CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Photovoltaic systems, a grid connected inverter converts the DC output

voltage of the solar modules into the AC system. The grid-connected photovoltaic
(PV) system extracts maximum power from the PV arrays. The maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) technique is usually associated with a DC-DC converter. The
DC-AC injects the sinusoidal current to the grid and controls the power factor. An
important aspect related to the photovoltaic system connected to the electric grid is
that it can operate the double functions of active power generator and reactive power
compensator.
The proper power factor is selected according to active power and reactive
power that the grid demands. At the same time, it can supply reactive power to the
electrical grid when there is little or no solar radiation. That is important for
compensing the reactive power at peak hours, when the main grid needs a amount of
reactive power higher than average consumption. Although the photovoltaic system
does not generate active power in such period of time, it can supply reactive power up
to its maximum.
This inverter control strategy is not only capable to control the active power,
but also dynamically reconfigured to change the magnitude of the reactive power
injected into the grid. Some solutions are proposed [1-6], [10], to obtain a high
reliability inverter. The basic idea of the propose control is to obtain a low cost and
simple controller. In this method, the active power is controlled by load angle and the
reactive power is controlled by inverter output voltage magnitude. The controller
feeds maximum active power into grid at unity power factor, whereas it also allows
the adjustment of reactive power fed into the grid.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

TITLE 1: Hassaine, L.; Olias, E.; Quintero, J.; Barrado, A., “Digital control based on
the shifting phase for grid connected photovoltaic inverter”, Applied Power
Electronics Conference and Exposition, 2008. APEC 2008. Twenty-Third Annual
IEEE, pp.945-951, Feb. 2008.

ABSTRACT:
In photovoltaic (PV) system connected to the grid, the main goal is to control
the power energy that inverter inject into the grid, from the energy provided by
photovoltaic generator. The characteristics of the power grid vary depending on the
load; therefore injecting power does not only include the control of injecting active
power, but the control of the reactive power is necessary. In this paper, the new digital
control strategy, based on the shifting phase of the inverter output voltage related to
the grid voltage in order to control both, the inverter output current and the power
factor with a minimum SPWM pattern. The proposed control strategy is simple and
required a relatively low hardware and computational resources, reason why become
in attractive solution for low power applications (for example house applications). In
this paper are presented the main key point of propose strategy and discussed with
simulation and experimental results provided for different design conditions.

TITLE 2: Byunggyu Yu; Youngseok Jung; Junghun So; Hyemi Hwang; Gwonjong
Yu, “A Robust Anti-islanding Method for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Inverter”,
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, the 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference, vol. 2,
pp.2242-2245, May. 2006.

ABSTRACT:
In a modern power system, photovoltaic as distributed generated source is
growing larger and it can cause a variety of problem. Most issued problem is an
islanding phenomenon. In order to prevent islanding phenomenon, three kinds of
active islanding detection methods have been studied. These are respectively to
change magnitude, frequency, and the start phase of inverter output current. Among
them, both frequency and start phase variation anti-methods make the islanding
frequency drift away from the trip window of the frequency relay if an islanding is
occurred. This paper presents a robust anti-islanding method, which are consisted of a
frequency variation method as AFD (active frequency drift) method and a start phase
variation method as SMS (slip mode frequency shift) method. Clearly, the proposed
anti-islanding method shows the satisfied islanding detection ability to IEEE 1547
Standard. To validate the performance of the proposed method, simulation and
experiment are performed. Possible islanding conditions are followed by the IEEE
Standard 1547. The methodology presented in the paper can be extended to the other
active anti-islanding methods.

TITLE 3: Jeyraj Selvaraj and Nasrudin A. Rahim, “Multilevel Inverter For Grid-
Connected PV System Employing Digital PI Controller”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, vol.56, no.1, pp.149-158, Jan. 2009.

ABSTRACT:

This paper presents a single-phase five-level photovoltaic (PV) inverter

topology for grid-connected PV systems with a novel pulsewidth-modulated (PWM)
control scheme. Two reference signals identical to each other with an offset
equivalent to the amplitude of the triangular carrier signal were used to generate
PWM signals for the switches. A digital proportional-integral current control
algorithm is implemented in DSP TMS320F2812 to keep the current injected into the
grid sinusoidal and to have high dynamic performance with rapidly changing
atmospheric conditions. The inverter offers much less total harmonic distortion and
can operate at near-unity power factor. The proposed system is verified through
simulation and is implemented in a prototype, and the experimental results are
compared with that with the conventional single-phase three-level grid-connected
PWM inverter.
TITLE 4: Sung-Hun Ko; Seong-Ryong Lee; Dehbonei, H.; Nayar, C.V., “A Grid-
Connected Photovoltaic System with Direct Coupled Power Quality Control”, IEEE
Industrial Electronics, IECON 2006 - 32nd Annual Conference, pp.5203-5208, Nov.
2006.

ABSTRACT:
Disclosed here is a grid-interactive photovoltaic generation system having
power quality improvement and power saving functions. The grid-interactive
photovoltaic generation system includes a solar cell array, a first inverter, and a
second inverter. The solar cell array receives solar light and generates predetermined
power. The first inverter converts the power, generated by the solar cell array, into
power required by a grid line. The second inverter is connected to the first inverter,
and steps down power, which will be supplied to a load, to an appropriate voltage.

TITLE 5: Albuquerque, F.L.; Moraes, A.J.; Guimaraes, G.C.; Sanhueza, S.M.R.;

Vaz, A.R., “Optimization of a photovoltaic system connected to electric power grid”,
Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition: Latin America, 2004
IEEE/PES, pp.645–650, Nov. 2004.

ABSTRACT:

Abstract – Photovoltaic (PV) systems are increasingly being used in the

generation of electrical energy. However, they have not reached the expectations
needed to solve the energy demands of today and the near future. PV system
performance is influenced by several factors, such as pollution, irradiance, relative
humidity and temperature. One of the disadvantages of PV modules is their
temperature degradation; higher surface temperatures mean lower output voltages and
subsequent lower output power. This paper focuses on investigating and controlling
the effect that the ambient temperature exerts on the surface temperature of a PV
module, thereby influencing the amount of output power produced. An initial
experimental approach is carried out where temperature sensors are attached to
different sections of a PV module (same orientation angle but different tilt angles)
which is connected to a data acquisition system, DC-DC converter and a constant
load. Results obtained show that a PV module with the lowest tilt angle produced the
highest temperature, which was recorded at the back of the PV module.
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Maximum Power Point Tracking, frequently referred to as MPPT, is an

electronic system that operates the Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a manner that allows
the modules to produce all the power they are capable of. MPPT is not a mechanical
tracking system that “physically moves” the modules to make them point more
directly at the sun. MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical
operating point of the modules so that the modules are able to deliver maximum
available power. Additional power harvested from the modules is then made available
as increased battery charge current. MPPT can be used in conjunction with a
mechanical tracking system, but the two systems are completely different.

The problem considered by MPPT methods is to automatically find the

voltage VMPP or current IMPP at which a PV array delivers maximum power under a
given temperature and irradiance. In this section, commonly used MPPT methods are
introduced in an arbitrary order.

A. Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage

The method is based on the observation that, the ratio between array voltage at
maximum power VMPP to its open circuit voltage VOC is nearly constant.

This factor k1 has been reported to be between 0.71 and 0.78. Once the
constant k1 is known, VMPP is computed by measuring VOC periodically. Although
the implementation of this method is simple and cheap, its tracking efficiency is
relatively low due to the utilization of inaccurate values of the constant k1 in the
computation of VMMP.

B. Fractional Short-Circuit Current

The method results from the fact that, the current at maximum power point
IMPP is approximately linearly related to the short circuit current ISC of the PV
array.
Like in the fractional voltage method, k2 is not constant. It is found to be between
0.78 and 0.92. The accuracy of the method and tracking efficiency depends on the
accuracy of K2 and periodic measurement of short circuit current.

C. Perturb and Observe

In P&O method, the MPPT algorithm is based on the calculation of the PV

output power and the power change by sampling both the PV current and voltage. The
tracker operates by periodically incrementing or decrementing the solar array voltage.
If a given perturbation leads to an increase (decrease) in the output power of the PV,
then the subsequent perturbation is generated in the same (opposite) direction. So, the
duty cycle of the dc chopper is changed and the process is repeated until the
maximum power point has been reached. Actually, the system oscillates about the
MPP. Reducing the perturbation step size can minimize the oscillation. However,
small step size slows down the MPPT. To solve this problem, a variable perturbation
size that gets smaller towards the MPP.

However, the P&O method can fail under rapidly changing atmospheric
conditions. Several research activities have been carried out to improve the traditional
Hill-climbing and P&O methods. A three-point weight comparison P&O method that
compares the actual power point to the two preceding points before a decision is made
about the perturbation sign. Reference proposes a two stage algorithm that offers
faster tracking in the first stage and finer tracking in the second stage.

D. Incremental Conductance

The method is based on the principle that the slope of the PV array power
curve is zero at the maximum power point.

(dP/dV) = 0. Since (P = VI), it yields:

 The MPP can be tracked by comparing the instantaneous conductance (I/V) to
the incremental conductance (ΔI/ΔV). The algorithm increments or decrement the
array reference voltage until the condition of equation (4.a) is satisfied. Once the
Maximum power is reached, the operation of the PV array is maintained at this point.
This method requires high sampling rates and fast calculations of the power slope.

To understand how MPPT works, let’s first consider the operation of a

conventional (non-MPPT) charge controller. When a conventional controller is
charging a discharged battery, it simply connects the modules directly to the battery.
This forces the modules to operate at battery voltage, typically not the ideal operating
voltage at which the modules are able to produce their maximum available power.
The PV Module Power/Voltage/Current graph shows the traditional Current/Voltage
curve for a typical 75W module at standard test conditions of 25°C cell temperature
and 1000W/m2 of insulation. This graph also shows PV module power delivered vs
module voltage. For the example shown, the conventional controller simply connects
the module to the battery and therefore forces the module to operate at 12V. By
forcing the 75W module to operate at 12V the conventional controller artificially
limits power production to »53W.

Rather than simply connecting the module to the battery, the patented MPPT
system in a Solar Boost charge controller calculates the voltage at which the module
is able to produce maximum power.
 In this example the maximum power voltage of the module (VMP) is 17V.
The MPPT system then operates the modules at 17V to extract the full 75W,
regardless of present battery voltage. A high efficiency DC-to-DC power converter
converts the 17V module voltage at the controller input to battery voltage at the
output. If the whole system wiring and all was 100% efficient, battery charge current
in this example would be VMODULE ¸ VBATTERY x IMODULE, or 17V ¸ 12V x
4.45A = 6.30A. A charge current increase of 1.85A or 42% would be achieved by
harvesting module power that would have been left behind by a conventional
controller and turning it into useable charge current. But, nothing is 100% efficient
and actual charge current increase will be somewhat lower as some power is lost in
wiring, fuses, circuit breakers, and in the Solar Boost charge controller.

Actual charge current increase varies with operating conditions. As shown

above, the greater the difference between PV module maximum power voltage VMP
and battery voltage, the greater the charge current increase will be. Cooler PV module
cell temperatures tend to produce higher VMP and therefore greater charge current
increase. This is because VMP and available power increase as module cell
temperature decreases as shown in the PV Module Temperature Performance graph.
Modules with a 25°C VMP rating higher than 17V will also tend to produce more
charge current increase because the difference between actual VMP and battery
voltage will be greater. A highly discharged battery will also increase charge current
since battery voltage is lower, and output to the battery during MPPT could be
thought of as being “constant power”.
 CHAPTER 4

ELECTRICAL GRID

An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from

suppliers to consumers.

When referring to the power industry, grid is a term used for an electricity
network which may support all or some of the following four distinct operations:

1. Electricity generation

2. Electric power transmission

3. Electricity distribution

4. Electricity control

The sense of grid is as a network, and should not be taken to imply a particular
physical layout, or breadth. Grid may be used to refer to an entire continent's electrical
network, a regional transmission network or may be used to describe a sub network
such as a local utility's transmission grid or distribution grid.
 Electricity in a remote location might be provided by a simple distribution grid
linking a central generator to homes. The traditional paradigm for moving electricity
around in developed countries is more complex. Generating plants are usually located
near a source of water, and away from heavily populated areas. They are usually quite
large in order to take advantage of the economies of scale. The electric power which
is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the transmission
network. The transmission network will move (wheel) the power long distances often
across state lines, and sometimes across international boundaries until it reaches its
wholesale customer (usually the company that owns the local distribution network).
Upon arrival at the substation, the power will be stepped down in voltage from a
transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it
enters the distribution wiring. Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power
is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage(s).

This traditional centralized model along with its distinctions are breaking
down with the introduction of new technologies. For example, the characteristics of
power generation can in some new grids be entirely opposite of those listed above.

Generation can occur at low levels in dispersed locations, in highly populated

areas, and not outside the distribution grids. Such characteristics could be attractive
for some locales, and can be implemented if the grid uses a combination of new
design options such as net metering, electric cars as a temporary energy source,
or distributed generation.
 CHAPTER 5

FEATURES

5.1 STRUCTURE OF DISTRIBUTION GRIDS

The structure or "topology" of a grid can vary considerably. The physical

layout is often forced by what land is available and its geology. The logical topology
can vary depending on the constraints of budget, requirements for system reliability,
and the load and generation characteristics. The cheapest and simplest topology for a
distribution or transmission grid is a radial structure. This is a tree shape where power
from a large supply radiates out into progressively lower voltage lines until the
destination homes and businesses are reached.

Most transmission grids require the reliability that more complex mesh
networks provide. If one were to imagine running redundant lines between
limbs/branches of a tree that could be turned in case any particular limb of the tree
were severed, then this image approximates how a mesh system operates. The
expense of mesh topologies restrict their application to transmission and medium
voltage distribution grids. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and power is
simply rerouted while workmen repair the damaged and deactivated line. Other
topologies used are looped systems found in Europe and tied ring networks. In cities
and towns of North America, the grid tends to follow the classic "radially fed" design.
A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped
down with a transformer and sent to a bus from which feeders fan out in all directions
across the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the
major streets near the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the
fanout continues as smaller laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders.
This tree-like structure grows outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons,
usually contains at least one unused backup connection to a nearby substation. This
connection can be enabled in case of an emergency, so that a portion of a substation's
service territory can be alternatively fed by another substation.
5.2 GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSMISSION NETWORKS

Transmission networks are more complex with redundant pathways. For

example, see the map of the United States' (right) high-voltage transmission network.
A wide area synchronous grid or "interconnection" is a group of distribution areas all
operating with alternating current (AC) frequencies synchronized (so that peaks occur
at the same time). This allows transmission of AC power throughout the area,
connecting a large number of electricity generators and consumers and potentially
enabling more efficient electricity markets and redundant generation. Interconnection
maps are shown of North America (right) and Europe (below left).

Electricity generation and consumption must be balanced across the entire

grid, because energy is consumed almost immediately after it is produced. A large
failure in one part of the grid - unless quickly compensated for - can cause current to
re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission
lines of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely
connected grid is thus the possibility of cascading failure and widespread power
outage. A central authority is usually designated to facilitate communication and
develop protocols to maintain a stable grid. For example, the North American Electric
Reliability Corporation gained binding powers in the United States in 2006, and has
advisory powers in the applicable parts of Canada and Mexico. The U.S. government
has also designated National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors, where it
believes transmission bottlenecks have developed.Some areas, for example rural
communities in Alaska, do not operate on a large grid, relying instead on local diesel
generators.[1]

High-voltage direct current lines or variable frequency transformers can be

used to connect two alternating current interconnection networks which are not
synchronized with each other. This provides the benefit of interconnection without the
need to synchronize an even wider area. For example, compare the wide area
synchronous grid map of Europe (above left) with the map of HVDC lines (below
right).
5.3. REDUNDANCY AND DEFINING "GRID"

A town is only said to have achieved grid connection when it is connected to

several redundant sources, generally involving long-distance transmission.This
redundancy is limited. Existing national or regional grids simply provide the
interconnection of facilities to utilize whatever redundancy is available. The exact
stage of development at which the supply structure becomes a grid is arbitrary.
Similarly, the term national grid is something of an anachronism in many parts of the
world, as transmission cables now frequently cross national boundaries. The terms
distribution grid for local connections and transmission grid for long-distance
transmissions are therefore preferred, but national grid is often still used for the
overall structure...

5.4. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Utilities are under pressure to evolve their classic topologies to

accommodate distributed generation. As generation becomes more common from
rooftop solar and wind generators, the differences between distribution and
transmission grids will continue to blur.
 CHAPTER 6

MODERN TRENDS

6.1. DEREGULATION

The three components of a complete grid: generation, transmission, and

distribution of electrical power, can all be found in most large utilities. A utility can
be completely self-sufficient, but finds it advantageous to have the opportunity to buy
and sell power to and from neighboring utilities. This improves their reliability, and
that of their neighbors. Utilities are often awarded a "monopoly" status (at least at the
distribution level) simply because it doesn't make sense to have competing utilities
installing their hardware in the same location as another utility. The idea of a
monopoly becomes less compelling as one considers the generation of electrical
power. Wildly varying costs for the production of electricity, and the opportunity to
encourage free market competition spurs many legislatures to move towards
deregulation of the electric utilities (also known as "liberalization" in some parts of
the world.) The idea of de-regulation usually involves the separation of the
generation, transmission, and distribution operations into separate financial entities.

Generation assets in particular can often be sold-off in piecemeal fashion to

the highest bidders. With the aging infrastructure present at many utilities, and the
pressure to de-regulate, there are numerous opportunities to re-engineer the system.
Transitioning utilities from regulated monopolies to a deregulated
market has run into a number of challenges such as those surfaced by the California
electricity crisis.

6.2 DEMAND RESPONSE

Demand response is a grid management technique where retail or wholesale

customers are requested either electronically or manually to reduce their load.
Currently, transmission grid operators use demand response to request load reduction
from major energy users such as industrial plants.
6.3 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

With everything interconnected, and open competition occurring in a free

market economy, it starts to make sense to allow and even encourage distributed
generation (DG). Smaller generators, usually not owned by the utility, can be brought
on-line to help supply the need for power. The smaller generation facility might be a
home-owner with excess power from their solar panel or wind turbine. It might be a
small office with a diesel generator. These resources can be brought on-line either at
the utility's behest, or by owner of the generation in an effort to sell electricity. Many
small generators are allowed to sell electricity back to the grid for the same price they
would pay to buy it.

6.4 SMART GRID

Numerous efforts are underway to develop a "smart grid". In the U.S.,

the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and Title XIII of the Energy Independence and
Security Act of 2007. are providing funding to encourage smart grid development.
The hope is to enable utilities to better predict their needs, and in some cases involve
consumers in some form of time-of-use based tariff. Funds have also been allocated to
develop more robust energy control technologies.

6.5 MICRO GRID

Decentralization of the power transmission distribution system is vital to the

success and reliability of this system. Currently the system is reliant upon relatively
few generation stations. This makes current systems susceptible to impact from
failures not within said area. Micro grids would have local power generation, and
allow smaller grid areas to be separated from the rest of the grid if a failure were to
occur. Furthermore, micro grid systems could help power each other if needed.
Generation within a micro grid could be a downsized industrial generator or several
smaller systems such as photo-voltaic systems, or wind generation. When combined
with Smart Grid technology, electricity could be better controlled and distributed, and
more efficient.
6.6 SUPER GRID

Various planned and proposed systems to dramatically increase transmission

capacity are known as super, or mega grids. The promised benefits include enabling
the renewable energy industry to sell electricity to distant markets, the ability to
increase usage of intermittent energy sources by balancing them across vast
geological regions, and the removal of congestion that prevents electricity markets
from flourishing. Local opposition to siting new lines and the significant cost of these
projects are major obstacles to super grids.
 CHAPTER 7

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is the most effective means to achieve

constant voltage battery charging by switching the solar system controller’s power
devices. When in PWM regulation, the current from the solar array tapers according
to the battery’s condition and recharging needs consider a waveform such as this: it is
a voltage switching between 0v and 12v. It is fairly obvious that, since the voltage is
at 12v for exactly as long as it is at 0v, then a 'suitable device' connected to its output
will see the average voltage and think it is being fed 6v - exactly half of 12v. So by
varying the width of the positive pulse - we can vary the 'average' voltage.

Similarly, if the switches keep the voltage at 12 for 3 times as long as at 0v,
the average will be 3/4 of 12v - or 9v, as shown below.

and if the output pulse of 12v lasts only 25% of the overall time, then the average is
 By varying - or 'modulating' - the time that the output is at 12v (i.e. the width
of the positive pulse) we can alter the average voltage. So we are doing 'pulse width
modulation'. I said earlier that the output had to feed 'a suitable device'. A radio would
not work from this: the radio would see 12v then 0v, and would probably not work
properly. However a device such as a motor will respond to the average, so PWM is a
natural for motor control.
7.1 Pulse Width modulator
So, how do we generate a PWM waveform? It's actually very easy, there are
circuits available in the TEC site. First you generate a triangle waveform as shown in
the diagram below. You compare this with a d.c voltage, which you adjust to control
the ratio of on to off time that you require. When the triangle is above the 'demand'
voltage, the output goes high. When the triangle is below the demand voltage, the

When the demand speed it in the middle (A) you get a 50:50 output, as in
black. Half the time the output is high and half the time it is low. Fortunately, there is
an IC (Integrated circuit) called a comparator: these come usually 4 sections in a
single package. One can be used as the oscillator to produce the triangular waveform
and another to do the comparing, so a complete oscillator and modulator can be done
with half an IC and maybe 7 other bits.
The triangle waveform, which has approximately equal rise and fall slopes, is
one of the commonest used, but you can use a saw tooth (where the voltage falls
quickly and rinses slowly). You could use other waveforms and the exact linearity
(how good the rise and fall are) is not too important.
Traditional solenoid driver electronics rely on linear control, which is the
application of a constant voltage across a resistance to produce an output current that
is directly proportional to the voltage. Feedback can be used to achieve an output that
matches exactly the control signal. However, this scheme dissipates a lot of power as
heat, and it is therefore very inefficient.
A more efficient technique employs pulse width modulation (PWM) to
produce the constant current through the coil. A PWM signal is not constant. Rather,
the signal is on for part of its period, and off for the rest. The duty cycle, D, refers to
the percentage of the period for which the signal is on. The duty cycle can be
anywhere
from 0, the signal is always off, to 1, where the signal is constantly on. A 50% D
results in a perfect square wave. (Figure 1)

A solenoid is a length of wire wound in a coil. Because of this configuration,

the solenoid has, in addition to its resistance, R, a certain inductance, L. When a
voltage, V, is applied across an inductive element, the current, I, produced in that
element does not jump up to its constant value, but gradually rises to its maximum
over a period of time called the rise time (Figure 2). Conversely, I does not disappear
instantaneously, even if V is removed abruptly, but decreases back to zero in the same
amount of time as
the rise time.
 Therefore, when a low frequency PWM voltage is applied across a solenoid,
the current through it will be increasing and decreasing as V turns on and off. If D is
shorter than the rise time, I will never achieve its maximum value, and will be
discontinuous since it will go back to zero during V’s off period (Figure 3).* In
contrast, if D is larger than the rise time, I will never fall back to zero, so it will be
continuous, and have a DC average value. The current will not be constant, however,
but will have a ripple (Figure 4).

At high frequencies, V turns on and off very quickly, regardless of D, such

that the current does not have time to decrease very far before the voltage is turned
back on. The resulting current through the solenoid is therefore considered to be
constant. By adjusting the D, the amount of output current can be controlled. With a
small D, the current will not have much time to rise before the high frequency PWM
voltage takes effect and the current stays constant. With a large D, the current will be
able to rise higher before it becomes constant. (Figure 5)
7.2 PWM frequency important
The PWM is a large amplitude digital signal that swings from one voltage
extreme to the other. And, this wide voltage swing takes a lot of filtering to smooth
out. When the PWM frequency is close to the frequency of the waveform that you are
generating, then any PWM filter will also smooth out your generated waveform and
drastically reduce its amplitude. So, a good rule of thumb is to keep the PWM
frequency much higher than the frequency of any waveform you generate.
Finally, filtering pulses is not just about the pulse frequency but about the
duty cycle and how much energy is in the pulse. The same filter will do better on a
low or high duty cycle pulse compared to a 50% duty cycle pulse. Because the wider
pulse has more time to integrate to a stable filter voltage and the smaller pulse has less
time to disturb it the inspiration was a request to control the speed of a large positive
displacement fuel pump. The pump was sized to allow full power of a boosted engine
in excess of 600 Hp.
At idle or highway cruise, this same engine needs far less fuel yet the pump
still normally supplies the same amount of fuel. As a result the fuel gets recycled back
to the fuel tank, unnecessarily heating the fuel. This PWM controller circuit is
intended to run the pump at a low speed setting during low power and allow full pump
speed when needed at high engine power levels.
7.3 Motor Speed Control (Power Control)
Typically when most of us think about controlling the speed of a DC motor we
think of varying the voltage to the motor. This is normally done with a variable
resistor and provides a limited useful range of operation. The operational range is
limited for most applications primarily because torque drops off faster than the
voltage drops.
Most DC motors cannot effectively operate with a very low voltage. This
method also causes overheating of the coils and eventual failure of the motor if
operated too slowly. Of course, DC motors have had speed controllers based on
varying voltage for years, but the range of low speed operation had to stay above the
failure zone described above.
Additionally, the controlling resistors are large and dissipate a large
percentage of energy in the form of heat. With the advent of solid state electronics in
the 1950’s and 1960’s and this technology becoming very affordable in the 1970’s &
80’s the use of pulse width modulation (PWM) became much more practical. The
basic concept is to keep the voltage at the full value and simply vary the amount of
time the voltage is applied to the motor windings. Most PWM circuits use large
transistors to simply allow power On & Off, like a very fast switch.
This sends a steady frequency of pulses into the motor windings. When full
power is needed one pulse ends just as the next pulse begins, 100% modulation. At
lower power settings the pulses are of shorter duration. When the pulse is On as long
as it is Off, the motor is operating at 50% modulation. Several advantages of PWM
are efficiency, wider operational range and longer lived motors. All of these
advantages result from keeping the voltage at full scale resulting in current being
limited to a safe limit for the windings.
PWM allows a very linear response in motor torque even down to low PWM%
without causing damage to the motor. Most motor manufacturers recommend PWM
control rather than the older voltage control method. PWM controllers can be
operated at a wide range of frequencies. In theory very high frequencies (greater than
20 kHz) will be less efficient than lower frequencies (as low as 100 Hz) because of
switching losses.
 The large transistors used for this On/Off activity have resistance when
flowing current, a loss that exists at any frequency. These transistors also have a loss
every time they “turn on” and every time they “turn off”. So at very high frequencies,
the “turn on/off” losses become much more significant. For our purposes the circuit as
designed is running at 526 Hz. Somewhat of an arbitrary frequency, it works fine.
Depending on the motor used, there can be a hum from the motor at lower
PWM%. If objectionable the frequency can be changed to a much higher frequency
above our normal hearing level (>20,000Hz) .

7.4 PWM Controller Features

This controller offers a basic “Hi Speed” and “Low Speed” setting and has the
option to use a “Progressive” increase between Low and Hi speed. Low Speed is set
with a trim pot inside the controller box. Normally when installing the controller, this
speed will be set depending on the minimum speed/load needed for the motor.
Normally the controller keeps the motor at this Lo Speed except when Progressive is
used and when Hi Speed is commanded (see below). Low Speed can vary anywhere
from 0% PWM to 100%.
Progressive control is commanded by a 0-5 volt input signal. This starts to
increase PWM% from the low speed setting as the 0-5 volt signal climbs. This signal
can be generated from a throttle position sensor, a Mass Air Flow sensor, a Manifold
Absolute Pressure sensor or any other way the user wants to create a 0-5 volt signal.
This function could be set to increase fuel pump power as turbo boost starts to climb
(MAP sensor). Or, if controlling a water injection pump, Low Speed could be set at
zero PWM% and as the TPS signal climbs it could increase PWM%, effectively
increasing water flow to the engine as engine load increases. This controller could
even be used as a secondary injector driver (several injectors could be driven in a
batch mode, hi impedance only), with Progressive control (0-100%) you could control
their output for fuel or water with the 0-5 volt signal.
Progressive control adds enormous flexibility to the use of this controller. Hi
Speed is that same as hard wiring the motor to a steady 12 volt DC source. The
controller is providing 100% PWM, steady 12 volt DC power. Hi Speed is selected
three different ways on this controller: 1) Hi Speed is automatically selected for about
one second when power goes on. This gives the motor full torque at the start. If
needed this time can be increased ( the value of C1 would need to be increased). 2)
High Speed can also be selected by applying 12 volts to the High Speed signal wire.
This gives Hi Speed regardless of the Progressive signal.
When the Progressive signal gets to approximately 4.5 volts, the circuit
achieves 100% PWM – Hi Speed.

7.5 How does this technology help ?:

The benefits noted above are technology driven. The more important question
is how the PWM technology jumping from a 1970’s technology into the new
millennium offers:

• Longer battery life:

– reducing the costs of the solar system
– reducing battery disposal problems

• More battery reserve capacity:

– increasing the reliability of the solar system
– reducing load disconnects
– opportunity to reduce battery size to lower the system cost

• Greater user satisfaction

– get more power when you need it for less money!!

7.6 SPACE VECTOR PWM

The Space Vector PWM generation module accepts modulation index

commands and generates the appropriate gate drive waveforms for each PWM cycle.
This section describes the operation and configuration of the SVPWM module.

A three-phase 2-level inverter with dc link configuration can have eight

possible switching states, which generates output voltage of the inverter. Each
inverter switching state generates a voltage Space Vector (V1 to V6 active vectors,
V7 and V8 zero voltage vectors) in the Space Vector plane (Figure: space vector
diagram). The magnitude of each active vector (V1to V6) is 2/3 Vdc (dc bus voltage).
 The Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) module inputs modulation index
commands (U_Alpha and U_Beta) which are orthogonal signals (Alpha and Beta) as
shown in Figure. The gain characteristic of the SVPWM module is given in Figure .
The vertical axis of Figure represents the normalized peak motor phase voltage
(V/Vdc) and the horizontal axis represents the normalized modulation index (M).
The inverter fundamental line-to-line Rms output voltage (Vline) can be
approximated (linear range) by the following equation:

………….. (1)
Where dc bus voltage (Vdc) is in volts

Space Vector Diagram

7.7 PWM Operation

Upon receiving the modulation index commands (UAlpha and UBeta) the sub-
module SVPW M_Tm starts its calculations at the rising edge of the PWM Load
signal. The SVPWM _Tm module implements an algorithm that selects (based on
sector determination) the active space vectors (V1 to V6) being used and calculates
the appropriate time duration (w.r.t. one PWM cycle) for each active vector. The
appropriated zero vectors are also being selected. The SVPWM _Tm module
consumes 11 clock cycles typically and 35 clock cycles (worst case Tr) in over
modulation cases. At the falling edge of nSYNC, a new set of Space Vector times and
vectors are readily available for actual PWM generation (PhaseU, PhaseV, PhaseW)
by sub module Pwm Generation. It is crucial to trigger PwmLoad at least 35 clock
cycles prior to the falling edge of nSYNC signal; otherwise new modulation
commands will not be implemented at the earliest PWM cycle.

The above Figures voltage vector rescaling illustrates the PWM waveforms for
a voltage vector locates in sector I of the Space Vector plane (shown in Figure). The
gating pattern outputs (PWMUH … PWMWL) include dead time insertion

3-phase Space Vector PWM

2-phase (6-step PWM) Space Vector PWM

7.8 PWM Carrier Period:

Input variable PwmCval controls the duration of a PWM cycle. It should

be populated by the system clock frequency (Clk) and Pwm frequency (PwmFreq)
selection. The variable should be calculated as:

……….. (3)

The input resolution of the Space Vector PWM modulator signals U_Alpha
and U_Beta is 16-bit signed integer. However, the actual PWM resolution (PwmCval)
is limited by the system clock frequency.

Dead time Insertion Logic Dead time is inserted at the output of the PWM
Generation Module. The resolution is 1 clock cycle or 30nsec at a 33.3 MHz clock
and is the same as those of the voltage command registers and the PWM carrier
frequency register.

The dead time insertion logic chops off the high side commanded
volt*seconds by the amount of dead time and adds the same amount of volt*seconds
to the low side signal. Thus, it eliminates the complete high side turn on pulse if the
commanded volt*seconds is less than the programmed dead time.

7.9 Dead time Insertion

 The dead time insertion logic inserts the programmed dead time between two
high and low side of the gate signals within a phase. The dead time register is also
double buffered to allow “on the fly” dead time change and control while PWM logic
is inactive.

Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Mode Operation

There are two modes of operation available for PWM waveform generation,
namely the Center Aligned Symmetrical PWM (Figure) and the Center Aligned
Asymmetrical PWM (Figure)The volt-sec can be changed every half a PWM cycle
(Tpwm) since Pwm Load occurs every half a PWM cycle (compare Figure
:symmetrical pwm and Figure :asymmetrical PWM). With Symmetrical PWM mode,
the inverter voltage Config = 0), the inverter voltage can be changed at two times the
rate of the switching frequency. This will provide an increase in voltage control
bandwidth, however, at the expense of increased current harmonic

7.10 Asymmetrical PWM Mode

A) Three-Phase and Two-Phase Modulation

Three-phase and two-phase Space Vector PWM modulation options are

provided for the IRMCx203. The Volt-sec generated by the two PWM strategies are
identical; however with 2-phase modulation the switching losses can be reduced
significantly, especially when high switching frequency (>10Khz) is employed.
Figure: three-phase and two phase modulation shows the switching pattern for one
PWM cycle when the voltage vector is inside sector 1

B) Three Phase and Two Phase Modulation

The field Two Phase PWM of the PWM Config write register group provides
selection of three-phase or two-phase modulation. The default setting is three-phase
modulation. Successful operation of two-phase modulation in the entire speed
operating range will depend on hardware configuration. If the gate driver employs a
bootstrap power supply strategy, disoperation will occur at low motor fundamental
frequencies (< 2Hz) under two-phase modulation control.

C) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

 In many industrial applications, Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM),
also called Sine coded Pulse Width Modulation, is used to control the inverter output
voltage. SPWM maintains good performance of the drive in the entire range of
operation between zero and 78 percent of the value that would be reached by square-
wave operation. If the modulation index exceeds this value, linear relationship
between modulation index and output voltage is not maintained and the over-
modulation methods are required

D) Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation

A different approach to SPWM is based on the space vector representation of

voltages in the d, q plane. The d, q components are found by Park transform, where
the total power, as well as the impedance, remains unchanged.

Fig: space vector shows 8 space vectors in according to 8 switching positions

of inverter, V* is the phase-to-center voltage which is obtained by proper selection of
adjacent vectors V1 and V2.

Inverter output voltage space vector

Determination of Switching times

 The reference space vector V* is given by Equation (1), where T1, T2 are the
intervals of application of vector V1 and V2 respectively, and zero vectors V0 and V7
are selected for T0.

V* Tz = V1 *T1 + V2 *T2 + V0 *(T0/2) + V7 *(T0/2)……….(4)

Fig. below shows that the inverter switching state for the period T1 for vector
V1 and for vector V2, resulting switching patterns of each phase of inverter are shown
in Fig. pulse pattern of space vector PWM.

Inverter switching state for (a)V1, (b) V2

Pulse pattern of Space vector PWM

E) Comparison

In Fig:- comparison, U is the phase to- center voltage containing the triple
order harmonics that are generated by space vector PWM, and U1 is the sinusoidal
reference voltage. But the triple order harmonics are not appeared in the phase-to-
phase voltage as well. This leads to the higher modulation index compared to the
SPWM.

F) Comparison of SPWM and Space Vector PWM

As mentioned above, SPWM only reaches to 78 percent of square wave

operation, but the amplitude of maximum possible voltage is 90 percent of square-
wave in the case of space vector PWM. The maximum phase-to-center voltage by
sinusoidal and space vector

PWM are respectively

Vmax = Vdc/2 : Sinusoidal PWM

Vmax = Vdc/√3 : Space Vector PWM

Where, Vdc is DC-Link voltage.

This means that Space Vector PWM can produce about 15 percent higher
than Sinusoidal PWM in output voltage.
 CHAPTER 8

CONTROLLERS

8.1 P-I CONTROLLER

P-I controller is mainly used to eliminate the steady state error resulting from
P controller. However, in terms of the speed of the response and overall stability of
the system, it has a negative impact. This controller is mostly used in areas where
speed of the system is not an issue. Since P-I controller has no ability to predict the
future errors of the system it cannot decrease the rise time and eliminate the
oscillations. If applied, any amount of I guarantees set point overshoot.

Fig.8: PID controller

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a control

loop feedback mechanism(controller) commonly used in industrial control systems. A
PID controller continuously calculates an error valueas the difference between a
measured process variable and a desired setpoint. The controller attempts to minimize
the error over time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the position of
a control valve, adamper, or the power supplied to a heating element, to a new value
determined by a weighted sum.
Equivalently, the transfer function in the Laplace Domain of the PID controller is

where

: complex number frequency

8.2 PROPORTIONAL TERM:

The proportional term produces an output value that is proportional to the

current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the
error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain constant.

The proportional term is given by:

A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given
change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become
unstable (see the section on loop tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in a small
output response to a large input error, and a less responsive or less sensitive
controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small
when responding to system disturbances. Tuning theory and industrial practice
indicate that the proportional term should contribute the bulk of the output change.
 Fig.9: Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Kp (Ki and Kdheld constant)

8.3 INTEGRAL TERM:

The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude
of the error and the duration of the error. The integral in a PID controller is the sum of
the instantaneous error over time and gives the accumulated offset that should have
been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral
gain ( ) and added to the controller output.

The integral term is given by:

The integral term accelerates the movement of the process towards set point
and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a pure proportional
controller. However, since the integral term responds to accumulated errors from the
past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (see the section on
loop tuning).
 Fig.10: Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Ki (Kp and Kdheld constant)

8.4 DERIVATIVE TERM

The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of

the error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The
magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is
termed the derivative gain, Kd.

The derivative term is given by:

Derivative action predicts system behavior and thus improves settling time and
stability of the system.[12][13]An ideal derivative is not causal, so that implementations
of PID controllers include an additional low pass filtering for the derivative term, to
limit the high frequency gain and noise.[14] Derivative action is seldom used in
practice though - by one estimate in only 25% of deployed controllers[14] - because of
its variable impact on system stability in real-world applications.
 Plot of PV vs time, for three values of Kd (Kp and Kiheld constant)

8.5 FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER

In FLC, basic control action is determined by a set of linguistic rules. These
rules are determined by the system. Since the numerical variables are converted into
linguistic variables, mathematical modeling of the system is not required in FC. The
FLC comprises of three parts: fuzzification, interference engine and defuzzification.
The FC is characterized as i. seven fuzzy sets for each input and output. ii. Triangular
membership functions for simplicity. iii. Fuzzification using continuous universe of
discourse. iv. Implication using Mamdani’s, ‘min’ operator. v. Defuzzification using
the height method.
 Fig.(8) Fuzzy logic controller

Fuzzification: Membership function values are assigned to the linguistic variables,

using seven fuzzy subsets: NB (Negative Big), NM (Negative Medium), NS
(Negative Small), ZE (Zero), PS (Positive Small), PM (Positive Medium), and PB
(Positive Big). The partition of fuzzy subsets and the shape of membership CE(k)
E(k) function adapt the shape up to appropriate system. The value of input error and
change in error are normalized by an input scaling factor

In this system the input scaling factor has been designed such that input values
are between -1 and +1. The triangular shape of the membership function of this
arrangement presumes that for any particular E(k) input there is only one dominant
fuzzy subset. The input error for the FLC is given as
 Pph(k) −Pph(k−1)
E(k) = (14)
Vph(k) −Vph(k−1)

CE(k) = E(k) – E(k-1) (15)

Fig.(b) Membership functions

Inference Method: Several composition methods such as Max–Min and Max-Dot

have been proposed in the literature. In this paper Min method is used. The output
membership function of each rule is given by the minimum operator and maximum
operator. Table 1 shows rule base of the FLC.
Defuzzification: As a plant usually requires a non-fuzzy value of control, a
defuzzification stage is needed. To compute the output of the FLC, „height‟ method is
used and the FLC output modifies the control output. Further, the output of FLC
controls the switch in the inverter. In UPQC, the active power, reactive power,
terminal voltage of the line and capacitor voltage are required to be maintained. In
order to control these parameters, they are sensed and compared with the reference
values. To achieve this, the membership functions of FC are: error, change in error
and output.

The set of FC rules are derived from u=-[αE + (1-α)*C]

Where α is self-adjustable factor which can regulate the whole operation. E is
the error of the system, C is the change in error and u is the control variable. A large
value of error E indicates that given system is not in the balanced state. If the system
is unbalanced, the controller should enlarge its control variables to balance the system
as early as possible. set of FC rules is made using Fig.(b) is given in Table 1.

8.6 THE MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION EDITOR:

The Membership Function Editor shares some features with the FIS Editor. In
fact, all of the five basic GUI tools have similar menu options, status lines, and Help
and Close buttons. The Membership Function Editor is the tool that lets you display
and edit all of the membership functions associated with all of the input and output
variables for the entire fuzzy inference system. Fig.6 shows the Membership Function
Editor.
You can first use the mouse to select a particular membership function
associated with a given variable quality, (such as poor, for the variable, service), and
then drag the membership function from side to side. This will affect the
mathematical description of the quality associated with that membership function for
a given variable. The selected membership function can also be tagged for dilation or
contraction by clicking on the small square drag points on the membership function,
and then dragging the function with the mouse toward the outside, for dilation, or
toward the inside, for contraction. This will change the parameters associated with
that membership function.
  curve to rancid. To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use
the mouse, as described above, or type in a desired parameter change, and
then click on the membership function. The default parameter listing for this
curve is [0 0 1 3].
 Name the curve with the rightmost trapezoid, delicious, and reset the
associated parameters if desired.

fig.12. The updated Membership Function EditorNow that the variables have been
named, and the membership functions have appropriate shapes and names, you're
ready to write down the rules. To call up the Rule Editor, go to the View menu and
select Edit.
 CHAPTER 9
MATLAB

9.1 Introduction to Matlab

Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. The name

mat lab stands for matrix laboratory. It integrates computation, visualization, and
programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are
expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include Math and
computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling, simulation, and
prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific and engineering
graphics Application development, including graphical user interface building.

Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing
problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the
time it would take to write a program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or
FORTRAN.

9.2 Components of Matlab

 Workspace
 Current Directory
 Command History
 Command Window
 Block diagram of Mat lab components

9.3 MATLAB and engineering

MATLAB was first adopted by researchers and practitioners in control

engineering, Little's specialty, but quickly spread to many other domains. It is now
also used in education, in particular the teaching of linear algebra and numerical
analysis, and is popular amongst scientists involved in image processing. However,
many researchers mostly from Computer Science background feel that MATLAB
should be used only for mathematical analysis necessary in image processing and not
for implementation of image processing software. Moreover, MATLAB should not be
used to simulate computer architectures, systems software and computer networks
unless while solving some numeric problem.
Toolboxes in Matlab:
 Simulink
 Fuzzy
 Genetic algorithm
 Neural network
 Wavelet
 CHAPTER 10
OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES
The power stage of the single phase inverter connected to the grid in the Fig.1
explains the inverter output current.

Fig. 1: Single-phase inverter topology.

The current of the inverter connected to the grid must be got from a PV panel.
The analysis is based on inductor coupling and applied for other types of output filter
configurations, such as L, LC, LCL, etc [1,4,9]. The equivalent electrical circuit is
shown in Fig.2.

Fig. 2: Equivalent electric cirrcuit

In order to explain the circuit characteristics, the Fig. 3 represents the phase
diagram of the fundamental components, including the inverter output voltage (E), the
inverter output current (I), the drop voltage on the inductance L (jXsI=jωLI), and the
fundamental component of the grid voltage (U). [1].
 Fig. 3: Phase diagram with grid voltage (U) and load angle (δ).

φ is represented as the power angle between the grid voltage and the inverter output
current. And, δ is represented as the load angle between the grid voltage and the
inverter output voltage. The phase diagram is shown in Fig. 3. The following relations
can be represented:

The active power (P) provided by the converter to the grid can be expressed as:

And the reactive power (Q) provided by the converter to the grid, can be expressed as:

According to figure 3, equations (3) and (4), the power flow adjustment of the
inverter is parallel connected to the main grid, can be performed by controlling the
inverter ouput voltage magnitude (E) and load angle (δ). On the other hand, to inject
power to the grid, the value of the DC voltage must be high enough so that the output
voltage E can get a value which is equal or greater than the grid peak voltage.
 From equation (3) and (4), the active and reactive power depend on both the
inverter output voltage magnitude E and the load angle δ [6]. So, the active power
injected into the grid can be controlled by the phase difference between grid voltage
and inverter output voltage δ. At the same time, the reactive power can be controlled
by the inverter output voltage magnitude E.

10.1 Proposed Control Implementation

The proposed control structure for a single-phase inverter connected to the
grid is shown in Fig.4. The photovoltaic system consists of photovoltaic generator
(PV array), DC/DC converter with maximum power point tracking (MPPT), a single
phase inverter and an active and
reactive power controller. The control circuit has two parts: the first one controls the
active power injected into the grid by the load angle δ, and the second one controls the
reactive power through the inverter output voltage magnitude E.

Fig. 4: Control structure for a single phase grid connected PV system

As show in figure 4, the controller compenses the reactive power injected into
the grid (Qg) and compares it with its reference (Qr), originating an reactive power
error. This error passes through an PI controller and it is added to grid voltage
amplitude (Um≈const), resulting the inverter output voltage amplitude (Em). On the
other hand, the controller produces the active power generated by the inverter (Pg)
and compares it with a reference signal (Pr), generating an active power error. This
error passes through another PI controller, originating reference load angle (δ). The
load angle is added to grid voltage phase angle (θu), generating inverter output
voltage phase angle (δ+θu). The inverter output voltage amplitude (Em) is multiplied
by sin(δ+θu), resulting the instantaneous value of the inverter output voltage (e) – the
DC/AC inverter reference signal.

The main advantage of this control strategy is its simplicity related to the
computational requirements of the control circuit and hardware implementation. By
another way, it allows controlling not only an active power needs to be injected but
also a reactive component. When the reactive power reference is zero, the power
factor will approach to the unity.

10.2 Simulation Results

MATLAB/Simulink software were used in all simulations accomplished here
which show the results obtained for voltage and current waveforms, active, reactive
and apparent powers on the AC side supplied to the grid. The rate value of grid
voltage (U=220Vrms) and the inverter is connected to the grid through a coupling
inductance L=10mH. Simulations at low-power scale (1 kVA) is implemented in
predicting the behaviour of the system for the experiments to be performed on the
laboratory test bench.
Fig. 5: Active and Reactive Power supplied by the inverter with 100%-50%-100% of
photovoltaic system power.

The simulation results obtained for steady-state operation are shown in Fig. 5.
Active and reactive power response has good performance. The active power and
reactive power injected into the grid for four generation conditions: [P,Q]=[0%, 0%],
[100%, 0%], [50%, 0%], [50%, 87%].

Fig. 6: Load angle δ [degree] and Inverter output voltage E [Vrms].

The load angle (δ) is proportional to the active power and the inverter output voltage
(E) is proportional to the reactive power into the grid with four generation conditions:
[P,Q]=[0%,0%], [100%, 0%], [50%, 0%], [50%, 87%].

Fig. 7: Grid voltage [V], Inverter output voltage [V], and Inverter output current
[Arms].

Fig. 8: Active, Reactive and Apparent power injected

 As observed in figures 5 to 8, when the active power is reduced, the control is
adjusted to increase the reactive power supplied capacity. Hence, the values of
inverter current and the apparent power injected into the grid can get the rate values
whereas the solar radiation is low. [6]. The active power supplied by the photovoltaic
system to the grid presented a agreeable performance, due to a reasonable system
response. When there is sunstroke variation, the system adjusts to a new reference of
active power with a good performance. Moreover, it was observed an interaction
between the active and reactive powers delivered to the grid. So, the system takes
advantage of the moments of little active power generation to accomplish the
compensation of reactive power.

10.3 Experimental Results and Remarks of Testing

A prototype of a single phase inverter (Fig.9), has been built to validate the
performance of the digital control previously described and tested. A voltage source
inverter has been developed in a DSP platform (DSPTMS320F2812) reconfiguration
easily and simply the system [3]. It is possible to configure the inverter output voltage
and the load angle shifting to the grid voltage reference. Two digital PI control-
algorithms are implemented in DSP TMS320F2812 to optimize the performance of
the control system. The proposed inverter is tested with a PV array of 80W.

Fig. 9: Single-phase inverter prototype.

As first, the inverter output voltage and its phase must be synchronized to the
grid voltage signal before the power output of the inverter is connected to the grid
(Fig. 10).
Fig. 10: Inverter output voltage generated in phase with the grid voltage in open loop.

Fig. 11 & 12: E > U and δ > 0.

 Second, the gid-connected algorithm is executed to control the power flow
delivered into the grid. The controller varies magnitude and phase of the inverter
output voltage (Fig. 11). Code composer studio sofware of Texas Instruments’s DSP
allows drawing real-time measurement values. Fig. 13 and Fig.14 show the
experimental results of inverter output current compared to the grid voltage emulator.

Fig. 13: Inverter output current in phase with the grid voltage emulator by
Oscilloscope

Fig. 14: Inverter output current in phase with the grid voltage emulator by Code
composer tool.
 Fig. 15: Active power response
The graph of figure 15 shows the active power injected into the grid, which
has good performance. The experimental result shows the feasibility of the propose
control. And the control is applied to regulate the active and reactive power of low
power PV systems. The propose implementation is very simple and not required a
high speed hardware and computational resources.

10.4 Remarks of Testing

In this part, the simulation and experiment results prove that the propose
system has the ability of changing inverter output voltage amplitude as well as load
angle. Consequently, the system is controllable for the active and reactive power
injected into the grid with a good performance. Thus, it becomes possible to operate
independently the photovoltaic system in any condition of the sunstroke level and
supplies both the active and reactive powers according to the availability of solar
radiation. This photovoltaic systems is neither complex to implement nor expensive to
realise. It is a better cost-benefit ratio in the implementation for the other alterative
energies.
10.5 Introduction to Green Power Lab
All of the research activity, such as the first part of this paper, concerning the
renewable energy is focused on the development of the Green Power Laboratory
(GPL). GPL now belongs to Faculty of Electrical- Electronics Engineering-
HoChiMinh City University of Technology- is
a fruitful collaboration between HCMUT and PFIEVENSEEIHT in the framework of
the project NTEDD (Nouvelles Technologies Et Développement Durable = New
Technologies and Sustainable Development) from 2007 in setting up a lab on
Renewables, aiming at undergraduate and graduate teaching and researchs of new
electricalelectronics technologies applied in green energy. The objectives of this lab
are to focus on renewable energy technologies (wind power, solar power, fuel cell) as
well as on the design and control of the power electronic converters used in single-
phase and three-phase renewable energy systems like photovoltaic, wind, fuel cells
and water turbines connected to the utility grid or to a microgrid.
The laboratory comprises various equipments for student use and other
research activities in the field of renewable energy. DSP technology, either Texas
Instruments TMS320F2812 DSP from Texas Instruments, or dSPACEDS1104 cards
are widely used in order to provide higher flexibility. Fig. 1 shows a photo of the
Green Power Laboratory. The course Renewable Energy Systems given to
undergraduate and graduate students is going in parallel with Green Power Labs
includes (3 hous lecture per week):

1. Introduction to Renewable Energy System

 Need for more energy
 Renewable Energy Sources (solar, wind, hydro, tidal, waves)
 Fuel-cell introduction
 Cost and environmental impact
 Renewable energy in a sustainable future

2. Stand alone and gird-connected Photovoltaic Systems

 Solar cells technology (crystalline, amorphous, thin film)
 Electrical characteristics of silicon PV cells/modules
 Tracking maximum power point
 Grid-connected and off-grid PV systems (residential, farms, etc)
 Converter topologies for PV systems
  Control of dc-dc boost converters
 Control of single-phase and three-phase dc-ac inverters
 Compliance with power quality and safety systems

3. Wind Energy Systems

 Power and energy from wind turbines
 Wind turbine system configurations
 Converter topologies for variable-speed wind turbines
 _Modeling and simulation of DFIG used in wind power

4. Fuel Cell technology

 Various technologies of Fule Cells
 Characteristics of Fuel Cells
 Fuel Cell Application as an energy vector

Matlab and Bondgraph (20SIM) softwares are extensively used by students to

carry out modeling, simulations and study of renewable energy equipment
performance and its behaviour when connected to power grid.

The laboratory exercises include:

1. Solar cells and panels

Matlab simulation of solar cells and panels electrical characteristics (I-V, P-V, MPPT
temperature dependence, irradiation-dependence, shadowing etc).

2. Grid-connected PV systems – System simulation

3. MPPT controller – experimental test

4. Control of single-phase grid converter used for PV residential application –

experimental test

5. Control of three-phase Wind Turbine systems – experimental test

 PROJECT EXAMPLES
GPL offers a variety of projects to undergrad or grad students in their program.

 Operation and simulation of standalone PV system (of 300 W, Bond Graph or

Matlab, comparison of results obtained from experiments measurements and
those from simulation)
 Operation and simulation of grid-connected PV system (of 960 W, BondGraph
or Matlab, comparison of results obtained from experiments measurements
and those from simulation)
 Operation and simulation of off- grid wind power system (of 400 W,
BondGraph or Matlab, comparison of results obtained from experiments
measurements and those from simulation)
 Operation and simulation of Fuel cell (principle of electrolysis, applications)
 Off- grid wind power system (of 400 W, BondGraph or Matlab, comparison of
results obtained from experiments measurements and those from simulation)
Some specific themes are also offered as final projects for senior class
students. Some of topics are as follows:
 Digital simulation of Three phase Grid-Connected PV system with improved
performance:
 The concept of the instantaneous p-q (real-imaginary) power theory is
presented in the control algorithm to design the system with features of
separate control of active and reactive power, which results in the maximal
transfer of the dc energy from PV array and improves the power factor of the
electrical system. The whole system of PV array, dc-dc converter, MPPT, dc-
ac PWM converter along with hysteresis current controller is designed and
simulated in Matlab- Simulink environment. The results obtained from digital
simulations will show dynamic system performances in terms of changing
irradiance, power factor correction, as well as easy tracking of inverter
currents fed into grid.
 Digital simulation and Experimental test of One-phase Grid-Connected PV
system with improved performance.
This topic presents a control algorithm for a single-phase grid-connected
photovoltaic system. An inverter designed for grid-connected photovoltaic arrays can
synchronize a sinusoidal current output with a voltage grid. This method controls
active power by load angle and control reactive power by electromotive force. A
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) always finds optimal power of the PV array in
use. The controller feeds maximum active power into grid at unity power factor,
whereas it also allows the adjustment of reactive power fed into the grid. Simulation
and experimental results show that the control system has good performances.

Modeling and simulation of wind power DFIG connected to power system Various
seminars, workshops are held in GPL offering basic knowledge and expertise in the
field given by professors coming from INPT- ENSEEIHT, University of Dresden,
ENS Cachan (Fig 2) on topics:

 Alternative Energy: technologies, impacts on sustainable development.

 Fuel Cell technology and Applications in the future as an energy vector.
 Wind power Generators and Simulations.
 Small hydro power and exploitation operations.
 PV technology stand alone and grid connected operations and characteristics.
 Power converters in Green Power technology.
 Wind power: Operation and site selection estimation of wind potential
economic side consideration.
 Power LED and efficient use of electric power.
 Power LED technology.
 Bond Graph software applications in hybrid systems research.
 CHAPTER 11

CONCLUSION

GPL shows its effectiveness and attraction when it draws a real interest of
students majoring in Power. Engineering. Students are really interested in new
concepts, new technologies introduced into the curriculum. In addition, the
introduction of micro electronics and DSP techniques into the renewable energy field
really makes the subject state-of the art and more interdisciplinary. Power electronics,
electrical machines, dsp, microelectronics, control techniques, all integrated in the
discipline gives even more attractiveness to students.
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