Eur o p e. ( 2 ) AI DS is highly no n-r and o m with r egar d to sex ( 8 6 % male) ; sexual p er suasio n
( o ver 60% ho mo sexual) ; a nd a ge ( 8 5 % are 25-49 ye a rs old). (3) Fr om its be ginning in 1980, the AI D S
epidemic progressed no n-exponentially, j ust like lifestyle diseases. (4) T he epidemic is fr agmented
into distinct subepidemics with exclusive AI DS-d efining diseases. For example, only ho mo sexual
males have Kap o si's sar c o ma . ( 5 ) P a tients do no t have a ny one of 30 AI DS-de fining dise a ses, no r even
immunodeficiency, in commo n. For example, Kaposi's sarcoma, dementia, and weight loss may occur
without immunodeficiency. T hus, there is no AI DS-specific disease. (6) AI DS patients have antibody
against HI V in co mmo n o nly b y d efinitio n-no t b y natur al co incid ence. AI DS-d efining d iseases o f
HIV-fr ee patients are called by their old names. (7) Recreational drug use is a commo n deno minator
fo r o ver 9 5 % o f all Amer ican and Eur o p ean AI DS p atients, includ ing male ho mo sexuals. ( 8 ) Lifetime
prescriptions of inevitably toxic anti-HIV drugs, such as the DNA chain-terminator AZT , are another
commo n deno minator of AI DS patients. (9) HIV proves to be an ideal surrogate marker fo r recreational
and anti-HIV drug use. Since the virus is very rare (< 0.3%) in the US/European populatio n and very
hard to tr ansmit sexually, only those who inj ect street drugs or, have over 1,000 typically
d r ug-med iated sexual co ntacts ar e likely to b eco me p o sitive. ( 1 0 ) T he huge AI DS liter atur e canno t
offer even one statistically significant gr oup of drug-fr ee AI DS patients fr om America and Europe.
I n view of this, we p r o p o se tha t the lo ng-te rm c onsumptio n of re c re a tio nal drugs (such as cocaine,
her o in, nitr ite inhalants, and amp hetamines) and p r escr ip tio ns o f DNA chain-ter minating and o ther
anti-HIV drugs, cause all AI DS diseases in America and Europe that exceed their long-established,
national backgr ound s, i.e. >95%. Chemically distinct drugs cause distinct AI DS-defining diseases; fo r
example, nitrite inhalants cause Kaposi's sarcoma, cocaine causes weight loss, and AZT causes
immunodeficie nc y, lymp ho ma, muscle a trophy, a nd de mentia. T he drug hypothesis pre dicts that AI D S:
( 1 ) i s no n-conta gi o us; ( 2 ) i s no n-r a nd o m, be c a use 85% of AI DS c a using drugs a re use d by males,
particularly sexually active ho mo sexuals between 25 and 49 years of age, and (3) wo uld fo llow the
d r ug ep id emics chr o no lo gically. I nd eed , AI DS has incr eased fr o m negligib le numb er s in the ear ly
1 9 8 0 s to a b o ut 8 0 , 0 0 0 a nnual cases in the ear ly '9 0 s and has since d eclined to ab o ut 5 0 ,000 cases (U S
figur es) . I n the same p er io d , r ecr eatio nal d r ug user s have incr eased fr o m negligib le numb er s to
millions by the late 1980s, and have since decreased possibly twofold. However, AI DS has declined
less because since 1987 increasing numbers of mo stly healthy, HIV-positive people, currently about
2 0 0, 000, use a nti-HI V d r ugs tha t c a use AI DS a nd other dise a se s. At le a st 64 scientific stud ies,
go ver nment legislatio n, and no n-scientific r ep o r ts d o cument that r ecr eatio nal d r ugs cause AI DS and
o ther d iseases. Likewise, the AI DS liter atur e, the d r ug manufactur er s, and no n-scientific r ep o r ts
confirm that anti-HIV drugs cause AI DS and other diseases in humans and animals. In sum, the AI DS
d ilemma could b e so lve d b y b a nning a nti-HIV drugs, a nd by pointing out tha t drugs c a use AI D S -
modeled on the successful anti-smo king campaign.

An unflinching determination to take the whole evidence into account is the only method of preservation
against the fluctuating extremes of fashionable opinion.
Al f r e d N o r t h W h i t e h e a d ( 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 4 7 ) ( W h i t e h e a d , 1 9 6 7 ) .
Kopie aus: Genetica 104: 85-132, 1998
P e t e r D u e s b e r g & D a v i d R a s n i c k : T he A I D S di l e mma: dr ug di s e as e s bl ame d on a pas s e ng e r vi r us

Introduction
In the US, the epidemic of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has risen from
negligible numbers in the early 1980s to about 80,000 annual cases in the early 1990s and has
since declined to about 50,000 cases (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997). In
the same period, the European epidemic has reached about 20,000 annual cases in the ´90s,
and is now also declining slowly (World Health Organization, 1995b; AIDS-Zentrum im
Robert Koch-Institut, 1997). To date, the epidemic has generated 650,000 American and over
150,000 European AIDS patients (Figure 1A, C) (World Health Organization, 1995b;
AIDS-Zentrum im Robert Koch-Institut, 1997; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
1997; Fiala & Lingens, 1997).
Since 1984, all efforts in research, treatment and prevention of AIDS are based on the
hypothesis that AIDS is an infectious immunodeficiency caused by a sexually transmitted
virus, termed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or ´AIDS virus´ (Altman, 1984).
According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta, the viral immunodeficiency
manifests in 30 previously known microbial and non-microbial diseases (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 1992). However, 15 years after the discovery of HIV (Barre-Sinoussi
et al., 1983), leading scientists and policy makers cannot demonstrate that their efforts against
the virus have saved a single life. Despite a cost of over 50 billion dollars to US taxpayers,
there is no vaccine and no effective anti-AIDS drug (Gutknecht, 1995; Duesberg, 1996d). The
failure to defeat AIDS is so complete that it is now even exploited by America´s largest
private AIDS research foundation for fundraising:
´Latest AIDS statistics - 0,000,000 cured. Support a cure, support AMFAR.
Call 1-800-39AMFAR.´
In reality, even the zero-cure admission is a massive understatement of the non-achievements
of the HIV hypothesis. Since HIV has become the official cause of AIDS, hundreds of
thousands of HIV antibodypositive Americans and Europeans with and without AIDS (!) have
been put on lifetime prescriptions of inevitably toxic DNA chain-terminators and protease
inhibitors prescribed as anti-HIV drugs (Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996d; Hodgkinson,
1996) (see below). Moreover, in the name of the HIV-AIDS hypothesis, recreational drug use
is not only disregarded as a cause of AIDS, it is instead explicitly excused as a cause of any
disease (Kaslow et al., 1989; Ascher et al., 1993; Schechter et al., 1993c), and even promoted
with slogans like ´heroin is a blessedly untoxic drug´ (Cohen, 1994a). The heroin slogan was
published by Science in the same year, 1994, in which 3,522 Americans died and 64,013 were
hospitalized because of heroin toxicity (see below, Table 4). Proponents of the HIV hypothesis
blame the high morbidity and mortality of drug addicts only on HIV.
In contrast to AIDS, all infectious epidemics of the past, such as polio, cholera, tuberculosis,
small pox, and syphilis, have long been brought under control, or even eliminated, at a
fraction of the cost of AIDS, and with technology that was far less sophisticated than what is
available now. As a result of these scientific triumphs of the past, only less than one percent
of us now die from infectious diseases (Cairns, 1978). In view of this, the continued failures
of the war on AIDS call into question the hypothesis that AIDS is an infectious disease.
In the meantime, the multibillion dollar AIDS research effort also proved to be disappointing.
Despite unprecedented efforts by thousands of virologists and hundreds of thousands of
medical scientists, there are numerous unanswered questions about the AIDS epidemic in
America and Europe:
1. Why would antibodies against HIV (a positive HIV test), which are so effective that leading
AIDS researchers cannot detect HIV in most AIDS patients (Gallo, 1991; Weiss, 1991;
Cohen, 1993), not protect against AIDS?
2. Why have doctors and nurses never caught AIDS from over 800,000 American and European
AIDS cases - particularly in the absence of a HIV vaccine?
3. Why are 9 out of 10 AIDS patients males?
4. Why are about two-thirds male homosexuals?
5. Why are one-third intravenous drug users?
6. Why are most AIDS patients 25-49 years old, and why don´t teenagers get AIDS?
7. Why is AIDS new, although HIV is long-established in the US and Europe?

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8. Why would a new, sexually transmitted disease not have exploded in the millions of
heterosexually active Americans and Europeans - j ust as syphilis once did in medieval
Europe?
9. Why did HIV-positive American hemophiliacs live over twice as long in 1987 as they did in
the pre-AIDS era, and why has their mortality increased ten-fold after the introduction of
the anti-HIV drug AZT?
10. Why does AIDS manifest in totally unrelated diseases, for example, dementia, diarrhea, and
Kaposi's sarcoma?
11. Why do only male homosexuals get Kaposi's sarcoma?
12. Why are thousands of AIDS cases HIV-free (Duesberg, 1993e)?

A : HIV and AIDS in America

o AIDS cases × 10


-3

…◆…HIV + cases × 10
-4

B : Drug epidemic in America

  heroin hospital cases × 10


-3

…◆…cocain hospital cases × 10


-3

o cocain conf iscated in kg × 10


-3

C : HIV, AIDS and drug deaths in Europe

o AIDS cases × 10


-2

✧ drug deaths × 0.5 × 10


-1

…◆…HIV + cases × 0.5 × 10


-4

Figure 1

Each of these questions addresses a paradox of the HIV hypothesis. But there are no paradoxes
in nature, only flawed hypotheses.
To solve the AIDS dilemma, and to develop a hypothesis that answers all of these questions,
we have considered all available facts of the AIDS epidemic in America and Europe, following
the classic procedure described by Cairns: ´Historically, the first step in determining the cause
of any disease has always been to find out if there is anything, apart from the disease itself,
that the sufferers have in common. This was true for the infectious diseases, the various
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Kopie aus: Genetica 104: 85-132, 1998
P e t e r D u e s b e r g & D a v i d R a s n i c k : T he A I D S di l e mma: dr ug di s e as e s bl ame d on a pas s e ng e r vi r us

dietary and vitamin deficiencies, the many kinds of "natural" and industrial poisonings and so
on´ (Cairns, 1978). The scope of our study is limited to American and European AIDS for
reasons that will become apparent in this article. African, Haitian, and Asian AIDS have been
covered elsewhere (Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996d; Hodgkinson, 1996; Fiala & Lingens,
1997; Fiala, 1998; Shenton, 1998).

Common epidemiological properties of AIDS: not contagious and not


random - just like lifestyle diseases
The epidemiological method investigates the distribution and spread of diseases in
populations. But its first task is to distinguish between contagious or infectious and
non-infectious diseases, because new infectious diseases spread exponentially and thus need to
be controlled more urgently than the non-infectious ones.
This critical distinction is made by determining whether a patient had contact with another
patient, a process that is called contact tracing. Since human contacts on average are random,
the contagious diseases are randomly distributed with regard to sex. Moreover, most infectious
diseases are biased in favor of the very young and the very old, because immunity is
undeveloped in the young and is failing in the old. Sexually transmitted diseases are biased
towards young adults - for example, teenagers and those in their twenties and thirties -
because they have more sexual contacts than older groups (Aral & Holmes, 1991).
By contrast, lifestyle diseases, such as lung cancer from smoking and liver cirrhosis from
alcoholism, are not randomly distributed with regard to sex but follow the sex distribution of
risk groups (Cairns, 1978; Cairns, 1997). Further, the age distribution of lifestyle diseases
like lung cancer from smoking and liver cirrhosis from drinking is biased to older age (Cairns,
1978). In the following, we use these epidemiological criteria to determine whether American
and European AIDS is infectious or is a lifestyle disease.

AIDS not contagious


The hallmark of all infectious diseases is contagiousness. The professional literature has yet
to describe the first doctor who has contracted AIDS (not HIV) from the over 650,000
American and over 150,000 European AIDS patients through the various contacts that occur
between doctors and patients (Duesberg, 1996d). Since an estimated one million health care
workers are accidentally stuck by needles contaminated by patients per year in the US, and a
thousand annually contract hepatitis by this route (Holding & Carlsen, 1998), the absence of
AIDS in the American health care workers who have treated 650,000 AIDS patients indicates
that AIDS is not contagious.
However, in the non-scientific literature, the CDC claims 25 ´possible occupationally acquired
AIDS´ cases among all the American health care workers who have treated over 650,000 AIDS
patients over 17 years (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997). The CDC did not
identify the gender, nor the age, nor the AIDS-defining disease of the 25 health care workers
with AIDS. Moreover, the CDC did not provide any evidence that the 25 ´possible
occupationally acquired AIDS´ cases were indeed occupational. This may be difficult to verify
since the primary, nonoccupational AIDS risk is illicit, recreational drug use, which is not
compatible with a medical license. Above all, the CDC did not determine or disclose whether
the 25 HIV-positive health care workers had been treated with anti-HIV drugs, which cause
immuno-deficiency and other diseases (see below). But even if all of these uncertainties could
be resolved, 25 disease cases among 650,000 disease contacts in 17 years are hardly
convincing evidence for contagiousness.
Contrary to expectation, female prostitutes also did not pick up AIDS from their clients,
unless they were also recreational drug users (Root-Bernstein, 1993; Fiala & Lingens, 1997).
Likewise, the wives of several thousand American hemophiliacs with AIDS-defining
pneumonias and candidiasis have not contracted AIDS from their husbands (Duesberg, 1995c;
Duesberg, 1995d; Duesberg, 1996b; Hodgkinson, 1996).
Not one of tens of thousands of scientists searching for the cause of AIDS has ever contracted
AIDS from blood, tissue samples, or patients in the past 17 years (Cohen, 1994a; Duesberg,
1996c; Duesberg, 1996d). The few cases who allegedly contracted AIDS from studying blood
samples of AIDS patients appear to be all from the laboratory of the virus researcher Robert
Gallo at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda (Cohen, 1994a; O'Brien &
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Kopie aus: Genetica 104: 85-132, 1998
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Goedert, 1996; O'Brien, 1997). However, until their AIDS diseases and their anti-AIDS
treatments are described they cannot even be considered anecdotal cases.
Further, the three million Americans who annually receive blood transfusions for
life-threatening diseases (Duesberg, 1992a) should have developed AIDS from blood donors if
AIDS were infectious. But there was no increase in AIDS-defining diseases (Table 1) among
transfusion recipients in the AIDS era (Ward et al., 1989), and no AIDS-defining Kaposi´s
sarcoma has ever been observed in millions of transfusion recipients (Haverkos et al., 1994;
Duesberg, 1995d; Duesberg, 1996c; Hodgkinson, 1996). Contrary to predictions of
transfusable AIDS, the life span of American hemophiliacs has increased more than two fold,
from 11 years in the early 1970s to 27 years in 1987 (the year AZT was introduced, see below)
because they were prophylactically treated with transfusions of factor V III (Duesberg, 1995c).
Numerous anecdotal cases of ´discordant couples´ confirm that AIDS is not contagious: The
tennis star Arthur Ashe lived for 10 years with his wife and had an 8-year-old daughter before
he died from AIDS and AZT in 1994, but his family is AIDS-free (Ashe & Rampersad, 1993;
Duesberg, 1996d). Also in 1994, the wife of Hollywood actor Paul Glaser died from AIDS and
AZT, but after a marriage of 13 years and two children Glaser is healthy to this date
(Duesberg, 1996d) (Sherry Thorup, personal communication 1998). Likewise, movie star Rock
Hudson died from AIDS wasting and Kaposi´s sarcoma in 1985, but Marc Christianson, his
last relationship of over two years which began during an era before safe sex, is healthy 13
years later (Hudson & Davidson, 1986; Duesberg, 1996d). Thus, the huge body of literature on
AIDS cannot offer convincing evidence that AIDS is contagious (Duesberg, 1992a; Stewart,
1996). Instead, all published data prove that AIDS is not.

AIDS highly non-random with regard to sex


Almost 90% of the over 800,000 American and European AIDS patients are men, and only 10%
are women (Adams, 1989; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995; World Health
Organization, 1995b; AIDS Zentrum im Robert Koch Institut, 1996; Hodgkinson, 1996; Fiala
& Lingens, 1997). In epidemiology, this is as different as day and night from the common 50%
distribution between the sexes of all known infectious diseases (Evans, 1982; Evans &
Feldman, 1982). Despite widespread heterosexual prostitution, AIDS has remained a male
epidemic (Fiala & Lingens, 1997).

AIDS highly non-random with regard to sexual orientation


Almost two out of three American and a slightly lower percentage of European AIDS patients
are male homosexuals (Adams, 1989; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995; World
Health Organization, 1995b; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996; Hodgkinson,
1996; Fiala & Lingens, 1997). Thus, among men, the AIDS epidemic is nonrandomly
distributed with regard to sexual orientation.

AIDS non-random with regard to age


Over 80% of the American and European AIDS patients are 25 to 49 years old - an age group
that is traditionally the least likely to develop infectious diseases (Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 1995; World Health Organization, 1995b). About 5 to 7% are 20 to 24 years of
age, and most of the remainder are between 50 and 59 years old. About 1% of the AIDS
patients are babies (i.e., 500 to 800 annual cases in America and 500 to 600 in Europe), and
virtually none are between 5 and 20 years old (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
1995; World Health Organization, 1995b; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997).
Thus, AIDS is highly non-random with regard to age, and its age bracket is not compatible
with infectious disease. The absence of AIDS in teenagers directly calls into question the view
that AIDS is a venereal disease.

AIDS progresses non-exponentially - unlike infectious disease, and unlike the HIV
epidemic
In America and Europe, AIDS has progressed slowly and non-exponentially over 10 years and
then declined slowly (Figure I A and C, see also page 105) (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 1996; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997; Fiala & Lingens, 1997;
National Commission on AIDS, J uly 1991) - j ust like a lifestyle disease (Cairns, 1978). By
contrast, a new viral epidemic, such as, for example, a seasonal flu, spreads exponentially in a
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susceptible population within weeks or months (Fenner et al., 1974; Evans, 1982; Mims &
White, 1984). This characteristic of an infectious epidemic, pathogenic (like flu) or not (like
HIV), was first discovered in the early 19th century by the British scientist William Farr, and
has since been called Farr´s law (Bregman & Langmuir, 1990).
Subsequently, infectious epidemics, particularly viral epidemics, disappear again within weeks
or months as a result of anti-viral or microbial immunity and the selection of resistant
survivors (Stewart, 1968; Fenner et al., 1974; Mims & White, 1984). This generates the
conventional bell curve, a rapid rise of cases within weeks or months, followed by a decline as
immunity arises and susceptible hosts die out (Bregman & Langmuir, 1990). But there is no
evidence for the emergence of immunity as the AIDS epidemic continues to progress (Figure
1A and C). Thus, according to Farr´s law, American and European AIDS is incompatible with
infectious disease but consistent with non-contagious lifestyle diseases.

Subepidemics with distinct diseases


From the very beginning, AIDS epidemiologists have recorded non-random distributions of
AIDS-defining diseases in different AIDS risk groups. For example, Kaposi´s sarcoma is
almost exclusively found in male homosexuals (Selik et al., 1987; Beral et al., 1990), weight
loss and tuberculosis predominate in intravenous drug users, and pneumonia and candidiasis
are almost the only two of the 30 AIDS-defining diseases that are diagnosed in hemophiliacs
and other transfusion recipients (Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996d; Hodgkinson, 1996).
Thus, the AIDS epidemic breaks down into subepidemics based on subepidemic-specific
diseases. Distinct, subepidemic-specific diseases rule out a common infectious and a common
non-infectious cause. They indicate that several independent causes generate the AIDS
epidemic.
In sum, AIDS epidemiology is incompatible with infectious disease. In view of this, even the
CDC has called into question the original basis for the assumption that AIDS is infectious,
which was tracing sexual contacts between patients (Auerbach et al., 1984; Shilts, 1987). The
CDC now admits that it ´may be difficult to identify [AIDS from sexual contacts] because
most persons with AIDS have had contact with many different people. In particular, drug users
and homosexual and bisexual men may have had contact with hundreds of partners that they
did not know very well´ (Drotman et al., 1995).
Nevertheless, some AIDS-defining diseases, such as tuberculosis, candidiasis, and pneumonia,
are in principle infectious, microbial diseases, although immunodeficiency is not (Table 1).
Thus, to understand why some people are at risk for these diseases and others are not, one
must analyze the conditions under which microbes cause disease. It has long been known that
most microbes are only conditionally pathogenic with the primary condition being
immunodeficiency (Stewart, 1968; Mills & Masur, 1990; Moberg & Cohn, 1991). For example,
although tuberculosis is a contagious disease, it is rarely transmitted to doctors treating
tuberculosis patients because doctors are rarely immunodeficient.
It would appear that there must be common, noninfectious causes that render AIDS patients
susceptible to both the infectious and non-infectious AIDS diseases. In order to identify these
causes, we shall first analyze the diseases AIDS patients have in common and then search for
their cause.

What AIDS patients have in common: neither an AIDS-specific disease, nor


any one of 30 previously know n AIDS-defining diseases, nor even
immunodeficiency, but only antibody against HIV - by definition
In 1981, the CDC, the US government´s institution for the surveillance of infectious diseases,
first recorded an increase of 12 previously known diseases above their long established,
national backgrounds (Centers for Disease Control, 1981; Selik et al., 1984). Nearly all of the
patients were ´promiscuous´ male homosexuals and intravenous drug users (Durack, 1981;
Centers for Disease Control, 1986). The list of these diseases has since been increased to
about 30 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1992). Since every one of these
diseases has been previously known, the AIDS epidemic offers neither a new, nor even a
specific, disease of its own.

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T able 1 :
From the beginning, the AIDS diseases fell
AIDS- def ining dis eas es in the U.S. in 1995
1) into two categories that are totally unrelated
Immuno- (in %) Non-immuno- (in %) to each other: (1) the non-immunodeficiency
deficiencies deficiencies diseases including dementia, the cancers
pneumonia 33 wa s t i n g / we i g h t 15 Kaposi´s sarcoma and leukemia, and weight
loss
candidiasis 14 Kaposi´s sarcoma 6 loss, and (2) the immunodeficiency diseases,
2)
tuberculosis 10 dementia 3 including the viral and microbial
cytomegalovirus 7 lymphoma 2
t o xo p l a s m o s i s 4 pneumonias, the diarrheas, yeast, and other
herpesvirus 4 opportunistic infections (Table 1).
diarrhea 2
Despite the profound disparity in the AIDS
total 74 26
diseases, the CDC proposed in 1982 that
1)
2)
(Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995) immunodeficiency was their common
includes other mycobacterial infections
denominator (Centers for Disease Control,
1982). But since immunodeficiency was not considered to be infectious in 1982, AIDS was not
classified as an infectious epidemic. Moreover, immunodeficiency, no matter what its cause, is
not a known cause of cancer, dementia, and weight loss (Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996c).
Accordingly, there is no immunodeficiency in many AIDS patients with Kaposi´s sarcoma
(Afrasiabi et al., 1986; Murray et al., 1988; Spornraft et al., 1988; Archer et al., 1989;
Friedman-Kien et al., 1990).
On April 23, 1984, the Secretary of Health & Human Services (HHS), the directors of the CDC
and NIH, and the NIH´s virus researcher Robert Gallo announced j ointly at an international
press conference in Washington that a previously unknown virus, since called HIV, was the
´probable cause of AIDS´ (Altman, 1984). The only evidence for this claim was the presence
of antibody against the ´AIDS virus´ in most, but not all, AIDS patients that Gallo and his
collaborators had analyzed (Gallo et al., 1984). Even to this date, AIDS researchers cannot
find HIV antibody in all (Duesberg, 1993e), nor infectious HIV in most, AIDS patients
(Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996d; Duesberg, 1996c).
Despite the instant popularity of an immunodeficiency virus, the hypothesis had four serious
birth defects:
1. Oblivious of AIDS epidemiology, Gallo, other virus researchers, and the secretary of HHS
tacitly assumed that ´where there is a virus, or even j ust antibody against one, there must be
an infectious disease´ [according to the proverbial, "where there are hoofbeats, there must
be horses"] (Blattner et al., 1988; Weiss & J affe, 1990; Harden, 1992; O'Brien & Goedert,
1996; O´Brien, 1997). But the epidemiology of AIDS is incompatible with infectious
disease.
2. Gallo and other AIDS researchers apparently had overlooked that antibodies are hardly a
cause of disease. Instead, antibodies offer the only known protection against viral
pathogenesis - the operating principle of vaccination (Blattner et al., 1988; Weiss & Jaffe,
1990; O'Brien & Goedert, 1996; O´Brien, 1997).
3. Gallo and other AIDS researchers apparently also overlooked that their hypothesis failed
Koch's first postulate, according to which every case of a disease should contain the
suspected causative microbe (Merriam-Webster, 1965; Harden, 1992).
4. They also overlooked that over a third of all American AIDS patients in 1984 (Duesberg,
1991; Duesberg, 1992a), and 26% in 1996, do not even have immunodeficiency diseases
(Table 1).
Nevertheless, the ´AIDS virus´ was accepted without delay, and without review, even before it
was published in a scientific j ournal (Altman, 1984). Both the threat of a new infectious
epidemic and the endorsement by the US government immediately established the virus-AIDS
hypothesis as a national article of faith. In 1985, one year after Gallo's announcement, the
CDC officially redefined AIDS as an infectious disease. According to the CDC's 1985 AIDS
definition, HIV had become the one and only definitive diagnostic criterion of AIDS (Centers
for Disease Control, 1985). Moreover, HIV had become the first virus to cause 30 fatal
diseases, but no specific disease of its own - because each of the 30 diseases can result from
previously known causes. Thus, as of 1985, the following definition applied:
Any of 30 diseases + HIV = AIDS
Any of the same 30 diseases - HIV = any of the 30 diseases.

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This definition has made AIDS an ´HIV disease´ (Institute of Medicine & National Academy
of Sciences, 1986), although there was no proof in 1985 that HIV causes AIDS (Duesberg,
1987; Blattner et al., 1988; Duesberg, 1988). And there has been no proof since (Cohen, 1995;
Mullis, 1996; Balter, 1997). On the contrary, according to Nature Medicine, two papers in
1998 drove ´the final nail in the coffin´ of the hypothesis that HIV causes AIDS by killing
T-cells (Roederer, 1998).
The CDC´s HIV-based AIDS definition has relegated into a gray zone thousands of HIV-free
AIDS cases that had been diagnosed clinically and on the basis that the patient belonged to an
´AIDS risk group´ (Duesberg, 1993e). While the existence of HIV-free AIDS continued to be
acknowledged despite the 1985 AIDS definition (Centers for Disease Control, 1987; Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, 1992), HIV-free cases could now be readily dismissed as
an argument against the HIV hypothesis by classifying them as non-AIDS cases under their old
names (see 6). By allowing AIDS diagnosis without HIV yet insisting on an HIV-based AIDS
definition, the CDC has created many unnecessary problems that have obscured AIDS research
to this date (see pages 102, 103) (Duesberg, 1993e; Duesberg, 1996d).
Moreover, from the beginning, the AIDS and HIV epidemics were not at all compatible.
Instead they have moved in different directions in the US and Europe since both can be tested
simultaneously - despite their linkage by the HIV hypothesis. In the US, the HIV epidemic has
been steady at about one million from 1985, with small downward adj ustments since 1996
(Figure 1A) (Curran et al., 1985; Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996c; Krieger, 1996; World
Health Organisation, 1996; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997). New HIV
infections have even declined fivefold from 1985 until 1993, based on over 50 million blood
donations collected in that time (Figure 2A) (Centers for Disease Control, 1995). By contrast,
during the same time period AIDS has increased from a few dozen to over 50,000 cases
annually (Figure 1A).
In Europe, a steady 0.5 million individuals were positive between 1988 and 1995 (Figure 1C)
(Mann et al., 1988; Merson, 1993; World Health Organization, 1995a). In Germany, the
number of new infections declined about twofold during the same time period in which AIDS
rose from none to 2000 cases per year (Figure 2B) (AIDS-Zentrum im Robert Koch-Institut,
1997; Fiala & Lingens, 1997).
Since the American and European AIDS and HIV epidemics move in totally different
directions, the HIV hypothesis cannot explain AIDS. Moreover, the steady state of infection
proves that HIV is an old, long-established virus in the US and Europe (see Farr´s law above)
(Bregman & Langmuir, 1990; Duesberg, 1992a).
Thus, AIDS patients have neither an HIV- nor an AIDS-specific disease, nor any one of the 30
AIDS-defining diseases, nor even immunodeficiency, in common. However, by definition they
all share antibodies against HIV.

Drugs - the common denominator of AIDS in America and Europe: (a)


Recreational drugs
Hardly any one now remembers that before the popular virus-AIDS hypothesis many American
and some European investigators had postulated that the epidemic was a collection of drug
diseases (Durack, 1981; Rappoport, 1988; Adams, 1989; Oppenheimer, 1992; Hodgkinson,
1996).

The lifestyle hypothesis


In an editorial of the New England Journal of Medicine in 1981, long before AIDS was
claimed to be infectious, David Durack proposed: 'Perhaps one or more of these recreational
drugs is an immunosuppressive agent. The leading candidates are the nitrites, which are now
commonly inhaled to intensify orgasm' (Durack, 1981). The reason for the early suspicion of
drugs was simple. Based on data from the CDC and from independent investigators, nearly all
AIDS patients were either male homosexuals who had used recreational drugs as aphrodisiacs
and psychoactive stimulants, or were heterosexual intravenous drug users (Durack, 1981;
Goedert et al., 1982; Marmor et al., 1982; McManus et al., 1982; J affe et al., 1983;
Mathur-Wagh et al., 1984; Newell et al., 1984; Haverkos et al., 1985; Krieger & Caceres,
1985; Newell et al., 1985a; Newell et al., 1985b; Lauritsen & Wilson, 1986; Haverkos &
Dougherty, 1988b; Rappoport, 1988). For example, J ames Curran, the director of the CDC,
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stated between 1981 and 1982: ´At this point our best clue to the cause of the disease was
poppers´ [nitrite inhalants]' (Fettner &Check, 1985). Curran's clue was gleaned from anecdotal
evidence including the first two Kaposi´s sarcoma patients seen by Alvin Friedman-Kien,
professor of dermatology at New York University. Both of these patients were male
homosexuals who ´had a multiplicity of sexual partners over an extended period of time as
well as using a variety of recreational drugs - cocaine, marij uana, LSD, THC, MDA, and amyl
nitrite.´ Friedman-Kien regularly called CDC officials to report his experience with AIDS:
´...as patients started coming in, it turned out that all of them, 100 percent, had been using
amyl nitrite´ (Fettner & Check, 1985).

(A) America

(B) Germany

Figure 2:
( A) New HIV inf ec tions in per c ent of over 50 m illion blood donor s , and AIDS
c as es per year in Am er ic a ( Center f or Dis eas e Contr ol, 1995) ;
( B) New HIV inf ec tions per year in G er m any ( AIDS Zentr um im Rober t Koc h
Ins titut, 1997)

Evidence continued to mount strongly supporting a connection between nitrite use, other
recreational drugs, and AIDS. This included articles by J ames Goedert and William Blattner
from the NIH, the CDC's sister institution (Goedert et al., 1982), by Harry Haverkos with the
CDC's Kaposi's Sarcoma Opportunistic Infection (KSOI) task force, and an abundance of other
studies on the immunotoxic and carcinogenic effects of nitrite inhalants (Newell et al., 1984;
Haverkos & Dougherty, 1988a; Haverkos & Dougherty, 1988b). An English team reported in
1984 that 86% of male homosexual AIDS patients from St Mary´s Hospital in London had
inhaled nitrites compared to 86.4% from clinics in New York, San Francisco, and Atlanta
(McManus et al., 1982). In 1983, two dozen of America´s leading AIDS investigators
including Friedman-Kien, Curran, and CDC worker Harold J affe, later director of the CDC's
HIV/AIDS Division, had conducted extensive epidemiological studies which revealed
overwhelming drug use, including nitrite inhalants, cocaine, and amphetamines by all
homosexual AIDS patients studied (Table 2) (J affe et al., 1983).

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T abelle 2 : Dr ug us e by hom os ex uals with AIDS and at r is k f or AIDS

1 San San 4 San 6


USA, London,
Atlanta Chicago Vancouver
2 3 5 Europe, Manchester
1983: Francisco Francisco 1993: Francisco 1993: 7 8
50 AIDS, 1987: 1990: 5000 1993: 136 AIDS, Australia
120 risk 492 risk 182 AIDS Aids 215 AIDS, 229 risk 1994: 1996:
+ risk 230 risk* 114 AIDS, 685 risk
DRUGS 289 risk

nitrite inhalants 96% 82% 79% 71-100% 100% 98% 50% 80%
ethylchloride 35-50 18
cocaine 50-60 84 69 40-66 yes yes 12-34 40
amphetamines 50-70 64 55 26-46 yes yes 6-27 4 8 ( e c s t a s y)
57 (speed)
phenylcyclidine 40 22 23 yes
LSD 40-60 49 yes 48
metaqualone 40-60 51 44
barbiturates 25 41 30 yes
marijuana 90 85 88 41-68 76
heroin 10 20 3 yes 25
alcohol 46 95 90 95
cigarettes 33 yes 50 58
AZT most most 15-64
drug-free 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 (Jaffe et al., 1983); 5 (Ascher et al., 1993), (Ellison et al., 1996);


2 (Darrow et al., 1987); 6 (Schechter et al., 1993b), (Craddock, 1996);
3 (Lifson et al., 1990); 7 (Veugelers et al., 1994);
4 (Kaslow et al., 1989), (Ostrow et al., 1990), (Ostrow et al., 8 (Gibbons, 1996).
1993); * S e e t e xt .

N o t e : N o t o n e o f t h e s e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d a d r u g - f r e e m a n wi t h A I D S o r a t r i s k f o r A I D S .

Drugs seemed to be the most plausible explanation for the restriction of AIDS to risk groups,
because drug consumption was the only health risk male homosexuals and intravenous drug
users had in common (Krieger & Caceres, 1985). This original drug-AIDS hypothesis was
euphemistically called the ´lifestyle hypothesis´ (Oppenheimer, 1992). Indeed, massive
supplies of illicit recreational drugs such as nitrite (poppers) and ethylchloride inhalants,
cocaine, heroin, amphetamines, phenylcyclidine, and LSD had reached America and Europe
since the Vietnam War and were the only statistically significant new health risks that had
affected these countries since World War II (see page 103).
Suddenly, after the announcement of the discovery of the ´AIDS virus´ by Gallo at the
international press conference in Washington on April 23, 1984 (see above), the lifestyle
hypothesis was dropped without notice - as if it never existed - in favor of the virus-AIDS
hypothesis. Since then, any revisionism was immediately regarded as obsolete, or in the words
of David Baltimore even as a ´pernicious and irresponsible´ obstacle (Booth, 1988) in the war
against the AIDS virus (Weiss & J affe, 1990; Cohen, 1994a; Duesberg, 1996d; O´Brien &
Goedert, 1996; O'Brien, 1997). Henceforth, recreational drugs were only studied, if at all, as
risk factors of HIV infection or as obstacles in anti-HIV medications.
An article in the gay interest magazine Genre captures the ´fashionable opinion´ (A. N.
Whitehead) of the HIV era: ´...the real danger of the drug lies in its crystalline high that
engenders dangerous behavior. One doctor recounts the story of a young patient of his who
´bumped´ (took crystal [amphetamine]) for four days at Rehoboth Beach - four days of parties
and sex and more parties and more sex. When he came down at last, he felt drained and
depressed. But that was nothing compared to how he felt when he discovered he had
contracted HIV.. The same doc also talks about an HIV patient who got ´methed up´ (with
methamphetamine) and went off his medication... The doc was angry, but he´s wise to the
ways of addicts´ (Bergling, 1997).

In a rare response to the situation, William Lerner, from the Division of General and
Preventive Medicine of the University of Alabama at Birmingham, writes in the Journal of
American Medicine: ´With few exceptions, the treatment of drug problems in the United States
occurs both figuratively and literally, a long distance from the maj or medical centers. ... the
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efforts expended stand in stark contrast to those rallied in the investigation of AIDS.... A
recent survey of medical centers from the United States revealed fewer than 30 current
fellowship programs in alcoholism and drug abuse in the entire country, with approximately 60
enrolled´ (Lerner, 1989).

Intravenous drug use is reported for a third of all AIDS patients in the HIV era
Although the lifestyle hypothesis has been discredited by proponents of the virus-AIDS
hypothesis, government statistics and independent publications continue to confirm to this
date that about one third of the American, and over one third of the European AIDS patients,
are intravenous users of cocaine, heroin, and other drugs (Duesberg, 1992a; World Health
Organization, 1995b; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996; Duesberg, 1996c;
Duesberg, 1996d; Hodgkinson, 1996; Duesberg & Rasnick, 1997; Fiala & Lingens, 1997).
Indeed, virtually all of the female and heterosexual male AIDS patients are intravenous drug
users.

Drug use by male homosexual AIDS patients in the HIV era


Since HIV had become the consensus cause of AIDS, several large studies of male homosexual
volunteers have been set up simultaneously in San Francisco, Chicago, Baltimore, Los
Angeles, and Pittsburgh in the US, and in Amsterdam, London, Sidney, and Vancouver abroad,
to study risk factors of HIV infection. Some of these studies have reported drug-taking as a
risk factor of HIV infection, because psychoactive drugs j eopardize safe sex and increase the
number of contacts (Fineberg, 1988; Bergling, 1997; Signorile, 1997b). Inadvertantly, some of
these studies also offer evidence for the lifetime dosage of drugs, because lifestyles, including
drug use, are often recorded over periods of 10 years or more, a period which is
euphemistically called the ´latent period´ of HIV by the proponents of the virus-AIDS
hypothesis (Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1994; Duesberg, 1996d). According to David Ostrow,
leading epidemiologist of the largest lifestyle study of American homosexual men, the Multi
Center AIDS Cohort or MACStudy from Chicago, Baltimore, Los Angeles, and Pittsburgh:
´From the earliest case control studies conducted by the Centers for Disease Control´s Task
Force on Kaposi´s Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections (J affe et al., 1983) to recent studies
of predictors of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV) infection, recreational
psychoactive drug use has been associated with HIV-related illness or infection among
homosexual men´ (Ostrow et al., 1993).
In the following, we investigate which 'recreational, psychoactive drugs´ have been, and
continue to be, associated with 'HIV-related illness´ of homosexual men.

Nitrite inhalants - the ´gay drug´


Numerous articles published in the HIV era have documented the continued popularity of
nitrite inhalants, the 'gay drug' (Mann, 1995; Mirken, 1995; St. Angelo, 1996; Duesberg &
Rasnick, 1997; Lauritsen & Young, 1997), among male homosexuals with AIDS and at risk for
AIDS (Shilts, 1987; Lauritsen, 1993; Mann, 1995; Mirken, 1995; Young, 1995; Bethell, 1996;
Hodgkinson, 1996; Lauritsen, 1996; St. Angelo, 1996), (see also Table 2). The National
Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) first drew attention to the nitrite epidemic among male
homosexuals in 1988 (Haverkos & Dougherty, 1988b) and called a nitrite-AIDS conference in
1994 to point out that ´nitrite use by gay men in Chicago and San Francisco´ has increased in
the 1990s after a decline in the late 1980s (Lauritsen, 1994; Haverkos & Drotman, 1995). The
San Francisco Department of Health reported in 1991 that 98% of nitrite inhalant users are
homosexuals (San Francisco Department of Public Health & Lesbian & Gay Substance Abuse
Planning Group, 1991; Ascher et al., 1993). Based on such information, Ostrow et al.
concluded that nitrite inhalants show a ´consistent and strong cross-sectional association with
... anal sex´ (Ostrow, 1994), and are used because of ´their ability to briefly relax the smooth
muscles of the anal sphincter and thereby facilitate penetration' (Ostrow et al., 1993).
In 1996, a rare survey about the use of nitrite inhalants in continental Europe appeared in the
Swiss gay interest j ournal aK, ´... seit J ahren von vielen Leuten - vor allem Schwulen - beim
Sex zwecks Verstärkung der Lust verwendet wird´ [used as a gay drug for years] (Ineichen,
1996). Bottles containing poppers, which cost less than 1 Sfr to produce, sell for up to 58 Sfr
in Zurich, Lucerne, Bern, and Basel. According to the j ournal, sales have been banned in some

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Swiss states, because amyl nitrites, but not other nitrites, are listed as poisons by the federal
public health office, BGA.

Multi drug use


J ust as was the case before the HIV era, American and European male homosexuals at risk for,
and with, AIDS combine various recreational drugs (Table 2) (J affe et al., 1983; Darrow et al.,
1987; Lifson et al., 1990; Duesberg, 1992a; Ascher et al., 1993; Duesberg, 1993b; Schechter
et al., 1993a; Schechter et al., 1993c; Buchbinder et al., 1994; Mann, 1995; Mirken, 1995;
Young, 1995; Ellison et al., 1996; Lauritsen & Young, 1997). For example, the over 5000
homosexual men of the MACStudy report combinations of 11 recreational drugs in 1993
(Table 2) (Kaslow et al., 1989; Ostrow et al., 1993). Among them, 83% had used one drug, and
60% had used two or more drugs during sex in the previous six months (Ostrow et al., 1990).
In the summer of 1996, the magazine Gay Times conducted ´the biggest ever survey of gay
men's drug use´ in England. According to the 685 respondents, 80% used poppers (nitrite
inhalants); 48%, ecstasy (amphetamines); 57%, speed (amphetamines); 40%, coke (cocaine);
48%, acid (LSD); 25%, heroin; 76%, cannabis; 58%, cigarettes; 95%, alcohol (Table 2)
(Gibbons, 1996). A 'tricontinental seroconverter study' confirms and extends the pattern of
multi drug use by male homosexuals with AIDS or at risk for AIDS to America, Europe, and
Australia in 1994 (Table 2) (Veugelers et al., 1994).
In an interview with the gay magazine The Advocate about a ´Morning party´ to benefit the
Gay Men´s Health Crisis (GMHC) on Fire Island in New York in August 1992, Larry Kramer,
founder of GMHC and of the gay AIDS activist organization Act Up, commented:
I loathed the Morning Party. The Morning Party sent me into a depression I cannot begin to
describe. After twelve years of the plague, I should come back and see the organization that
was started in my living room having a party like that! ... There were 4,000 or 5,000
gorgeous young kids on the beach who were drugged out of their minds at high noon,
rushing in and out of the Portosans [portable toilets] to fuck, all in the name of GMHC
(Zonona, 1992).
In his novel Faggots, Kramer had offered an earlier client´s eye-view of homosexual life-style,
including a long list of the 56 most popular recreational drugs as sexual and mental stimulants
(Adams, 1989; Duesberg, 1996d).
Among these drugs, amphetamines have recently gained popularity over nitrites as sexual
stimulants (Sadownick, 1994; Bergling, 1997; Signorile, 1997b). Says the director of an
outpatient treatment center in Los Angeles, ´Look at the demographics. It´s such a nasty drug,
the way it destroys the body and the mind. Crystal (amphetamine) is a gay person's drug and a
gay community problem.´ (Sadownick, 1994). According to another observer of gay male
culture in America who conducted hundreds of interviews, I almost 50 percent of the gay men
in the ghetto are [now also] using steroids ... cosmetically´ (Signorile, 1997a).
In July 1997, The Advocate published again two articles confirming and extending the massive
drug use by male homosexuals in the ´party circuit´. One was entitled, ´Men behaving badly;
the recklessness of the 1970s and early ´80s has reappeared on the party circuit, where gay
men are indulging in illicit drugs and wild sex with increasing abandon´ (Heitz, 1997). The
other title was ´Slipping up; unsafe sex is on the riseand the new AIDS drugs are only one of
the culprits´ (Gallagher, 1997).
Insiders have described the reasons for drug use by homosexual men. An addiction counselor
at the Pride Institute at Solutions in Washington, DC told the gay interest magazine Genre
´that crystal [amphetamine] targets the same area of the brain where sexual desires are born
and satisfied, hence its popularity at sex parties and sex clubs. That connection is why so
many recovering addicts fall off the wagon; they simply cannot escape that intimate
association.´ (Bergling, 1997). The Signorile Report on Gay Men records in 1997 in graphic
detail why ´a whole set of drugs is required´ for a typical ´hard core gay circuit party´ in one
of the appropriate Hollywood hotels:
Drugs to space you out. Drugs to keep you up. Drugs to put you to sleep. Drugs to get you
up again. Drugs to get you through the day. Drug dealers abound, at least one to a floor, it
seems. They are called in their rooms at all hours of the day and night. Ecstasy is a staple,
as is cocaine, and special K-ketamine, a horse tranquilizer, which is snorted. But it
wouldn´t be California and a weekend-long circuit event if there wasn´t crystal meth, a
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stimulant that keeps people up for hours on end, sometimes for 48 hour stints, dancing,
posing, and having sex. Some people snort their crystal in powder form, but more and more
men are inj ecting intravenously after liquefying it. ... a taxi driver tells me ... ´It was great
to work to, I mean I could work for two days straight through. And of course for sex.´
... outside the ballroom on the grounds of the pool, several men vomit on the lawn, others
pass out; at some point paramedics arrive and in the blur from the lights and the drugs, I
see someone taken out on a stretcher. He overdosed on something. ´Another circuit
casualty,´ someone says to me with a smile. Indeed another man tells me that there´s an OD
[overdose] at j ust every big party. ´That´s how you know it's a good party,´ he j okes, ´if you
can attract an ambulance or two.´
Later, however, when the partying momentarily stops and I go back to my room, I´m unable
to sleep ... I´ll need more drugs. ... The opposite choice, staying sober (not being
´medicated´ as one of my party chumps puts it)... seems not to offer the authentic circuit
experience, and the possibility of finding someone else in the same state is rather nil.
Staying sober seems a dismal prospect, as if someone has told a funny j oke and you are the
only one not ´getting it.´
Burnt out and sometimes hooked on coke (cocaine) and crystal (amphetamines) too, some of
these men see their careers and their relationships - not to mention their health, particularly
if they are HIV-infected - completely unravel (Signorile, 1997b).
The German gay interest magazine First confirms that ´Ecstasy [amphetamines], LSD, and
other amphetamines have become indispensable for ´House- and Technoclubs.´ The use of
´Partydrogen´ and their dangers are described by diverse informational brochures´. ... Some
take so much speed that they can´t sleep for 3 days. ´E´ (ecstasy) makes contact happy and
chummy, LSD develops secret desires, and cocaine makes you j ust horny. But who enj oys
pleasant chemical feelings ... does not care about damned condoms' (Holtermann, 1997).
Surprisingly the article recommends free ´drug checking´ by the German government -
supported AIDS Hilfe, to avoid the ´dangers of drug taking.´
Based on hundreds of interviews, the American gay interest magazine Out also analyzed why
male homosexuals take drugs: ´Once in the gay world, we often became obsessed with never
being excluded again by the popular crowd. For many young men today that obsession leads
them to ingest or inj ect themselves with powerful and dangerous steroids, a trend that appears
to have begun slowly in the 1980s and taken off in the past few years´ (Signorile, 1997a).
On J une 21, 1998, the San Francisco radio station KGO AM warned about combining nitrite
inhalants with Pfizer´s new erection enhancing drug Viagra (both drugs are vasodilators).
Several deaths had occurred among male homosexuals in Southern California who had used
these drugs in combination. The warning followed one issued by The Lancet on combining
orthodox nitrite prescriptions with Viagra: ´...Pfizer and the US FDA confirmed that [by May]
six deaths had occurred among the million or so men who have used Viagra since its approval
on March 27 [1998]´ (Bradbury, 1998).
Thus, male homosexuals with AIDS and at risk for AIDS have continued to use drugs in the
HIV era to this date, although drug use is no longer investigated as a possible cause of AIDS.
Remarkably, not one of the many, NIH-sponsored single- or multi-center cohort studies
recording drug use by homosexual men with AIDS or at risk for AIDS has ever identified, or
tried to identify, even one AIDS patient who was drug-free (Lauritsen, 1994; Lauritsen &
Young, 1997) (see page 101 and Table 2)!

1% of AIDS patients are babies who shared drugs with their mothers before birth
In the US, between 500 and 800 babies are listed annually as pediatric AIDS cases by the CDC
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995; Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 1997). In Europe also, about 500 to 600 babies are annually recorded as AIDS
patients (World Health Organization, 1995b). Numerous reports confirm that the mothers of
about 80% of these babies were intravenous drug users during pregnancy (Mok et al., 1987;
Blanche et al., 1989; European Collaborative Study, 1991; Duesberg, 1992a; Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 1995; Drug Strategies, 1995; World Health Organization,
1995b; Moye et al., 1996; Rodriguez et al., 1996). The remaining 20% of AIDS babies from
non-drug using mothers probably represent the long-established background of infant
morbidity and mortality due to congenital diseases, malnutrition and poverty.
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A survey by the NIDA conducted in 1994 extends and confirms this scenario: ´More than 5
percent (221,000) of the 4 million women who give birth each year use illicit drugs during
their pregnancy´ (Drug Strategies, 1995). And the Office of the National Drug Control Policy
estimates that ´3.2% of the pregnant women (approximately 80,000)´ are drug users (White
House Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1998). Thus, many more infants have shared
drugs with their mothers as embryos than are showing up as AIDS babies.

Drugs - the common denominator of AIDS in America and Europe: (b) the
anti-HIV drugs and the 'polypharmacy' of anti-AIDS drugs
In the name of the hypothesis that HIV causes AIDS, several DNA chain-terminators and other
chemicals have been licensed since 1987 to cure and prevent AIDS by inhibiting HIV
replication. The first of these was the DNA chain-terminator AZT (Kolata, 1987; Nussbaum,
1990; Duesberg, 1996d).

DNA chain- terminators and protease inhibitors as anti-HIV drugs


Between 1987 and 1996, annually about 200,000 American and a smaller number of European
HIV-positives with and without AIDS were put on lifelong prescriptions of cytotoxic DNA
chain-terminators such as AZT, as anti-HIV drugs (Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996d;
Duesberg, 1996c; Hall, 1996; Hodgkinson, 1996). As of 1996, about 150,000 HIV-positive
Americans take protease inhibitors that are prescribed as 'cocktails' in conj unction with two
DNA chain-terminators, instead of DNA chain-terminators only (Stolberg, 1997).
Because annually at least 200,000 HIV-positive Americans and Europeans with and without
AIDS are on anti-HIV drugs, but currently no more than about 70,000 HIV-positive Americans
and Europeans develop AIDS per year (see Introduction), it follows that most American and
European AIDS patients are on these anti-HIV drugs. Indeed, in 1998 a national survey has
confirmed directly that all American AIDS patients are on anti-HIV drugs (Perlman, 1998).
As of 1993, even HIV-free babies participate in the AZT epidemic, because HIV-positive
pregnant women are treated for the last two trimesters with AZT in the hope of preventing
HIV transmission (Connor et al., 1994). Although the risk to such children of picking up HIV
from their mothers is only 25%, and is only reduced by AZT from 25% to 8%, all HIV-positive
pregnant women are inj ected with AZT during the second and third trimesters, and their babies
are inj ected for six weeks after birth to prevent transmission of HIV, the hypothetical cause of
AIDS (Connor et al., 1994; Cotton, 1994; The Lancet, 1994).

´Polypharmacy´ of anti-HIVIAIDS drugs


The consumption of AZT and other DNA chainterminators by healthy HIV-positives at risk for
AIDS and by AIDS patients is typically supplemented by a bewildering list of further
prescription and over-the-counter drugs. A list of 23 anti-HIV/AIDS drugs taken by 2801
American HIV-positives, including 524 AIDS patients, is recorded in Table 3 (Hayes et al.,
1994). Nearly all of these HIV-positives were male homosexuals (83%) or intravenous drug
users (12%) who took those drugs because they wanted to prevent or cure AIDS. Another study
entitled 'Polypharmacy among patients attending an AIDS clinic: Utilization of prescribed,
unorthodox, and investigational treatments' describes even higher drug use by 189
HIV-positives from San Francisco, of which 94% were male homosexuals and 2% were
intravenous drug users (Greenblatt et al., 1991). In telephone interviews, 96% of these people
reported prescription drugs; 67%, over-the-counter drugs; 31%, investigational drugs; 29%,
recreational drugs; and 29%, ´alternative´ drugs. An average of 2.3 medications were taken
simultaneously by healthy HIV-positives and 5.6 medications were taken simultaneously by
those with AIDS symptoms. The authors of the study 'conclude that use of polypharmacy
among some AIDS clinic patients is common, could create an increased risk for adverse drug
reactions, and may affect clinical drug trials.' A recent study describing hepatitis as a side
effect of protease inhibitors also acknowledges simultaneous prescription of 6 to 12 additional
drugs, including DNA chain-terminators, to each of three patients (Braeu et al., 1997).
According to an AIDS conference in Chicago, hydroxyurea, another inhibitor of DNA
synthesis long used for chemotherapy of leukemia, is now used as ´'the first inexpensive drug
... for the 50 percent of HIV-positive Americans not receiving treatment because of its cost´
(Maugh 11, 1998).
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Some insiders have described how the


medical establishment urges HIV-positives T able 3 :
1)
to take countless anti-HIV drugs and how Anti- HIV/AIDS dr ugs tak en by HIV- pos itives
these drugs affect their lives. In ´Checking Drug H I V - p o s i t i ve s
in, my chart´ the HIV-positive playwright (n=2,801)
Larry Kramer describes his own A n t i - i n f e c t i v e s ( s e e b e l o w) 1,584 (57%)
Analgesics/antipyretics 1,539 (55%)
polypharmacy of 19 drugs composed by Vitamins 1,307 (47%)
several AIDS luminaries such as Anthony Antihistamines 810 (29%)
Fauci, David Ho, J oseph Sonnabend, Alvin A n t a c i d s / a n t i d i a f f h e t i c s / l a xa t i v e s 571 (20%)
A n xi o l y t i c s / s e d a t i v e s 517 (18%)
Friedman-Kien, and others: Corticosteroids (topical/systemic) 423 (15%)
AZT, acyclovir [for genital herpes], Sympathornimetics (adrenergics) 381 (14%)
Zantac, colchicine [mitosis blocker], Antidepressants/tranquilizers 323 (12%)
propranolol, spironolactone, myphyston A n t i t u s s i v e s / e xp e c t o r a n t s 316 (11%)
Electrolytic/caloric diuretics 280 (10%)
[for liver cirrhosis and hepatitis], Euc- Cardiovascular 195 (7%)
erin, Moisturel, Retin-A, mycolog, Vaccines 133 (5%)
flucinonide, sulfacet-r, Nizoral [fungal None of the above (confirmed 0 (0%)
dermatitis], Hisminal and Humbid Anti-Infectives by name
[bronchitis], and Shaklee vitamins, zinc, Penicillins 550 (20%)
NAC and a 'turquoise stone which a Acyclovir 476 (17%)
fortune teller, many years ago, advised' Topical antifungals 442 (16%)
Erythromycin 376 (13%)
(Kramer, 1994) - for an annual price tag Aerosolized pentamidine 260 (9%)
of $19,000 (Kramer, 1996). Cephalosporins 254 (9%)
C o - t r i m o xa z o l e 246 (9%)
The polypharmacy of the AIDS patient Peter Systemic antifungals 244 (9%)
Di Giulio from San Francisco, who suffers Tetracyclines 210 (7%)
from weight loss, chronic diarrhea, skin Miscellaneous ß-Iactam 83 (3%)
Dapsone 84 (3%)
ailments, and neuropathy, even exceeds that
1)
of Kramer. At an annual cost of j ust over (Fogelman et al., 1994)
$41,000, ´Di Giulio has no choice but to
organize his life around his medications´: the DNA chain terminators d4T, 3TC; Cytovene (for
cytomegalovirus) and Zovirax (for herpes); the protease inhibitor Crixivan; the antifungals
Diflucan and Septra (for PCP); anti-mycobacterials Biaxin and Myambutol; the antidiarrheal
Lomotil; Valium for anxiety; and an assortment of ten vitamins and supplements (Tuller,
1996).
The polypharmacy against AIDS also extends to HIV-positive children. The treatments
prescribed to an American group of 20 boys and 22 girls with an average age of 11 years serve
as an example. These children were originally diagnosed as HIV-positive only at 7 years of
age or later, but were HIV-positive from birth due to perinatally acquired HIV (Grubman et
al., 1995). At the time of HIV diagnosis, 5 of 42 (12%) had some AIDS-defining disease. Yet
all but two of the children were put on anti-HIV/AIDS drugs:
Most of the children are receiving multiple chronic medications, with 90.5% (38 of 42)
receiving antiretroviral therapy; 78.6% (33 of 42) receiving PCP prophylaxis; 33.3% (14 of
42) receiving fungal prophylaxis; and 23.8% (10 of 42) receiving herpesvirus prophylaxis.
Among the children receiving antiretroviral therapy, 78.9% (30 of 38) are receiving
zidovudine [AZT]. Other medications frequently prescribed include meter dose inhalers for
reactive airway disease in 33.3% (14 of 42) of patients and nutritional supplements for
failure to thrive and wasting syndrome in 52.4% (22 of 42) of patients. Only 2 of the 42
children in the cohort are not receiving any medications, with 4 receiving one medication;
14 receiving two; 10 receiving between 3 and 5; and 12 receiving between 6 and 12
different medications daily. Sixty-two percent (26 of 42) of the children receive monthly
intravenous infusions of immunoglobulin (Grubman et al., 1995).
A similar study ´evaluated the safety and efficacy of a three drug regimen in a small group of
maternally infected infants´ -who had no disease (Luzuriaga et al., 1997). The ´asymptomatic
patients´ were eight babies, 2 to 8 months old, who were experimentally ´treated´ for six
months with two DNA chain terminators, AZT and didanosine, and a protease inhibitor
´without clinically important adverse effects.´

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HIV - a surrogate marker for recreational drug use


Although standard chemical drug testing of AIDS patients is never reported, and even
inquiries about drug use have all but ended since HIV has become the consensus cause of
AIDS, unreported drug use can still be estimated with surrogate markers. An ideal marker to
study drug use should be one that (1) does not cause a disease by itself, and (2) is rare in
non-drug users, but common in drug users. It may come as a surprise that HIV meets these
conditions exactly.

HIV a harmless passenger virus


Whereas the staggering AIDS literature has failed to prove that HIV causes AIDS, it has
proved that HIV is a passenger virus (Duesberg, 1994; Duesberg, 1996c; Duesberg & Bialy,
1996). Since a passenger virus is not the cause of a disease, it can be defined as follows:
1. The time of infection relative to the onset of any disease is irrelevant, and unpredictable.
2. The virus can be either active or inactive or latent, i.e. neutralized by antibody, during
disease.
3. The virus can be totally absent from the disease.
Indeed, HIV meets each of these criteria:
1. HIV typically infects decades before AIDS occurs (the so-called latent period of HIV), if
AIDS occurs at all (Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg, 1996c). Unless a person is also a drug user,
his or her AIDS risk cannot be predicted from HIV.
2. HIV is typically latent during AIDS because it is neutralized by antibodies (Duesberg,
1993c; Duesberg & Bialy, 1996).
3. Thousands of HIV-free AIDS cases have been reported (Duesberg, 1993e). Thus, HIV is a
prototypical passenger virus.
The AIDS literature has further shown that HIV is naturally transmitted perinatally (Duesberg,
1992a; Connor et al., 1994; Duesberg, 1994; Duesberg, 1996c). Indeed, perinatal transmission
of HIV is 25 to 50% efficient (Duesberg, 1988; Duesberg, 1992a; Connor et al., 1994;
Hallauer & Kupsch, 1997), but sexual transmission is less than 0.1% efficient (Peterman et al.,
1988; Jacquez et al., 1994; Padian et al., 1997). Therefore, HIV depends on perinatal
transmission for survival - j ust like all other retroviruses (Duesberg, 1987; Duesberg, 1992a).
Because pathogenicity during perinatal transmission would be incompatible with the survival
of the host, all perinatally transmitted viruses or microbes must be harmless (Duesberg, 1992a;
Duesberg, 1996d). It is for this reason that antibody against HIV is found in at least 17
million healthy humans, including 1 million healthy Americans and 0.5 million healthy
Europeans (Figure 1) (Merson, 1993; World Health Organization, 1995a; Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 1997). This is also why HIV was only discovered recently after
technology had been developed to detect latent viruses (Duesberg, 1987; Duesberg, 1992a;
Duesberg, 1996d; Duesberg & Bialy, 1996). By contrast, all pathogenic viruses were
discovered long ago by the diseases that they cause. Thus, HIV is a harmless passenger virus.

HIV is rare in the US and Europe, and extremely hard to transmit horizontally
HIV is very rare in the non-drug-using population of the US and Europe. Only one out of 260
Americans, and one out of 900 Europeans, are HIV-positive (Figure 1A, C). Moreover, HIV
does not readily spread from its established reservoir because it is very difficult to transmit
horizontally (as compared to perinatally). It takes, on average, over 1000 sexual contacts with
an HIV-positive individual (Peterman et al., 1988; J acquez et al., 1994; Padian et al., 1997),
or parenteral transmission via frequent inj ection of unsterile street drugs, or blood
transfusion, to acquire HIV (Duesberg, 1992a). The inefficiency of transmission reflects the
absence of infectious virus, and the very low percentage of even latently infected cells (about
I per 1000) in antibody-positive persons (Duesberg, 1989; Duesberg, 1992a; Duesberg &
Bialy, 1996).

Antibody against HIV and other rare microbes are markers for drug use
The more frequently a person inj ects unsterile drugs, and the more sexual partners a person
has, the more likely that individual is to become infected with a rare microbe (Durack, 1981;
Stewart, 1989; Mullis, 1995). Because recreational drugs are typically used to achieve the
average of 1000 sexual contacts that are necessary to transmit HIV sexually (Durack, 1981;

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Fiala & Lingens, 1997), antibody against HIV is a marker for drug use in the US and Europe,
where HIV is rare. In the words of a drug addiction counselor from Washington DC, ´addiction
to drugs, or at least heavy drug use, is the number one cause of HIV infection´ (Bergling,
1997).
Antibodies against other rare passenger viruses are also surrogate markers for recreational
drug use. These include Hepatitis B virus (Duesberg, 1992a), the human T-cell leukemia virus
that was once considered the cause of AIDS (Gallo et al., 1983), a recently discovered herpes
virus, termed HHV-8, which is currently considered a cause of Kaposi´s sarcoma (Cohen,
1994b; Ganem, 1997), cytornegalovirus, also once considered a cause of AIDS, and many
other rare viruses and microbes (Durack, 1981; Sonnabend et al., 1983; Stewart, 1989;
Duesberg, 1992a).
Thus, the high incidence of antibodies against HIV and other rare passenger viruses and
microbes in AIDS patients is direct confirmation of many parenteral and sexual contacts, and
is indirect confirmation of long-term recreational drug use. But before we can determine
whether drugs may cause AIDS, we must determine whether AIDS occurs without drugs.

Drug-free AIDS in America and Europe?


As yet, there is not a single study in the huge body of AIDS literature that has ever described
a significant group of American or European AIDS patients (rather than isolated anecdotal
cases that fit the HIV hypothesis) who did not use recreational or anti-viral drugs or both
(Table 2) (Lauritsen, 1994; Duesberg, 1995b). Although the CDC lists ´heterosexual contacts´
as a ´category´ of AIDS patients, it never provides evidence that the small percentage of AIDS
cases from this by far largest AIDS-risk category of adults is drug-free based on conventional
drug tests (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997). Indeed, the drug connection has
been the Achilles' heel of the infectious-AIDS hypothesis from the very beginning.
In 1983, Curran (page 92) and other CDC officials, led by the CDC retrovirologist Don
Francis, abandoned the lifestyle hypothesis in favor of ´epidemiologic evidence for a
transmissible agent´ (Francis et al., 1983). At this occasion, the CDC took the unprecedented
step to commission an experimental study to refute the epidemiologically irrefutable
nitrite-AIDS hypothesis (see Table 2) (J affe et al., 1983). The study was designed to test the
immune system of mice after exposure of a few months to nitrite inhalants. The conclusion
was published anonymously on one page in the CDC´s Morbidity Mortality Weekly Reports:
´None of the animals exposed to IBN [isobutyl nitrite] showed any evidence of immunotoxic
reactions... [Yet there was] some evidence of thymic atrophy, possibly stress-related...'
(Centers for Disease Control, 1983). Considering that T-cell deficiency is the hallmark of
AIDS, it is hard to understand how the CDC could have dismissed 'thymic atrophy' in mice
exposed to nitrites as 'stress -related.´
In a renewed effort to dissociate AIDS from drug use, Nature commissioned in 1993 an
epidemiological ´commentary´ on an NIH-sponsored cohort of homosexual AIDS patients from
San Francisco, investigated by Michael Ascher et al. (Ascher et al., 1993). Simultaneously,
The Lancet published an epidemiological paper on such patients from Vancouver (Schechter et
al., 1993b). Surprisingly, all AIDS patients enlisted in these studies reported abundant drug
use: virtually all had used nitrites, most had also used cocaine and amphetamines, and most
were also on DNA chainterminators such as AZT (see Table 2) (Duesberg, 1993a; Duesberg,
1993d; Schechter et al., 1993c; Ascher et al., 1995a; Ellison et al., 1996).
The authors circumvented this confounding problem by comparing patients for the presence of
HIV and only one specific drug at a time. Since the correlation with HIV is always 100% by
definition (page 91) - even the most popular drug will eventually lose out: ´when controlled
for HIV serostatus, there is no overall effect of drug use on AIDS´ (Ascher et al., 1993). Thus,
both studies refuted drugs as a cause of AIDS without offering even one drug-free AIDS
patient (Ascher et al., 1993; Schechter et al., 1993c)!
Ascher et al. were indeed so determined to separate drugs from AIDS that they drew a curve of
´drugfree´ HIV-positive AIDS patients losing their T-cells over time. This curve was displayed
on a blue-colored background in the Nature commentary (Ascher et al., 1993). But not even
three published requests for the source of the 'drug-free' AIDS patients persuaded the authors
to share the documentation for their curve, giving the impression that their ´drug-free´ group
was an empty set (Duesberg, 1993b; Duesberg, 1993d; Duesberg, 1993a; Ellison et al., 1996).
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Indeed, an independent analysis of the database of Ascher et al. confirmed that impression and
also revealed that Ascher et al. had omitted from their paper 45 HIV-free, but drug-using,
patients with AIDS-defining diseases (Ellison et al., 1996).
Despite the highly personalized style of the Nature commentary (Duesberg's name was
mentioned 13 times), Nature´s editor J ohn Maddox refused to publish Duesberg´s letter
inquiring about the confounding problem of the Ascher article in an editorial entitled ´Has
Duesberg a right of reply ?´ (Maddox, 1993). But after The Lancet and Science published
critical letters (Duesberg, 1993d; Duesberg, 1993a; Duesberg, 1995a), Ascher et al. replied
two years later in Science, ´The proposed AIDS-drug use association is a classic example of
confounding, that is, a suggestion of a correlation caused by the association of a spurious
factor (drug use) with a factor (HIV infection) causally related to the outcome (AIDS). The
standard statistical methods that we used to differentiate cause from confounding factors
showed, in this case, that HIV was the cause and that drug-use association was spurious´
(Ascher et al., 1995b). Thus, neither Nature nor The Lancet could find authors that were able
to dissociate AIDS from drugs.
With so much encouragement from editors of leading j ournals, the San Francisco and
Vancouver groups teamed up with Australian and Dutch colleagues to refute drugs as the cause
of homosexual AIDS once more (Veugelers et al., 1994). Again, all of 403 AIDS patients
studied reported extensive drug use, particularly nitrites, and many were also on AZT (see
Table 2). The ´relative [AIDS] hazard´ for nitrite use was 1.03 and for AZT use was 1.04. Yet
the authors concluded: ´No relation ... of alcohol, tobacco, and recreational drugs with rates
of disease progression could be demonstrated,´ and ´the observed relations between
zidovudine [AZT] and faster progression from seroconversion to death should not be
interpreted as causal´ -but they could be (see page 117)!
But the CDC, Ascher et al., Schechter et al. and their ´tricontinental´ alliance were not the
only AIDS epidemiologists who have failed to dissociate AIDS from drugs as the following
titles of their articles reveal:
1. AIDS and intravenous drug use: the real heterosexual epidemic (Moss, 1987).
2. A larger spectrum of severe HIV-I-related disease in intravenous drug users in New York
City (Stoneburner et al., 1988).
3. Cocaine abuse and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: tale of two epidemics (Lerner,
1989).
4. The Twin Epidemics of Substance Use and HIV (National Commission on AIDS, J uly
1991).
5. AIDS, drugs of abuse and the immune system: a complex immunotoxicological network
(Pillai et al., 1991).
6. Entangled epidemics: cocaine use and HIV disease (Larrat & Zierler, 1993).
7. Recreational drugs and sexual behavior in the Chicago MACS/CCS cohort of
homosexually active men (Ostrow et al., 1993).
8. New picture of who will get AIDS is dominated by addicts (Kolata, 1995).
9. Clinical features of drug use and drug use related to HIV (Brettle, 1996).
10. Tuberculosis, AIDS, and death among substance abusers on Welfare in New York City
(Friedman et al., 1996).
11. The influence of drug use patterns on the rate of CD4+ lymphocyte decline among
HIV-1-infected inj ecting drug users (Lyles et al., 1997).
12. Immunodulation by nitrite inhalants may predispose abusers to AIDS and Kaposi's
sarcoma (Soderberg, 1998).
In searching for a drug-free, homosexual AIDS patient, the AIDS reporter J ohn Lauritsen
interviewed Michael Callen, a founder of the People With AIDS Coalition (Lauritsen &
Young, 1997). According to Lauritsen, ´possibly no one personally knew more persons with
AIDS than Michael Callen.´ Indeed, Callen reports in his book, Surviving AIDS, his over 3000
sexual contacts and extensive drug use before he adopted a monogamous lifestyle (Callen,
1990). Asked whether "he had ever encountered a gay male person with AIDS who did not fit
the profile of vene real diseases, antibiotics, drugs..., his answer was: ´No. Not in eleven
years. I have gone to a great deal of trouble to find these people. I found ten, who were saying
in public, ´I only had one or two contacts,´ ... [but] each one ended up telling me they had
been lying ... in the support group setting, they would regale us with tales of bathhouses and
promiscuity and lovers on the side and drug use" (Lauritsen & Young, 1997). Thus, neither
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individual investigators, nor the CDC, nor other government statistics have ever shown that, in
the HIV era, the incidence of AIDS-defining diseases among non-drug-users has exceeded
long-established, national backgrounds.
Nevertheless, a few American and European drugfree AIDS patients must exist based on the
CDC´s AIDS defintion (see page 90 and 91). They would represent the normal incidence of the
30 AIDS-defining diseases among HIV-positive Americans and Europeans under the new name
AIDS (World Health Organization, 1995b; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996).

The drug-AIDS hypothesis


In view of the epidemiological evidence that (1) AIDS is compatible with a lifestyle, but
totally incompatible with infectious disease, and (2) over 95% of all American and European
AIDS patients are long-term users of drugs, we propose the following hypothesis that
consistently explains and predicts American and European AIDS:
The long-term consumption of recreational drugs, such as cocaine, heroin, nitrite
inhalants, and amphetamines, and prescriptions of anti-HIV drugs, such as AZT, cause all
AIDS diseases in America and Europe that exceed their long-established, national
backgrounds, i.e. >95%. Chemically distinct drugs cause distinct AIDS-defining diseases;
for example, nitrite inhalants cause Kaposi´s sarcoma, cocaine causes weight loss, and
AZT causes immunodeficiency, lymphoma, muscle atrophy, and dementia. Hemophilia-
AIDS, transfusion-AIDS, and the extremely rare AIDS cases that appear in the non
drug-using population reflect the normal incidence plus the AZT-induced incidence of
these diseases under a new name.
This hypothesis explains why AIDS is non-contagious. If correct, the hypothesis must also be
able to (1) explain why AIDS occurred in the 1980s, and (2) why it is non-random with regard
to sex, sexual orientation, and age, and (3) offer proof that drugs cause AIDS. In the following
we show that the drug hypothesis meets all of these criteria.

AIDS occurred in the ´80s because it is a clinical subset of the


contemporary American and European drug epidemics
A brief survey of recreational drug use in America and Europe reveals why AIDS is new and
why it is nonrandom with regard to sex and age.

Chronology of the drug epidemic in the US


During and after the Vietnam War, and j ust prior to the AIDS epidemic, the number of regular
users of illicit recreational drugs in America soared from a negligible background to a high of
25 million, or about 10% of Americans in the late ´70s and ´80s (Clinton & The White House,
1996). The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reported an estimated 937,400 state and
local drug arrests for drug law violations in the US in 1987 (White House Office of National
Drug Control Policy, 1998). And the San Francisco Chronicle reported in 1998 that 70% of
the inmates in the federal prisons are drug offenders (Carman, 1998). According to the Bureau
of Justice Statistics and historians (J onnes, 1996), this sudden epidemic of drug addiction
followed a 40 year period (from before World War II until the upsurge in the 1970s) during
which there was very little illicit recreational drug use (Bureau of J ustice Statistics, 1992).
Since its peak in the late 1980s, the epidemic has declined to an estimated 13 million regular
users in 1996, or about 5% of the 260 million Americans (Los Angeles Times, 1998; White
House Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1998). Likewise, spending on illegal drugs has
declined from $91 billion in 1988 to $53.7 billion in 1995 (Associated Press, 1997).
Based on specific drugs, the epidemic breaks down into subepidemics of cocaine, heroin,
amphetamines, and other drugs.

Cocaine
The director of the NIDA wrote in 1985 that, ´Over the past 10 years, cocaine ... has evolved
from a relatively minor problem into a maj or public health threat´ (Schuster, 1985) with a
´negligible´ number of users in 1973 and 9,946 non-fatal and 580 fatal medical cases in 1985
(Kozel & Adams, 1986). The numbers of cocaine patients have since increased even more to
80,355 in 1990, and to a plateau of about 140,000 in the mid 1990s (Figure 1B and Table 4).
In 1996, the number of regular cocaine users had reached 3.6 million, with 28 million who had
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at least tried the drug once in their lifetime (Bureau of J ustice Statistics, 1992; Office of
National Drug Control Policy, 1996; McEvoy et al., 1998). Clearly, cocaine is the most
popular illegal drug in America, accounting for $38 billion of the $53.7 billion spent on
illegal drugs in 1995 (Associated Press, 1997; White House Office of National Drug Control
Policy, 1998). Another measure of the popularity of the drug is that by 1997, 78% of all
one-dollar bills in the US contained chemically detectable amounts of cocaine from using
these bills for drug inhalation (New York Times, 1997).
T able 4.
1)
Chr onology of dis eas es and death f r om illic it r ec r eational dr ug us e in the US
Drug e ve n t 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
cocaine death - 2,938 3,285 3,633 3,687 - -
hospital 80,355 101,189 119,843 123,423 142,878 142,494 144,180
amphetamines death - 252 334 566 751 - -
hospital 8,800 7,363 10,615 15,630 17,665 17,547 16,787
heroin death - 2,260 2,782 3,558 3,522 - -
hospital 33,884 35,898 48,003 63,232 64,013 76,023 70,463
all drugs death - 6,246 6,870 7,602 8,541 9,216 -
hospital 371,208 393,968 433,493 460,910 518,521 531,827 487,564
1)
(U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 1993; U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 1994;
Drug Strategies, 1995; Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1996; US Department of Health & Human
Services & Public Health Service & Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA),
1996; W hite House Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1998).

T able 5.
1
Dr ugs c onf is c ated in the USA Eur opean Union, and G er m any bef or e and af ter the dr ug
2
ex plos ion ( 'Dr ogen- Ex plos ion')
Drug USA European Union Germany
before after before after
(kilograms)
cocaine 500(1980) 100,000 (1990-96) 29,000 (1994) 0.09(1963) 1,846 (1995)
heroin 1,500 (1990-95) 5,900 (1994) 1.8 (1968) 933 (1995)
amphetamines 1,900 (1994) 6.6 (1972) 138 (1995)
cannabis 733,400 (1994) 5.5 (1962) 14,245 (1995)
(doses)
amphetamines, 2 million (1981) 97 million (1989) 1.25 million (1994) 730 (1987) 700,000 (1996)
ecstasy
LSD 61,000 (1994) 10 (1967) 71,069 (1995)
1 (Flanagan & Maguire, 1989; Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1991; Duesberg, 1996b; Office of National Drug
Control Policy, 1996; W hite House Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1998);
2 (Deutsche Hauptstelle gegen die Suchtgefahren, 1996; Springer Verlag, 1996; Holtermann, 1997); and
Section 8.

From 1980 to 1990, imports of cocaine have increased two-hundredfold, from two tons to 400
tons, and have since been kept at this level (Figure 1B, Table 5) (Duesberg, 1992a; Clinton &
The White House, 1996; Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1996). These data are based
on cocaine seizures that increased from 500 kg in 1980 to 100 tons in 1990 and have since
remained at this level (Flanagan & Maguire, 1989; Bureau of J ustice Statistics, 1991; Office
of National Drug Control Policy, 1996; White House Office of National Drug Control Policy,
1998), and on estimates that no more than 10-20% of the imported cocaine is confiscated
(Anderson, 1987; Clinton & The White House, 1996; Associated Press, 1997). This
corresponds to about 110 g for each of the 3.6 million regular users per year, which is rather
close to the estimated daily consumption of 1g per day per addict (Schnoll et al., 1985;
Volkow et al., 1997).

Heroin
Between 1992 and 1995 about 1,500 kg of heroin were confiscated annually (Table 5) (Office
of National Drug Control Policy, 1996). In view of these statistics, the San Francisco
Chronicle warned in 1996 that 'a growing segment of the population [is] attracted by its
[heroin] deadly mystique and encouraged by its low prices ...´ (Evenson & Whiting, 1996).
According to the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) of the Department of Health and
Human Services (HHS), heroin deaths climbed from 2,260 in 1991 to 3,522 in 1994 (Table 4).
Heroin-related hospital emergencies increased over fivefold from 12,000 in 1978 to a plateau
of about 70,000 in the mid 1990s (Table 4 and Figure 1B). The heroin epidemic accounted for
$10 billion of the $53.7 billion spent on drugs in 1995 (Associated Press, 1997).
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Amphetamines
Based on US government statistics, the amounts of amphetamine confiscated have spiraled
fiftyfold in the 1980s, from 2 million doses in 1981 to 97 million doses in 1989 (Table 5)
(Flanagan & Maguire, 1989). According to the US Department of HHS, ´amphetamine-related
emergency room episodes... [presenting with] violent paranoid behavior as well as stroke,
seizure and death ... ´ (Drug Strategies, 1996) increased from 8,800 in 1990 to about 17,000 in
the mid 1990s (Table 4). In California, amphetamine or ´speed´ hospitalizations rose even
faster: from 1,466 in 1984 to 10, 167 in 1994 (Russell, 1996; Wallace, 1996).
It is apparent from the data shown in Figure I A, B that the chronology of the American drug
epidemic closely paralleled that of the American AIDS epidemic.

Chronology of the drug epidemic in Europe


In the 1970s, Europe was also hit by a drug explosion (´Drogen-Explosion´) (Springer Verlag,
1996). For example, German consumption of cocaine, heroin, amphetamines, LSD, and
cannabis increased one thousand to ten thousand fold from the 1960s to the 1990s based on the
amounts confiscated by the Bundeskriminalamt (Table 5). These drugs are consumed by 2
million regular users, or 5% of the 80 million Germans, including 120,000 heroin addicts and
80,000 users of inhalants (´Schnueffelstoffe´), and 5.8 million who have tried drugs at some
time in their life (Deutsche Hauptstelle gegen die Suchtgefahren, 1996; Springer Verlag,
1996). The Lancet confirmed that ´in the UK [cocaine] abuse has also reached epidemic
proportions, with the abuse of Ecstasy in particular being associated with the ´rave culture´´
(McEvoy et al., 1998).
Drug consumption by the combined European Union almost matches, and in the case of heroin,
even exceeds the American epidemic, based on the amounts confiscated (Table 5). For
example, 5.9 tons of heroin were confiscated in Europe in 1994, compared to 1.5 tons in the
US. At the same time, 29 tons of cocaine, 1.9 tons of amphetamines, 733 tons of cannabis and
61,000 doses of LSD and 1.25 million doses of ecstasy were seized in the European Union in
1994 (Springer Verlag, 1996). In the first five months of 1995, 8.7 tons of heroin, 21 tons of
cocaine, 769 tons of cannabis, and 1.87 tons of amphetamines were confiscated in Europe
(Deutsche Hauptstelle gegen die Suchtgefahren, 1996).
The European drug epidemic chronologically paralleled the AIDS epidemic: there were 1312
drug deaths in 1981; 1424 in 1985; 4506 in 1990; and 4566 in 1995 (Figure 1C), (Deutsche
Hauptstelle gegen die Suchtgefahren, 1996), and there were a few dozen AIDS cases in 1981;
about 1000 in 1985; 12,000 in 1990; and about 20,000 in 1995 (Figure 1C), (World Health
Organization, 1995b; World Health Organisation, 1996). Thus, both the European and
American drug epidemics parallel the respective AIDS epidemics.

Both drug use and AIDS are non-random and spread non-exponentially

Sex and age of the AIDS epidemic match those of the drug epidemic
The National Drug Control Strategy: 1996 from the White House reports that 78% of the hard
recreational drug users are males (Clinton & The White House, 1996). Earlier studies have
reported similar non-random sex distributions, that is, that between 70 and 80% were males
(Table 6). As in America, 66% of the German drug users are males (Deutsche Hauptstelle
gegen die Suchtgefahren, 1996; Fietz, 1997). Thus, male drug users outnumber females
between two and fiftyfold (e.g. nitrites, page 95) depending on the drug used.
All American consumers of hard recreational drugs such as cocaine, heroin, and amphetamines
are over 18 and under 54 years of age (Table 6). The National Drug Control Strategy: 1996
reports that 74% of the drug users are 21-44 years old (Clinton & The WhiteHouse, 1996).
Almost all drug decedents are also over 18 and under 54 years of age, and most are over 25
(Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1996) (Table 6). Germans who have used illegal
drugs were also between 18 to 59 years old (Deutsche Hauptstelle gegen die Suchtgefahren,
1996). And 83% of the 15,000 first-time users in 1995 were over 21 years old (Springer
Verlag, 1996).
A breakdown according to sexual persuasion is offered by Kim Gilliam, the drug addiction
counselor from Washington, DC cited above: 'Addiction knows no boundaries, but in the gay
community you find addicts of all ages. It's j ust not like that in the heterosexual population,
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where the addicts are generally younger' (Bergling, 1997). Indeed, according to a continental
European investigation, the median age at death of mostly heterosexual, intravenous drug
users is 30 years (Lockemann et al., 1995). The average age of a small group of English drug
patients was 31 (McEvoy et al., 1998). Their American counterparts die between 25 and 44
years (Stoneburner et al., 1988; Hayes et al., 1994).
Thus, sex and age of those dying
from drugs matches that of those T able 6
Dr ug deaths and dis eas es in the USA by age and s ex
dying from AIDS. 1)
1990- 1994
The dynamics of the AIDS and drugs % male % 1 8 - 5 4 ye a r s
2)
cocaine users 70,82 99
drug epidemics coincide hospitals 67
The dynamics of the AIDS and drug deaths 80
2)
heroin users 69,83 99
epidemics also closely overlap as the hospitals 71
following two examples show: (1) In deaths 83
1997 the CDC reported that annual amphetamines users 80 97
hospitals 61
AIDS cases had continued to drop deaths 79
3)
since 1993, with a 19% drop from nitrites users 98 >98
hospitals
1996 (Centers for Disease Control deaths
and Prevention, 1997; Stolberg, all combined users
4)
75, 78 , 86
5)
>75
1997). The department gave the hospitals 71
deaths 77
credit for the decline to the new 1) (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992; U.S. Department of Health
anti-HIV drug cocktails (Centers for & Human Services, 1993; U.S. Department of Health & Human
Disease Control and Prevention, Services, 1994; Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1996)
2) (W esson & Smith, 1985)
1997; Stolberg, 1997; Russel, 1998). 3) (San Francisco Department of Public Health & Lesbian & Gay
Substance Abuse Planning Group, 1991; Ascher et al., 1993)
However, the CDC offered no 4) (Clinton & The W hite House, 1996)
evidence that dying AIDS patients 5) (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1988).
were untreated and those on the new cocktails were the ones living and free of AIDS. On the
contrary, the New York Times reported that AIDS patients died 'despite new AIDS drugs'
(Stolberg, 1997), and the San Francisco Examiner reported that the cocktails had j ust begun to
fail up to 50% of those treated (Krieger, 1997) (see page 121). Indeed a national survey j ust
confirmed that all American AIDS patients are dying on anti-HIV treatments (Perlman, 1998).
Moreover, the CDC failed to explain that their own AIDS statistics had started to decline in
1994, whereas the new anti-HIV cocktails were only introduced in 1996. This discrepancy was
even pointed out by an AIDS correspondent from Science magazine (Cohen, 1997a). It follows
that anti-HIV drugs are not a plausible explanation for the recent decline in AIDS cases.
The CDC also failed to consider information from another federal agency. The White House's
National Drug Control Strategy: 1998 reported that hard recreational drug use had declined
from 25 million regular users in the 1980s to a low of 13 million in 1996, and spending for
drugs had declined from $91 billion in 1988 to $53.7 billion in 1995 (see page 103) (Los
Angeles Times, 1998; White House Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1998). Thus, the
less than twofold decline of AIDS cases appears to be a product of two competing factors: (1)
a drop in recreational drug use, and (2) a steady increase in the use of AIDS-causing anti-HIV
drugs (see below).
(2) In an effort to close the 9:1 gender gap of its AIDS statistics, the CDC has reported since
the early '90s that women had become the fastest-growing AIDS risk group (Centers for
Disease Control, 1994), sometimes even at the cost of the truth (Bennett & Sharpe, 1996),
suggesting each time that heterosexual 'transmission' was the cause. Again, the CDC failed to
reconcile its publications with the fact that 'women account for the fastest-growing population
in j ails and prisons, in large part because of drug offenses' (Drug Strategies, 1995).
Thus, the epidemiology and chronology of AIDS even mirrors the dynamics of the drug
epidemic exactly, confirming the view that the AIDS epidemic is a clinical subset of the drug
epidemic. To prove this we need to investigate whether drugs cause AIDS.

Mechanisms of drug pathogenesis


Before we investigate whether drugs cause AIDS, it is helpful to consider mechanisms of drug
pathogenesis. In view of the popular hypothesis that AIDS is caused by a virus, it is important

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to clarify that drugs differ from viruses as a cause of diseases in dose-dependence, and in
time-dependence.

Dose-dependence
It was 500 years ago that Paracelsus von Hohenheim first defined the primary criterium of
drug toxicity: the dose makes the poison. A pathogenic dose of recreational or medical drugs
is typically achieved cumulatively by long-term consumption over many years. But it can also
be achieved in a single application as an overdose.
By contrast, viruses and microbes are largely independent of the input concentration as causes
of diseases, because viruses and microbes are selfreplicating poisons. Once introduced into a
susceptible host, they grow exponentially to pathogenic titers within days or weeks, provided
they are not inhibited by antiviral immunity (Stewart, 1968; Fenner et al., 1974; Mims &
White, 1984; Duesberg, 1996d; Duesberg, 1996c). Thus, viruses and most microbes are
typically dose-independent pathogens.

Time-dependence
Because drug toxicity is dosage dependent, drugs typically take a long time to cause disease if
taken at recreational or medical doses. This ´latent´ or grace period is a function of the
chemical toxicity and the concentration of the drug, and the ability of the body to repair drug
damage over time. As a result, it takes decades of smoking before irreversible diseases such as
lung cancer, emphysema, and heart disease occur, and it takes decades of alcoholism before
the liver becomes cirrhotic. Likewise, it took months of clinoquinol (Enterovioform(E))
prescriptions against intestinal parasites before blindness, termed severe myelo-optic
neuropathy (SMON), occured in Japan in the 1960s (Duesberg, 1996d). The carcinogenic
effects of diethylstilbestrol prescriptions against premature delivery were also only discovered
years after the prescriptions were taken (Pitot, 1986). Thus, drugs taken at recreational and
medical doses are slow pathogens because their toxicity is dosage dependent, and microbes are
fast pathogens because their toxicity is dosage independent.
Therefore, one would expect only a small fraction of drug users to develop diseases at a given
time, namely those who have persisted in using drugs for the longest time. Statistics confirm
this point. There are currently 50 million smokers in the US (Associated Press, 1995), but only
200,000 per year develop lung cancer (Parker et al., 1996). Many smokers never develop lung
cancer because they discontinue to smoke, do not smoke enough, or die from other causes
before they reach a critical threshold of toxicity.
On the basis of their interactions with the body, the recreational and anti-HIV drugs of AIDS
patients fall into two categories, those that are (1) indirectly toxic by functioning
catalytically, and those that are (2) cytotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic via chemical
reactions.

Indirectly toxic drugs


Cocaine, amphetamines, and heroin are indirectly toxic. All three function as catalysts of
neurotropic reactions (Wilson et al., 1996; Volkow et al., 1997). Cocaine and heroin are
natural compounds and amphetamines are synthetic adrenalines that were used in Germany
during World War II to suppress fatigue and anxiety in pilots and tank commanders (Weil &
Rosen, 1983). A typical daily dose of 1-2g of cocaine (Schnoll et al., 1985; Volkow et al.,
1997) or heroin (Wesson & Smith, 1985) or amphetamine (Wilson et al., 1996) consists of
about 1021 molecules, or 107 molecules for every one of the 1014 cells of the human body. At
that concentration these catalysts are so active that recipients forget to eat, to drink, and to
sleep, and lose many of the inhibitions that control undrugged life - the reason for their
popularity and eventual pathogenicity.
Weight loss, malnutrition, and insomnia are consequences of drug-induced suppression of
appetite and fatigue (Layon et al., 1984; Lerner, 1989; Pillai et al., 1991; Duesberg, 1992a;
Larrat & Zierler, 1993; Mientj es et al., 1993; Sadownick, 1994; Bergling, 1997). According to
Maurice Seligmann and Anthony Fauci, now leading proponents of the HIV hypothesis in
France and the US, malnutrition is the world's leading cause of immunodeficiency (Seligmann
et al., 1984). These drug effects are compounded by poverty due to the enormous costs of

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illicit drugs. For example, an average cocaine habit of 1g per day costs $800 per week
(Schnoll et al., 1985).

Cytotoxic, immunotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic drugs


Nitrite inhalants react with all biological macromolecules, mutating and inactivating DNA and
RNA, diazotizing proteins, killing vitamins and oxidizing hemoglobin to inactive
methemoglobin (Lauritsen & Wilson, 1986; Haverkos & Dougherty, 1988b; Duesberg, 1992a).
As a result, they are cytotoxic and immunotoxic (Goedert et al., 1982; Haverkos & Dougherty,
1988b; Rataj czak et al., 1995), and able to function as carcinogens in animals and humans
(National Research Council, 1982; Pitot, 1986). At the recreational dose of 1ml per day (Dax
et al., 1988; Haverkos & Dougherty, 1988b), the user introduces about 1021 molecules into the
lungs, or 107 molecules for every cell in the human body - enough for abundant toxicity. The
cytotoxicity of nitrites on the epithelial cells of the lung is enhanced at least twofold by
cigarette smoke, which also suppresses the immune system (Nieman et al., 1993).
A standard daily prescription of 0.5 g AZT, ddI, and other DNA chain-terminators as anti-HIV
drugs corresponds to about 1021 molecules per body, or 107 per human cell. If taken up, this
is more than enough to kill growing cells by terminating DNA synthesis. The fast growing
immune cells, red cells, and epithelial cells of the gut are especially vulnerable (Merck
Research Laboratories, 1992; Chiu & Duesberg, 1995). Stopping the regeneration of these
cells over several days causes anemia, lymphocytopenia, hepatitis, nausea, and wasting disease
(Richman et al., 1987; Duesberg, 1992a; McLeod & Hammer, 1992; Freiman et al., 1993;
Retrovir, 1994). AZT also prevents mitochondrial DNA synthesis in nonproliferating cells,
causing muscle atrophy, hepatitis, and dementia (Duesberg, 1992a; Bacellar et al., 1994;
Parker & Cheng, 1994; Chiu & Duesberg, 1995).
The National Cancer Institute (NCI) first reported in 1990 that AZT, at doses used for AIDS
therapy, increases the annual lymphoma risk fifty-fold compared to untreated controls (Pluda
et al., 1990). Several unpublished studies by the NO have confirmed AZT to be carcinogenic
in mice (Table 8) (Cohen, 1987; Yarchoan & Broder, 1987; Cohen, 1997b). It is conceivable
that such studies have remained unpublished until after AZT was licensed and firmly
established because the Delaney Amendment prohibits the sale of drugs with carcinogenic
potential in the US (Pitot, 1986). If AZT were confirmed to be carcinogenic, which seems to
be the case, the NCI's first anti-HIV drug, and possibly all other DNA chain-terminators now
licensed by the Food and Drug Administration, would be illegal (Yarchoan & Broder, 1987;
Nussbaum, 1990; Duesberg, 1996d).

Scientific, legislative, and non-scientific evidence that recreational drugs


cause AIDS-defining and other diseases
There are four elements of proof that recreational drugs cause AIDS-defining and other
diseases: (1) long-term drug users develop diseases, (2) experimental animals become sick, (3)
drug-specific diseases, and (4) patients recover from drug diseases if they stop taking drugs in
time.

Long-term drug users developfatal diseases


The first scientific paper on diseases caused by long-term morphine addiction was published
in Paris, France, in 1909 (Achard et al., 1909). The paper reported immunodeficiency and
several corresponding opportunistic infections as consequences of morphine addiction. Since
then at least 63 other studies, summarized in Table 7, have confirmed that recreational drugs,
including heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, and nitrite inhalants, cause AIDS-defining and other
diseases. As a result of these diseases, and also of overdoses, intravenous drug users typically
die at an average age of only 30 years from AIDS-defining, and other diseases - regardless of
the presence of HIV (see Tables 4 & 7) (Stoneburner et al., 1988; Duesberg, 1992a; Hayes et
al., 1994; Lockemann et al., 1995; Wilson et al., 1996; McEvoy et al., 1998; Baldwin et al.,
1997).
Details of how some AIDS era-specific drugs, such as nitrites and amphetamines, cause
diseases are briefly summarized:
1. The first five AIDS cases ever reported were male homosexuals with Pneumocystis
pneumonia and cytornegalovirus infections who had all consumed nitrite inhalants

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(Gottlieb et al., 19 8 1 a). The report even cites nitrites as the possible cause of their
diseases. HIV was not even a suspect because it was only discovered in 1983
(Baffe-Sinoussi et al., 1983).
2. In 1985, Haverkos et al. from the CDC analyzed the AIDS risks of 87 male homosexual
AIDS patients, 47 with Kaposi´s sarcoma, 20 with pneumonia, and 20 with Kaposi's
sarcoma plus pneumonia (Haverkos et al., 1985; Haverkos, 1988). All the men had used
several sexual stimulants; 98% had used nitrites. Those with Kaposi's sarcomas reported
two times more sexual partners and 4.4 times more receptive anal intercourse than those
with only pneumonia. The median number of sexual partners in the year prior to the illness
was 120 for those with Kaposi's and 22 for those with pneumonia only. The Kaposi´s cases
reported six-times more amyl nitrite and ethylchloride use, four times more barbiturate
use, and two times more methaqualone, lysergic acid and cocaine use than those with
pneumonia only. The authors concluded that the nitrites and other drugs had caused
Kaposi's sarcoma because no statistically significant differences were found for sexually
transmitted diseases among the patients.
3. A 4.5 year tracking study of 42 homosexual men with lymphadenopathy, but not AIDS,
reported that eight had developed AIDS within 2.5 years (Mathur-Wagh et al., 1984) and
12 within 4.5 years of observation (Mathur-Wagh et al., 1985). All of these men had used
nitrite inhalants and other recreational drugs, including amphetamines and cocaine, but
they were not tested for HIV The authors concluded that 'a history of heavy or moderate
use of nitrite inhalant before study entry was predictive of ultimate progression to AIDS'
(Mathur-Wagh et al., 1984).
4. Other studies also investigated the dose-response relationships between nitrites and AIDS:
(i) one compared 20 homosexual AIDS patients to 40 AIDS-free controls (Marmor et al.,
1982); (ii) another compared 31 patients to 29 controls (Newell et al., 1985b). Each study
reported that multiple ´street drugs' were used as sexual stimulants and concluded that
drugs were 94% to 100% consistent risk factors for AIDS (Newell et al., 1985b). Newell et
al. derived a direct ´dose-response gradient´: the higher the nitrite usage, the greater the
risk for AIDS. The Kaposi response was estimated to take a dose equivalent of 7 to 10
years of nitrite use (Newell et al., 1985a; Beral et al., 1990; Lifson et al., 1990; Duesberg,
1992a).

Animals demonstrate that cocaine and nitrites cause AIDS-defining diseases


1. Surprisingly, in view of the official disregard of the nitrite-AIDS hypothesis, the National
Institutes of Environmental Health Sciences reported in 1995 that nitrite inhalants cause
immunodeficiency in mice. Based on exposure of the animals to isobutyl nitrites (IBN) for
15 weeks, the Institute concluded that, ´in the absence of impaired pulmonary host
defenses, IBN produces significant and partially reversible suppression of systemic
humoral immunity´ (Rataj czak et al., 1995).
This conclusion directly contradicts that reached previously by the CDC in 1983 in exactly
the same system, ´None of the animals exposed to IBN showed any evidence of
immunotoxic reactions...´, although ´thymic atrophy´ was acknowledged (see page 101)
(Centers for Disease Control, 1983).
2. In 1998, Lee Soderberg reviewed his experiments with mice showing that nitrite inhalants
are ´depleting many cells of the immune system´. Going beyond the data of his experiments,
Soderberg proposed that nitrites are a 'cofactor' of HIV in causing AIDS, because they
´stimulate HIV replication and can also stimulate the growth of Kaposi´s sarcoma cells´´
(Soderberg, 1998).
3. Clearly, both the popularity and fundability of investigations on the pathogenicity of
nitrites are well served by involving HIV. But, considering that only one in 1000 T-cells
that are lost in AIDS patients is latently infected by HIV, the cofactor hypothesis is
biochemically unlikely. It may be for this reason that Soderberg did not mention a simple
control of the nitrite-HIV cofactor hypothesis: Compare the immune system of a group of
HIV-positive nitrite users to those of an otherwise matched HIV-free group.

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T able 7
Dr ug dis eas es diagnos ed bef or e the AIDS er a, and in HIV- f r ee addic ts
Disease Drugs used* AIDS defining References
immunodeficiency C,H.N,A yes 1
Kaposi's sarcoma N yes 2
candidiasis C,H yes 3
pneumonia C,H,N yes 4
lymphadenopathy C,H yes 5
tuberculosis C,H yes 6
we i g h t l o s s C,H,A yes 7
dementia, encephalopathy C,H,A yes 8
diarrhea C,H yes 9
fever C,H yes 10
thrombocytopenia C,H yes 11
spontaneous abortion, C,H yes 12
premature birth,
congenital abnormalities
n i g h t s we a t s C,H 13
impotence C,H 14
severe atherosclerosis A 15
tooth loss, caries C,H 16
dermatitis C,H 17
hepatitis C,H 18
epileptic seizures C,H 19
endocarditis C,H 20
bronchitis C,H 21

* A, amphetamines; C, cocaine; H, heroin; N, nitrites.


1. (Achard et al., 1909; Terry & Pellens, 1928; Briggs et al., 1967; Sapira, 1968; Harris & Garret, 1972; Geller &
Stim m el, 1973; Pillari & Narus, 1973; Brown et al., 1974; Louria, 1974; McDonough et al., 1980; Gottlieb et
a l . , 1 9 8 1 a ; Ma r m o r e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ; J a f f e e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ; T u b a r o e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ; L a yo n e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ; N e we l l e t a l . ,
1985a; Newell et al., 1985b; Culver et al., 1987; Donahoe et al., 1987; Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1988;
H a v e r k o s & D o u g h e r t y, 1 9 8 8 b ; S e l wyn e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ; N o v i c k e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ; Mi e n t j e s e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ; P i l l a i e t a l . ,
1991; Larrat & Zierler, 1993;
Mientjes et al., 1993; Sadownick , 1994; Ratajczak et al., 1995; Brettle, 1996; Baldwin et al., 1997)
2 . ( J a f f e e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ; N e we l l e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ; H a v e r k o s e t a l . , 1 9 8 5 ; H a v e r k o s , 1 9 8 8 ; H a v e r k o s & D o u g h e r t y,
1988a; Archer et al., 1989; Friedm an-Kien et al., 1990; Marquart et al., 199 1; Safai et al., 199 1)
3. (Pillari & Narus, 1973; Stonebumer et al., 1988; Rogers et al., 1989)
4 . ( G o t t l i e b e t a l . , 1 9 8 1 a ; J a f f e e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ; Ma t h u r - W a g h e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ; Ma t h u r - W a g h e t a l . , 1 9 8 5 ; S e l wyn e t
al., 1988;
S t o n e b u r n e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ; E t t i n g e r & A l b i n , 1 9 8 9 ; Mi e n t j e s e t a l . , 1 9 9 3 ; H a ye s e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 ; B re t t l e , 1 9 9 6 )
5. (Geller & Stimmel, 1973; Pillari & Narus, 1973; Espinoza et al., 1987; Des Jarlais et al., 1988; Brettle, 1996)
6 . ( F i ro o zn i a e t a l . , 1 9 7 3 ; C o u r t wr i g h t , 1 9 8 2 ; L a yo n e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ; S t o n e b u r n e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ; B ra u n e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ;
B ru d n e y & D o b k i n , 1 9 9 1 ; H a ye s e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 )
7. (Pillari & Narus, 1973; Des Jarlais et al., 1988; Brettle, 1996; Bergling, 1997; McEvoy et al.,
1998)
8 . ( S t o n e b u m e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ; K o c h , 1 9 9 0 ; A yl wa r d e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ; L a r r a t & Z i e r l e r , 1 9 9 3 ; H a ye s e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 ;
Brettle, 1996; McEvoy et al., 1998)
9. (Des Jarlais et al., 1988; Munoz et al., 1992; Brettle, 1996)
10. (Des Jarlais et al., 1988; Ettinger & Albin, 1989; Brettle, 1996)
11. (Savona et al., 1985)
12. (Fricker & Segal, 1978; Lifschitz et al., 1983; Alroomi et al., 1988; Rogers et al., 1989; Toufexis, 1991;
Finnegan et al., 1992; Larrat & Zierler, 1993)
13. (Des Jarlais et al., 1988; Brettle, 1996)
14. (Larrat & Zierler, 1993; Brettle, 1996)
15. (W ilson et al., 1996)
16. (Pillari & Narus, 1973)
17. (Pillari & Narus, 1973; Brettle, 1996)
1 8 . ( D i s m u k e s e t a l . , 1 9 6 8 ; P i l l a r i & N a r u s , 1 9 7 3 ; L a yo n e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 )
19. (Brettle, 1996)
2 0 . ( L a yo n e t a l . , 1 9 8 4 ; S t o n e b u r n e r e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ; Mi e n t j e s e t a l . , 1 9 9 3 ; B re t t l e , 1 9 9 6 )
21. (Ettinger & Albin, 1989; Lemer, 1989; Brettle, 1996)

4. An article entitled ´acute and chronic effects of cocaine on the immune system and the
possible link to AIDS´ points out in 1998 that 'human and animal studies document that
cocaine alters the function of ... T-cells, neutrophils and macrophages.' In view of this, the
authors propose a ´wide-ranging capacity for cocaine to suppress the immune system.´
Again, cocaine is proposed to be j ust a ´cofactor´ of HIV in the ´pathogenesis of AIDS´
without suggesting a control of the cofactor hypothesis by testing the effects of cocaine on
HIV-free addicts (Baldwin et al., 1998).
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5. Yet another review describes in 1998 the ´in vivo effects of cocaine on immune cell
function´ (Pellegrino & Bayer, 1998). The article carefully avoids a decision whether
cocaine is immunosuppressive on its own, but acknowledges that immune suppression in
animals is dose-dependent. It proposes animal studies to investigate ´decreased immune
responsiveness in cocaine addicts,´ which is thought to be responsible for an increased risk
of HIV infection. However, the risk of viral or microbial infection is independent of
immune function, but the possible consequences of an infection are not. Again, the question
whether the immunodeficiency diseases of cocaine addicts depend on HIV is not asked.
Despite their scientifically uncontrolled loyalty to HIV, each of the last three reviews confirm
that nitrites and cocaine are at least ´cofactors´ of immune deficiency in animals and man.

Government statistics and legislation about drug diseases


The US government regularly confirms that recreational drugs cause diseases and death with
emergency department and medical examiner statistics from the Office of the National Drug
Control Policy and the DAWN. These statistics show that hundreds of thousands of patients
are hospitalized annually for drug diseases and that several thousands die from drugs. In 1995
alone, 531,827 Americans were hospitalized for drug diseases and 9,216 died on drugs (Table
4). The European drug deaths have shot up from about 1000 per year in the mid-eighties to
almost 6000 in the early ´90s, and have declined slightly to about 5000 annual cases now
(Figure IC) (Deutsche Hauptstelle gegen die Suchtgefahren, 1996).
Governments have even confirmed the nitrite-AIDS hypothesis by legislation and convictions;
for example, after publication of the NIDA monograph ´Health Hazards of Nitrite Inhalants´ in
1988 (Haverkos & Dougherty, 1988b), the US Congress banned in 1990 the sale of nitrites
with the Public Law (100-690) of the ´Crime Control Act´ (Haverkos, 1990; Duesberg, 1992a;
Hodgkinson, 1996). However, the nitrite ban is virtually unknown to the American public, and
not a single violation is ever reported by the press. In the summer of 1996, the Royal
Pharmaceutical Society also banned the sale of nitrites in the UK citing: ´Our primary
concerns were the health risks associated with the drug, including the suggestive links
between poppers and Kaposi's sarcoma´ (Pink Paper, 1996). In the same year, a Swiss court
convicted a sex offender for popper use because poppers cause ´headache, arrhythmia, vertigo,
fainting, paralysis, and unconsciousness´ (Ineichen, 1996). But an official of the Swiss public
health office, BGA, stated to the gay interest j ournal aK that it was not possible yet to predict
the health effects of popper use (´noch keine Risikoabschaetzung des Poppers-Gebrauchs
moeglich´), although he acknowledged that a man had j ust died after inhaling two grams of
amyl nitrite (Ineichen, 1996).

Non-scientific descriptions of how drugs cause diseases and death


The non-scientific AIDS literature provides independent evidence that recreational drugs
cause AIDS and death. For example, a drug treatment specialist from St. Vincent's Hospital in
New York has described amphetamine diseases: ´We are j ust starting to see heavy usage types
in our emergency rooms in New York City. What's troubling about this drug isn't j ust the way
it destroys the body - life expectancy for those intravenously inj ecting crystal is two years -
but the bizarre psychotic symptoms that develop´ (Sadownick, 1994). An official from AIDS
Proj ect Los Angeles, now director of an AIDS foundation in France, acknowledges the
pathogenicity of amphetamines, although coded in HIV-j argon: 'there is ample evidence to
suggest that crystal accelerates premature progression to full-blown AIDS in people dealing
with HIV infection. Studies have shown that crystal eats T-cells for breakfast, lunch and
dinner.' (Sadownick, 1994).
In 1997, The Signorile Report on Gay Men: Sex, Drugs, Muscles, and the Passages of Life
describes medical consequences of amphetamine use:
In the long term, Ecstasy is possibly more damaging than any of the others - which are all
pretty nasty to begin with. ... Ecstasy seems to kill off a significant part of the serotonin
cells in your brain in large quantities, maybe for a long time, maybe forever. Crystal meth
[also amphetamine] is the only other drug that in relatively small doses can also cause
long-term changes in the brain. ... [The report quotes a psychiatrist of the Columbia
University in New York for further symptoms] ´I have seen eating disorders, j aw-clenching,
panic disorder, unusual bingeing disorder, flashbacks, cognitive deficits, derealization [out

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of touch with reality], sleep disorders, and chronic fears ... These symptoms might not show
up for many years. ... well many of my colleagues are used to saying that all you need to do
to eat up T-cells quickly is do lots of crystal´ (Signorile, 1997b).
Regarding steroids, the report warns of ´danger ... on the brain,´ including ´aggression,
hypertension, the mythic ´roid rages,´ violent sex, [and] shrinking testicles,´ and complains
that ´long-term effects of cosmetic steroid use, even at small doses, are simply not known. ...
Studies have been inconclusive and few and far between´ (Signorile, 1997a; Signorile, 1997b).
One of the first observers to blame AIDS among male homosexuals on nitrites was Lauritsen
(see 6), author of Death rush, poppers and AIDS (Lauritsen & Wilson, 1986). In 1993,
Lauritsen says in The AIDS War:
Every Saturday night an estimated 2,000 gay men attend a dance club where drug
consumption is the main activity. According to London sources, virtually 100 percent of the
men are on drugs, from 3:00 in the morning, when the club opens, until it closes many hours
later. Especially popular is a variety of Ecstasy, whose ingredients are claimed to include
heroin. Poppers are sold legally in London [not since 1996]. No one seems to think they
even count as drugs, as gay physicians, writing in the gay press, have said that poppers are
harmless.
None of the maj or AIDS organizations have properly warned about the dangers of drugs. At
most, their risk-reduction literature has urged people to use alcohol and drugs in
moderation, so as not to affect the ´j udgment.´ Drugs are portrayed as risky only to the
extent that they might facilitate a lapse into 'unsafe sex.' Poppers - which cause genes to
mutate, which cause severe anemia, which can kill through heart attacks, which suppress the
immune system -are depicted as bad only if they cause someone to forget condoms
(Lauritsen, 1993).
Three years later, the British magazine Gay Times cites the concerns of a first aid officer from
a London gay club:
I see some faces in the same dire state every week for years and I personally think there's
gonna be an awful lot of very ill people in a few year's time.
Taking all these substances on such a regular basis cannot be good for you. Medically it
can't. Sooner or later, something's got to give (Gibbons, 1996).
And an article in the The Advocate with the title ´A deal with the devil´ asked philosophically
in 1996:
So why is it that in the gay world, where almost half the urban male population is dead or
sick from an epidemic closely associated with substance use, there is such ambivalence
about drugs that AIDS organizations profess to see nothing wrong with raising money from
events that glamorize drug use? Why, despite the bitter legacy of AIDS, do we continue
assuring ourselves that being gay means we have to be totally non-j udgmental about the
very things that have wiped us out (Rotello, 1996)?
In the summer of 1997, the San Francisco based gay-interest magazine Frontiers directly
addressed the long-term effects of methamphetamine addiction because they are only
´begrudgingly and rarely discussed´:
Crystal is, at face value, a great bargain. At an estimated cost of $40, it will create a ´high´
that can last the entire weekend. It makes its user incredibly sexual, energetic, euphoric and
confident. It is very easy to obtain (and equally easy to manufacture). In research studies
using low doses of the drug in animals, scientists were able to induce epilepticlike seizures
in the brain. Those frightening responses in animal studies have already occurred in
humans. Remember Robert, the young television executive? ´He was incredibly talented and
headed for a maj or career,´ says a Southern California therapist under the pseudonym Dr.
Clayton who treated dozens of crystal addicts during a 10-year period. 'Robert started doing
crystal at age 25, a few years after he'd begun his career ascent. He was handsome, worked
out Monday through Friday, was blue-eyed, blond and tanned.´ Positive and asymptomatic
for many years, Robert's addiction to crystal began affecting his life. Everything outside of
work revolved around the drug.
Dr. Clayton recalls one episode in which Robert missed his flight for the East Coast where
he was headed for a maj or circuit party on Fire Island. Robert was so desperate to be there
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that he chartered a private j et. On another party weekend, this one in Key West, he had his
first seizure and was hospitalized for three weeks. He began to go blind and ultimately died
at his parents´ home at the age of 32 last year. Doctors confirmed that crystal abuse caused
his death (Zachary, 1997).
According to the above cited (page 97) drug counselor from Washington DC: ´... there is a
distinct line that travels from the bar to the bedroom to the hospital´ (Bergling, 1997).

Drug-specific diseases
The drug-AIDS hypothesis predicts that chemically distinct drugs cause distinct diseases.
Indeed, the drug literature offers many examples, the most specific of these being the evidence
that nitrite inhalants cause Kaposi's sarcoma (Table 7).

Kaposi's sarcoma from nitrites


Kaposi's sarcoma is at least 20 times more common among homosexual than among
non-homosexual AIDS patients (page 90) (Haverkos & Dougherty, 1988b; Beral et al., 1990;
Chamberland & Curran, 1990). Based on the correlation between the new epidemic of
homosexual Kaposi's sarcomas and the almost exclusive use of nitrites by male homosexuals,
it was originally proposed in the early 1980s that nitrites were the cause (Durack, 1981;
Marmor et al., 1982; Newell et al., 1984; Haverkos et al., 1985; Newell et al., 1985b).
Moreover, the nitrite-Kaposi hypothesis is directly supported by clinical distinctions between
the Kaposi's of the AIDS era and those originally described by Moritz Kaposi in the last
century (Kaposi, 1872). The 'HIV-associated' sarcomas are ´aggressive and life-threatening´
(Sloand et al., 1993), and fatal within 8-10 months after diagnosis (Meduri et al., 1986; Garay
et al., 1987; Gill et al., 1989; Irwin & Kaplan, 1993). In contrast, the classic ´indolent and
chronic´ Kaposi's sarcomas hardly progress over many years (Meduri et al., 1986; Drotman &
Haverkos, 1992; Cohen, 1994a). Further, Kaposi had diagnosed sarcomas only on the skin,
mostly of the lower extremities, but up to 32% of the Kaposi's sarcomas of homosexual men
are lung cancers (Gill et al., 1989; Irwin & Kaplan, 1993). Pulmonary Kaposi's sarcoma had
never been observed by Moritz Kaposi in the last century, nor by anyone else prior to the
AIDS epidemic (Kaposi, 1872). Because the lungs are the primary site of exposure to nitrite
inhalants, pulmonary Kaposi's sarcoma is further support for the nitrite-Kaposi hypothesis.
Sensing the clinical novelty, Meduri et al. point out that the ´pulmonary involvement by the
neoplasma has been an unusual clinical finding´ compared to all ´classic´ Kaposi's sarcomas
(Meduri et al., 1986). Nevertheless, the distinction between classic and AIDS-Kaposi's
sarcoma is rarely acknowledged and may escape many observers due to the ´difficulty in
pre-mortem diagnosis´, and because ´pulmonary Kaposi's sarcoma was indistinguishable from
opportunistic pneumonia...´ (Garay et al., 1987).

Intracerebral haemorrhage and AIDS from cocaine and amphetamines


According to a study published in The Lancet, ´it has been recognised for many years that
abuse of amphetamine, cocaine, or Ecstasy, can give rise to intracerebral haemorrhage
(ICH)....´ In addition, the study points out that, ´despite their young age, the mortality and
morbidity of patients presenting with ICH following substance abuse appears to be
substantially greater than similar patients without this aetiological factor... presenting in a
dehydrated state and often have serious underlying illness such as AIDS and malnutrition´
(McEvoy et al., 1998).

AIDS patients recover if they stop taking drugs


Curing a disease with an anti-microbial vaccine or antibiotic is considered one of the strongest
elements of proof that the respective disease was caused by a microbe. Likewise, a toxic drug
is proved to be a cause of a disease if patients recover once the drug is removed. For example,
if termination of smoking stops bronchitis, tobacco smoke is proved to cause that disease.
Several examples of recovery from AIDS-defining diseases by discontinuation of drug use
have also been recorded:
1. In France, 71 babies, who shared intravenous drugs with their mothers prior to birth, were
born with immunodeficiency and AIDS-defining, as well as other diseases, and were HIV
antibody-positive (Blanche et al., 1989; Blanche et al., 1994). However, one to two years
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after birth and after discontinuation of the maternal recreational drug supply, 61 had
recovered. Their T-cell levels had even gone up to normal, despite the continued presence
of HIV. Some of the 10 who did not recover were among the first to be treated with AZT.
2. A collaborative study from Europe reports that 60% of babies born to drug-addicted
mothers recovered from pneumonia, bacterial infections, candidiasis, and cryptosporidial
infection and were healthy at 6 years of age, despite the presence of HIV (The European
Collaborative Study, 1994). About 40% of the HIV-positive children died exactly the
percentage that was ´treated with zidovudine [AZT]´; 10% before 6 months of age and 40%
by 4 years.
Although this study of pediatric AIDS does not even mention maternal drug use (focusing
instead only on HIV), earlier reports from the European Collaborative Study group did.
One of these documented in 1987 that 'nearly all children were born to mothers who are
intravenous drug users' (Mok et al., 1987). In 1991, the European Collaborative Study
group reported that 80% of the children with pediatric AIDS were born to mothers who
were intravenous drug users (page 97, 98) (European Collaborative Study, 1991).
3. The risk of AIDS-defining diseases to HIV-positive intravenous drug users dropped
fourfold after giving up drug inj ection for treatment with synthetic methadone. Only 5%
(5/93) of those on methadone, compared to 19% (23/124) of those who continued illicit
drugs, developed such diseases over 16 months of observation (Weber et al., 1990). Since
methadone is immunosuppressive (Klimas et al., 1991), the difference could have been
even bigger if no drugs had been used.
4. The T-cell counts of HIV-positive intravenous drug users from New York had stabilized
after they had stopped inj ecting intravenous drugs. By contrast, that of controls, who
continued drug inj ection, dropped 35% over the 9 months of observation (Des Jarlais et
al., 1987).
5. The T-cells of 29% of 1,020 HIV-positive male homosexuals and intravenous drug users in
the placebo arm of an AZT trial increased over the span of two years, despite the
continued presence of HIV (Hughes et al., 1994). The probable reason is that those whose
T-cells increased had given up or reduced immunosuppressive recreational drug use under
the clinical surveillance of the drug trial.

Conclusion: recreational drugs cause AIDS-defining and other diseases


In sum, three lines of evidence show that longterm consumption of recreational drugs causes
AIDS-defining and other diseases: (1) 63 scientific publications, government statistics and
legislation, and case reports from the non-professional literature document drug diseases, (2)
the identity of the disease is determined by the chemistry of the drug, (3) disease is cured if
drug use is stopped in time.

Evidence from scientists, manufacturers, and the press show that anti-HIV
drugs cause AIDS-defining and other diseases
AZT and other DNA chain-terminators, prescribed as anti-HIV drugs, were first licensed in
1987 as reported by Science under the ominous title ´Imminent marketing of AZT raises
problems; marrow suppression hampers AZT use in AIDS victims´ (Kolata, 1987) . Indeed,
AZT was synthesized over 30 years ago for cancer chemotherapy, long before AIDS was
known (Horwitz et al., 1964). Because the operating principle of cancer chemotherapy is to
kill growing human cells by terminating cellular DNA synthesis at micromolar concentrations,
AZT was predictably pathogenic. To hide the emerging tragedy, HIV/AIDS doctors have tried
to trivialize or rationalize the fatal toxicity of their drugs.

Diseases caused in animals by AZT and other anti-HIV drugs


Years after AZT was safely licensed and established as an anti-HIV drug, or anti-AIDS drug,
in 1987, the first animal experiments on its pathogenic properties were published. Contrary to
the antecedent human experiments, the animal experiments all appeared in specialized j ournals
(Table 8). All of these animal tests demonstrate that DNA chain termination causes
AIDS-defining and other fatal diseases in a dose dependent fashion. According to McKallip et
al., AZT causes immunodeficiency in mice even after shortterm treatment of one to two weeks:
´It was observed that the thymus was highly sensitive to AZT treatment. Also, AZT when
present at the time of T-cell differentiation was found to play a critical role in inducing
immuno suppression´ (Table 8) (Benedict, 1972). On this basis they warn ´that AZT may
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affect the immune response to HIV antigens´ rather than function as an anti-HIV drug. Another
study points out that ´AZT [treatment] has a potent[ial] to transit into leukemias´ (Table 8)
(Inoue et al., 1997).
According to several studies, the pathogenic effects of short-term AZT treatment of several
weeks on adult animals are largely reversible (see references in Table 8). However, one also
reports on death from anti-HIV drugs. Combined treatment with ddC and AZT - as is now the
standard for cocktails including protease inhibitors - at 500 mg/kg each for 29 days killed 25
out of 30 mice (Thompson et al., 199 1). The survivors suffered severe 'nonregenarative'
anemia, lymphocytopenia, and thrombocytopenia (Table 8). On this basis, the authors warned,
´The overall similarities in hematopoietic effects between rodents and human beings,
especially for AZT, indicate that these studies can and do provide important information
relevant to the toxicity of these drugs.´
´Because of widespread proj ected use of AZT in human pregnancy,´ the effects of AZT on
animal embryos are also relevant (pages 99, 118, 120) (Olivero et al., 1997). These effects fall
into two groups: (1) Preimplantation embryos are killed by AZT at I um, which is only about
1/20 of the concentration of the daily dose of 500 mg prescribed to a pregnant mother in the
last two trimesters (Connor et al., 1994). (2) AZT treatment of postimplantation embryos
results in retarded development and cancer (Table 8).
Based on these results, Olivero et al. conclude that ´AZT is unequivocally a transplacental
genotoxin and carcinogen.... When given transplacentally to mice, benzo[a]pyrene produced
lung and liver tumor multiplicities similar to those observed [with AZT]´ (Olivero et al.,
1997). Therefore, the authors warn: ´our results suggest that the current practice of treating
HIV-1-positive women and their infants with high doses of AZT could increase cancer risk in
the drugexposed children when they reach young adulthood or middle age´ (Olivero et al.,
1997).

T able 8 Dis eas es c aus ed by AZT in anim als


Disease
Animal dose AIDS-defining Other Ref

adult:
rat, mouse 1mg/ml H20 neutropenia anemia 1
7 wk s lymphopenia
thrombocytopenia
bone marrow depletion
we i g h t l o s s
mouse 0.5-1 mg/mI H20 thrombocytopenia anemia 2
7 wk s myelodysplasia leukemia
mouse 500 mg/kg T-cell depletion 3
7-14 days thymic atrophy
mouse 400 mg/kg l y m p h o t o xi c i t y anemia 4
17 days n e p h r o t o xi c i t y
mitochrondrial
necrosis
mouse, rat, 18-250 mg/kg cytostatic anemia 5
dog, monkey 2 - 5 2 wk s leukopenia
mouse, rat 500 mg/kg + lymphocytopenia, nonregenerative' 6
500mg/kg ddC thrombocytopenia, anemia
29 days marrow depletion,
death of 25/30 mice

e m b r yo :
mouse 12-25 mg/day cancer: 7
12-18 days of gestation lung
monkey 10mg/day liver
l a s t 1 0 wk s o f g e s t a t i o n vaginal
mouse 1µM preimplantation: 8
lethal
postimplantation:
retarded
development
1) (Cronkite & Bullis, 1990), 5) (Ayers et al., 1996),
2) (Inoue et al., 1997), 6) (Thompson et al., 1991),
3) (McKallip et al., 1995), 7) (Olivero et al., 1997),
4) (Omar et al., 1996), 8) (Toltzis et al., 1993)

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With regard to the protease inhibitors that were licensed in 1996, the Merck Company
published in 1997 that a coded 'HIV protease inhibitor' is 'rapidly' hepatotoxic in dogs and rats
30 min after administration. Histological examination revealed single cell necrosis (Grossman
et al., 1997).

Diseases caused by anti-HIV drugs in humans


In the following, we analyze some of the few placebocontrolled AZT-licensing studies in
which the occurance of diseases in AZT-treated persons was compared to that in untreated
HIV-positive control groups. Because of the perceived benefits that AZT was said to show in
the licensing studies, it became unethical to use untreated control groups after the licensing of
AZT. Therefore, most recent studies are uncontrolled. Some of these uncontrolled studies are
also analyzed here based on what is generally or specifically known about untreated
HIV-positive people.
Reviews of these studies indicate that the recreational drug use of AZT recipients and controls
is never reported, probably because HIV is thought to be the only cause of their ailments.
These reviews also suggest that there is a hierarchy of openess toward AZT toxicity in AIDS
papers: AZT is accepted as a red cell killer, causing anemia. It is less readily accepted as a
killer of neutrophils, because neutropenia is immunodeficiency which AZT is said to prevent.
AZT is least likely to be described as a lymphocyte or even T-cell killer, because these are the
presumed targets of the hypothetical T-cell killer HIV, which AZT is supposed to inhibit.
Therefore, evidence for lymphocytopenia and T-cell depletion is usually not mentioned or is
hidden in the raw data of AIDS papers. The following analyses of AZT toxicity were made
with these experiences in mind:
1. The licensing study of AZT, sponsored by the NCI and Burroughs Wellcome, the
manufacturer of the drug, investigated 289 patients from AIDS risk groups with prior
Pneumocystis pneumonia and ´unexplained´ weight loss, fever, oral candidiasis, night
sweats, herpes zoster, and diarrhea (Fischl et al., 1987; Richman et al., 1987). All but 13
of these patients were males, but there was no information about their sexual orientation
or recreational drug use. The study was planned for six months but was interrupted after
four months because by then the therapeutic benefits of AZT were claimed to be too
obvious to continue the placebo control. By that time only 1 out of 145 in the AZT group,
but 19 out of 137 in the placebo group, had died. Therefore the study concluded that AZT
can ´decrease mortality´.
However, during the same time period the lymphocyte counts had decreased over 50% in
34% of the AZT recipients, but in only 6% of the control group. In the AZT group, 66
suffered from severe nausea, compared to only 25 in the control group; muscle atrophy was
observed in 11 AZT recipients but in only 3 from the control group. Moreover, 30 out of
the 145 in the AZT group depended on multiple transfusions to survive anemia, compared
to only 5 out of the 137 in the placebo group. Thus, the number of subj ects in the AZT
group who would have died from severe anemia if untreated was larger (i.e., 30) than the
AIDS deaths and anemias of the control group combined, namely 19 + 5.
The ´decreased mortality´ claim is further compromised by numerous ´concomitant
medications´ other than transfusions for AZT-specific diseases and failure to match the
AZT and placebo groups for the cumulative effects of prior and parallel recreational drug
use. In addition, some of the AZT-specific AIDS diseases observed in the placebo group
appear to be due to patient-initiated ´drug sharing´ between AZT and placebo recipients
(Lauritsen, 1990; Duesberg, 1992b; Freestone, 1992) and falsification of the case report
forms (Lauritsen, 1992; Hodgkinson, 1996).
Moreover, the low mortality of 0.7% (1/145) claimed by the licensing study for the first
four months on AZT could not be extended in a followup study, which found the ´survival
benefits´ of AZT rapidly declining after the original four month period. By 18 months,
32% of the original AZT group had died, compared to 35% of the former control group,
which by then had also received AZT for 12 months (Fischl et al., 1989).
The possibility that recreational drugs were the cause of AIDS, in which case anti-viral
AZT would only be a fatal poison - like chemotherapy without cancer - was not even
mentioned by the many authors of the AZT study. However, one of them, Durack, was the
first to propose in 1981 that 'recreational drugs [are] immunosuppressive' (Durack, 1981).
Another antiviral therapist, Donna Mildvan, had j ust published that ´a history of heavy or
moderate use of nitrite inhalant before study entry was predictive of ultimate progression
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to AIDS´ (Mathur-Wagh et al., 1984), and that the T-cells of intravenous drug users
dropped in proportion to drug use (Des Jarlais et al., 1987). Yet another anti-HIV
therapist, Michael Gottlieb, had reported in 1981 that all of five homosexual Pneumocystis
pneumonia patients, later described as the first AIDS patients ever diagnosed, had used
nitrite inhalants (Gottlieb et al., 1981 a).
2. In 1994, the British-French Concorde trial, the largest controlled study of its kind,
including 1749 subj ects compared the onset of AIDS and death in AZT-treated, healthy,
HIV-positive male homosexuals to untreated controls. It found that AZT is unable to
prevent AIDS and increases the mortality by 25% compared to the untreated controls. The
conclusion was: 'The results of Concorde do not encourage the early use of zidovudine
[AZT] in symptom-free HIV-infected adults' (Seligmann et al., 1994).
3. An independent British study found that AZT prophylaxis of mostly male homosexuals
reduced survival from three to two years and also observed AZT-specific AIDS diseases
such as 'wasting syndrome, cryptosporidiosis, and cytomegalovirus infection ... almost
exclusively' in AZT-treated AIDS patients (Poznansky et al., 1995). This result confirmed
Concorde's observation, in particular the 25% higher mortality of those on AZT. The
authors' interpretation: 'The study of patients who progress from primary HIV infection to
AIDS without receiving medical intervention gives insights into the effects of medical
intervention on presentation and survival after developing an AIDS-defining illness'
(Poznansky et al., 1995). But the nature of these 'insights' was not revealed.
4. An analysis of American homosexual men from the MAC study revealed that AZT
treatment increased the risk of pneumonia two to fourfold (Saah et al.,,1995). The AIDS
researchers explain their observation as follows: 'Zidovudine was no longer significant
after T-helper lymphocyte count was considered, primarily because non users had higher
cell counts...' (Saah et al., 1995). The fact that an inhibitor of DNA synthesis, designed to
kill human cells, would reduce lymphocyte counts was not considered.
5. According to HIV/AIDS researchers J ames Goedert et al. from the NIH, AIDS prophylaxis
by AZT also proved to be negative for American hemophiliacs. The AIDS risk of
hemophiliacs on AZT was 4.5 times higher and their mortality was 2.7 times higher than
that of untreated controls (Goedert et al., 1994). The authors' interpretation of the
increased morbidity and mortality was that this was 'probably because zidovudine was
administered first to those whom clinicians considered to be at highest risk' (Goedert et
al., 1994). In other words, 'clinicians' would be able to recognize hemophiliacs in which
HIV would strike first and prescribed AZT accordingly. AZT-specific mortality of
homosexual AIDS patients has been excused with the same argument (see 6) (Veugelers et
al., 1994).
6. Since the licensing of AZT in 1987, the mortality of British HIV-positive hemophiliacs has
increased tenfold (Darby et al., 1995) and that of American hemophiliacs has increased
sharply (Chorba et al., 1994). This has been blamed on HIV (Chorba et al., 1994; Darby et
al., 1995; Horton, 1995; Maddox, 1995).
However, the coincidence that the mortality of hemophiliacs started to increase in exactly
the same year they began taking AZT suggests that AZT was responsible (Duesberg, 1995c;
Duesberg, 1995d). In view of this, Darby et al. acknowledge that 'treatment, by
prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia or with zidovudine [AZT] has been
widespread' in HIV-positive hemophiliacs, and that 'HIV-associated mortality has not been
halted by these treatments' (Darby et al., 1995). Challenged for an explanation by a
published commentary (Duesberg, 1996a), the British hemophilia researchers Sabin et al.
offered the same explanation as Goedert and Veuglers et al: 'Observational studies often
show that patients given zidovudine have a worse prognosis than untreated patients.
Patients receiving zidovudine are selectively treated because they are ill. The
interpretation of findings from these studies should not therefore be that zidovudine
increases the risk of AIDS' (Sabin et al., 1996). 'Should not,' but could.
7. An American study of intravenous drug users observed in 1993 that 'the rate of CD4
lymphocyte depletion did not appear to slow after the initiation of zidovudine therapy ...
[and] results suggested that zidovudine users in this sample may have experienced more
rapid CD4+ cell depletion' (Alcabes et al., 1993). The authors' interpretation was that 'The
results of this analysis provide evidence for a mechanism by which the clinical factors that
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predict more rapid progression to AIDS, such as bacterial infection, might work, and why
other factors, such as drug inj ection, are unrelated to AIDS risk' (Alcabes et al., 1993).
But no control is offered for drug-free AIDS.
8. In 1994, it was reported that among 104 pregnant women treated with AZT, eight aborted
spontaneously, eight were aborted 'therapeutically', and another eight delivered babies
with serious birth defects, including cavities in the chest, abnormal indentations at the
base of the spine, misplaced ears, triangular faces, heart defects, extra digits, and albinism
(Kumar et al., 1994). The conclusion of the authors was that their results were ´not
proving safety, thus lending tenuous support to the use of this drug´ (Kumar et al., 1994).
However, 'spontaneous' or therapeutic abortion as a result of AZT was not an unforseeable
accident. A review in The Lancet on 'non-surgical abortion' documents that
chemotherapeutic drugs, like methotrexate, have been used to abort normal and ectopic
pregnancies since 1952 (Potts, 1995). The article concedes 'early concerns over
teratogenicity,' but concludes: 'used correctly, the method could bring great benefits'
(Potts, 1995). Moreover, abortion of developing mouse embryos by AZT had been
published a year before HIVpositive, pregnant women were treated with AZT (see Table 8)
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997).
9. In 1996, a study from the American National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development concluded that AIDS prophylaxis with AZT also harms children: 'In contrast
with anecdotal clinical observations and other studies indicating that zidovudine favorably
influences weightgrowth rates, our analysis suggests the opposite' (Moye et al.. 1996).
10. An American study on AIDS prophylaxis of 107 three-month to six-year-old HIV-positive
children with AZT reported depletion of 350 out of an average of 1044 T-cells per year,
and neutropenia of less than 400 cells per microliter in 20%. Since the study did not
include an untreated control, it is not directly obvious whether AZT or HIV was the cause
(Kline et al., 1998). However, because HIV is not known to infect neutrophils and the
children were free of neutropenia prior to AZT, the authors concluded that the neutropenia
was due to AZT. In view of this, they warned that 'neutropenia of the magnitude observed
in the present study (<400/[tL) can be an important limitation to the success of
antiretroviral therapy, requiring temporary or even permanent discontinuation of an
otherwise effective agent.'
By contrast, the authors blamed the dramatic loss of T-cells on natural, age-dependent
reduction: 'As expected in this population of young children, median absolute CD4+
lymphocyte counts decreased.....´ However, it is unlikely that children naturally lose 35%
of their T-cells per year. It is also unlikely that the hypothetical T-cell killer HIV was the
reason for the T-cell depletion because the study included up to six year-old children with
perinatally acquired HIV whose T-cell counts averaged 1044 per microliter before AZT
treatment. Thus, AZT remains the only plausible cause for the T-cell depletion in the
AZT-treated children.
11. The damage caused by AZT prescriptions is compounded by many of the concomitant
medicines taken by most, if not all, HIV-positive Americans with AIDS and at risk for
AIDS (Table 3). For example, some of the antiviral drugs such as ganciclovir and acyclovir
are also DNA chain terminators that are nearly as toxic as AZT (Douglas, 1990). As
expected, combination therapy of ganciclovir and AZT produces 'pancytopenia' (Jacobson
et al., 1988) by killing hernopoietic cells and has 'direct [toxic] effects on myeloid and
erythroid progenitor cells' (Fogelman et al., 1994; Retrovir, 1994). Thus, DNA
chain-terminators cause 'immunodeficiency.'
12. Anti-HIV/AIDS polypharmacies have 'nephrotoxic, cytotoxic, and myelosuppressive
[effects], such as amphotericin B, co-trimoxazole, dapsone, interferon, pentamidine,
vincristine, flucytosine, adriamycin, vinblastine, and others [which] could potentially
increase the risk of hematologic toxicities in patients being treated with ZDV [AZT]´
(Fogelman et al., 1994). In other words, these drugs are immunosuppressive because they
intoxicate and kill immune cells.
13. Three articles in The Lancet describe 'abnormal fat accumulation in patients with HIV- I
infection' (Lipsky, 1998) who were treated with HIV protease inhibitors. These
accumulations have been termed 'buffalo humps' and 'Crix belly' in various studies
(Lipsky, 1998; Lo, 1998; Miller et al., 1998). One of these studies showed a direct dose
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response relationship between the lengths of protease inhibition and fat accumulation
(Miller et al., 1998).

AIDS diseases caused by blocking mitochondrial DNA with AZT


By terminating mitochondrial DNA synthesis, AZT can also destroy non-growing cells, such as
neurons and muscle cells (Parker & Cheng, 1994). This process generates muscle atrophy
(Richman et al., 1987; Bessen et al., 1988; Gorard & Guilodd, 1988; Helbert et al., 1988;
Dalakas et al., 1990; Hitchcock, 199 1; Yarchoan et al., 199 1) and dementia (Smothers,
1991). Several examples illustrate this point:
1. The American MAC study of 5000 male homosexual men observed that 'HIV dementia
among those reporting any antiretroviral use (AZT, ddI ddC, or d4T) was 97% higher than
among those not using this antiretroviral therapy' (Bacellar et al., 1994). The result is
interpreted by its authors with little concern for percentages: 'This effect was not
statistically significant' (Bacellar et al., 1994).
2. Two weeks after discontinuing AZT, four out of five AIDS patients recovered from
myopathy (Till & MacDonnell, 1990).
3. Anecdotal cases of muscle atrophy and general wasting from AZT and other DNA
terminators confirm these results: (i) After years on and off AZT, the ballet star Rudolf
Nureyev was unable to stand up for ovations for his new production of La Bayadere at the
Palais Gamier shortly before his death at 54 years of age in Paris on J anuary 6, 1993
(Lauritsen, 1993). (ii) After several years on AZT and ddl, the tennis star Arthur Ashe had
wasted to a skeleton and passed away at 49 years of age in New York in 1993 (Ashe &
Rampersad, 1993; Duesberg, 1996d). (iii) After less than a year on AZT, Kimberly
Bergalis, who was famous for the hypothesis that her HIV was derived from her dentist,
lost over 30 pounds and required a wheelchair because of muscle atrophy prior to her death
at 23 years of age (Duesberg, 1996d).
In view of this, it may not be j ust a coincidence that the CDC added dementia and wasting
from muscle atrophy to its list of AIDS-defining diseases in 1987, j ust when AZT was first
prescribed to hundreds of thousands of HIV-positive people (Centers for Disease Control,
1987; Kline et al., 1998).

Anti-HIV drug patients recover after they stop taking drugs


1. Ten out of 11 HIV-positive, AZT-treated AIDS patients recovered cellular immunity after
discontinuing AZT in favor of an experimental vaccine (Scolaro et al., 1991).
2. Three of four AIDS patients recovered from severe pancytopenia and bone marrow aplasia
four to five weeks after AZT was discontinued (Gill et al., 1987).
3. After treatment with protease inhibitors for only 4 to 10 days at 800 mg every 8 hrs in
conj unction with 6 to 12 other anti-HIV/AIDS drugs, three HIV-positive AIDS patients
developed severe hepatitis, j aundice, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain (Braeu et al.,
1997). Two weeks after discontinuation of the protease inhibitors, two of the three AIDS
patients had recovered (Braeu et al., 1997).
4. Five HIV-positive patients were hospitalized one to three weeks after starting Indinavir
(protease inhibitor) treatment with fever and AIDS-defining mycobacterial infection (see
Table 1). These symptoms disappeared either after Indinavir was stopped or upon additional
medication. In one of these patients, the symptoms reappeared after starting Indinavir again
and disappeared again after stopping the drug (Race et al., 1998).
5. Another 'good example that medicines hurt more than they help' is the story of Roger Cobb,
cochairman of the consumer caucus for the Commission on AIDS Care, Service and
Treatment for Philadelphia and Nine Surrounding Counties:
'Sixty days after I started substance abuse treatment, I learned that I was HIV-positive,'
recalls Cobb, who had used crack and cocaine, among a smorgasbord of other drugs, for
more than 21 years. 'A little while later I started treatment with AZT for about 14
months.' It was during this time that he developed what he calls 'the look.' 'I had the
sunken face, the ashy skin; I lost weight - everything. Against my doctor's advice, I
decided AZT was not for me, so I decided to try something else.' And 'the look'? 'The
look is fabulous now,' says the 40-year-old, who is working on his master's degree in
social work. 'I'm back to me', (Freeman, 1996).

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6. After AZT treatment for about six months prior to birth and 1.5 months after birth because
of maternal HIV infection (pages 99, 118) (Connor et al., 1994), two HIV-free babies
developed AIDSdefining Pneumocystis pneumonia and high fever at the age of two months
(Heresi et al., 1997). Because both babies were HIV-free, there was no further AZT
treatment. Both babies fully recovered and remained healthy for the period of observation
of over a year. The authors entitled their report 'Pneumocystis pneumonia in infants...
exposed to HIV but ... not infected: an exception to the AIDS Surveillance case definition,'
but acknowledged in the text that 'it is unclear if ... zidovudine treatment set the stage for
PCP.' Had the babies had antibodies to HIV, they would have been AZT-treated to their
deaths.

The medical orthodoxy and the press, confirm that anti-HIV drugs cause
AIDS-defining and other diseases - but only informally

The medical orthodoxy


Recently, some AIDS clinicians have openly registered concerns about the medical
consequences of anti-HIV treatments, although not in the form of dedicated articles. Says Jay
Levy, professor of medicine at the University of California at San Francisco (UCSF), 'With all
the hoopla about antiviral drugs, and you get any virologist aside and they'll say this is not
how we are going to win, it's high time we look at the immune system' (Pennisi & Cohen,
1996). In 1998 Levy confirmed this view, and even pointed out that all 'long-term survivors of
HIV' are those who did not take the anti-HIV drugs (Levy, 1998).
Lecturing his students, another professor of medicine at UCSF, Donald Abrams, is even more
direct, according to a university magazine:
'In contrast with many of my colleagues at SFGH [San Francisco General Hospital] in the
AIDS program, I am not necessarily a cheerleader for anti-retroviral therapy. I have been
one of the people who's questioned, from the beginning, whether or not we're really making
an impact with HIV drugs and, if we are making an impact, if it's going in the right
direction.
Despite the promising evidence, definitive proof of protease inhibitors' efficacy can be
provided only by randomized clinical trials with placebo. Because new antiviral drugs are
continuously being developed, conducting such trials is virtually impossible due to the
reluctance of patients to continue treatment with an 'old' drug.' Abrams spent the first half
of his lecture describing analogous problems during the testing and approval of AZT, the
first drug used in AIDS therapy.... Although the study was originally intended to last 24
weeks, it was cut short and unblinded half way through because of statistically significant
differences in deaths between the two groups. Abrams lamented that although '18 more
people made it to this arbitrary milestone of four to eight months after pneumocystis... I
didn't feel that this was showing that we were prolonging survival' (page 116).
Abrams blamed the 'very powerful rhetoric' of the emerging community of AIDS activists,
who demanded an end to clinical trials. 'Somebody should write a book about the impact of
that decision on HIV clinical trials history,' added Abrams, 'because everything changed
because of that demand.' Abrams recounted his early misgivings about AZT, which loses its
effect after a year or two because the virus becomes resistant [a euphemism for a lethal
dose of AZT (Martinez, 1997)]. He was also disturbed by findings demonstrating that a high
dose of AZT resulted in a smaller rise of CD4 cells than a lower dose. 'Maybe if we j ust
stop it altogether people will be better off,' he said. Members of the audience were
surprised to learn of the paucity of solid, clinical research behind AZT and other nucleic
acid chain terminators.... Abrams exposed the tragic farce of past AIDS research and
therapy - people who thought they were doing something useful were actually wasting time
and valuable resources.
'How should the clinician apply the new therapies? I have a large population of people who
have chosen not to take any antiretrovirals since I've been following them since the very
beginning.... They've watched all of their friends go on the antiviral bandwagon and die, so
they've chose to remain naive [to therapy]. More and more, however, are now succumbing to
pressure that protease inhibitors are ´it´... We are in the middle of the honeymoon period,

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and whether or not this is going to be an enduring marriage is unclear to me at this time, so,
I'm advising my patients if they still have time, to wait' (Tanaka, 1996).
Others echoed Abrams' concerns (Phillips & Smith, 1997, Karpas et al., 1997). For example,
J erome Groopman, from the Beth Israel Medical Center in Boston told Newsweek in December
1996 that 'some patients have been 'showing signs of the benefits wearing off' - an effect that
is termed 'crashing' (Leland, 1996). Doctors from the National Institutes of Child Health and
Development even published in a medical j ournal that 'zidovudine use is confounded by
progression of HIV disease' (Moye et al., 1996). And British researchers j ust wrote a letter to
Science: 'It is, unfortunately, quite possible that all of the current regimens are, to use Lange's
phrase, 'suboptimal' and the best strategy at present for asymptomatic individuals may be to
take none of the existing cocktails, but to wait for improved treatments' (Breckenridge et al.,
1997).

The drug -manufacturers' warnings


Even the drug manufacturers warn about drug-specific diseases. Sigma, a non-medical provider
of AZT, warns with skull and crossbones on the label that AZT is toxic to the bone marrow,
the very source of T-cells (Figure 3). Glaxo Wellcome, the producer of medical AZT, states in
the Physician's Desk Reference that 'it was often difficult to distinguish adverse events
possibly associated with zidovudine [AZT] administration from underlying signs of HIV
disease...' (Retrovir, 1994).
Merck & Co., the manufacturer of the protease inhibitor Crixivan, warns 'about kidney pains'
and the ,chances of forming a kidney stone ... in about 4% of patients; [and] pain, fatigue,
nausea, diarrhea in 2% or more of patients' and that, 'It is not yet known whether taking
CRIXIVAN will extend your life or reduce your chances of getting other illnesses associated
with HIV' (Merck & Co., 1997).
Hoffmann-La Roche says in the UK about its protease inhibitor Invirase/saquinavir: 'Patients
should be informed that saquinavir is not a cure for HIV infection and that they may continue
to acquire illnesses associated with advanced HIV infection, including opportunistic
infections' (Shenton, 1998). The American Physician's Desk Reference also has a 'WARNING
The indication for Invirase for the treatment of HIV infection is based on changes in surrogate
markers [lab tests for HIV]. At present there are no results from controlled clinical trials
evaluating the effect of regimens containing Invirase on survival or the clinical progression of
HIV infection, such as the occurrence of opportunistic infections or malignancies5
(Physician's Desk Reference, 1997).

Anti-HIV drug diseases in the press


In December, 1995, The Advocate published an anecdotal case against anti-viral therapy. The
story describes a 47-year-old, HIV-positive man, who 'for at least 17 years doesn't have AIDS
- and no one knows why':
Leoutsakas, 47: A former IV-drug user who last shared a needle in 1978 ... first tested
positive in 1987. He has a T-cell count ... between 650 and 950. In addition, Leoutsakas has
had none of the opportunistic infections that define AIDS - no pneumonia, no Kaposi's
sarcoma, no fungal infections. Leoutsakas says doctors have attempted to explain his case
by theorizing that, like the Australians (Learmont et al., 1992), he is infected with a
weakened form of HIV - but it's really j ust speculation. ... Leoutsakas has no theory of his
own - and no special formula for his well-being. He's never taken AZT or any other
antiretroviral. drugs (Simmons, 1995).
No more IV-drugs, no antiretroviral drugs - but The Advocate failed to see the 'formula for his
well-being.' Neville Hodgkinson, science correspondent of the London Sunday Times, has
recorded in his book AIDS: the Failure of Contemporary Science the observations of the
homosexual activist Callen (page 102):
In researching his 1990 book Surviving AIDS, Callen interviewed nearly fifty people who
had lived for many years not j ust after being pronounced HIV-positive, but after an AIDS
diagnosis. He found that only four had ever used AZT; three of those had since died, and
one was dying of AZT-induced lymphoma. But the overwhelming maj ority of long-term
survivors had somehow managed to resist the enormous pressure to take AZT.

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The pressure did not j ust come from doctors, Callen told the Amsterdam meeting (Maddox,
1992; Hodgkinson, 1996), but from a certain segment of AIDS activism that seemed driven
by a 'drugs-into-bodies' mentality. J feel many AIDS activist friends who are in the
forefront of this frenzy are very misleading to people with AIDS, who are frightened and
desperate. They only seem to talk about two possible outcomes of taking experimental
drugs: one is that it works and one that it does not work. There is a third, apparently much
more common possibility, which is that you will be worse off than if you did nothing at all.
And nobody likes to talk about that because it is so unpleasant.' He had seen the devastation
wreaked by AZT, watching with horror as friends with AIDS 'turn the colour of boiled ham
from AZT poisoning, endure the melting away of their muscles, become transfusion
dependent, and experience drug-induced psychosis.' Yet, 'they would sell their grandmother
into slavery to get a slot in the latest drug-of-the-month clinical trial.' (Hodgkinson, 1996).
Callen was on a polypharmacy of 56 AIDS drugs composed by his friend Sonnabend (page
99), but not on AZT, when he died in December 1993 from pulmonary Kaposi's sarcoma
(Maddox, 1992; Lauritsen & Young, 1997). According to his biography, Callen had
achieved over 3000 sexual contacts using nitrites and other drugs before his AIDS diagnosis
(Callen, 1990; Farber, 1994).

Figure 3. T he advis or y on the label r eads : ´ T O X IC´ . T ox ic by inhalation, in


c ontac t with s k in and if s wallowed. T ar get or gan( s ) : Blood bone m ar r ow. If you
f eel unwell, s eek m edic al advic e ( s how the label wher e pos s ible) . W ear s uitable
pr otec tive c lothing.

In August 1997, about a year after the protease inhibitors had been introduced to the United
States as a ´miracle cure,´ The New York Times issued a first drug alert: 'Despite powerful new
AIDS drugs many are still losing the battle' (Stolberg, 1997). According to the Times,
'medications seem to be failing 25 percent to 30 percent of the 150,000 people who are using
them. For some the complex regimen of three drugs does not work from the onset, for reasons
doctors do not understand. Some people get sick from the combination therapy, which has side
effects ranging from diabetes to diarrhea. "There is an increasing percentage of people in
whom, after a period of time, the virus breaks through," said Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of
the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases in Bethesda.... The failure rate may
eventually run as high as 50%.'
Indeed, by September 1997, the 'failure rate' already did 'run as high as 50%.' At that time the
San Francisco General Hospital released cocktail treatment results from 'real world' patients,
'unlike the patients selected for well- controlled, industry- sponsored clinical trials.'
According to this trial, the new 'AIDS drug cocktails fail 53%. ... The 47 percent of patients
who obtained lasting benefit from the drugs ... were those who were more recently infected
and who had not been treated with earlier generations of anti-viral medicines' (Krieger, 1997).
In other words, healthy ´patients´ can tolerate the new cocktails longer than those already
rendered sick by AZT.
But even 'lasting benefit' seems not to last. According to a meeting report from Chicago in
February 1998, 'people taking advanced drug treatments for HIV infection...' now 'develop
hardened fat deposits in stomachs and on necks [termed] Buffalo hump [and] Protease Paunch'
(Garrett, 1998). One study reports that 11 % of drug takers have the 'abdominal fat problem.'
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Another reports that '60 percent of patients developed chemical changes akin to a pre-diabetes
state after 15 months on the drugs' (Garrett, 1998). The report even acknowledges that 'none of
the drugs [protease inhibitors] were originally tested on more than a handful of people for
more than a year, so the long-term effect is unknown.' Neither the press nor the medical
profession seem even to wonder anymore why there are no animal tests prior to the licensing
of the drug for humans- j ust human experiments.
But anti-HIV drugs are not the only medical drugs that take life prematurely. A recent study
from Canada has concluded that over two million Americans experience adverse reactions and
over 100,000 die prematurely from prescription drugs annually (Lazarou et al., 1998).

The solution to the AIDS dilemma


According to our analysis, drugs qualify both correlatively and functionally for AIDS
causation:
1. All American and European AIDS-defining diseases that exceed their long - established
national backgrounds correlate with long-term recreational drug use, or anti-HIV drug use,
or both. The huge AIDS literature has yet to offer the first epidemiological study that
presents a significant group of 'previously healthy' (Gottlieb et al., 1981b) people who have
developed AIDS without drug use (Duesberg, 1995b).
2. The drugs used by AIDS patients have been shown in at least 63 scientific papers, in
statistical analyses, and in numerous non-scientific reports to cause AIDS-defining and
other diseases. In addition, specific drugs have been shown to cause AIDS risk
group-specific AIDS diseases; that is, nitrites causing Kaposi's sarcoma, cocaine causing
weight loss, and AZT causing muscle atrophy and dementia. Moreover, some AIDS patients
have recovered by terminating drug use. Certainly further tests of the pathology of AIDS
drugs could be obtained easily, either experimentally in animals or epidemiologically in
humans (Duesberg, 1995b). But these studies are not done because of the prevailing bias
against the drug-AIDS hypothesis (Weiss & J affe, 1990; Cohen, 1994a; Lang, 1996;
O'Brien, 1997; Lang, 1998).
According to the drug hypothesis, AIDS would be entirely preventable and at least partially
curable, if:
1. AZT and other anti-HIV drugs were banned,
2. recreational drug use were controlled by advertising that drugs may cause AIDS,
3. AIDS patients were treated for their specific diseases with proven medications, e.g.
tuberculosis with antibiotics, Kaposi's sarcoma with conventional cancer therapy, and
weight loss with good nutrition.
The drug hypothesis also answers all 12 questions that could not be answered by the
virus-AIDS hypothesis (Introduction). And it predicts that the war on AIDS and the war on
drugs could be won simultaneously if they were based on the health consequences of long-term
drug use, as the success of the federal anti-smoking program already demonstrates. Education
that smoking causes lung cancer, emphysema, and heart disease has reduced the percentage of
smokers in the US from 42% of the adult population in 1965 to 25% in 1995 (Associated
Press, 1995). In addition to saving over 50,000 lives per year from AIDS, the drug hypothesis
could save American taxpayers up to $25 billion annually. Eight of the $25 billion are
currently spent on AIDS treatment, research, and education based on the unproductive HIV
hypothesis (AIDS Weekly, 1995; Gutknecht, 1995), and another $17 billion are currently spent
on the War on Drugs (Los Angeles Times, 1998; White House Office of National Drug Control
Policy, 1998). There is but one obstacle to the solution of AIDS: the current AIDS
establishment.

Acknow ledgments
W e t h a n k F r e d C l i n e ( S a n F r a n c i s c o ) , D r . H i l d e D u e s b e r g ( B e r l i n ) , E r n s t Gr a d l ( N u r e m b e r g ) , D r . H a r r y H a v e r k o s ( N ID A,
B a l t i m o r e ) , P r o f e s s o r P h i l J o h n s o n ( B e r k e l e y) , D r . C l a u s Ko e h n l e i n ( Ki e l ) , D r . Al wi n Kr a e m e r ( H e i d e l b e r g U n i v e r s i t y,
M a n n h e i m ) , P r o f e s s o r S e r g e La n g ( Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y, N e w H a v e n ) , J o h n La u r i t s e n ( P r o v i n c e t o wn ) , P r o f e s s o r D a v i d S h u g a r
( W a r s a w) f o r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a d v i c e , D r . R u h o n g Li ( B e r k e l e y) f o r g r a p h i c s , a n d S i g g i D u e s b e r g f o r r e v i e w a n d h e l p wi t h
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t . P . D . t h a n k s S i g g i a n d M a x D . f o r wa i t i n g . T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n wa s s u p p o r t e d i n p a r t b y
t h e Ab r a h a m Ka t z F o u n d a t i o n ( N e w Y o r k ) , a n d b y p r i v a t e d o n a t i o n s f r o m R o b e r t Le p p o ( S a n F r a n c i s c o ) , T o m B o u l g e r
( Lo s An g e l e s ) , C a r o l J . W i l h e l m y ( S a n M a t e o ) , R o b e r t A. T h r e l f a l l ( Al b u q u e r q u e ) , R o b b i n s R e s e a r c h In t e r n a t i o n a l ( S a n
D i e g o ) , a n d a f o u n d a t i o n t h a t p r e f e r s t o r e m a i n a n o n ym o u s .

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