A113N AND DRAINAGE PAPER

FA0 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PAPER

small hydraulic
structures
by

d. b. kraatz
hydraulic engineer

and

i. k. mahajan
secretary, icid

prepared with the support of the

international commission on irrigation and drainage

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome 1975
 First printing 1975
Second printing 1982

The designations employed and the presentation

of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of the Food and Agri~culture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-56
ISBN 92-5-100161-8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic. mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission,
with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should
be addressed to the Director, Publications Division. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. Via delle Terme di Caracalla. 00100
Rom'e, Italy.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME I1

Page

PREFACE

6. WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTURES

6. 1 Introduction 1
6.2 General Feat!ures of Checks o r C r o s s Regulators 1
6. 3 Checks with Fixed Overfall C r e s t without Movable Controls 4
6r3.1 General 4
6. 3.2 Hydraulic design 8
6. 3. 3 Design example (diagonal w e i r ) 16
6. 3.4 Design examples (duckbill w e i r ) 16
6. 3.5 Check- slab s t r u c t u r e (Mexico) 16
6.4 Checks Regulated by Stop P l a n k s (Drop B a r s ) o r F l a s h B o a r d s 22
6.4.1 General
6.4.2 D r o p - b a r check s t r u c t u r e (Victoria, A u s t r a l i a )
6.5 Checks Equipped with Hand Operated Gates
6.5.1 General
6.5.2 Standard check (USBR)
6.5. 3 Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l
6.5.4 Wooden checks
6.5.5 P o r t a b l e checks
6.5.6 Radial gate check
6.5.7 The Romijn gate
6.6 Hydraulically Automated Checks (Neyrpic)
6. 6 . 1 General s t r u c t u r e and application
6. 6 . 2 Range of standard g a t e s available
6. 7 Semi Automatic Time Controlled Check
6.8 Check S t r u c t u r e s Combined with a F a l l , Drop o r Chute
6.9 General F e a t u r e s of Drops (or F a l l s ) and Chutes
 T a b l e of Contents
Contld.

Page

6. 10 Vertical Drops (or Falls)

6.10.1 General
6. 1 0 . 2 S a r d a - t y p e fall (India)
6. 10. 3 R e c t a n g u l a r w e i r d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t
6.10.4 V e r t i c a l c h e c k - d r o p (USBR)
6.10.5 YMGT-type d r o p ( J a p a n )
6. 11 Inclined D r o p s and Chutes
6.11.1 General
6.11.2 Standing wave f l u m e f a l l (India)
6. 11. 3 F l u m e type fall (CDO, P u n j a b , India)
6. 1 1 . 4 USBR r e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p
6.11.5 Rubble c a s c a d e inclined d r o p
6.12 Piped Drops
6.12.1 General
6. 1 2 . 2 Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r (U. S. S. R. )
6. 1 2 . 3 Well type d r o p (India)
6. 1 2 . 4 P i p e d r o p (India)
6.12.5 Inclinedpipedrop (U.S.A.)
6.12. 6 Inclined pipe d r o p (U. S. S. R. )
6.13 F a r m Drop Structures
6.13.1 General
6. 13. 2 Head wall d r o p with g r a v e l b a s i n
6.13.3 C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p
6.13.4 C o n c r e t e check d r o p
6.13.5 Wooden d r o p
6.13.6 Piped drops
6. 13. 7 Sloping r o c k d r o p

7. STRUCTURES AND DEVICES F O R WATER MEASUREMENT

Introduction
Sharp Crested Measuring Weirs
The Romijn B r o a d C r e s t e d W e i r
The Par s h a l l F l u m e
The Standing Wave M e a s u r i n g F l u m e
The C u t - t h r o a t F l u m e
The C o n c r e t e ( C a s t - i n - P l a c e ) T r a p e z o i d a l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e
U s e of C u l v e r t s a s M e a s u r i n g D e v i c e s
Propeller Meters
Deflection M e t e r s
The D e t h r i d g e M e t e r
The Constant Head O r i f i c e Turnout
C a l i b r a t i o n of M e a s u r i n g S t r u c t u r e s
 Table of Contents
Cont'd.

Page

LIST O F REFERENCES

NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS

 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure
6-1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s : ( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged
orifice flow
6 - 2 ( a ) and (b). - Duckbill w e i r s on distribution canals (Spain).
6-3. - Small duckbill weir installed in a concrete flume distribution s y s t e m
(Kiti D a m P r o j e c t , Cyprus).
6-4(a). - Double duckbill weir for 480 l / s discharge capacity
6-4 (b). - Duckbill weir for 160 l/ s discharge capacity.
6-5. - D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill o r Z-type w e i r s .
6-6. - Determination of coefficient Im' for angles of ot g r e a t e r than 45O.
.6-7. -
Graph for determination of discharge o v e r diagonal, duckbill, o r
Z-type w e i r s (84)
6-8. - Determination of f r o m known B and S and of (84).
6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities up to 500 l / s (84).
6- 10. - Duckbill w e i r , (Italy).
6- 11. - Standard duckbill weir design type "Giraudet" for capacities up to
1000 11s.
6-12. - Duckbill weir for 260 to 280 11s capacity (Spain).
6-13. -
Check s l a b s in a channel s t r e t c h with steep grade. (State of
St. L u i s P o t o s i , Mexico).
6- 14. - Determination of spacing of check s l a b s
6-15. - Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s
6-16. - Stop plank grooves (54).
6-17. - Concrete check s t r u c t u r e for average soil conditions (13).
6-18. - Small concrete check (33).
6- 19. - Ordinary flashboard check.
6-20. - Typical d r o p b a r check s t r u c t u r e (52).
6-21. - Drop b a r s t r u c t u r e (Australia).
6-22. - Hand operated check gate ( F e r r a r a , Italy).
6.23. - Concrete check. (u. S. A . )
6-24. - Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l - dimensions
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

Figure Page
6-25. - Check constructed f r o m prefabricated s t e e l p a r t s (75). 38
6-26. - Single wall check' with side walls only f o r protection of banks (65). 38
6-27. - Double wall check (74) 39
6-28. - P o r t a b l e check for f a r m ditches (46). 40
6-29. - P o r t a b l e canvas check, sleeve type (13). 41
6- 30 ( a ) . - Radial check gate ( T h e Netherlands). 42
6-30(b). - Downstream view of r a d i a l gate check (The Netherlands). 43
6- 31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate, (NEYRPIC -
AMIL).
6-32. - Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC - AVIS). 45
6-33. - Typical downstream constant level gate for discharge through an
orifice (NEYRPIC - AVIO). 46
6-34. - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AMIL gate. 47
6-35 ( a ) . - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIS gate f r o m 561106 to 901190. 49
6- 35 (b), - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate. 50
6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c draw- s t r i n g check fitted with wing walls and bottom cut-off
f o r u s e in an unlined ditch. 51
6- 36 (b). - Semi automatic check installed in an unlined ditch. 51
6-37. - S a r d a type f a l l (U. P. ) 57
6-38. - Rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t . 62
6- 39. - Rectangular weir d r o p - relationship between H(crt), d i s c h a r g e
per m e t r e width of c r e s t and coefficients 0.32, 0 . 3 6 and 0.40. 64
6-40. - Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 1 . 5 f t drop. 67
6-41. - Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 3 . 0 ft d r o p 68
6-42. - D r o p s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume channel (Cyprus). 74
6-43. - YMGT type d r o p - sill w a l l and stilling basin. 75
6-44. - YMGT type d r o p - symbols
and notations for sill height, t r a j e c t o r y
of jet and dimensions of stilling basin 77
6-45. - YMGT fall - type 300. 83
6-46. - Details of a standing wave flume fall. 87
6-47. -
Height of hump r e q u i r e d to give proportionality for variation in
discharge. 92
6-48. - Height of hump to attain bulk proportionality. 94
6.49. - Details of deflectors. 98
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

' Figure Page

6-50. - Standing wave f l u m e f a l l . 99

6-51. - Sketch of a f l u m e type f a l l with a d r o p of u p t o 0 . 9 0 m . 102
CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p u p t o 1.00 m.
CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p m o r e than 1 .OO m .
R e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p (U. S. A. )
D e s i g n of USBR inclined d r o p .
Rubble c a s c a d e type f a l l (India).
P i p e and s t r u c t u r e s .
Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( f o r c r o s s s e c t i o n s s e e F i g u r e 6-59).
D e t a i l s of well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( a s shown i n F i g u r e 6-58).
P i p e d r o p spillway.
Well type d r o p
6-62. - P i p e d r o p without c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n s .
6- 63. - P i p e d r o p with c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n .
6- 64. - Check a n d pipe inlet. 149
6- 65. - C o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n ( s u p p l e m e n t t o F i g u r e 6- 63). 15 1
6- 66. - Pipe drop regulator. 161
6-67. - P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e h e a d wall d r o p (60). 168
6-68. - C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) . 169
6- 69. - C o n c r e t e check d r o p ( U . S . A. ) 170
6-70. - V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p , d = 8".
6-71. - V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p , d = 12".
6-72. - P l a n f o r a c o r r u g a t e d m e t a l pipe d r o p .
6-73. - Steel b a r r e l drop.
6-74. - Sloping r o c k d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) .

7- 1. - S t a n d a r d t r a p e z o i d a l (Cipolletti) m e a s u r i n g w e i r of 61 c m ( 2 ft)
c r e s t length i n s t a l l e d a t a f a r m outlet.
7-2. - D i a g r a m of f r e e d i s c h a r g e c o n t r a c t e d w e i r showing position of
staff gauge u p s t r e a m .
7-3. - P e r m a n e n t t r a p e z o i d a l w e i r d i s c h a r g i n g u n d e r f r e e flow conditions
7-4. - D i s c h a r g e o v e r a s u p p r e s s e d r e c t a n g u l a r w e i r p e r m e t r e of c r e s t
length.
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.

Figure Page

7 - 5 ( a ) and (b). - Small t e m p o r a r y V-notch w e i r s made of sheet m e t a l

(being u s e d for studies on i r r i g a t i o n efficiency and water l o s s e s ) . 20 1
7-6. - Example of a design f o r a 90° V-notch weir plate. 202
7-7. - Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d w e i r , sliding blades and movable weir c r e s t 204
7-8. - Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir, hydraulic dimensions of w e i r abutments. 205
7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the r a t i o Hcrt : L c r t for the Romijn
weir. 209
7- 10. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, f o r rectangular approach channel. 21 0
7- 11. - The Romijn movable measuring/regulating weir (drawing)
(with supplement, L i s t of M a t e r i a l s ) .
7-12. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, a s a function of the total head
over the movable weir c r e s t (H,,~) in the stage - d i s c h a r g e equation
2

- 2 1.5
Q = 5 C d C v ( j g ) 0 5 BtHcrt.

7- 13. Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

7-14. - P l a n and elevation of a concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume showing
component p a r t s (82).
7-15. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow in l / s and in f t 3 / s ,
through a 15.2. c m ( 6 inch) P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume.
7- 16. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in 11s and ft3/ s,
through a 23 c m (9 inch) P a r s h a l l flume. .
7- 17. - D i a g r a m 'for computing the r a t e of submerged flow through a
30. 5 c m ( 1 ft) P a r s h a l l flume (82).
7- 18. - Effect of submergence on P a r s h a l l flume - f r e e d i s c h a r g e (81).
7- 19. - Section of a P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume illustrating the determination
of the p r o p e r c r e s t elevation (82).
7-20. - D i a g r a m for determining the head l o s s through the P a r s h a l l
m e a s u r i n g flume (82).
7-21. - P a r s h a l l flume of 152 c m ( 5 ft) throat width a s s e m b l e d f r b m
prefabricated sheet m e t a l p a r t s .
7-22. - P a r s h a l l flume of 183 c m (6 ft) throat width a t full discharge.
7- 23. - Commercially available P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume.
7-24. - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume - t h r o a t width
1 f t to 8 f t .
7- 25. - Standard concrete P a r shall flume.
7-26. - Sketch of Cut-throat flume (85)
 L i s t of F i g u r e s
Contld.

Figure Page

7-27. - F i n a l design of a 61 c m (2 ft) rectangular Cut-throat flume (90). 246

7-28. -
Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat width, with automatic
recording device, operating under f r e e flow conditions.
7-29. - Generalized f r e e flow coefficients and exponents and St for
Cut-throat flumes, in m e t r i c units.
7-30. - Installation of a Cut-throat flume.
7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a r a i s e d bottom
c a s t in a concrete ditch. The discharge i s about 34 11s (1. 2 ft 3 1 s ) a t a
submergence of about 70% (87).
7-32. - Trapezoidal flume f o r 1 f t i r r i g a t i o n channels.
7-33. - Typical parallel flow c r i t i c a l depth flume.
7-34. -
P o r t a b l e s t e e l forin used to c a s t trapezoidal concrete flumes
in concrete ditches (8;').
7-35 ( a ) and (b). - M e t e r gate for pipe outlets (64).
7-36. - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding gate for delivery control and
m e a s u r e m e n t (88).
7- 37. - Rating c u r v e for pipe outlet (8s).
7-38. - Sketch of a propeller m e t e r for open flows.
7-39. - P r o p e l l e r m e t e r installed a t a pipe outlet
7-40. - R e g i s t e r of a propeller m e t e r .
7-41. - Range ability of a propeller m e t e r and the selection of m e t e r
d i a m e t e r (+ 4% accuracy).
7-42. - Standard design of open type propeller m e t e r .
7-43. -Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer indicating against
a fixed v e r t i c a l scale (Rajasthan, India).
7-44. - The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e .
7-45. - Commercially available deflection m e t e r .
7-46. - Sketch of the Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r .
7-47. -
Sample calibration curve for 30 c m ( 12 inch) Rajasthan
channel flow m e t e r .
 PREFACE

This publication i s the r e s u l t of a joint effort by the Food and Agriculture Organ-
ization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage (ICID) in producing a Handbook on small hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s and devices used
in open-channel irrigation distribution s y s t e m s . There h a s been general recognition of
a need to review the abundant information and experience available on the subject and to
condense and dovetail them into a comprehensive and practical Handbook. Much b a s i c
m a t e r i a l for the Handbook h a s been generously provided by National Committees of the
ICID and by F A 0 projects and contacts in Member Countries, while complementary data
and information have been assembled f r o m the extensive survey of the l i t e r a t u r e .

The scope of the Handbook i s confined a s the title suggests to small s t r u c t u r e s

used a t the f a r m level in fields, and in networks with small discharges a t the intakes,
such a s f r o m small surface o r ground water r e s o u r c e s . Such s t r u c t u r e s , having
capacities of l e s s than 1 cubic m e t r e p e r second, and, indeed,many of them having
capacities of l e s s than 300 l i t r e s per second, account for m o r e than 70 p e r cent of a l l
the hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s installed in many irrigation networks.

In the past these s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s have not always received the attention they
d e s e r v e f r o m planners and designers. It should be recognized that irrigation head
works, and other irrigation engineering works, however spectacular, would have little
value without an efficient distribution system (requiring small s t r u c t u r e s ) extending
right down to the f a r m e r s ' fields. The heavy investments normally involved in an
i r r i g a t i o n system can be justified, through conversion into cash benefits and the social
welfare of the r u r a l population, only by paying full attention to the function and place of
each of the small s t r u c t u r e s described in this Handbook.
 xiv.

The Handbook i s published in t h r e e volumes. Volume I c o m p r i s e s Chapters

1 to 5. The types of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s available, and t h e i r importance for
efficient distribution of i r r i g a t i o n water supplies a r e discussed in Chapter I.
Chapter 2 d i s c u s s e s the operation of irrigation s y s t e m s and how this governs the
choice of the type of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e b e s t suited to the purpose. Chapters
3 to 5 deal with s m a l l intake s t r u c t u r e s , s m a l l flow-dividing s t r u c t u r e s , and outlets
o r f a r m and field turnouts. Volume I1 c o m p r i s e s Chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 6
d e a l s with s m a l l water-level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s (i.e . checks o r c r o s s
r e g u l a t o r s , falls o r d r o p s , and chutes) and Chapter 7 with s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s
and devices useful for m e a s u r i n g flow in i r r i g a t i o n networks. Volume 111, which will
be i s s u e d a t a l a t e r date, will cover s m a l l c r o s s - d r a i n a g e works, e s c a p e s and
miscellaneous s t r u c t u r e s and will include a chapter on the detailed design of
gates.

F o r definitions of t e r m s , r e f e r e n c e should be made to the ICID Multilingual

Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage. Units of m e a s u r e m e n t a r e generally
e x p r e s s e d in the units f r o m which the formulae, designs, tables and graphs have been
derived (and a r e thus best known in that s y s t e m ) but in certain c a s e s i t h a s been
considered advantageous to convert English to Metric units for application in countries
using only the M e t r i c s y s t e m .

Since the Handbook attempts to a s s e m b l e and d e s c r i b e many types of s m a l l

hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s which have proved successful in certain countries, and which
may be used elsewhere under s i m i l a r conditions, i t i s hoped that i t will prove useful
to young engineers, technicians and extension w o r k e r s involved in the remodelling
of existing irrigation s y s t e m s o r in the design of new projects. It i s a l s o hoped that
the Handbook will stimulate exchanges of ideas and information on techniques and
designs which have often been evolved in isolation.

The p r e s e n t edition i s a provisional version; i t i s intended that an updated

version covering Volumes I to I11 will be printed in final f o r m a t a l a t e r date.
Any comments o r further contributions which r e a d e r s might like to offer will be
gratefully received and will be considered for incorporation in the next
edition.
 xv.

Acknowledgments a r e due to the many who have a s s i s t e d in the production of

this Handbook, some with systematic contributions, such a s the ICID National
Committees of :

Arab Republic of Egypt Ecuador

Australia F e d e r a l Republic of Germany
Bulgaria Guyana
Canada Hungary
Colombia India
Czechoslovakia Japan
Republic of Korea Republic of China
Malaysia S r i Lanka
Mexico Turkey
Philippines U. S. A.
U. S. S. R

and personnel of F A 0 and individual contacts who have rendered valuable information
and advice, and to Mr. I. Constantinesco for h i s lucid eaiting of the manuscript.

Dated

Edouard Saourna K. K. F r a m j i
Director Secretary General
Land and Water Development International Commission
Division on Irrigation & Drainage
Food & Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations
 6. WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTU'RES

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The w a t e r level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s chapter

c o m p r i s e a group of engineering works installed in open channel i r r i g a t i o n networks
designed t o regulate the w a t e r l e v e l in a channel, to control the quantity of water .
passing through it, to dissipate energy and enable w a t e r to be delivered a c c u r a t e l y
and safely to the fields without causing erosion. Such s t r u c t u r e s include checks o r
c r o s s - r e g u l a t o r s , d r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes. F o r example, a check o r c r o s s
r e g u l a t o r will r a i s e the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level in a canal above i t s n a t u r a l flow l e v e l
during p e r i o d s of low d i s c h a r g e sufficiently to feed an offtake canal. A check will
a l s o h e l p to t e m p o r a r i l y a b s o r b fluctuations of w a t e r supply in v a r i o u s sections of
t h e canal s y s t e m , o r to control velocities and prevent b r e a c h e s in the t a i l r e a c h e s .
D r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes n a r r o w the difference in slope of the land and that
r e q u i r e d f o r the canal. Generally, a d r o p o r a fall will be used to obtain a
reduction in slope o v e r a s h o r t distance. When the distance i s g r e a t e r and the
slope m o r e gentle, but s t i l l s t e e p enough for the w a t e r t o flow a t too high a velocity,
control m a y be achieved by employing chutes.

A. CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS

6.2 GENERAL FEATURES O F CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS

Checks o r c r o s s r e g u l a t o r s m a y be fixed overflow w e i r s with no movable

controlling device, o r they m a y be provided with r a d i a l gates, slide gates, stop-
logs, checkboards (flashboards), o r combinations of t h e s e , o r include a device to
maintain a given u p s t r e a m water level. These s t r u c t u r e s may be fixed o r portable
(the f o r m e r should have provision f o r overflow) and they m a y be used in both lined
and unlined canals, ditches o r water c o u r s e s . Where check gates a r e fitted, t h e s e
m a y be hand o r hydraulically o p e r a t e d (such a s the automatic Neyrpic g a t e s ) o r
equipped with automatic and t i m e controlled r e l e a s e devices. Wherever possible,
and in the i n t e r e s t of economy, a permanent check should be combined with a d r o p
o r fall, o r a division box, o r a m e a s u r i n g device located above o r below an intake,
outlet o r escape.

FIGURE 6.1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s :

( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged o r i f i c e flow.

A check may be designed to function a s an overflow weir, a s an orifice o r a s

a combination of both. When a constant u p s t r e a m water level i s d e s i r e d an over-
flow type check i s normally used ( s e e F i g u r e 6. l ( a ) ). The flow over such a check
m a y be calculated f r o m the equation:

where
Q .-- discharge in m
3
p e r second

C
= 7P .& = d i s c h a r g e coefficient ( m
2
/ a)

B(t) = overflowcrestlength (m)

H = head o r water depth above the c r e s t , m e a s u r e d u p s t r e a m

(4 f r o m the check ( m )

Values of C a r e given below:

F o r m of Weir C r e s t C

/----a, broad c r e s t e d with rounded edges, horizontal 1.5 to 1 . 6

A- s h a r p c r e s t e d with a e r a t e d b e a m 1.9

L rounded with v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face and inclined

downstream slope 2.2

When the c r e s t length, B(t),' i s l a r g e , variations ifl discharge r e s u l t in relatively

s m a l l changes in the u p s t r e a m water level.

The above formula (derived f r o m Poleni) i s valid only for f r e e flow conditions.
The values of C a r e a c c u r a t e enough for design purposes, such a s dimensioning
w e i r s f r o m given d i s c h a r g e s and water l e v e l s , but not for exact water m e a s u r e m e n t .
Also; a number of types of check s t r u c t u r e s have been individually r a t e d and flow
formulae developed for them, a s will be seen below. The u s e of checks for water
m e a s u r e m e n t would r e q u i r e them to be constructed to standard dimensions for
which ratings a r e available o r to be calibrated individually.

Check s t r u c t u r e s m u s t be designed to c a r r y the full design discharge of the

canal a t maximum water l e v e l . The velocity of flow through check s t r u c t u r e s with
flashboards should not exceed 1 m / s because of the difficulty of placing and
removing the flashboards. Checks with gates can t o l e r a t e velocities g r e a t e r than
1.5 m/s. F r o m the selected design velocity the r e q u i r e d opening and the c o r r e -
sponding head l o s s a r e determined. The total head l o s s , h$) , through a check
 s t r u c t u r e can be estimated a t 0 . 5 of the difference in the velocity heads of the
u p s t r e a m canal section and the check opening, thus:

When the water level i s to be controlled downstream f r o m a s t r u c t u r e , an

orifice-type check i s m o r e desirable because of i t s m o r e constant discharge ( s e e
F i g u r e 6. 1 (b) ). The discharge through an orifice may be determined f r o m the
general equation:

-1
Q -- C A
(orf) ( '8 (crt) )

where
C = coefficient of discharge

A = a r e a of opening ( m2)
(orf)
and H
(4= head causing flow ( m )

The coefficient C r a n g e s f r o m 0 . 6 to 0 . 8 , depending on the position of the

orifice relative to the sides and bottom of the s t r u c t u r e and on the roundness of
the orifice edge. F o r f r e e discharge the head, H(crt), i s the u p s t r e a m water
depth m e a s u r e d f r o m the centre of the opening. F o r submerged flow, the
effective head i s the difference between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water
surface l e v e l s . Because of i t s head-di scharge relatianship, an orifice-type
check i s not so well adapted for u p s t r e a m water level control since fluctuations in
flow r e s u l t in relatively l a r g e u p s t r e a m water level variations.

6.3 CHECKS WITH FIXED OVERFALL CREST WITHOUT MOVABLE CONTROLS

6. 3. 1 General

A fixed overfall c r e s t o r weir controls the water level a t a given height

within relatively n a r r o w l i m i t s . This height and the c r e s t length, B(t), a r e
determined in relation to the discharge to be passed over the weir c r e s t and to
the control requirements ( e . g. maximum permissible level fluctuations, etc. ).
FIGURE 6. 2 ( a ) and (b). - Duckbill w e i r s on distribution
c a n a l s (Spain).
The n a r r o w e r the tolerances, the g r e a t e r m u s t be the c r e s t length. In d i s t r i -
bution channels the available width i s usually insufficient to accommodate a
t r a n s v e r s a l weir with a c r e s t long enough to p a s s the full supply discharge within
the level tolerances. Usual tolerances a r e in the o r d e r of 5 to 10 c m .

These conditions have led to the development of: the diagonal w e i r ; the
duckbill weir; and the Z-type o r other specially shaped w e i r s . Of these the
duckbill weir i s the m o s t commonly used because i t i s , under m o s t conditions,
the m o s t economical one, providing optimum discharge capacity in relation to
length of s t r u c t u r e and amount of construction m a t e r i a l . F i g u r e s 6 - 2 to 6-4
show different types of duckbill w e i r s .

FIGURE 6 - 3 . - Small duckbill weir installed in a -

concrete flume distribution system, (Kiti Dam P r o j e c t ,
Cyprus).

The g r e a t advantage of fixed weir c r e s t s i s t h e i r simplicity in construction

and maintenance and their reliability in operation. Tampering i s a l m o s t
impossible. However their ability to t r a p silt so efficiently prohibits t h e i r u s e
where i r r i g a t i o n water i s permanently charged with silt. If the silt load i s small
o r t e m p o r a r y , siltation can be avoided by providing a flush opening in the weir a t
the floor of the s t r u c t u r e . The provision of a gate i s advantageous on l a r g e r
FIGURE 6 - 4 ( a ) . - Double duckbill w e i r f o r 480 l / s
d i s c h a r g e capacitv.

FIGURE 6 - 4 (b). - Duckbill w e i r f o r 160 l / s d i s c h a r g e

capacity.
s t r u c t u r e s t o enable evacuation of the u p s t r e a m r e a c h .

Hydraulic Design

The following d i a g r a m s and c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m the handbook

" L e s o u v r a g e s d ' u n petit r e s e a u d ' i r r i g a t i o n " p r e p a r e d by the Societe G e n e r a l e
d e s Techniques H y d r o - A g r i c o l e s (SOGETHA) a n d published u n d e r the s e r i e s
"Techniques R u r a l e s e n Afrique" by the F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t in 1 9 7 0 .

The calculation of the d i s c h a r g e o v e r a diagonal o r a duckbill w e i r o r a

Z - t y p e w e i r i s b a s e d on the f o r m u l a :

-3

where m = d i s c h a r g e coefficient

B(t) = length of c r e s t

H = w a t e r depth, i. e . h e a d on the c r e s t ( s e e F i g u r e 6-5)

(crt)

FIGURE 6-5. - D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill

o r Z-type w e i r s .

The valu& of m depends on the shape of the c r e s t a n d t h e angle of 6 .

For 3 l a r g e r than 45' the v a l u e s shown i n F i g u r e 6-6 a r e u s e d :

 Diogond weir Duckbitl weir Z type weir
Unrounded
crest: m : 0.34 0.32 0.31

Crest rounded
I I ~ B ~ ~ ~ U Im:
I I : 0.38 0.36 0.34

FIGURE 6-6. - Determination of coefficient ' m ' f o r angles

of H g r e a t e r than 45O.

The graph, F i g u r e 6-7, can be u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e

of c r e s t and f r o m this the total length of c r e s t r e q u i r e d .

F i g u r e 6-8 i s an aid f o r determining the angle f r o m the r e q u i r e d c r e s t

length. If oC i s below 45O i t i s recommended, f o r r e a s o n s of economy, that an
inclined w e i r be u s e d r a t h e r than a duckbill w e i r . Above 45O u p to 70° the u s e of
a duckbill w e i r i s p r e f e r a b l e . The end of the duckbill w e i r c r e s t i s fixed a t
40 c m independent of the bottom width of the canal. If the t i p of the duckbill i s
shaped s e m i - c i r c u l a r with a d i a m e t e r of 40 c m , the c r e s t length will be
approximately 60 c m .

Example:

Given Canal d i s c h a r g e 150'1/s

side s l o p e s 1.5: 1
bottom width 0.50 m
w a t e r depth 0.40 m

Maximum w a t e r l e v e l variation 0. 13 m ,
i.e. H = 0 . 1 3 m for 150l/s
(4
c r e s t height S = 0.40 - 0. 13 = 0.27 m

Available t r a n s v e r s a l c r e s t width B = 1.30 m ( f r o m F i g u r e 6-7)

(t)
m = 0 . 3 8 (rounded c r e s t , diagonal type )
m = 0 . 3 6 (rounded c r e s t duckbill t y p e )
 D i s c h a r g e ( I / s ) p e r m e t r e of c r e s t length

FIGURE 6-7. - G r a p h f o r determination of d i s c h a r g e o v e r

diagonal, duckbill, o r Z-type w e i r s (84).

F r o m F i g u r e 6-7 q = 80 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (diagonal type)

q = 75 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (duckbill type)

total length r e q u i r e d (diagonal type)

F r o m F i g u r e 6-8 the inclination of the w e i r @ i s found t o b e equal t o 47

0
.
T h e r e f o r e t h i s would call for a duckbill w e i r r a t h e r than f o r a diagonal one.

Required length f o r a duckbill w e i r :

FIGURE 6-8. - Determination of [ f r o m known B and S
and of d (84).
 Section A-A Section 0-0
Ronqe of suitoble dimensions for copocities
up to 5 0 0 L/s
B = 0 . 2 0 t o 1.00
f = 0.20 to 1.00
y, = 0.10 t o 0.70lupstreom woter depth)

yCItl= 0 . 0 5 to O.IS(difference between upstream

woter level ond crest level)
s = 0.10 to 0 . 6 0
c = 0.15 (thickness of weir)
f = (width of ovoiloble upstreom woter surface)

9
B(t)C (crest length) = C X &
o< = (ongle between weir crest and cross section

4
Plon

FIGURE 6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities

up to 500 l / s (84).
 S e c t ~ o n E-F

Offtake canal-

S e c t ~ o n C-D I
I F A 0 - ICID
I
DUCKBILL WEIR

P r c j e c t , R e g ~ o n ,Country
Agency for A g r o r ~ a n R e f o r m , C ~ c ~ l y
ltoly
Secrlon A-8

F ~ g u r e N o 6-10
+I -----I Section 8-8
Section A - A

Range of suitable dimensions for copocitlCs

up to \ooo c/s
6 = 0 . 2 0 to 1.00
f = 0.20 to 1.00
4 = 0 10 to 0.70 (upstream woter depth)
IfCrf,= 0 0 5 to 0.15 (difference between upstream woter
level and crest level)
3 : 0.10 t o 0.60
C = 0.15 (thickness of weir)
f = (width of ovoiloble upstream woter surface)
L = (tot01 lenqth of crest :0.40 2 A ) +
o< :(angle between weir crest ond cross section
of chonnel)
m = 1.5 f - 1.5s + 0.20
k = A sinw
p :2 . 5 f

t s f

FIGURE 6- 1 1 . - Standard duckbill weir design, type IqGiraudet"

for capacities up to 1000 l / s.
t

4
030

I
B d

3 80 - 1.00 -
Plan

+
t0 59
0 15

0-44
I 3
\
--'f-
. - -I . . . . . . . . . I
j0 15

lb " ' /
Cross section
-5 $ 5 per running metre
5 # 5 per running metre Concrete = 7 . 3 cbm
Iron = 25:5 kg

F A 0 - ICID

DUCKBILL W E I R
FOR 2 6 0 to 280 t / s CAPACITY

tr .
Project , Region , Country
Spoin
Detail A-A
Detail 6-6 Figure No 6 -12
 F r o m F i g u r e 6-8

Design E x a m p l e ( ~ i a ~ o n W
a le i r s )

F i g u r e 6-9 shows a s i m p l e but efficient design f o r i n situ c o n s t r u c t i o n of a

diagonal w e i r i n u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .

Design E x a m p l e s (Duckbill W e i r )

S t a n d a r d d e s i g n s f o r duckbill w e i r s have b e e n developed in s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s

of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n B a s i n . F i g u r e 6-10 shows a type u s e d in Sicily.
D i m e n s i o n s of c a p a c i t i e s between 110 a n d 370 l / s a r e given in the d r a w i n g . The
w e i r i s u s u a l l y combined with one o r m o r e f a r m o u t l e t s . They a r e u s u a l l y
provided with m a s k m o d u l e s but a l s o s i m p l e m e t a l g a t e s a r e in u s e . The
s t r u c t u r a l design i s adapted to lined c a n a l s .

R Bouillon e t a l . (55) r e p o r t on a duckbill w e i r of 24 m total c r e s t length.

With a h e a d of only 8 c m the w e i r d i s c h a r g e s 1, 100 l / s .

F i g u r e 6- 11 shows a s t a n d a r d d e s i g n developed by the SOGETHA (84) f o r

l i n e d and unlined c h a n n e l s . It can be c o n s t r u c t e d e i t h e r in c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y .
D i m e n s i o n s shown a r e f o r u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .

F i g u r e 6-12 i l l u s t r a t e s a design a s developed in Spain.

1/
6. 3. 5 Check Slab S t r u c t u r e (Mexico)-

6. 3 . 5 . 1 General
The check slab s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n , developed and in u s e in

" Based on i n f o r m a t i o n provided by J . A n s h e r t o Manobe Galvan, D e p a r t m e n t of

S m a l l I r r i g a t i o n , S e c r e t a r i a t of H y d r a u l i c R e s o u r c e s , Mexico.
 Mexico, i s an example of a check which controls depths and velocities in r e a c h e s
of field l a t e r a l s o r ditches which have steep g r a d e s , t o enable water to be
delivered to the field through siphons ( ~ i ~ u 6-13).
r e The slab i s adapted for
u s e in lined channels and can a l s o be used a s a water m e a s u r e m e n t device.

FIGURE 6- 13. - Check slabs in a channt . etch with

s t e e p grade. (State of St. Luis Potosi, Mexico)

6.3.5.2 Structural and design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The check slab s t r u c t u r e consists of a slab made of concrete, wood,

o r other m a t e r i a l s and placed a t convenient i n t e r v a l s a c r o s s the lined channel
sections in r e a c h e s of steep g r a d e s . Each check slab o p e r a t e s a s an independent
spillway where heads depend on the geometry of the slab.

T h e r e i s an orifice a t the lower p a r t of the check slab d r o p to allow

drainage and evacutation of sediments.
 The thickness of the slab m a y be 5, 10 o r 15 c m . The height of the
slab above the channel bed may b e 20, 30 o r 40 cm. The section of the channel
m a y be rectangular, o r trapezoidal with side slopes of 1 : 1

F o r smooth flow and to facilitate operation of the spillway, a minimum

w a t e r cushion of 10 c m a t the b a s e of each check slab i s required. Under these
conditions, the spacing, X, of check s l a b s (in m e t r e s ) will be given by the
following formula (where s i s the grade):

FIGURE 6-14. - Determination of spacing of check s l a b s .

Thus, for example where H( slab) of the check s t r u c t u r e i s 0.30 m, the spacing
will be :

0.30 - 0.10 - 0.20

X =
S
- S
(m)

F r o m t h i s X can be determined f o r different g r a d e s :

X
(metres)
 S i m i l a r tables can be p r e p a r e d f o r other values of H(slab) .
6.3.5.3 Application a s water m e a s u r i n g device

I t h a s been proved by experiments that the check slab s t r u c t u r e can

a l s o be u s e d a s a w a t e r m e a s u r i n g device by designing i t according t o the
following formulae:

where Q = d i s c h a r g e of the canal, in m 3 / s

= width of spillway slab a c r o s s the a x i s of flow,

B(t)
in m e t r e s

H = head on the spillway c r e s t , m e a s u r e d a t a distance

( 4 not l e s s than five t i m e s i t s approximate value
u p s t r e a m f r o m the check slab s t r u c t u r e , i n m e t r e s

f o r a trapezoidal section p will b e e x p r e s s e d a s

H(crt)
= 0.5 t 0.04
P H(slab) T( slab)

and f o r a rectangular section:

H( c r t )
= 0.6 t 0.01
r" H(slab) T( slab)

where:

H(slab) =
height of the check slab above the bed of the
channel, in m e t r e s
.
T(slab) = thickness of slab, in m e t r e s .

6.3.5.4 Numerical example

Design a suitable check slab s t r u c t u r e f o r a canal with r e a c h e s

having g r a d e s of 0.0005 (length 100 m , joints a t 30 m i n t e r v a l ), 0.005 (length
90 m ) and 0.02 (length 90 m ) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-15. A s s u m e a trapezoidal
section with side slope 1 : 1, channel bed width 0. 30 m , lined with plain concrete,
discharge 0.074 rn3/ s and N (roughness coefficient) = 0.01 6

Reoch A Reoch B Reoch C

I I
t I 1
FIGURE 6-15. - Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s .

Using the above data, and Manning's Formula, the depths' and
velocities in the three reaches of the canal will be:

Reach

y (water depth
of channel ( m ) )

Hydraulic conditions of the canal in r e a c h e s B and C show relatively

high velocities and, consequently, insufficient depth for l a t e r a l irrigation with
siphons. One solution to the problem would be reduction of the grade and intro-
duction of falls in the channel bed. An alternative i s to maintain the g r a d e s but to
introduce check slabs a t appropriate distances. The l a t t e r has been found
economical in Mexico.

While reach A has favourable hydraulic conditions and needs no check

structures, i t i s essential to apply such s t r u c t u r e s to reaches B and C.

Reach B

Assume a check slab with H(slab) = 0.30 m and T(slab) = 0.05 m ,

then the maximum spacing of check slabs will be :

and B = 0.9 m .
(t)

This spacing m a y eventually be reduced to 30.00 m and s o the check s l a b s may be

located a t the construction joints of the concrete lining.

Now H
(4

and if C = $rfi

where = 0;30 m and T(slab) = 0.05 m

Then C = 1.477 + 7.885 H

(4

For Q = 0.074 and

Therefore

This equation i s solved by t r i a l s , a s s u m i n g different values of

H(crt), a s shown in Table 6- 1.

H being 0. 11 m , the channel will have the following c r o s s

(4
section, etc.
B = 0.30 m
-- 1.12 m
*(ws)
 TABLE 6-1

1 2 3 4 5 col 4 +5

Reach C
In t h i s r e a c h the c r o s s section of the channel will be the s a m e a s in
r e a c h B, the difference being the spacing of check s l a b s due to the different slope.
Thus the m a x i m u m spacing in t h i s c a s e will be :

The hydraulic dimensions of t h i s r e a c h will be the s a m e a s above

except that s = 0.02.

6.4 CHECKS REGULATED B Y STOP PLANKS (DROP BARS) OR FLASHBOARDS

6.4.1 General

Stop planks o r d r o p b a r s a r e used in checks with capacities l e s s than

1 . 5 m 3 I s , where operational changes a r e infrequent. The water p a s s e s freely
over the top of the planks which a r e fixed horizontally, in slots, in the s t r u c t u r e .
Flashboards should not be used in openings g r e a t e r than 1.5 m wide o r with water
depths over 2 m . The guides o r grooves should be vertical. F o r stop planks of
thicknesses above 5 c m the groove design shown in F i g u r e 6- 16 i s recommended.

Headed anchors welded to

-lct
ongle; for dio. and length,

L, Lonper leg of ongle -,

..
1 U
fi
U
L n
Y
n
U

All dimensions in inches

Stop plank Dimensions Angle for Weight Anchor

thickness groove p e r ft
A B C

1 1 1
2-
2
3 -2 2-x2
2
x -
4
3. 62 83 dia. x 4

3 4
3
-
4
3
1
x2-x-
2 16
5
5.60 -1 dia.. x 5

3 5 -43 3
1
x2-x-
5 ,, 5.60 21 dia. x 5
2 16

FIGURE 6- 16. - Stop plank grooves (54).

F i g u r e s 6-17, 6-18 and 6-19 show simple concrete check s t r u c t u r e s for

s m a l l flows.
 e ~ n ~ o nP U~ I IeO J ~
P Y ~ O ~ W O pOu n P ~ I I * l~l v 6 n w o q I .q p l n o w 1111 4 1 1 0 3
101s 40 *.PIS
p u n s p u e u o O ~ U O J O-+ elf
~ ) ~ e d w plnoqs e p ~ n o q q s q j
pOpUOLUUlO3OJ #I U!OlIOq V i 4 I P UDeJ4SU*OP "1 d o l d l l W O ( l
1e.11 ~ Y I S J O J U I ~a J q 101
~ pe4n~1)sqns
e q l n w UJOJ etJ) YO OIqOBMD OJD lDq4 SJDq UOJl

. .-
UWCO@
eel= , C C D ~ , C SI :a6 I

1; nY3
. 19 J
MI
,CCO<Qax,*
,FCOZEI ~ , Ea r a *IID**PIS
,csor,gar,sz I
IIP*PO*H

I)(;-
PA + Un39
J O ~d n3 c
I W o S El
IOADJ6 U J O d +
p u o e *IJW a
~ u o w e o4 ~ o . i 1
/ D l d / W JO l)UflOY/V O I D Y I X O J ~ ~ V e ~ n 4 l lP~I P U ~ U I Y ~ O ~ ~ Y

S311UN Wfk9 11383N03

 FIGURE 6-19. - Ordinary flashboard check.

1I
6.4. 2 Drop B a r Check Structure (Victoria, Australia) -

6.4.2.1 General

Check s t r u c t u r e s f o r irrigation canals a r e currently being standard-

ized in Victoria, Australia. Under the prevailing conditions a trapezoidal weir
fitted with drop b a r s , a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 20, h a s proved an effective and
economical m e a n s f o r controlling velocity a t o r below 60 c m p e r second. The
s t r u c t u r e maintains minimum water levels and depths of water for delivery
through f a r m outlets and minimizes l o s s of water when r a i n c a u s e s a shut-
down of irrigation. Under suitable conditions and with appropriate
modifications such checks may a l s o be used to m e a s u r e flows with a reasonable
degree of accuracy.

I' Based mainly on information f r o m the Australian National Committee of ICID.

 Prwa-t plmr* am4
CROS SECTION diopraghm

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

FIGURE 6-20. - Typical dkop b a r check structure (52).

Design considerations

These checks a r e construtted with C6. trapezoidal shape to fit the canal
c r o s s section; this i s then divided bf p i e r s - which m a y be p r e - cast - into
openings that a r e blocked by easily Handled timber d r o p b a r s , to the required
c r e s t height. The normal width of bpening between p i e r s i s 183 cm. This
width gives an easily handled b a r of 196 cm length with a c r o s s section of 10 cm
height and 7 c m width.

The limit of discharge for these checks i s 1,400 11s per 183 cm
opening, but i t i s m o r e usual to design for 850 11s per opening.

Downstream from the concrete apron, r i p - r a p i s placed on the bed,

and b a t t e r s f o r some 6 m . The r i p - r a p on the bed i s dished in shape. End sills
a r e not provided a t the end of the concrete apron.

There i s some problem in adapting the trapezoidal regulator to small

channels. F o r regulation, checks should be evenly spaced where possible, and
a t such intervals that when a channel i s shut down, the wedge volumes a r e small
enough to be successively passed down the channel within a reasonable period.
Spclting of checks must be such that the d r o p in water level i s generally l e s s than
 one m e t r e and the minimum water depth immediately downstream i s 30 cm.

F o r d r o p s in water level of above 30 c m a s many openings a s possible

should be used to p a s s the flow, provided that the minimum depth of water below
the outer openings i s 60 cm.

F o r s m a l l drops in water level, the water s t r e a m s through the open-

ings and the velocity energy i s not dissipated in the drop. In this c a s e the length
of c r e s t spilling the water should not be g r e a t e r than the channel water width
downstream, and water should not fall d i r e c t on to the concrete batter ; i t should
have a water cushion of some 60 c m in depth. The average channel velocity a t
the'downstream end of the s t r u c t u r e i s limited to 60 c m p e r second.

The s t r u c t u r e becomes v e r y l a r g e relative to capacity, particularly

when i t i s r e q u i r e d to provide a l a r g e d r o p in water level, but with p r e - c a s t units
i t i s still fairly econdmical.

6.4.2.3 Ratings f o r calculation and m e a s u r e m e n t

Because the previously used "Gibson" formula was considered to be

insufficiently a c c u r a t e and because of the i n c r e a s e d need to u s e d r o p b a r checks
f o r flow m e a s u r e m e n t s , model t e s t s were undertaken in o r d e r t o obtain m o r e
exact ratings f o r f r e e and submerged flow f o r a variety of s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e -
ments. The t e s t e d model check had openings of 61 c m width. Ratings w e r e
based on the total u p s t r e a m head applied t o the full c r e s t length.

The t e s t s showed that, for consistent and accurate r e s u l t s , special

attention m u s t be given t o the condition of the top b a r and, f o r f r e e flow w e i r s , to
aeration of the nappe. It was found that if the top u p s t r e a m edge of the c r e s t
d r o p b a r became rounded to 12 m m radius, the discharge could be i n c r e a s e d by
10%. F o r m o r e a c c u r a t e measurement, i t i s recommended that a m e t a l plate
with s h a r p edge be fixed to the u p s t r e a m face of the top t i m b e r b a r s .

Under f r e e weir flow, non-aeration of the overfall nappe may i n c r e a s e

the coefficient of discharge by up to 7%. Different methods of providing aeration
w e r e tested. The s i m p l e s t a r r a n g e m e n t suggested is the fixing of 7 . 5 c m x 3 c m
t i m b e r wedge deflector s t r i p s t o the drop b a r guides, ( F i g u r e 6-21 (b) ). The
other method is t o u s e an open m i l d s t e e l section, with a slotted inside face, a s
I ( a ) Port longitudinal section oftypical structure I
( b ) and (c) Plan view of aeration arrangements
( d Dipstick measurement of total head
(el , ( f ) and (9) Pier nose arrangements
( i Timber drop bars
I FA 0 - ICID
(ii) Drop bar guide
DROP B A R STRUCTURE
(iii) Dsflector strip
(iv) Slotted steel guide aerator
( v ) Average run-up on dipstick Project, Region, Country
(vi) Sharp upstream edge Victoria, Austrolio

Fi,gure No. 6- 21
the drop b a r guide, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( c ) ).

A s well a s these two important f a c t o r s , the pier shape, position,

number of openings in the s t r u c t u r e and number of d r o p b a r s i n s e r t e d (i. e . c r e s t
height) a l s o affect the rating. Thus i t was found n e c e s s a r y to p r e p a r e s e p a r a t e
ratings for t h r e e different s t r u c t u r a l designs because of differing p i e r nose
arrangements:

- 23 cm thick concrete pier with a mild steel flat plate and d r o p b a r

r e (e) )
slot a t the u p s t r e a m edge of the pier, ( ~ i ~ u 6-21

- 23 c m thick concrete p i e r with square front face, except for 2.5 cm

chamfers on the edges, and drop b a r slot 33 cm in f r o m the u p s t r e a m
edge - present standard,(Figure 6-21 (f) )

- 30 c m thick concrete p i e r with u p s t r e a m edge rounded to a 15 cm

radius fofiowed immediately by the drop b a r slot, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( g ) ).

With each s t r u c t u r a l design, different ratings were a l s o found to be

required for multi-opening s t r u c t u r e s , a s ratings differed between e x t r e m e outer
and inner openings and these in turn differed f r o m single opening s t r u c t u r e s .

Separate ratings were a l s o found to be required for inner openings

with six b a r s o r m o r e in place ( c r e s t height approximately 60 cm) and with five
bars or less.

The various ratings a r e close for low heads, but for heads f r o m 30 cm
up to 76 c m a s tested, t h e r e i s a variation f r o m 670 up to 1170 between and within
ratings f o r different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s .

The multiple opening trapezoidal check i s the c u r r e n t standard used.

F o r accurate m e a s u r e m e n t this s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s t h r e e tables, one for extreme
outer openings and two f o r inner openings related to number of drop b a r s in place.
If the top d r o p b a r s have s h a r p u p s t r e a m edges, f r e e flow has proper aeration,
a dipstick ( s e e below) i s used for u p s t r e a m total head m e a s u r e m e n t and the
downstream gauge i s correctly located for submerged flow. The model t e s t
ratings a r e considered to have a maximum probable e r r o r of + 2.5 70.
 A detailed s e t of t a b l e s f o r f r e e and submerged flow and different
p i e r and bay a r r a n g e m e n t s i s given in a r e p o r t "Rating of D r o p B a r Structures"
by C. Kirkham, September 1967. This r e p o r t a l s o s e t s out r e q u i r e m e n t s for
accurate measurement.

6.4.2.4 F r e e flow w e i r formula

The t a b l e s f o r f r e e flow w e i r s over d r o p b a r r e g u l a t o r s w e r e plotted,

and an a v e r a g e curve was interpolated and r e l a t e d t o the b a s i c weir formula:

where, Q = discharge in 11s

= full c r e s t length of opening in c m

B(t)
H(crt) = total head in c m

C = coefficient related to head a s given below.

The coefficients C calculated f o r an a v e r a g e rating w e r e a s follows:

+
This rating i s within - 5 0/0 of the rating'tables f o r the c u r r e n t
standard s t r u c t u r e f o r heads up to 76 cm. It a g r e e s within s i m i l a r l i m i t s f o r the
o t h e r two s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s , except at heads over 60 cm the difference i s
up to 7 % in s o m e c a s e s .

6.4.2.5 Submerged flow formula

The submerged flow r a t i n g s w e r e related to a coefficient C1 in the

formula :

where H i s the total u p s t r e a m head m e a s u r e d to the top of the d r o p b a r s and

( 4
 HDR i s the difference between w a t e r l e v e l s u p s t r e a m and downstream, both
m e a s u r e d in feet.

The coe'fficient C1 v a r i e s f r o m 0.58 t o 0.72 over the range of sub-

m e r g e n c e and different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s tested, and i s s m a l l e s t a t 40 %

submergence, where submergence = H(crt) - H(dr) , The C1 values w e r e

H(crt)
plotted against the submergence f i g u r e s and a n a v e r a g e C1 rating interpolated a s

follows :

70 sub-
mergence 0 10 20 30 40 50. 60 70 80 90

The average rating i s within + 5% of the various ratings for the c u r r e n t standard
regulator and + 770 to+- 5% of the other a r r a n g e m e n t s .

6.4.2.6 Measurement of head

The common method of m e a s u r i n g u p s t r e a m head i s the u s e of a dip-

stick held vertically on top of the d r o p b a r . The head i s taken a s the depth of
w a t e r !!run-up" on the b a r a s shown in F i g u r e 6-21 (d). This method i s liable to
e r r o r s if the dipstick' i s not of a standard width and i s not held vertically. The
w a t e r height should be taken to the m e a n of the fluctuations in run-up and not to
the highest w a t e r m a r k .

The model t e s t s indicated that the use of a 5 c m dipstick i s a s a t i s -

factory method of obtaining head and gives a head v e r y close to the total head a s
indicated below:

.dipstick reading 19 c m 31.4 c m 46.5 c m 61.1 c m 75.5 cm

total head 18.5 30.6 45.7 61.0 76. 3

Because of this, the total head was used a s a b a s i s for the rating tables.

The head m a y a l s o be r e a d f r o m staff gauges s e t some 3 m u p s t r e a m

and close to the side of the channel.

F o r submerged flow conditions, the head difference between u p s t r e a m

 and downstream water levels i s taken f r o m staff gauges s e t u p s t r e a m and down-
stream.

The downstream gauge in the model t e s t s was placed immediately

downstream of the s t r u c t u r e behind the p i e r in s t i l l water. This location i s not
possible with some trapezoidal regulators and the t e s t s indicated that a staff
gauge placed some 4 5 m downstream, close to the side of the channel in a back
flow section and facing downstream against the back flow, would give a close
reading.

6.5 CHECKS EQUIPPED WITH HAND OPERATED GATES

6.5.1 General
Gated checks a r e commonly used in channels where water level
adjustment i s r e q u i r e d m o r e frequently o r where the higher cost, compared
to stop-logs a r e justified (e. g. saving of labour). These checks a r e usually
fitted with hand-operated slide gates ranging f r o m simple wooden s h u t t e r s to
hand-wheel noprated adjustable orifice type gates ( F i g u r e 6- 22).

FIGUdE 6-22. - Hand operated check gate ( F e r . ,ra, Italy).

 e wall, reinf. not shown

Extend c u t o f f

concrete as di

concrete deck

C.L. Pipe hondroil post connections.

Pipe hondrail post connection details

(Handroil requlred when H,k is qreoter
than 16 inches)

Assembly pole guides

w ~ t h flotheod bolls

Section A-A CONCRETE CHECK

 The s i l l of the gate i s usually made level with the bottom of the channel. Slide
gates a r e usually operated a s an orifice with the exception of w e i r , g a t e s , such a s
the Romijn gate ( s e e 6.5.7 and Chapter 7 ) which can be used a s an overfall weir.
Also, if checks a r e combined with a d r o p in the channel bed the gate may be
designed a s an overflow weir. The design of gates i s discussed in detail in
Volume 111 of this Handbook, while in this section discussion will concentrate on
the functional a s p e c t of gates and the design of the supporting s t r u c t u r e .

Checks may be stationary o r portable. A l a r g e variety of conventional

stationary checks exist, each of which have been developed to suit a given s e t of
conditions. These checks can be dimensioned a s outlined in section 6.2. A
few examples a r e described in 6.5.2 to 6.5.4 below and portable checks a r e
mentioned in 6.5.5.

1/
6.5.2 Standard Check (USBR)-

6.5. 2.1 General design f e a t u r e s

This check h a s been developed by the USBR for u p s t r e a m water level

control f o r maximum discharge capacities f r o m 300 l / s up to 2,400 l / s .

The structure, ( F i g u r e 6- 23), consists of:

- an u p s t r e a m approach of 3 m (10 feet) with gradually widening transition

f r o m the width of the n o r m a l channel section to the width of the check
( a c r o s s the axis of flow) and with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the
check

- a check wall with guides f o r a slide gate (the slide gate i s not shown in the
drawing), and wing walls

- a middle section with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with handrail on the down-

s t r e a m side

- downstream wing walls and a 3 m (10 ft) transition returning back to n o r m a l

channel section.

I' See a l s o under drops.

 TABLE 6-2
Dimensions of Standard Check (USBR)

Slide gate .Standard dimension E s t i m a t e d Quantities

Str. Max. T(ww)
Width
No: Q Heighdl H ( f r a m e ) B~~ ywk) L(str) B(str)top X(vhr) L
1 ( ~ T~( ) 4 ~ T(CHW) Conc- Reinf. Misc.
Tcoff rete steel metal
11s ft3/s in ft
3
in in m kg kg

1 283 10 36 x 12 5 31 0" 1411 41 6" 101 6" - 24" 6 6' 2.1 150 30

2 425 15 36x18 5 31 on 2011 41 6" 121 0" 51 6" 24" 6 6 2.5 170 90

3 595 21 36 x 24 6 - 31 o w 21 2" 51 0" 131 6" 61 3" 24" 6 6 2.9 195 100

4 735 26 36 x 30 6 31 ow 21 8" 61 0" 151 on 71 0" 21 6" 6 8 4.5 245 110

5 595 21 48 x 18 5 4' 0" 2111 41 6" 131 3" 61 2" 24" 6 6 2.7 185 95

6 792 28 48 x 24 6 41 ow 21 3" 51 ott 141 9" 6111" 24" 6 6 3.1 210 105

7 990 35 48 x 30 6 41 0" 21 9" 61 0" 161 3" 71 8" 21 6" 6 8 4.7 260 110

8 1190 42 48x36 6 41 0" 31 3" 71 OH 171 9" 51 7" 21 6" 7 8 5.7 300 130
II

9 990 35 60 x 24 6 51 0" 21 3" 51 ott 151 9" 71 5" 24" 6 6 3.3 220 125

10 1220 4 3 60x30 6 51 OH 21 9" 61 0" 171 3" 51 511 21 6~ 6 8 5.0 280 145

11 1190 42 72x24 6 61 o w 21 311 51 011 161 9" 7111" 24" 6 ' 6 3.4 240 125

L 1 ~ h e na gate of specified height i s not available a gate with the next height available m a y be used with
appropriate f r a m e height.
 The whole s t r u c t u r e i s of reinforced concrete except the gate.
Transitions a r e in e a r t h but the bed i s protected by a l a y e r of c o a r s e gravel.

The e s s e n t i a l dimensions of the check a r e given in Table 6- 2 f o r 6

different standard s t r u c t u r e s . Size of s t r u c t u r e and elkvation i s determined a s
follows. The c r e s t i s s e t s o that the top of the check wall (adjacent to the gate)
is a t control w a t e r level. This i s the level to be held by the check and i s usually
equal to the n o r m a l level of the w a t e r s u r f a c e a t the check f o r design discharge.
F o r a known d i s c h a r g e ' Q 1 a s t r u c t u r e i s selected f r o m Table 6-2 and i t s c r e s t
( a t elevation B in F i g u r e 6-23) is s e t s o that the top of the check wall i s a t control
water level.

E x c e s s i v e flow can p a s s over the concrete check wall.

Numerical example

Given Q = 575 l / s

Elevation A = 310.25 m

= 45 c m
y1

a s s u m e n o r m a l water surface = control water surface

control w a t e r surface = 310.25 + 0.45 = 310.70 m

Refer to Table 6-2. T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e number for a Q of 575 l / s , s o

Q = 21 f t 3 / s = 595 11s. S t r u c t u r e s Nos 3 and 5 both
s e l e c t the next highest,
3 Select s t r u c t u r e No 5 because i t h a s a
have a maximum discharge of 21 ft / s .
working head (h(wk)).which m o r e n e a r l y suits the given canal section and i t h a s
l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No 3.

Dimensions : h(wk) = 21 inches = 53cm

ElevationB = 310.70-0.53 = 310.17 m

l leva ti on of B m u s t not be higher than that of C )

Elevation C i s normally set 1. 5 to 3 c m lower than Elevation A to

allow for hydraulic head l o s s through the structure. Therefore, Elevation
C = 310.23 m.

Check Structure made of Sheet Metal

A prefabricated steel check structure i s shown in F i g u r e 6-24. The steel

i s g l a s s coated to reduce corrosion. The joints a r e bolted and sealed with a
special m a s t i c to help eliminate seepage. The data given below a r e for a
122 cm (4 ft) wide opening.

Model Dimension (ft) Arsa Wt. List ~ r i c e l /

Number L F B E C ft lb $ us

4 ft wide

4W4442 4 4 4 4 2 160 1075 380

FIGURE 6-24. - Check s t r u c t u r e made of sheet metal -

dimensions.
 FIGURE 6-25. - Check constructed from prefabricated
steel parts (75).

6.5.4 Wooden Checks

Designs of small wooden checks a r e shown in Figures 6 - 2 6 and 6-27.

Shutter
., ,
f -

Recommended S i z e s

ft3/s A B C D E F

3 71011 21'611 31011 11611 21011 31011

6 91011 31011 31011 21011 31011 31611
9 1010" 31011 41011 21011 31011 31611
FRONT VlEW
12 111011 31611 51011 21011 3lOl1 31611
16 1110" 480" 51011 21611 31011 4toll

.^------I REAR VlEW

FIGURE 6-26. - Single wall check with side walls only for
protection of banks (65).
 Minimum dimensions in inches

FIGURE 6-27. - Double wall check (74).

The s t r u c t u r e s can be improved by adding an apron at the downstream end. Aprons

can be made of almost any convenient m a t e r i a l ranging f r o m burlap sacks to con-
crete. The tables in F i g u r e s 6-26 and 6-27 give dimensions recommended for
various flow capacities o r opening widths. The capacities for the double wall
check in Figure 6-27 range f r o m 0 to 1,000 11s.
6.5.5 Portable Checks

Often i t i s desirable to use a ditch in sections, filling sections lower down-

s t r e a m a s irrigation progresses. A s e r i e s of permanent structures for this
purpose would be costly ; but a portable dam o r stop in the form of a f r a m e of
canvas, plastic o r butyl rubber, o r a metal panel that can be driven into the earth
and a c r o s s the ditch, can be used repeatedly to control flow. These devices a r e
applicable only to earth ditches. To permit the same control in lined systems,
slots f o r the checks can be cast into the sides of the channels a t any desired
interval. F i g u r e s 6-28 and 6-29 show two simple designs for local manufacture.

Ditch bonk

AL
L C O ~ O Ibottom
Angle bar 4 0 x 40

Section A-A

FIGURE 6-28., - Portable check for f a r m ditches (46).

6.5.6 Radial Gate Check

The radial gate check i s used successfully for level control purposes in the
Netherlands. Its g r e a t advantages a r e that: the gate a c t s a s an overflow weir,
which requires l e s s frequent adjustment should the discharge of the channel
fluctuate; i t allows debris to p a s s the weir; and the gate can be lowered for
periodical cleaning of the upstream channel section. The gate i s operated with a
portable screw-thread b a r and i s then kept in the required position by a chain on
FIGURE 6-29. - Portable canvas check, sleeve type ( 1 3 ) .
FIGURE 6-30 ( a ) . - Radial check gate h he Netherlands).
FIGURE 6- 30 (b). , - D o w n s t r e a m view of r a d i a l g a t e check ( T h e N e t h e r l a n d s ) .
 e a c h side. (See F i g u r e s 6-30 (a) and 6-30 (b).) L a r g e gates a r e operated by a
fixed hoisting device.

6.5.7 The Romijn Gate

The Romijn gate i s a hand-operated broad c r e s t e d weir used for: level con-
t r o l a t intakes t o distributing o r other subordinate channels; o r f o r level control
within a channel; o r a s a measuring device. The gate h a s been thoroughly
laboratory t e s t e d and r a t e d for water m e a s u r e m e n t and is t h e r e f o r e discussed in
detail under Chapter 7 - S t r u c t u r e s and Devices f o r Water Measurement in
Volume I1 of this Handbook.

6.6 HYDRAULICALLY AUTOMATED CHECKS (NEYRPIC)

6 . 6.1 General Structure and Application

The need f o r m o r e a c c u r a t e water level control than i s possible with hand-

operated check gates h a s , among other needs, l e d to the development of the
Neyrpic automatic gates. Their operation r e l i e s entirely on the f o r c e s in the
s y s t e m itself, such a s hydrostatic t h r u s t and the weight of the device. The devices
to be discussed h e r e a r e the standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates.

The AMIL gate, a s shown in F i g u r e 6-31, i s designed f o r constant level

u p s t r e a m control. I t consists of a balanced radial gate with a float attached to the
leaf. The gate i s designed s o that the f o r c e s acting oneit position the leaf to

. maintain the u p s t r e a m water level a t the height required. With the constant level
downstream gate (AVIS) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-32 a float automatically positions the
gate leaf over the gate opening to maintain a predetermined and n e a r l y constant
level downstream. F i g u r e 6- 33 shows the AVIO gate, a variant of the downstream
level gate, which i s placed behind an orifice type outlet. The AVIO variant i s
required when the discharge of the supply canal i s l a r g e and the discharge to be
taken off i s small. I t i s m o r e generally used on water offtakes that a r e controlled
f r o m the level variations of a body of water such a s a storage pond. The choice
between the open and the orifice type gate i s solely determined by the maximum
level differential likely to occur between the u p s t r e a m and the controlled levels.
With the constant level u p s t r e a m gate the branch canal o r f a r m outlet i s placed
u p s t r e a m of the gate and with the constant level downstream gate downstream of
the gate. (See a l s o Chapters 2 and 3 . )

FIGURE 6-31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate,

NEYRPIC - AMIL. (1. Servo-tab, 2. float, 3. gate leaf, 4. hinge,
5. adjustable counterweight)

FIGURE 6-32. - Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC - AVIS)

 FIGURE 6-33. - Typical downstream constant level
gate for discharge through an orifice, (NEYRPIC-AVIO).
(1. Opening, 2. gate leaf, 3 . adjustable counterweight,
4. hinge, 5. float, 6. chamber communicating with the
downstream level. )

When comparing constant level gates with conventional gates the higher
initial cost of constant level gates h a s to be weighed against i n c r e a s e d water u s e
efficiency in the entire irrigation system. Other aspe*cts to consider a r e the
labour saving automatic operation v e r s u s the i n c r e a s e d attention n e c e s s a r y to p r e -
vent jamming of and tampering with the device. Because of t h e i r relatively high
cost and susceptibility to clogging by debris, the constant level gates a r e especially
suited t o h a r d surface lined canals o r flume irrigation s y s t e m s . F o r a choice
between u p s t r e a m and downstream control s e e Chapter 2.

6. 6.2 Range of Standard Gates Available

The information given in the following indicates the range of

available standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates only. F o r selection of s i z e of
gate within each category the following data m u s t be known:
- maximum r a t e of flow

- minimum head

- maximum head a t z e r o flow

- maximum head a t maximum flow.

F o r design and o t h e r complementary information r e f e r e n c e should be

m a d e to the abundant information available with the manufacturers.

AMIL gates

AMIL gates a r e described by the dimension indicated by IDt, which i s

approximately the width of the water s u r f a c e , a s shown in F i g u r e 6-34.

FIGURE 6-34. - Diagrammatic layout of AMIL gate.

The depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 0.45 D ; the gate r i s e s to a maximum of 0.225 D ;

2
the a r e a of the p a s s a g e through which the water p a s s e s i s about 0 . 2 D ; and the
a r e a of wetted section of canal immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the gate i s 0. 35 D 2 .
Table 6-3 s u m m a r i s e s the m a j o r p a r a m e t e r s of s m a l l AMIL gates.
 TABLE 6-3

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small AMIL Gates

Approximate
Water Cross Overall
Approximate minimum
Type depth section
maximum head l o s s a t
Y1 (cm) (cm) discharge maximum
D R discharge
(cm) (cm) (cm) a b c U V W (11S ) (cm)

D 80 63 36 85 65 60 70 56 71 190 5
D 90 , 63 40 95 50 45 70 56 80 250 6
D-100 63 45 106 56 50 70 56 85 330 7
D-110 63 50 118 63 56 70 56 95 420 7
D-125 90 56 132 71 63 100 80 106 570 8
D-140 90 63 150 80 71 100 80 118 770 9
D-160 90 71 170 90 80 100 80 132 1100 10

6. 6. 2. 2 AVIS gates

AVIS gates a r e identified in t e r m s of float r a d i u s r and bottom

sluice k i d t h C I, both in c e n t i m e t r e s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35 ( a ) ). Two groups of
gates a r e available, one f o r high heads and another f o r low heads. In the
3
capacity range below one m 1 s t h e r e a r e only two different s i z e s of the high head
type available, a s shown in Table 6-4.

TABLE 6-4
Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small High Head AVIS Gates

AVIS Appr ox:

high Max. min. head
Approx.
head O v e r a l l dimensions head Sluice loss at
max.
gate (cm) ( cm) (4 dis- maximum
No charge discharge
(r/c) A B C D E F R r Jrn C H L (l/s) (cm)

561106 164 135 121 90 102 62 9058 40 106 96 138.5 800 6

711132 205 165 155 110 127 78 112 71 50 132 121 180 1400 7
 downstream level

Sluice dimensions

FIGURE 6-35 (a). - Diagrammatic layout of AVIS gate

from 56/106 to 90/190.
6.6.2.3 AVIO g a t e s
- AVIO g a t e s a r e identified in t e r m s of float - outside r a d i u s in c m and
sluice c r o s s sectional a r e a s ( h x L ) in s q u a r e d e c i m e t e r s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35(b) ).
A s an example the float r a d i u s and sluice c r o s s section of a n AVIO 56/25 gate a r e
56 cm and 25 dm 2 respectively. 3
In the capacity range f r o m z e r o to one m / s
t h e r e a r e 6 gate s i z e s available f o r high h e a d s and 4 for low heads a s shown in
Table 6-5.

TABLE 6-5

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small t o Medium Size AVIO g a t e s

AVIO gate Approx.

Approx.
NO. O v e r a l l dimensions min. head
- (cm)
Max.
head Opening
max.
dis- loss at
- m a x . dis-
High Low (cm) (cm) charge charge
head head A I.
J~ h I., (11s) (cm)

281 6 85 60 65 35 50 28 142 25 25 80 14
36/10 105 75 85 45 63 36 140 32 32 110 16
451 1 6 135 90 100 55 80 45 180 40 40 280 20
45/32 135 90 100 55 80 45 . 90 40 80 410 12
5 6/ 25 165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0 56 224 50 50 49 0 26
56/50 165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0 56 112 50 100 750 15
71/40 210145170 90125 71 280 63 63 900 33
71/80 210 145. 170 90 125 71 140 63 125 1350 20
90163 265 180 210 110 160 90 355 80 80 1500 40
90/125 265 180 210 110 160 90. 180 80 160 2030 24
Moximum Constant
>
upstream level downstreorn level
7

FIGURE 6- 35 (b) . - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate.

FIGURE 6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c d r a w - s t r i n g check fitted with
side wing walls and bottom cut-off f o r u s e in an unlined
ditch.

FIGURE 6- 36 (b). - Semi automatic check installed in an

unlined ditch.
6.7 SEMI AUTOMATIC TIME CONTROLLED CHECK

The u s e of t i m e controlled checks i s a s yet in the experimental stage and

t h e r e i s little field experience available. The method i s s o far. confined to water
level control in f a r m distribution ditches. After allowing the water t o r i s e t o a
predetermined level f o r a given t i m e an automatic gate i s r e l e a s e d , allowing the
water to flow on to the next check. A s e m i automatic portable check f o r u s e in
unlined ditches i s shown in F i g u r e s 6-36(a) and 6-36(b). Similar checks a r e
available for lined ditches. The check consists of a nylon reinforced butyl
rubber dam s ~ ~ , ~ o rint ea dm e t a l f r a m e designed t o fit the ditch c r o s s section.
In the closed position the top edge of the flexible dam i s supported by a draw-
s t r i n g threaded through g r o m m e t s . A plastic covered s t e e l cable i s used for the
draw-string. The draw-string i s r e l e a s e d a t the end of the d e s i r e d i r r i g a t i o n
period by a timing device. This device, which i s commercially available, con-
s i s t s of a wind-up spring, d i r e c t reading t i m e indicator, a tripping m e c h a n i s m
and an escapement r e l e a s e which i s operated by a small float. The t i m e r i s
mounted in a sealed casing. It o p e r a t e s a s soon a s water e n t e r s the ditch
immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the check, when the timing mechanism i s tripped
into action by the r i s i n g float, T i m e r s a r e available f o r two, five o r twelve
hour periods. Checks have been manufactured for 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 c m
design water depths. Design details of the gates a r e given in Volume I11 of this
Handbook.

Humpherys (58) s t a t e s that the portable d r a w - s t r i n g check i s ideally suited

f o r u s e in an automatic cut-back furrow irrigation s y s t e m , i n a t h a t the a c r e a g e
one i r r i g a t o r can manage can be i n c r e a s e d up to ten o r m o r e times, while
keeping run-off a t a minimum. (See a l s o Chapter 2)

6.8 CHECK STRUCTURES COMBINED WITH A FALL, DROP OR CHUTE

Sometimes, it i s n e c e s s a r y to combine check s t r u c t u r e s with falls, drops

o r chutes, particularly when i t i s n e c e s s a r y to control the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level
and i t s velocity, in addition t o achieving a reduction in grade and velocity down-
stream. Examples of checks combined with falls a r e given in p a r t B of this
chapter, which follows.
6.9 GENERAL FEATURES OF DROPS (OR FALLS) AND CHUTES

Drops, o r falls, and chutes a r e control s t r u c t u r e s required a t suitable

intervals in canals o r channels which m u s t have a m o r e gentle slope than that of
the adjacent land, so a s to reduce the water level downstream, and reduce the
velocity of flow. They also provide for the safe dissipation of surplus energy.
Generally such a control structure i s called a drop, o r a fall, when the lowering
of the water level i s accomplished over a short distance. When the water i s
conveyed over long distances a t slopes which a r e still steep enough to maintain
high velocities (shooting flow), the structure generally used i s a chute. Chutes
may also be used on sloping land where a single drop, o r a s e r i e s of drops (i. e.
cascades), would be m o r e expensive o r otherwise undesirable.

In the c a s e of main canals, branch canals o r sub-branch canals, which do

not directly i r r i g a t e any a r e a , the site of a drop i s determined in consideration of
the cost of canal construction, including balancing cut and fill and the cost of the
structure itself. In the case of distributing canals, the falls a r e located so a s to
s e r v e the commanded a r e a without having to build the canal banks too high. The
possibility of combining a drop with an intake, c r o s s regulator, measuring
device, bridge o r some other canal structure must be given due consideration, a s
such combinations often r e s u l t in economy and better regulation. Drops a r e
usually provided with a low c r e s t wall, hump o r check gate upstream to prevent
shooting flow in the upstream approach section.

In this Handbook drops a r e subdivided into three categories: vertical drops,

inclined drops and piped drops. Chutes a r e regarded a s being in the same
category a s inclined drops.

The choice between vertical and inclined drops i s governed mainly by the
difference in water level to be controlled by the structure, in other words, the
energy to be dissipated. However, local conditions, traditional practices, e t c . ,
do not allow for generalization of the c r i t e r i a for this choice on a world-wide
scale. The n e c e s s a r y drop in level and dissipation of energy can be achieved
 either by one o r only a few l a r g e d r o p s o r by s e v e r a l m o r e small drops over the
s a m e distance. The choice again i s much dependent on m a t e r i a l and labour
available and the total cost of construction.

The inclined d r o p o f f e r s the alternative of dissipating energy through a

standing wave (hydraulic jump) whereas the shock of the overfall jet of the
vertical d r o p i s dissipated. Where the fall r e q u i r e d i s considerable the whole
s t r u c t u r e of the inclined drop r e q u i r e s l e s s m a t e r i a l and labour input than the
wall and dissipator basin s t r u c t u r e of the vertical drop.

Drops can be used to m e a s u r e the quantity of water flowing over them. For
example, a vertical d r o p may be equipped with a calibrated weir section; and
inclined drops may be designed so a s to include a calibrated flume section.

Pipe drops a r e often found useful and economical where a d r o p can be

sited so a s t o t r a v e r s e a road o r other crossing of an irrigation canal.

Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the s a m e type and function a s those

in distribution canals, the only difference being that the drops in f a r m channels
a r e s m a l l e r and simpler in construction and equipment. They a r e m o r e often
provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate o r a wooden shutter.
Both vertical drops and pipe drops may be employed, although v e r t i c a l drops a r e
the m o s t commonly used.

In the sections which follow in this chapter, e x a y p l e s of'drops and chutes

applicable to main irrigation distribution s y s t e m s a r e given in 6. 10 to 6.12, while
examples of drops for f a r m irrigation channels a r e described in 6.13.

6.10 VERTICAL DROPS (OR. FALLS)

6.10.1 General

Energy dissipation by a vertical drop i s usually r e s o r t e d to where the drop

i s small, although the interpretation of "small" differs in various p a r t s of the
world. According to the USBR standards, a small vertical drop i s one which
does not exceed 3 ft ( say 1 m ) , except where the canal i s lined with a h a r d
surface downstream of the structure, when the d r o p may be up to 6 ft ( s a y 2 m ) .
 In Australian usage a small vertical drop does not exceed 1.05 m from c r e s t to
downstream bed (52).

The vertical drop structure generally incorporates a stilling basin and some
form of sill o r baffle, o r both, combined with side wall arrangements, to dissi-
pate the jet. These structural arrangements should create a r e v e r s e rolling flow
a t ground level to reduce scouring of the bed immediately downstream of the
structure. Rip-rap i s also usually placed on the downstream side to prevent
erosion. The dimensions of the stilling pool o r energy dissipator depend upon the
height of fall and the discharge over the crest.

Of a large number of designs available examples of t h r e e diverse designs

a r e described here, namely, the "Sarda" type used in India, the rectangular weir
drop proposed by SOGETHA (84), the standard USBR drop-check and the YMGT
type drop used in flumed systems in Japan. In addition to these i t m u s t be pointed
out that extensive r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d out in the U. S. A. on small vertical
drop structures, which a r e dealt with in detail in a special r e p o r t under 'the
CUSUSWASH water management s e r i e s of Colorado State University (106).

6.10.2 Sarda Type F a l l (India)

6.10.2.1 General

The Sarda type fall i s a vertical drop structure, developed on the

Sarda Canal P r o j e c t in Uttar P r a d e s h (India) to replace the notch fall. It has been
tested by hydraulic experiments in the laboratory and by observations on the
prototype. It i s both simple and economical and therefore i s widely used in
Uttar Pradesh. It i s not adapted to flow measurement but i t may s e r v e a s a
meter-fall when calibrated.

There a r e two types of Sarda fall, one with a vertical c r e s t wall for
discharges below 15 m 3 / s , and another with a trapezoidal c r e s t wall for
discharges above 15 m 3 1s. Only the vertical c r e s t type i s described herein.

At f i r s t no depressed cistern flaring in the downstream wing walls

were provided. While the behaviour of this prototype was, on the whole, very
satisfactory, erosion of the banks downstream of the structure was noticed in
 some c a s e s . Model experiments w e r e c a r r i e d out a t Bahadarabad R e s e a r c h
Station ( ~ t t a Pr r a d e s h ) to eliminate the defects,and the design c r i t e r i a given
below follow the recommendations based on those experiments.

6.10.2.2 S t r u c t u r a l design

The Sarda fall i s a r a i s e d c r e s t fall with vertical impact (F'igure 6- 37).

It consists essentially of u p s t r e a m wing walls, a c r e s t wall, downstream
expansion and wing walls, an impervious floor and a cistern, and downstream
side and bed protection.

The u p s t r e a m wing walls a r e generally shaped a s a segment of a

c i r c l e with a radius equal to 5 to 6 H(,,t) and subtending an angle of 60°, and
c a r r i e d tangentially into the b e r m of the channel for a minimum of one m e t r e .
The foundations of the wing walls should be laid on an impervious concrete floor
( a t the level of the downstream bed), which should be extended on both sides for
the purpose.

One o r two drainage holes (15 cm width and 15 cm height) should be

provided in the c r e s t a t bed level to drain out the u p s t r e a m bed during a closure
of the canal.

The top width of the c r e s t wall, (along the axis of flow) L

(crt)
i s given by L(crt) = 55 H(c-b) in m e t r e s

The bottom width (along the axis of flow) of the c r e s t wall, ( T ) ~ ~ ~

i s given by (T)bot
= (min) q-
c-b
in m e t r e s ,

where H i s the height of the c r e s t above the downstream bed level of the
(c-b)
canal.

The c r e s t breadth, B(crt),(across the axis of f1ow)is given by the

expression

B(crt) = B1 + Y1

The downstream wings a r e kept vertical over a 1;ngth varying f r o m 5

to 8 t i m e s .f 1'
(Hdr)
, and then stepped down to their required level. They
a r e then flared, i. e . the water face i s gradually sloped f r o m vertical to 1.5 : 1 o r
lea 0 1 5 x 0 1 5 Downstreom F. S. L.

Downstreom bed

Longitudinal section

(All dimensions ore in metres)

SARDA TYPE F A L L (U.P)

1 : 1. If the wings be discontinued a f t e r they attain the slope of 1 : 1, the warping
m u s t be continued by the side pitching until i t h a s a slope of 1.5 : 1.

The total length of the impervious floor should be determined by

Bligh's theory, on the b a s i s of which the safe hydraulic gradients for different
kinds of soils a r e given hereunder :-

Type of soil Hydraulic gradient

sand mixed with boulders -

1
to -51
and shingles, and loamy soils 9

light sand and mud -1

8

fine micaceous sand

c o a r s e grained sand

The maximum hydraulic gradient will occur when the water i s headed
up to the top of the c r e s t on the u p s t r e a m side with no flow on the downstream
1
side. The total length of floor required i s - H(c,b), dependihg on the type
s(H)
of soil. Of the total length, the minimum length of floor on the downstream side
in m e t r e s should be 2 (water depth u p s t r e a m + 1.2) + drop. The balance of
the total length may be provided under and u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t wall.

U p s t r e a m of the c r e s t the uplift p r e s s u r e s a r e m o r e than counter-

. .
balanced by the weight of water standing on the floor. 4 Also the u p s t r e a m floor i s
laid below the bed u p s t r e a m of the fall and i s not subjected to flow, and thus a
thickness of 0. 3 m i s usually adequate for it. The thickness of the floor down-
s t r e a m i s generally 0. 3 m to 0.45 m .

F o r very s m a l l f a l l s no c i s t e r n i s n e c e s s a r y , but when the hydraulic

d r o p w a r r a n t s it, t h e r e should be one, according to the following p a r a m e t e r s :

length of cistern, L
(bas) = [ ~ ( d r ) 'H ( c r t ) ] 2

depth of c i s t e r n
 The downstream bed pitching m a y be protected with d r y b r i c k about
20 c m thick r e s t i n g on 10 c m thick b a l l a s t over a length t h r e e t i m e s y2. A
y2
c u r t a i n wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to 2 , subject to a m i n i m u m of
0 . 5 m , and r e s t i n g on 15 c m thick concrete, m a y be provided a t the end of the
pitching.

F o r downstream side protection a f t e r the wing walls, the side slope:

of the channel a r e pitched with 10 c m brick, ( i . e . brick on edge) for a length
equal to 3 y2. The pitching should rest on a toe wall having the s a m e dimension^
a s the curtain wall.

6.10.2.3 Design formula

Under f r e e overfall conditions:

F o r drowned (submerged) falls:

-2

H(,) i s determined f r o m the formula,

H(crt) = (dr) + H( s )

6.10.2.4 Numerical example

Data given:

= 1.5 m
B1 B2
= 0.75m
y1 & y2
H = 0.90 m
(dr)
Maximum hydraulic gradient
-- 1 in 5

Then B(crt) = B1 + Y1 = 1.5+0.75 = 2.25m

Top width of c r e s t wall = 0.55 = 0.62 m

- 1. 29
Bottom width of c r e s t wall = 0.65m
2

I n c r e a s e i t to 0.80 m

Radius of u p s t r e a m wing walls should be 5H

(4to 6H(crt) o r 1.80 m to 2.16 m .

A s s u m e a radius of 2 m .

F o r calculating the length of the impervious floor, the maximum hydraulic gradient i s
1 i n 5.
F l o o r length = 5 .
1. 29 = 6.45 m say 6.5 m
F l o o r length required on downstream side
= 2(y1 + 1.2) + H
(dr)
= 2(0.75 + 1.2) + 0. 90

P r o v i d e a length of 5 m on the downstream side.

The remaining length to be provided on the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t

= 6 . 5 - 5 = 1.5 m

The thickness of the floor - 0.3 m for the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t and
0.45 m for the downstream side up to 2.5 m f r o m the toe of the c r e s t wall.
 Length of c i s t e r n = r 5 . H(dr) . (4

-
- 2.85 m
2
-
Depth of c i s t e r n - 0'25 LH(dr)
-2
. H(crt) I3
-
- 0.25 (0. 324)3

Adopt 0.15 m
. Length of downstream bed pitching = 3 . 0.75 = 2.25 m

~ e n ~ oft hdownstream side pitching = 2.25 m .

6.10.3 Rectangular Weir Drop with Raised Crest-1/

6. 10. 3.1 General characteristics

The rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t i s a simple s t r u c t u r e for

u s e on s m a l l channels which m a y be constructed in concrete o r b r i c k m a s o n r y o r
a combination of both. It does not m e a s u r e flow and does not s e r v e a s a check.
It r e q u i r e s little maintenance.

The design i s suitable for v e r t i c a l drops up to 7 m, for channel bed

widths of f r o m 0.2 to one m e t r e and f o r full supply depths f r o m 0. 1 to 0.7 m . It
c o n s i s t s of u p s t r e a m bed and side protection, a c r e s t wall, stilling basin and
downstream bed and side protection. (See F i g u r e 6- 38)

The width of the c r e s t ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) may be l e s s than the

width of the c i s t e r n by 0.10 m , but where t h e r e i s an offtake on the immediate
u p s t r e a m side of the d r o p the width of the c r e s t (in the c a s e of a rectangular
channel) m u s t be equal to the width of the channel.

'I Derived from SOGETHA (84)

 Bank Bonk

Section A A

Bank Bonk

I FAO-ICID

RECTANGULAR WEIR DROP

WITH RAISED CREST

Longiludinol section V

C Project, Region , Country

Developed by S O G E T A H (France)

Figure No. 6-38

6. 1 0 . 3 . 2 Design p r o c e d u r e

F o r a given discharge, Q, hydraulic drop, H(dr), u p s t r e a m bed

width, B , and full supply depth, y , proceed a s follows:

Volume of basin, V =
.
*(dr)
m
3
150

Length of basin, L = 1.5 . H(dr) m

Area.of c r o s s section
of the basin along the
2
a x i s of flow = A = L ( Y 2 + H m
(bas)
Width of basin

Depth of basin i s f r o m 0. 1 to 0. 3 m

In the c a s e of trapezoidal canal,

the width of c r e s t -
I B(t) = - O.lom
In the c a s e of a rectangular canal B (t) = B1

Discharge formula :
-3

where C = 0. 36 for a v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face of c r e s t wall and 0.40 for

an u p s t r e a m face rounded off by the quadrant of a c i r c l e of 5 to 10 c m r a d i u s .

C r e s t water depth,
H(crt), i s determined f r o m F i g u r e 6-39 f o r a
given discharge p e r m e t r e and value of C.

Height of c r e s t over u p s t r e a m
bed level, H(b-,) -
- Y 1 - H m
(4
Other dimensions of the s t r u c t u r e a r e a s given in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.3 Numerical example 1

Design a rectangular weir d r o p with the following data :

FIGURE 6- 39. - Rectangular weir drop - relationship between
H(,,.),d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width of c r e s t a n d c o e f f i c i e n t s 0. 32,
0.36 and 0.40.
 Volume of basin = v -- 200 . 0.80
= 1.07 m
3
150

Length of basin = L = 1.5H

( dr)
= 1.5 . 0.80

C r o s s sectional a r e a of
' t h e basin along the a x i s
of t h e floor = A = (0.50 + 0.10) . 1.20
2
= 0.72 m

Width of basin

Depth of basin = H(bas) = 0.10m

f

Width of c r e s t = B(t) = B - 0.10

(bas)

F r o m F i g u r e 6-39, for C = 0.40 and q = 143 l / s ,

H(crt) = 0.19 m

.. H(b- c ) = 0.50 - 0.19 = 0.51 m

The design of the d r o p i s shown in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.4 Numerical example 2

Design a d r o p in a rectangular channel with the following

data :
 Volume of basin =. v =
50 . 0.50
= 0.167m
3
150

Length of basin = L = 1.5 . 0.5 = 0.75 m

Depth of basin = 0.10 m

A r e a of the basin
alongtheaxisofflow = A = (0.30t0.10) 0.75

Width of basin

Width of c r e s t = 0.40m
= B(t)

F r o m F i g u r e 6.39 f o r q = 125 l / s , and m = 0.40

1/
6.10.4 Vertical Check-Drop (USBR) -

The s t r u c t u r e described h e r e i n i s used along canals having steep t e r r a i

where functions of both a check and a d r o p a r e r e q u i r e d . The maximum
allowable fall a t each d r o p i s 3 feet, ( s a y 90 c m ) .

The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e s 6-40 and 6-41) consists of: an u p s t r e a m approach

of 1 . 5 t o 3 m (5 to 10 feet) e a r t h transition gradually widening f r o m the n o r m a l
waterway section t o the width of the check-drop ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) and a l s o
with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the check; u p s t r e a m bed gravel pro-
tection; check wall with guides for a gate f r a m e o r stop-logs and wing walls; a.
s t r u c t u r e with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with a handrail on the downstream side;
and downstream reinforced concrete floor with cut-offs on either end; o r a
stilling basin and floor with cut-offs on either end, downstream wing walls and a
1 . 5 to 3 m transition converging f r o m the width of the check to the n o r m a l w a t e r -

"Based on information received through the US National Committee of the ICID.

 precast concrete deck

Place grouting mortor as

concrete as directed
directed on top of asbestos
sheets to provide ,firm bear-
ing surfoces for precast
concrete deck.
Section D-D

Section 8-8

bock seat and hondwheel

+"x 6"onchor bolts with square

heods, hex, nuts ond cut woshers.
Plan of precosi concrete deck
Project14.

flothead bolts
Normal water surfoce

4 dio. x 5 headed anchors,weld to angle.

Min. 3 onchors required

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK

WITH 1.5 FEET DROP
Gate frome guide details
Section A-A

Project, Region , Country

Notes: Outer face transverse bars to be continuous in walls ond floors. Thickness of concrete to vary
uniformly between dimensions shown. U S A
Ploce grouting mortar'on top of asbestos sheets to provide firm bearing surfoces for precast deck.
Gate frame height measured from centre line of gote opening.
I Figure No. 6-40
r

Precart concrete plonks, see &oils

$' oncha bdts a < project i

homftr on dl edger of & n & s

10 anchor Mi wiih s q w hcod,

hex. nut, ond cut ~ S h t r
Reintorcement not shown

Plan
required

Upstream eneqy level

Reinf. not shown

Stoplog guide details

( 2 required)

FA 0 - ICID

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK

Section B-B WITH 3.5 FEET DROP

Longitudinal section Project , Region, Country

U S A

Figure No. 6-41

way section with a bed sloping up f r o m the floor t o the n o r m a l bed of the
waterway downstream. The side slopes of the downstream transition a r e in e a r t h
but the bed h a s a c o a r s e g r a v e l protection.

Overflow i s provided f o r o v e r the check walls a t the inlet on the check with
a 0.45 m (1.5 f t ) drop; however, t h e r e i s no provision f o r overflow on the check
with a 0.9 m ( 3 ft) drop.

Tables 6- 6 and 6-7 give, for a given discharge, the e s s e n t i a l dimension of

the various elements of the check- d r o p s t r u c t u r e f o r 0.45 m (1.5 ft) and
0.90 m ( 3 ft) d r o p respectively.

F o r d r o p s u p to and including 0.45 m (1.5 ft) the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e

6-40 i s used. F o r d r o p s g r e a t e r than 0.45 m ( 1 . 5 ft) and through 0.9 m ( 3 ft),
the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e 6-41 i s used.

Numerical example 1 ,
3
Q = 25ft/s
El A = 861. 10 f t (elevation of u p s t r e a m canal invert)
= 2.00ft
1
v = 1 . 6 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity)
1

El C = 860.00 ft (elevation of downstream canal i n v e r t )

v = 1 . 6 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

2

H
The fall, i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and
(dr)'
the downstream energy l e v e l s .
2 -
h 1
= - - - 1. 6L
= 0. 04 ft;
V1 2g 2 (32. 2)

where g = acceleration due to gravity in feet p e r second p e r second

upstreamenergylevel = 861.10 + 2.00 + 0.04 = 863.14ft

downstream energy l e v e l = 860.00 + 2.00 + 0.04 = 862.04 f t

Note that u n l e s s the u p s t r e a m water depth and velocity a r e different f r o m the
downstream w a t e r depth and velocity, HDR can be solved by simply subtracting
the downstream canal i n v e r t f r o m the u p s t r e a m canal invert.

Since H(dr) i s l e s s than 1 . 5 ft, r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-40 and Table 6-6.

T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q of 25 f t 31 s . Consider s t r u c t u r e No. 4 with a
3 3
m a x i m u m Q of 26 f t / s o r s t r u c t u r e No. 6 with a maximum Q of 28 f t / s .
Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6 because i t h a s a "h(wk)" dimension which m o r e n e a r l y
s u i t s the canal section and i t h a s l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No.4.

A s s u m e n o r m a l water surface = control water s u r f a c e

Control water surface = 861.10 + 2.00 = 863. 10 ft

Set E l B so that the top of the check wall i s a t

control water surface elevation

( E l B m u s t not be higher than E l C)

Other dimensions a r e given in Table 6-6 and Figur.e 6-40.

C

Numerical example 2 .

Q = 30 f t 3 / s

El A = 928. 60 ft ( u p s t r e a m canal invert)

El D = 926.00 f t (downstream canal invert)

= 2.20ft
y2
v = 1.7ft/s
2
 TABLE 6-6
Dimensions of Cencrete Vertical Check with a 1.5 f e e t Drop (USBR)

Slide Gate Standard Dimensions E s t i m a t e d Quantities

Max' h L B X L
Width x Frm Conc. Re. s t e e l Misc.
NO. 'CH (wk) (str) (str)top (vhr) wwl (T)- (T)ww2
height 11 ht 1 metal
in ft in in in Yd3 lb lb

L' When a gate of specific height i s not available, a gate with next g r e a t e r available
height shall b e u s e d with a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e height.
3 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic f e e t

TABLE 6-7
Dimensions of Concrete Vertical Check with a 3 f e e t Drop (USBR)

Str . Max. H
(dr) H ~ ~ d~~
l
H
ww2
L
-1
H
(b-c)
L
(str) L~~
l'ws
or ( T ) ~ ZB T R ~ B~~ EI A EI B EI c EI D
No. Q
ft3/ s in (T)FR

- - - - -- -

E x a m p l e only
 Since y
1
= y2 and v
1
-- v2' Tdr)
= 928.60 - 926.00 = 2.60 ft.

Since Tdr) is g r e a t e r than 1 . 5 f t , r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-41 and Table 6-7.

Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6.

A s s u m e n o r m a l water s u r f a c e = control w a t e r s u r f a c e

Control water s u r f a c e = 928.60 + 2.20 = 930.80 ft

H~~ = 6. 00 ft, HSB = 0.67 f t

El C = 930.80 - 6.00 + 0.67 = 925.47 f t

( E l C m u s t not be higher than E l D)

See Table 6-7 for completed example.

1/
6. 10.5 YMGT Type D r o p (Japan)-

6.10.5.1 General

D r o p s of rectangular notch type built i n the p a s t in Japan had suffered

f r o m problems of flow turbulence on the downstream of the fall, abnormal waves
and overtopping a t the side walls and damage a t the bottom and side walls of the
canals .
In o r d e r to solve t h e s e problems the Yamagata P r e f e c t u r a l Govern-
m e n t evolved a new design of d r o p for i t s land consolidation p r o j e c t s for u s e in
flumed distribution s y s t e m s . The design i s b a s e d on the r e s u l t s of hydraulic
model studies c a r r i e d out a t the Agricultdral Engineering ~ e s e a r c hStation,
Ministry of Agriculture and F o r e s t r y , Hiratsuka.

The s t r u c t u r e , which h a s no provision for a check, i s suitable for

s m a l l canals, field channels, o r w a t e r c o u r s e s , and f o r d i s c h a r g e s of l e s s than
3
one m / s. F i g u r e 6-42 shows a d r o p s t r u c t u r e of s i m i l a r design in u s e in
Cyprus.

L/B a s e d on information supplied by the Japanese National Committee, ICID.

 S t r u c t u r a l design

The YMGT type s t r u c t u r e i s a rectangular notch d r o p o r fall. It

c o n s i s t s of a sill wall and downstream stilling basin with the n e c e s s a r y t r a n -
sitional bottom slope in the basin m e r g i n g with the n o r m a l bed of the canal on the
downstream side. The foundations of the sill wall and the stilling basin a r e of
cobble stones, 15 to 20 c m in depth, s e t in cement. The sill wall and the floor
of the stilling basin a r e of reinforced concrete laid over a 5 c m l a y e r of cement
over the cobble foundations. The fall i s connected to a prefabricated r e -
inforced concrete flume channel a s shown in F i g u r e 6-42.

FIGURE 6-42. - Drop s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume

channel (Cyprus).

The standard design i s intended f o r flumed channels, but if the channels

a r e unlined, i t i s e s s e n t i a l to have sufficient protection and suitable approach
walls both on the u p s t r e a m and downstream sides.
 Section A tn
Longitudinal 'section

Plan
FIGURE 6-43. - YMOT typo drop - s i l l - w e l l and a t i l l i n g baain.
 Design formulae

Brink depth, H(br) for a rectangular notch fall without s i l l

(elevated c r e s t )

where Hc

where H = brink depth at the end of the notch

(br)

Hc = critical depth of flow a t the notch

9 = discharge per unit width through the notch

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / s 2

Dimension of the jet trajectory

The trajectory of the jet can be calculated by the following

equation :

Without sill

With sill
1
-

where L(bas)l = horizontal length from sill to the point where

the average of the upper and lower nappe meets
the downstream water surface line

": = specific energy corresponding to Hc

= height between the sill line and downstream

H(c-w12)
water surface line
 FIGURE 6-44. - YMGT type d r o p - symbols and notations
f o r sill height, t r a j e c t o r y of jet and dimensions of stilling basin.

Angle of the jet

Without s i l l
tan oc = 0.886

With sill

tan Ot

Velocity of the jet, V(jet)

where H(CEL-b) i s the height between the energy line a t the c r i t i c a l depth over
the notch and the floor of the stilling basin.

Height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed level

The standard values of the height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed

level a r e given in Table 6-8.
 TABLE 6-8

Stilling basin
I

Depth of stilling basin

c (dr)

Length of the stilling basin

where L(bas) = total length of the stilling basin

L = horizontal length f r o m the sill c r e s t to the point

(bas)
where the average of the upper and lower nappe
m e e t s the downstream water surface line

L(bas)2 = horizontal length from the point where the average

'
of the upper and lower nappe meets the downstream
water surface line and the point where the average
of the upper and lower nappe strikes the floor of
the stilling basin.
4
.

L (bas)3 = horizontal length of the stilling basin to dissipate

the energy of the jet

i s given by equation ( 3 ) or equation (4)

4b.4

L (bas) L(bas) + L
(bas)2
+ L
(bas)2,
 TABLE 6-9

Standard Design of Small - Size F a l l s (Dimensions and M a t e r i a l s ) in F l u m e d Canals

Dimensions (cm) Quantity

Type Dis- H Rein- Plain

No. charge (dr: H H L B forced ~~~t~~ con- Frame Cobble 11.011
(t-bflIl (c-b) (bas) '(t-bfll2 (TcW) L(baS) '(bas t) (OP) H(cw) (Tbas) B ( b a ~f) (bas) . crete works stones bars
m 3 ~ s rn m3 ,3 ,3 m2 m3 kg

) 0.021 7.05
350 ) 0.060 0.30 37 45 15 37 15 150 50 15 39.5 15 95 45 0.70 0.011 0.12 6.93 0.36 41.41
0.21 10.11
0.060 0.50 37 70 20 37 15 150 100 15 64.5 15 95 45 0.97 0.11 0.14 9.99 0.43 57.48
0.021 13.86
0.060 0.70 37 95 25 37 15 200 100 15 89.5 15 95 45 1.30 0.011 0.17 13.74 0.50 73.67

400 0.14 0.30 46 45 15 46 15 250 50 15 34 15 106 56 1.09 0.029 0.19 10.53 0.56 61.95
0. 1 4 0.50 46 70 20 46 15 250 100 15 59 15 106 56 1.44 0.029 0.21 14. 37 0.64 80.71
0.14 0.70 46 95 25 46 15 250 100 15 84 15 106 56 1. 62 0.029 0.21 16.80 0.64 91.25

1 0.043 13.41
500 ) 0.225 0.30 52 45 15 52 15 300 50 15 35.5 15 117 67 1.41 0.029 0.23 13.23 0.70 77.20
0.043 18.54
0.225 0.50. 52 75 25 52 15 300 100 15 65.5 15 117 67 1.86 0.029 0.26 18.35 0.79 98.57
0.043 20.52
0. 225 0.70 52 95 25 52 15 300 100 15 85.5 15 117 67 2.00 0.029 0.26 20.34 0.79 106.38

) 0.102 25.85
700 ) 0.417 0.50 68 75 25 68 20 350 100 20 64.5 20 151 91 3.32 0.029 0.39 25.37 1.16 161. 63
0.102 32.59
0.417 0.70 68 105 35 68 20 350 150 20 94.5 20 151 91 4.04 0.055 0.42 32.11 1.27 447.94
0.102 39.48
0.417 1.00 68 135 35 68 20 400 150 20 124.5 20 151 91 4.77 0.055 0.46 39.00 1. 38 510. 62

800 0.720 0.50 78 75 25 78 20 450 100 20 62 20 163 103 4.30 0.195 0.50 32.38 1.49 360.36
0.720 0.70 78 105 35 78 20 450 150 20 92 20 163 103 5.12 0.195 0.54 40.17 1.61 544.37
0.720 1.00 78 140 40 78 20 450 150 20 127 20 163 103 5.62 0.195 0.54 46.03 1.61 598.23

1 0.324 48.78
1000 ) 0.996 0.70 95 105 35 95 20 500 150 20 90 20 188 128 6.27 0.296 0.67 48.22 2.00 662.60
0.324 59.76
0.996 1.00 95 145 45 95 20 500 200 20 130 20 188 128 7.40 0.296 0.71 59.20 2.14 998.39
0.324 73.34
0.996 1.50 95 200 50 95 30 500 200 30 185 30 208 128 12.12 0.296 0.81 72.77 2.43 1362.83
 Connection of the stilling basin to the downstream bed of the canal

The downstream end of the stilling basin i s joined to the downstream

bed o r bottom of the canal by a slope of 1 : 4.

To avoid lengthy calculations, s e e Table 6-9 which h a s been p r e p a r e d

to give the various dimensions of the different types of rectangular notch f a l l s in
flumed canals a s well a s quantities of construction m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d for them.

6.10.5.4 Numerical example 1

Design a YMGT type rectangular notch fall f o r an unlined canal,

without r a i s e d sill and with the following data:

sideslopes, (ss) = 1: 1

Design
2
- 1
= 0.009 m
hvl 2g

Brink depth a t the notch, H(br) = 0.72 Hc

= 0.360m
 D e p t h of s t i l l i n g b a s i n

L e n g t h of b a s i n

0.567

L(ba s ) .
-

Angle of jet, oi

tan x = 0.886 [ 1
0.763

L = (Y, + H ) cot 6(
(bas)
= (0.873 + 0.433) cot 38'5~'

= 1.506. 1.230 - 1.606 m

.. T o t a l l e n g t h of b a s i n

= 2 . 5 (0.670 + 1.606)
= 5.690 m
Say 5.70 m

6.10.5.5 Numerical example 2

D e s i g n a YMGT t y p e r e c t a n g u l a r n o t c h f a l l with t h e following

data :
 Moteriols

Reinforced concrete 0.70 2

' "ortor UF 300 0.021 n?
UF 350 901t. n?
Plain concrete 0.12 4
UF 300 7.05 m3
Frome work UF 350 6 9 3 n?
,

~obble>l~nes 0.36 n?

Longitudinal section Reinforcement bor

NO, ~i~ lenpth
Unit N,. Total Unit Total
lenoth H~QM weight

1 I 3 2.27 8 18.16 1.04 18.89

@ dio. 9 L.105 n = 2

C87-I I ! !

Plon Dio. 13 28.79 kg

@ dio. L . 2 4 0 n . 3 Dio. 9 12.62 kg
L

k160--/-5
. (All dimensions are in cen+imetres,l

dio. 13 C/C 20
@
-
dia. 9 Lz83n.2

k 6 5 -4
F A 0 -ICID

dio. 9 C/C 25 YMGT FALL-TYPE 300

dio. 13 C/C 20
5
I5 project ,Region, Country
J opon

Section A Section B Figure No. 6-45

-
 H(dr) = 0.30 m

Canal is of flumed section

Height f r o m bottom to top of flume section = 31.5 c m

D i a m e t e r of flume section = 31.5 c m

Design

R e f e r to Table 6-9.

3
F o r a discharge of 0.060 m / s and a hydraulic d r o p of 0.30 m , the
type 300 o r 350 m a y be adopted. The dimensions of the fall a r e a s h e r e u n d e r :

qc-b) = 45 c m

H(bas) = 15cm

( Tcw) = 15cm

H( cw) = 39.5 c m

L(bas) = 150 c m

Thickness of basin floor = 15 c m

The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6-45.

6.11 INCLINED DROPS AND CHUTES

6.11. 1 General

The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s and applications of d r o p s and chutes have been

mentioned in Chapter 2 and Section 6.9 of t h i s chapter. T h e r e i s no b a s i c
difference between an inclined d r o p and a chute. Small inclined d r o p s and chutes
 a r e usually rectangular in c r o s s section, but trapezoidal sections a r e also
occasionally used where the whole length of the structure happens to be located in
a cutting. The energy dissipation in inclined drops and chutes i s usually effected
by the creation of a hydraulic jump a t the toe of the structure, supplemented by
friction blocks and other energy dissipating devices. Inclined drops a r e often
designed to function a s flume measuring devices, notably the Indian Standing Wave
Flume.

F o r the design of an inclined drop to be effective i t m u s t be based on the

design discharge, depth a t the inlet, shape, slope, roughness and length of the
channel (or chute o r flume). The slope of the channel section i s usually steep so
the control section of the flow will be a t the inlet. The next, but most important,
step in designing inclined falls (and chutes) i s to compute the water surface profile
f r o m the inlet to the bottom of the structure and to design the energy dissipation
system.

A number of standard designs of such structures have been developed and

examples described in this Section include the Standing Wave Flume F a l l , the
Flume Type F a l l (both from India), the Rectangular Inclined Drop ( U . S. A. ), and
the Rubble Cascade Inclined Drop (India).

6.11.2 Standing Wave Flume F a l l (India)-1/

General

The standing wave flume fall described herein was developed a t the
Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, India, based on the r e s u l t s of
experiments which had started a s long ago a s 1.926. L a t e r , the design of the
s t r u c t u r e was standardized by the Indian Standards Institution.

The structure i s used when an appreciable fall of water level i s n e c e s s a r y

due to the surrounding topography (i.e. relatively steep slopes). It dissipates
energy efficiently and i t can be designed to m e a s u r e the flow of water passing
through i t over a range from a few l i t r e s per second up to several hundred cubic
m e t r e s per second. Because of the inherent f r e e flow conditions the m e a s u r e -

L' Based on Indian Standard IS: 6062 - 1971

 ment of flow r e q u i r e s only one gauge observation on the upstream side, (whereas
venturi flumes require two). Another advantage i s that i t demonstrates
favourable modularity relationships even with the deposition of sediment on the
upstream side.

The design c r i t e r i a in respect of flow conditions in this type of fall

a r e confined to steady flows in open channels dependent only on the upstream head
and without consideration of submerged flows beyond modular limits.

In selecting the site for this flume particular attention should be paid
to the following points:

- straight channel long enough to accommodate the structure

- reasonably symmetrical and regular velocity distribution

- avoidance of super critical flow immediately upstream

- r i s e in upstream water levels due to the measuring structure

- absence of conditions downstream which may affect flow conditions

in the controlling section ( e . g. submergence by backwater effect
originated downstream f r o m a check, o r silting).

6.11.2.2 Structural characteristics

The standing wave flume fall consists of an approach channel, a flow

measuring device and a downstream channel.
. .
The flow in the approach channel should be f r e e f r o m disturbance and
i t s velocity should be distributed a s much a s possible over the cross-sectional
a r e a , (which can be verified by measurements).

The measuring structure consists of an approach transition, a throat

with o r without a hump, an exit transition, a baffle and a platform (between the
glacis and cistern) and for better dissipation of energy and exit i t may have either
parallel sides o r expanding sides ( s e e Figure 6-46). The entire measuring
structure should be rigid and watertight, for at l e a s t a length given by L(str), a s
shown in Figure 6-46. The structure should be s e t a t a right angle to the general
direction of flow.

The channel downstream of the measuring structure, i.e. of the con-

FIGURE 6-46. - Details of a Standing Wave Flume Fall.
 trolling section, i s usually of no importance a s r e g a r d s accuracy of m e a s u r e m e n t
provided that the fall h a s been s o designed that i t cannot become submerged when
i t i s operating. The effect of a r i s e in the water l e v e l on the downstream side due
t o the possibility of silting would not normally be m a t e r i a l , in so f a r a s rating i s
concerned.

6. 1 1 . 2 . 3 Measurement of head

The water level u p s t r e a m of the fall may be m e a s u r e d by any suitable

type of gauge installed in a stilling well.

The stilling well should be located s o a s to m e a s u r e the water level

u p s t r e a m of the sill, where t h e r e i s no curvature of flow. This could be ensured
1
by locating the stilling well intake pipe a t a distance of 4 H u p s t r e a m of the
(ma4
bell-mouth entrance where HI i s the maximum value of u p s t r e a m head over
(ma4
the sill c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach. The stilling well should normally
be vertical and have a minimum m a r g i n of a t l e a s t 15 c m over the maximum water
level estimated t o be recorded in the well. The well dimensions should be l a r g e
enough ( s a y 60 c m x 90 cm) to p e r m i t the bottom of the well to be cleaned. The
diameter of the intake should generally be 10 cm.

Z e r o setting

Means f o r checking the z e r o setting of the head measuring device

should be provided, and should consist of a pointer with its point s e t exactly level
with the s i l l of the standing wave flume and be fixed p e r p a n e n t l y in the approach
channel, o r alternatively in the stilling o r gauge well. The z e r o setting should be
periodically checked.

Head l o s s

The total head l o s s i s composed of l o s s e s in :

- approach transition

- exit transition

- friction in the s t r u c t u r e

- hydraulic jump.

The l o s s e s in the approach and exit transitions depend on the degree

 and gradualness of the fluming. They a r e e x p r e s s e d a s a fraction C of the
difference in velocity head of flow in the channel and the standing wave flume fall.
Accepted values a r e :

- 0.15 C f o r an approach t,ransition of cylinder quadrant type, and

- 0.3 C f o r an exit transition with a splay of 1 in 10, and

- 0.2 C f o r a hyperbolic type.

L o s s due to friction i s usually s m a l l , and may be of the o r d e r of 0.015

t o 0 . 0 3 m depending upon the s i z e and the c r i t i c a l velocity.

L o s s due to hydraulic jump, h i s given by :

(1,)j

where = depth of flow before jump, and

H(j)

H(j)2 = depth of flow a f t e r jump.

The e n t i r e m e a s u r i n g s t r u c t u r e m u s t be finished with smooth (neat

cement finish) and t r u e s u r f a c e s . The intersection of the u p s t r e a m curve and the
hump a s well a s the downstream slope m u s t f o r m two p a r a l l e l straight l i n e s a t a
right angle t o the direction of flow.

6. 11.2.4 Design procedure and formulae

Approach transition
The r a d i u s of the side walls of the bell-mouth entrance should be

rn, where H' i s the u p s t r e a m head above the sill level of the throat
( 4
c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach. But when H' i s l e s s than 0. 3 m , the

r a d i u s may be Z H ' f r o m the throat. The curvature should continue until i t

(crt)
subtends an angle of 60°, f r o m where i t should be continued tangentially to m e e t
the side of the u p s t r e a m channel. F o r s m a l l e r head l o s s e s the r a d i u s of

c u r v a t u r e should b e i n c r e a s e d t o 4 . 5 H' m. This curvature should continue

(4
0
until it subtends a n angle of 37 30' beyond which the wall should be continued
straight to meet the sides of the approach channel. The bed convergence should
begin on the same c r o s s section a s the side convergence. The radius o f ,
curvature of the hump in the bed should be :

where R(hv) = the radius of curvature of the hump,

length between the junction of the side wall with the bed
L(app) =
of the upstream channel and upstream end of the throat
m e a s u r e d along the axis, and

H(hu) = height of hump above upstream bed of the channel.

Throat
The sides of the throat should be vertical and their length should be
1

'. ~{crt)'
where H
(4i s the upstream head above the sill level of the throat
corrected for the velocity of approach. The width of the throat may be calculated
f r o m the following formula :

where Q . = discharge, m3/s

g = acceleration due to gravity

= coefficient for friction having the following values:
9f) <

= 0.97 for Q from 0.05 to 0.30 m 3 / s ,

= 0.98 for Q f r o m 0.31 to 1.50 m 3 I s ,
'

= width of throat,
B(t) 2
v 1

It should be noted however that too much constriction causes too much
head l o s s . Therefore the throat width should not be l e s s than 1 . 5 ~ ; ~
and
~ ~ )
1/
fluming4should normally be restricted to 50 to 60%.

-11 ( Fluming = width of controlling section

. 100 )
bed width of upstream channel
 Hump

The stage discharge relation of a canal i s given b y :

Q = cly;

where Q = discharge,
C1 = coefficient,

y1 = depth of water in the channel, and

x = an index varying f r o m 1 . 5 to 2.0 a s given in

Table 6- 10.

TABLE 6-10

Values of x

Shape of channel Value of x

1. Rectangular 1.5
2. Trapezoidal variable and i n c r e a s e s
with the flatness of the
side slope
3 . Unlined canals with design
side slopes 0.5 to 1 1 . 6 to 1.7
4. Lined canals with side
slopes 0 . 5 to 1

As compared to equation (4), in the case of a broad weir, Q i s

proportional to HI 5. As the exponent of y
i s g r e a t e r than the exponent of H I ,
1
t h e r e will be draw-down a t low supply levels and ponding n e a r full supply levels,
provided the sill of the throat i s at the same level a s the channel bed. This can
be avoided by providing a hump in the throat. The height of the hump, H(hu),
required to give proportionality, that i s , the r a t e of change i n y equal to the r a t e
1
of change in H
(4a t a particular discharge, i s given by :
1 2
FIGURE 6-47. - Height of hump required to give
proportionality for variation in diecharge.
where,
H = depth upstream over the sill of the throat, and
(4
m = any particular fraction of discharge.

The height of hump required to give proportionality for a small

variation in discharge will thus vary according to the magnitude of the discharge.
Figure 6.47 gives the height of hump required for various values of m and x.

Where channels run with fluctuating discharge, proportionality i s not

obtainable for the whole range; i t i s then desirable to design the hump for
minimum e r r o r over the range of discharges chosen. This i s called the bulk
proportionality and in this case the height of hump, H(hu), required i s given by the
equation ':

Figure 6-48 gives the height of hump required to attain optimum

proportionality.

In the c a s e of canals which run either full o r closed, a standing wave

flume fall which gives proportionality a t a full supply discharge i s desirable. In
the case of channels in which the discharge v a r i e s considerably, optimum

~ r o ~ o r t i o n a l i ti y
s preferable.

Glacis

The glacis slope should be 2 : 1 and connected with the throat by a

curve of radius equal to 2 ~ ; tangential
~ ~ ~to the
) ~glacis and sill of the flume.
The downstream edge of the glacis should also be connected with a baffle platform
by a .curve of radius equal to HI ( s e e Figure 6-46), tangential to the glacis
(4
and the baffle platform. The axial length of the glacis, including the curved
portion, should be equal to :
0.1 Y l
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
X
VALUES OF X IN 0 C1 yl

FIGURE 6 - 4 8 . - Height of hump to attain bulk

proportionality.
 = the difference in levels of the c r e s t and baffle platform.
where H(c-bpt)

Baffle platform
The baffle platform should be fixed a t such a level that a standing wave
will form a t the toe of the glacis. If the platform i s too high then hurdling will
occur. On the other hand, i f the platform i s too lo.w, surging will take place. In
the case of a fall with parallel sides, the level of the baffle platform may be
estimated by the following procedure.

The depth of water, above the baffle platform in a parallel sided

yj ,
fall i s f i r s t calculated from the following equation:

where
= the supercritical flow depth at the toe of the glacis
H(j)l
immediately upstream of the jump,
= the discharge per unit width,

Cf = the coefficient of friction.

A level of the baffle platform i s assumed which will give y and

3
H Substituting the value of H in equation (8),
(c-bpt). (c-bpt) H(j)i i s
calculated. This in turn gives a value of y from equation (7). If the assumed
3
value does not tally with the one worked out a s above, m o r e t r i a l s a r e needed.
The level of the baffle platform i s then obtained by deducting y from the down-
3
s t r e a m water level.

In the case of a fall with expanding sides, the fall in water level,
A Z(exp), m u s t f i r s t be converted into A Z(par)' which i s the fall in water level
with parallel sides, by using the following equation:
where
(FR) = the flurning ratio : ( s e e Figure 6-46),
B1

y3 i s then estimated by t r i a l and e r r o r a s indicated above. With known A Z

(~ x P ) '
a Z(par), and y 3' the value of y which i s the depth of water above the baffle
4'
platform in the c a s e of a fall with expanding sides may be worked out by using the
equation:

To ensure that the standing wave will f o r m at the toe of the glacis, a
baffle should be provided a t the end of the baffle platform. The height of the
baffle, H(baf), i s given by :

where

Hc = the critical depth of flow above the sill of the flume a t the
controlling section,

that i s

The distance of the baffle f r o m the toe of the glacis should be equal to
If the baffle be fixed n e a r to the toe of the glacis then water would
5 ' 25 H(baf)'
hurdle over the baffle a t supercritical velocity without forming a p r i m a r y o r
secondary wave and the energy would not be dissipated efficiently. The upstream
face of the baffle should be curved with a radius equal to, and ending at, two-
thirds of the H(baf). (Figure 6-50)

Expansion
The sides downstream of the baffle platform should expand hyper-
bolically to ensure uniform distribution of the flow downstream. The hyperbola
equation i s :
where
B = width a t any distance y f r o m beginning of expansion
(Y) of the hyperbola,

Y = distance f r o m beginning of .expansion of hyperbola,

B(t) = width of throat,

B2 = bed width of downstream channel, and

= length of c i s t e r n ( s e e below).

Cistern
The depth of the c i s t e r n a t i t s sides below the downstream water level
should be 1 . 4 y2, and in the middle 1.75 y where y i s the depth of water in
2' 2
the channel downstream. The bed of the c i s t e r n a t the s i d e s should not be higher
than the bed of the channel downstream.

*
The recommended lengths of c i s t e r n for different soils follow the
following r u l e s :

in shingle bed,
y2
in good earth, 7.5 y
2
in coherent sand,
yz

The longitudinal profile of the c i s t e r n should be horizontal.

Deflectors
At the downstream end of the c i s t e r n deflectors of the following
dimensions should be constructed to ensure the formation of a positive bed
roller :
1
The height of each deflector should be equal to 12 of"the depth of water in

mid s t r e a m .

The gap between deflectors, X = H

(def) (def)
The length of each deflector, L = 4H
(Clef) (def)

The width of each deflector, B(def) = H(def)

F o r details see F i g u r e 6:49.

 SECTION L~(d,f)

HEIGHT: DEPTH OF WATER IN MID-CISTERN

LENGTH L(d.f)=4 H(d*f)

BRl3QU-l B[.,O
OAP BETWEEN BLOCKS X

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO ROWS :X ( d . ~ DEFLECTORS

FIGURE 6-49. - Details of deflectors.

6.11.2.5 Modular limit

F o r satisfactory functioning of the standing wave flume fall the ratio

of the depth upstream over the sill of the throat td the depth downstream over the
sill of the throat should not be l e s s than 0 . 5 .

6.11.2. 6 Maintenance

Adequate maintenance of %hemeasuring structure and the approach

channel i s important to ensure continual accurate measurements. The approach
channel, the gauge well and the connection to it must be kept clean and free from
sediment, and c a r e must be taken during the cleaning process to avoid damage to
the structure.

Design example

A standing wave flume fall should be designed to satisfy the following

conditions :
Lonqitudinol section
STANDING WAVE FLUME - FALL
 - bulk proportionality between full supply d i s c h a r g e (FSD) and
1 FSD, and
3
- hyperbolic expansion in the c i s t e r n .

Data given

Bed width of canal ( B and B2) -

Side slope of canal -
Bed slope of canal -
Manning IN' ( m e t r i c ) f o r canal --
F u l l supply depth in canal ( y l and y 2 ) =
F u l l supply discharge -
F a l l in water level = fall in bed level
-
= H(dr)
Bed level of canal on the u p s t r e a m
side -

On the b a s i s of the data given and the procedure s e t forth in 6.1 1. 2 . 4

the design i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 6-50.

1/
6.11. 3 F l u m e Type F a l l (CDO-, Punjab, India)

6.11.3. 1 General

The flume type fall described h e r e i n i s widely used in Punjab,

Pakistan, and in Punjab, Haryana and other s t a t e s in India. It i s a m e t e r fall,
which i s simple and robust in construction and can con+eniently be built by local
labour in b r i c k m a s o n r y .

Up to 1 . 0 m e t r e drop, a glacis i s used on the downstream side and if

the d r o p exceeds 1 . 0 m e t r e , the c r e s t ends in a d r o p wall. The s t r u c t u r e i s
often combined with a bridge, an intake of a third-degree canal o r both.

6. 11.3.2 S t r u c t u r a l design

F i g u r e 6-51 i s a sketch of a flume type fall with a d r o p of up to

0.90 m.

" Central Design Office.

F.S.L.

Depth of floor below downstream bed = 7.5 cm

FIGURE 6-51. - Sketch of a flume type fall with a drop

of up to 0 . 9 0 m.
 U p s t r e a m approaches
1.5
The r a d i u s of the u p s t r e a m side wall i s equal to 3.62 H and i t
(crt) '
0
s t a r t s f r o m the c r e s t side, the curve subtending an angle of 60 and continues

tangentially to 0.60 m beyond the s u r f a c e width on e i t h e r side (B1 + yl) . The

channel discharge m u s t be l e s s than 2.8 m 3 1 s .

The horizontal length of the side curve, a s well a s the bed curve,
1.5
joining the c r e s t with the u p s t r e a m bed = = 3.74 H
L ( a ~ ~ ) (crt) '

L~
app
+ H~
(b- C )
The r a d i u s of the bed c u r v e - R. . -

Length of Throat

The length of the throat,

L(t) = H(crt)

Glacis

A 0. 60 m ( 2 ft) curve joins the c r e s t with the downstream glacis.

The glacis should have a slope of 2 . 5 to 1 for f a l l s l e s s than 90 c m ( 3 ft).

Cistern
The length of the c i s t e r n should be y2 + H(
dr)
The c i s t e r n floor should be 7 . 5 c m below the downstream designed bed
l e v e l of the channel for f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 ft) and 30 c m (1 ft) f o r f a l l s above
1 m (3. 28 ft).

Downstream expansion

L(ex~)
= 3 r- BZ - B(t) o r length f r o m the downstream

edge of the c r e s t to the end of the c i s t e r n , whichever i s g r e a t e r . In the c a s e of

f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 f t ) , the expansion should be in a curve with a r a d i u s of
expansion.

In the c a s e of f a l l s above one m e t r e (3.28 ft), the downstream expansion

will simply be diverged.
 U p s t r e a m protection
The u p s t r e a m end of the curved floor i n the approach should r e s t on a
m a s o n r y d r o p wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to 0.33 y subject to a
1
minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall o v e r 15 c m thick concrete. No o t h e r
protection either i n the bed o r sides i s required.

P r o t e c t i o n downstream
The side protection below the downstream expansion should be equal to

L(bas) and should consist of dry b r i c k pitching 20 c m thick supported on a toe

wall of depth equal to 0. 5 y Z subject to a minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall
o v e r 15 c m thick concrete. It i s p r e f e r a b l e to lay roughened pitching. The bed
protection should consist of b r i c k - b a t s of thickness depending on discharge a s
given below :
Up to 700 l / s 15 c m
700 1/ s to 1,400 l / s 23 c m

This bed protection m u s t be laid horizontal (without d e p r e s s i o n s ) a t

bed level, and b e hand packed, and should extend up to a length equal to y
2
+ H
(dr)
beyond the downstream end of the side expansion.

Section of walls
Standard sections of wing walls and abutments a r e given in Chapter 3 .
The f r e e board on the walls u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t , without bridges, should be
15 cm, and with b r i d g e s they should be r a i s e d to the p a r a p e t level of the bridge.
The f r e e board on the downstream walls should be 30 % m approximately, the exact
dimensions depending on the b r i c k c o u r s e s .

Gauges
Where t h e r e a r e no b r i d g e s , the bottom of the concrete coping on the
wall u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t should be accurately fixed a t designed full supply level.
1
With b r i d g e s the full supply level should be shown in the side wall by a 8 inch
s t r i p of s t e e l embedded horizontally in the m a s o n r y joint for a distance of 60 cm,
s t a r t i n g f r o m the water s u r f a c e edge, ( a s i t would ultimately be with a 0.5 to 1
slope). NO gauge walls should be provided in addition.

B r i d g e s combined with falls

When a bridge i s required, the p a r a l l e l s i d e s of the flumes should be
 m a d e longer to s e r v e a s abutments. The bed of the channel up to the u p s t r e a m
end of the abutments should be i n m a s o n r y .

6. 11.3. 3 Design formula

Fluming r a t i o , (FR) -- = 0.60

B1

Depth of w a t e r over c r e s t
This i s worked out f r o m the formula

1.5
Q .= B(t) H(crt)

where Q = d i s c h a r g e in m 3I s ,
= width of t h r o a t in m ,
B(t)

qcrt)= height of u p s t r e a m full supply level over c r e s t in m .

F o r d i s c h a r g e s of 0.014 m 3/ s to 0.56 m 3/ s C = 1.66

F o r dischar;es of 0.57 m 3/ s to 1 . 4 m 3 / s C = 1.68.

Numerical examples

Example 1
Design a CDO type fall with the following d a t a :

= B2 = 2.25 m
B1
- = 0.56 m
1 - Yz

Fluming ratio, (FR) = 60 p e r cent

.. B(t) = 2.25 . -
60
100
= l.35m

With Q = B(t) H ( c r t )

Length of c r e s t = 2H = 0.8 m
(4
Slope of g l a c i s = 2.5:l
1.5
L
(~ P P )
= 3.74H
(crt)
= 3. 74 . 0.401.5 = 0.92 m

R a d i u s of u p s t r e a m side = 3. 62 H ~ . ~= 3. 62 . 0. 4 0 1 a 5
= 0.90 m

Depth of c i s t e r n below bed l e v e l = 7.5cm

Depth of c i s t e r n below c r e s t = 0.84m
Length of g l a c i s = 0.84 . 2.5 = 2.10 m
Length of c i s t e r n - Y 2 + H = 0.56 + 0. 60
(dr)
= 1.16 m
Length of expansion

R a d i u s of expansion

The design i s a s shown in F i g u r e 6-52.

Example 2

Design a CDO type f a l l with the following d a t a :

Fluming ratio = 60 p e r c e n t
 Hydraulic drop--------0 6 0 m
Plon
Discharge- ----- ----0-56 m3/s
/A// dimensions ore in metres /
Bank
Bank

m
Sections
No.3 No. 2 No. I

-
FAO- ICID

Longitudinal sect ion

I C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( PUNJAB) I
H Y D R A U L I C D R O P U P T O 1.00 m

Country , Region, Project

5m hand pocked lndio ond Pokiston

C Floor 0.12rn
Concrete 0.15 rn F i g u r e No. 6-52 I
 Hydrodic drop -------- 1.20 m
Plon Discharge------------.
0 5 6 n?/r

Section No. 4

Sect~onNos l ond 2

Lonqitudinol Section
.. - .-

F A 0 - ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m

Country, Region, Project

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres l lndio ond Pokiston

Figure No. 6-53

 Hydrodic drop -------- 1.20 m
Plon Discharge------------.
0 5 6 n?/r

Section No. 4

Sect~onNos l ond 2

Lonqitudinol Section
.. - .-

F A 0 - ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m

Country, Region, Project

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres l lndio ond Pokiston

Figure No. 6-53

 TABLE 6-10

Single L a y e r Reinforcement in P o o l F l o o r f o r USBR Inclined D r o p

2/
P o o l Reinf. - Quantities
Ybas
H(dr) Q T. T. U U + N0.0f
Max Max
Lcrt -(t-chb) -bas basw *hw
hVbas
h t t' weep
Transv
bars in
Longit. Reinf . Conc. Reinf. Misc.
walls & steel Metal
floors Floors Walls (CU. yd) 31 (lb) (lb)

4 @ 12" 4 @ 72" 4 @ 10"

4@12" 4@7+" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4 @ 7 9 4@10W
4 @ 12" 4 @ 74" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7+" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7i" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4@7f" 4@10M
4@1zV 4@7+11 4@10gt
4 @ 12" 4 @ 76" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4@7f" 4@10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7+" 4 @ 10"
4@12" 4@7f" 4@1O1I
4@12" 4@7 " 4@1Ot1
4 @ 12'' 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 1 ~4 @~7 Q~" 4@10t1
4@12t1 4@7$ 4 @ 1 0 ~ ~
4@12" 4@7+" 4@10"
4@12" 4@7Zf' 4@10"
4@111' 4 @ 7 " 4@101'
4 @ 11" 4@7 " 4 @ 10"
4@101' 4 @ 7 " 4@10"
4 @ 1.2" 4 @ 76" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7 9 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 79' 4 @ 10"
4@10t' 4 @ 7 " 4@10t'
4 @ 9" 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4@10f1
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 12" 4@7+" 4@10M
4 @ 11" 4 @ 7i" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 9" 4 @ 7%" 4 @ 10"
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4@101'
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4@101'
4@10t' 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 8"
4 @ 9" 4 @ 6f" 4 @ 8"
4 @ 12" 4 @ 7f" 4 @ 10"
4 @ lof1 4 @ 7ftf 4 @ lost
4 @ 9" 4.@ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4 @ 8" 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 10"
4@1Ott 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 8"
4 @ 9" 4 8 7 " 4 @ 8"
4 @ 8" 4@6+" 4 @ 8"

i f s t r u c t u r e No. 5 - 3 i n d i c a t e s Q = 5 f 3 / s . Hdr = 3 ft.

2'4 @ 7; i n d i c a t e s 0 . 4 i n . d i a m e t e r b a r s on 7f in spacing.

-3/1 cubic yard = 27 cubic f e e t

 = 2.25 .-
60
100
= 1.35 m

H(crt) a s in example 1 = 0.40m

Length of c r e s t = 2H(crt) = 0.80m

= 0.95 m ( a s in example 1)
L ( a ~ ~ )
= 2 - 9 0 rn ( a s in example 1)
R(b- c )
Radius of upstream side = 0.92 m ( a s in example 1)
Depth of cistern = 0.30m
Length of cistern = y2 + (Hdr) = 0.56 + 1.20

= 1.76 m .
The design i s shown in Figure 6-53.

1/
6.11.4 USBR Rectangular Inclined Drop-

6.11.4.1 General

The USBR h a s used standardized drop s t r u c t u r e s f o i many decades.

Figure 6-54 shows the m o s t recently published design, which was revised in 1970.
The structure i s built entirely in reinforced concrete. Capacities, dimensions
and material requirements a r e shown in Tables 6- 10 and 6- 11.

TABLE 6-11

USBR Rectangular Inclined Drop - Dimensions

I' Based bn USBR Standards (107)

 The rectangular inclined drop (Figure 6-54) coneists of: an upstream
10 ft e a r t h transition converting gradually the normal side slope of the channel to
1 . 5 : 1 a t the upstream end of the structure; an inlet; upstream headwalls;
control section; glacis and pool with chute blocks; expansion; downstream head-
walls; and an e a r t h o r concrete lined transition on the downstream side. The
inlet provides a plank walk-way to operate the gate. Overflow i s provided for by
overflow walls, 'or weirs, built into the sides of the inlet.

The design of the reinforcement steel i s based on working s t r e s s e s of

24.000 pounds per square inch (psi). Monolithic concrete design i s based on a
compressive strength of 3,750 psi a t 28 days.

The standard drop structure i s easily designed, built and operated.

There a r e normally no erosion problems downstream i f the stilling pool i s
properly set with regard to the downstream canal water surface. Rocks should
not be allowed to remain in the stilling pool for long periods because of their
rolling, erosive affect on the concrete floor.

6.11.4.2 Numerical example

Refer to Figures 6-54 and 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and 6-11; the
calculations apply to a 20-11 model structure.

FIGURE 6-55. - Design of USBR inclined drop.

 Top of s t r u c t u r e = El B + H = 1022.00 + 3.33
(F 1
= 1025.33ft
(The value of H i s taken f r o m Table 6-1 1 . )
(F)

Lower E l B by 0.20 ft. ( T h i s will reduce the amount the s t r u c t u r e

extends above the canal bank f r o m 0 . 4 3 ft to 0 . 2 3 f t . )

Refer to Table 6- 10

With H(dr) = 10 ft, s e l e c t S t r u c t u r e No. 20-11

El C = downstream energy level =

( Y(bas) + hv ( b a s ) )
= 1013.57 - 2.83 = 1010.74 ft

A s a factor of safety against the possibility of unreliable downstream

canal water depths, lower E l C another 0. 10 ft.

Standard dimensions, except for L and L(gla), which a r e

(str)
dependent on elevations B and C , a r e given on F i g u r e 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and
6-11 for d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 5 to 40 ft 3 / s .

To i l l u s t r a t e how to s e t elevations B and C , a s s u m e the

following :

v = 2. 1 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity)
1
 H = 2 . 9 ft (height of canal bank)
(b- Cbk)

= 1.50 ft
Y2
= 2. 1 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

Refer t o F i g u r e 6-55.

The fall, H(dr) i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and

downstream energy l e v e l s .

L
where g = acceleration due to gravity in f t / s

U p s t r e a m energy level = 1022.00 + 1.50 + 0.07

= 1023.57 ft
Downstream energy level = 1012.00 + 1.50 + 0.07

(Unless the u p s t r e a m canal water depth and velocity a r e different

f r o m downstream conditions, H can simply be solved by subtracting El D

(dr)
f r o m E l A. )

E l B can be s e t a s high a s E l A provided that the velocity through the

inlet does not exceed 3 f t / s , and provided f u r t h e r that the top of the s t r u c t u r e
walls do not extend objectionably above the top of the canal bank.

T r y a setting of E l B = El A = 1022.00 f t
 Q Q 20
Check v = - -- - - = 2.96 f t / s
4.5 (1.5)
A(x) by 1

and being l e s s than 3 f t / s i s satisfactory.

Check top of bank and top of s t r u c t u r e

Top of bank = E l A t H
(b- Cbk)
Top o f check s t r u c t u r e = El A + HF
On the other hand the length o f the s t r u c t u r e i s :
L
(str) = 2 (El B - E l C)

u s e 22 ft 4 in

See Table on F i g u r e 6-54 for completed example.

6.11.5 Rubble Cascade Inclined D r o p

6.11.5.1 General

The rubble c a s c a d e type fall i s cheap and can be constructed where

stone i s easily available. It i s u s e d for s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s up t o 560 l / s (20 ft3/ s )
o r s o and f o r f a l l s up to 1. 5 m (5 ft). It h a s been installed a t a number of places
in India. +

6. 11.5. 2 S t r u c t u r a l design

The fall c o n s i s t s of stone pitching u p s t r e a m , c r e s t , downstream

glacis, c i s t e r n , curtain wall, and downstream bed and side pitching.

The length of the u p s t r e a m glacis i s limited to 5.0 ft. The length of

2H
the c r e s t i s - The downstream glacis h a s a slope of 1 : 8. The
3 (crt)'

c i s t e r n i s 10.0 ft long and h a s i t s floor level 1 . 0 ft below the downstream bed

level.

The details a r e shown in F i g u r e 6-56.

 I
Spoil bank I
. . ,-a.r

L 7
fss/ = I.5 : I
Berm a t N. S. L. 5 4 5 . 7 0
I
8.0' .
I Y

_519~61_J I
:hing ! 1.0 thick downst

Long~tudinol section

F.S.O.
F S.L,
8 . 6 6 f?/s
542.62
8.66 ft3/s
543.1;
scale 5 2;5 O 5
10 feet

F. S. D. 1.5' 1.5
B.L. 545.12 541.65

Upstreom sectlon
Bed width
Free Boord
Bank width
Bonk level
4.5;
1.5
3'1 3'
548.12
4.5,
1.5
3'1 3'
5 44.62
I F A O - I C I D

N. S.L. 545-70

Spoil bonk . Spoil bonk Flume bed wdth to 3 5 '

Downstream sectton A - B
I Figure No. 6-56
o = 3.09 x L r N"' where o= 8.66 t t f r ~ = 3 - i
H : (B.66)'" :0.86
RUBBLE CASCADE TYPE FALL
3-09x 3.5
Length af crest 2/3H: 2/3 x 0.86'0.57 keep, j
Crest level :546.62- 0 86 :545.76
Cistern to be 1.0' below downstreom bed level
Cistern level ;540.62 , Project. Region, Country
Length of cistern = I 0 0
Upstream gloc!s 1 . 5 ond limited to 9.0 length India'
Downsheom glocis I - 8
Cistern to lift r o l l = 1: 3
 The fall i s flurned 75 to 80% of the u p s t r e a m bed width.

6. 1 1 . 5 . 3 Design formula
-3
Q = 3.09 33 H'
(t) ( 4

where Q = discharge in f t / s

= width of throat i n ft
B(t)

H = height over c r e s t
( crt)

Numerical example

Design a rubble cascade type fall f r o m the following d a t a :

3
Q " = 8.66ft/s

Bed width = 4 . 5 ft

Throat width to be 3 . 5 ft.

Then Q = 3.09 B H2
(t)

2 2
Length of c r e s t , L -- -H -- - 0.86
(4 3 (crt) 3 -

Adopt 1. 50 ft.

The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6- 56.

6.12 P I P E D DROPS

6. 12.1 General

A piped d r o p is usually the m o s t economical and p r a c t i c a l choice when a

necessity for a d r o p in the canal water level happens to coincide with a road o r
FIGURE 6-57. - Pipe end structures: (a) triangular type;
(b) extension wall; ( c ) p r e - c a s t type; (d) impact dissipator
(baffled outlet); ( e ) broken back; ( f ) subway; (g) diffuser., (52)
 similar crossing of the canal. A piped drop may also be the most suitable and
economical (even without such crossings) compared to an inclined drop for small
canals (i. e. for small discharges). A piped drop i s usually equipped with a check
gate at i t s upstream end. Sometimes a grid i s installed to prevent the choking of
the pipe by debris. There a r e two main types of these drops - the well drop and
the inclined pipe drop. The application of these i s governed by topography and
soil and, in the ultimate analysis, by cost. In the well drop most of the energy
i s dissipated in the bottom p a r t of the well, while in the inclined pipe the energy
dissipation takks place by the formation of the hydraulic jump, which f o r m s either
in the pipe itself o r downstream of the outlet, depending on the outlet design, the
velocity of the water and the relationship between discharge and the pipe
characteristics.

Piped drops require an outlet which i s designed to dissipate the remaining

surplus energy and to adjust the outflow to normal channel flow conditions. A few
*
designs a r e shown schematically in Figure 6-57. It should be noted that these
designs have been developed primarily for capacities between 1 and 10 m 3 1s.
Yet some of them ( a s , for example, the baffled pipe outlet in Figure 6-57 (d) )
have also been standardized for smaller discharges, down to 200 11s. In the
following paragraphs three designs of well drops and two designs of inclined drops
a r e described.

1/
6.12.2 Well Drop Regulator (U. S. S. R. ) -

6.12.2.1 General

The early U. S. S. R. well drop regulators were constructed of r e -

inforced concrete pipes, one m e t r e long, with smooth ends.

The well was built of concrete cast in sit.u. The pipes had metal
covers a t the joints. Shortcomings of these early structures were the numerous
pipe joints and the absence of an a i r discharge pipe. The l a t t e r resulted in a i r
getting into the downstream flow, which gave r i s e to turbulence that damaged the
slopes and pipe joints. The structures also tended to choke with debris.

L / ~ a s e don information supplied by A. T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova,

D. D. Aliev and B.V. Kazarinov (U. S. S. R. ).
 Longitudinal section
Grovel bed 10 crn Profile of the structure

(All dimensions are in cm) Country, Region, Project

USSR

I I Figure No. 6-58

 Carrying copocity

Section 1 - 1 Type of structure 85 90 95 I00

SHPR P R - 6 0 -250 250 1.12 1.20 1.32 1.43

Additional concreting Detoils P- 120 x 180
L i s t o f detoils
?

Type of detoil TR-60 TR-60 TP-80 SHVOO P- P- P- SH-

0 0-480 120x186 180-3001 80 I20
10
Details SH-120 (U

I volume , m3 0.54 027 1-03 1.05 0.13 0.30 0.371 0.04 0955
s
Weight, kg 1.350 675 2.575 2.630 325 750 928 100 138
a
I:
V) *:
Number 2 . 1 1 2 6 1 2 1 6

toil TR-80
Detoils P-120x 18
Volume of moin works

Type of
Nome Material
.-
C
structure
SHPR-60-250
ravel layer 10 cm Reinforced concrete
detoils
Concrete
Reinforcement
-- m3
kg
6.55
608.40
Detoil SHVOO-0- 4 8 0 Cast-in-ploce concrete Concrete M-200 m 1.2

Gravel- fhling Grovel m3 9.6

Metal construction kg 167.7

Concrete bed 10 cm Cost-in-situ concrete

FA0 -ICID
Cross section 4 - 4

DETAILS OF
WELL DROP - REGULATOR,
AS SHOWN IN F I G U R E I

Grovel layer 10 cm Country, Region, Project

USSR
! All dimensions are in cm ) Figure NO.6-59
 The new design provides for damping of energy in the downstream end
a s well a s discharge of a i r trapped in the pipe, and protection against choking
f r o m debris.

6.12.2.2 Structural design

The well drop regulator ( F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59) consists of a

rectangular well, a pipeline and a downstream apron. In the upper p a r t of the
well t h e r e is an opening fitted with t r a s h b a r s and a metal gate. The well i s
formed by two welded lengths of channel c r o s s section. The joints between the
various p a r t s a r e cement grouted and hydraulically sealed. There i s a
horizontal pipe at the lower part of the well. ' This pipe i s connected with the well
by means of concrete cast in situ, and a m a s t i c packing to provide some mobility.
The diameter of this pipe s t a r t s a t 60 cm and then expands to 80 cm.

An asbestos cement vertical pipe i s fitted in the 80 c m diameter p a r t

to discharge a i r trapped in the main pipe. At the end of the pipe t h e r e i s a
damper of cylindrical f o r m with a diaphragm a t the end.

The protecting walls of the well and the downstream p a r t s of the

structure a r e fixed by means of triangular slabs and concrete cast in situ.
A trapezoidal downstream apron i s made up of and protected by ribbed reinforced
concrete slabs, placed on a packed gravel bed. All the pipe joints a r e of bell
and spigot type and the joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool impregnated
with bitumen and cement grouted. The height of the protecting s t r u c t u r e s above
the downstream and upstream water levels i s 40 cm.

6.12.2.3 Design formula

The hydraulic design of this structure has been a r r i v e d a t on the

b a s i s of the r e s u l t s of laboratory t e s t s on models. The design i s also based on
a hydraulic drop of 2.5 m e t r e s .

The discharge capacity of the drop, which v a r i e s f r o m 1. 10 to

3
1.40 m / s according to different values of H(crt)9 i s given in Figure 6- 59.

The length of the protected downstream apron i s defined by the

formula:
 where v = velocity a t the end p a r t of the pipeline, m / s
(PI,

= assumed scouring o r flushing velocity, 0.8 m / s

"(flu) (for medium loam)

D(p)2 = diameter of the end p a r t of the pipeline, m

2.4 = ' coefficient, determined f r o m laboratory t e s t results.

The length of the protected section of the apron obtained by the above
formula i s decreased by 20 to 30% due to the use of the pipe damper.

6. 12. 2.4 Numerical example

3
Assume a design discharge Q = 1.25 m / s , and a hydraulic drop,
H = 250 cm.
(dr)

It i s n e c e s s a r y to find the length of the protected section on the

downstream side.

The table of discharge capacity (Figure 6- 59) indicates that the

design discharge of the structure i s possible at a head, H(crt), of 92 cm.

The assumed .scouring velocity i s 0.8 m / s (for medium loam). The

length of the protected section i s defined by the formula.

v
"(P)
- 2.4 2 (P)2
L(prot) -
"(flu)
(PI, = 2.4 -
0.8
0:6
3
 The length of the protected section i s d e c r e a s e d by 2570 due to the u s e
of the pipe d a m p e r .

Adopted = 7.9-0.25. 7.9 = 5.9m

L(~rot)

F u l l details of the design with tables of discharge capacities a r e

given i n F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59.

6.12.3 Well Type D r o p (India)

6.12.3.1 General design f e a t u r e s

A cheap type of well d r o p consisting of two m a s o n r y wells connected

by -a rectangular b a r r e l o r an earthenware pipe h a s been evolved in India. The
d r o p ( F i g u r e 6- 60) c o n s i s t s of an u p s t r e a m bed and stone side protection, a d r o p
well with a single notch to p a s s the discharge, an earthenware pipe and down-
s t r e a m well, and bed and side protection of stone pitching.

F o r drops f r o m 4 to 6'ft the downstream well m a y be omitted.

Although this type of d r o p i s simple and cheap in construction i t i s

prone to choking by floating rubbish and r e q u i r e s r e g u l a r supervision and removal
of the rubbish without delay. It i s widely used in s m a l l channels in some p a r t s of
India.

6.12.3.2 Design formula

F o r d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 10 to 20 f t 3 / s (280 to 560 l / s ) , the d i a m e t e r of

the wells (both u p s t r e a m and downstream) i s 4 . 0 ft (1.20 m ) .

One notch i s provided for these s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s and the formula for

f r e e flow u s e d i s :

-3
Q = 3.645 y; (L(No) + 0.4 . C yl )

= 3
where Q discharge of the canal in f t / s
= full supply depth u p s t r e a m in ft
1

L = length of notch in f t
(NO)
 Plan

Detail of qote

Woter level

(All dimensions ore in cm unless otherwise specified)

1 r
Upstream water level Section A-A

FA0 - ICID
Earthen bund

PIPE DROP SPILLWAY

Clay rawer w concrete pipe length =3m : 4, = 30 cm

Project , Region , Country
India

Longitudinal section
Figure No. 6-60
 C = 2 tan cx where 6 i s the angle made by the sides of the
notch with the vertical.

In this equation there a r e two unknown parameters, L(NO) and C,

and i t can be solved i f values of Q, say, Q l and Q2 for any two values of y 1'
i. e. Y1. 1 and y 1.2 a r e known.

Substituting and solving for C

Q2
and L - - 0.4CYls2
(NO) - * -
3
2
3.745 y
1.2

The head required between two wells to pass the required discharge
may be calculated from the following formula :

Numerical example

-
Data

Q
Full supply level upstream
Full supply level downstream
Hydraulic drop
Full supply depth, upstream, y l

Full supply depth, downstream, y2

Bed width upstream, B1

Bed width downstream, B2

 F r e e Board, (FB) = 20ft
3
for Q = 10 ft / s , Y1. 1 ' = l.lft
Well diameter = 4 ft
U s e 2. 0 ft diameter pipe, length -
Area of pipe A, -
(P)

., Water level in the upstream well -

Sill of drop = 496.10 - 1.65 -

-

= 1. 65 ft; -
y1. 1 y2

• . 2tane = 0.93 or tan = 0.465, say'0.50

 say 2.00 ft

Top width of notch = L + ( 2 y tan& )

(NO)

Invert level of pipe = 482.45

Invert level of upstream well = 482.45 - 1.00

= 481.45

Invert level of downstream well = 485.95 f t

F o r other details see Figure 6-60.

6. 1 2 . 4 Pipe Drop (Indta)

6. 12.4.1 General design features

The pipe drop described herein, which i s provided with a check, i s

a very simple and economical structure to u s e when a small t e r t i a r y channel, a
field channel o r a field watercourse h a s to negotiate an embankment. The
structure (Figure 6-61) consists of a masonry o r concrete apron around the inlet
of the pipe to prevent seepage, a pipe gate f o r checking purposes, an earthen-
ware o r cement pipe, a stilling basin in concrete, o r brick o r stone masonry and
downstream side protection of the embankment in r i p rap, and bed protection of
the channel. The corner o r bend in the pipeline i s of l a r g e radius. The pipe
joints a r e made good with cement m o r t a r . The stilling basin i s 1.2 to 1.5 m
long.

Table 6-12 gives the diameter of concrete pipes for discharges for
different hydraulic drops, H(dr). F o r high hydraulic drops, the length of the
stilling basin m a y be 3 m and for small ones 1.2 to 1.5 m . Its depth should be
equal to (0.10 m + D
(P)
+ 0.10 to 0.15 ) m.
 8045
Cement concrete 1:s: I emnt conuete I:S:IQ
k e m e n t concrete ;in I: 3 :s
Longitudinal section

Half pkn ot top and half plan at bottom

Section of pipe Section through joint

WELL TYPE DROP

Elevation of notch Project, Region, Country

India
Detoil of notch

Figure No.6-61
 TABLE 6-12

Discharge Capacities of P i p e Drops

using Different S i z e t of Concrete P i p e s

Diameter of pipe, c e n t i m e t r e s
H
(dr)
cm 7.5'10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0
Discharge Q (11s)
30.0 5.6 10.7 17.5 26.0 36.4 48.5 62.4 78.0 '95.5 114.8

Numerical example

Design a pipe d r o p with the following data:

Q = 200 l / s
= 100cm
H(dr)
B1l B2 = 0.7m
= 0.5m
YIS Y2
(as) = 0.5:l

F r o m Table 6- 12, f o r Q = 200 l / s and H(dr) = 100 c m , the d i a m e t e r

of the c o n c r e t e pipe, i s o v e r 29 cm. Adopt D(p) = 30 cm.
D(~),

Make the stilling basin 3 m long, 65 c m deep and 0 . 7 m wide. Other

dimensions a r e a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 61.

6.12.5 . Inclined P i p e D r o p (U. S. A. 1-11

11 B a s e d on information supplied by G. N. Thorsky, (USBR. U. S. A. )

6. 12.5. 1 General design f e a t u r e s

The pipe drop described h e r e (made of reinforced concrete) i s used up

t o a maximum hydraulic d r o p of 4 . 5 m (15 ft) and i s of non-meter type. The inlet
of the s t r u c t u r e i s equipped with a check gate.

F r o m F i g u r e s 6-62 to 6-65 i t will be seen that the s t r u c t u r e consists

of a 10 ft ( 3 m ) transition f r o m the n o r m a l canal section at the u p s t r e a m end
gradually changing to 1. 5 : 1 a t the u p s t r e a m end of the inlet s t r u c t u r e . The inlet
s t r u c t u r e i s fitted with a gate and a plank walk. The p r e - c a s t concrete pipe f i r s t
inclines sharply downward, then only slightly and then slopes upwards. There i s
a concrete outlet transition and e a r t h transition (10 ft long) with side and bed
protection equal to 2 . 5 y 2 o r 5 feet ( 1 . 5 m ) minimum. In the absence of a
concrete outlet transition, each transition m u s t have c o a r s e ' g r a v e l protection on
both the bed and the sides a s shown in F i g u r e 6-63. The inlet and outlet can be
accommodated to either an e a r t h canal o r a lined canal.

Dimensions of standard designs of the inlet p a r t including the gate

s i z e s and pipe s i z e s a r e given in Table 6-13 and those of the outlet concrete
transition in Table 6-14.

Tables 6-15, 6-16, 6-17 and 6-18 show values of H2, H3, H4, L2,
3
L3, L4 for different hydraulic drops for 10 f t 3 / s , 17 ft / s , 25 f t 3 / s , and
34 f t 3 / s . Tables for other values of Q a r e apailable but a r e not included h e r e .
I

6. 12.5. 2 Design procedure

Tables 6-13 to 6-18 may be used for design purposes for discharges
up to 36 f t 3 / s f o r any given conditions. Pipe drops without a concrete outlet
transition a r e used for a maximum discharge of 22 f t 3 / s . F o r discharges
exceeding 22 ft3/ s , a concrete outlet transition i s required.

6.12.5. 3 Numerical example

Q = 10ft3/s
 Solve f o r H
( dr)

899.98
1.00
0.06
901.04 u p s t r e a m energy elevation
C

891.00
1.00
0.06
892.06 downstr earn energy elevation

901.04
892.06
8 . 9 8 feet =
H( d r )

Design check and pipe i n l e t and solve f o r elevations of pipe i n v e r t .

3
Refer to Table 6- 15 f o r Q = 10ft/s, H = 3. 25 ft,
(IN)
and d i a m e t e r of pipe = 24 inches.

Refer to Table 6- 13. T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q bf 10 f t 3/ s and

D(p) = 24 inches, s o s e l e c t the next highest, Q = 17 ft 3 I s , which i s S t r u c t u r e
NO. 24-1.

900.98 = n o r m a l water s u r f a c e
= control w,ater s u r f a c e
-3.25' =

897.73 = El D ( F i g u r e 6-63)

F o r the computed H of 8 . 9 8 ft, go the the next highest H(dr)

(dr)
of 9.00 f t (Table 6-15) and obtain H2, Hg, Hq, L 2 , Lg, L4.
 L o n q i t u d i n o l section
Original ground surface
Normal water surface
E E l e v a t i o n of energy r s t r u c t u r e length r Precast concrete pipe

Normal water surface

---

Check and pipe inlet

b i t e r e d pipe bendsJ

~ o t h s.
The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7° 3 6 precast
concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends.
The length of the earth outlet transition equals 3 pipe diameters
(jminimum).
Precast concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted
provided joints are rubber gasketed.
I OUTLET. TRANSITIONS

Country , Region, Project

F i g u r e No. 6-62
 Longitudinal sect ion
,-Org
in
i al ground surface
Normal water surface Precast concrete pipe
rElevation of energy

Earth transition .L+ ~ - - - i , + - ~ ~ ~ , - ~ l Normal water rElev~ti~n

Check and pipe

LMitered pipe bends

"i 5minimum)
12 coarse gravel protection
Concrete transition

For outlet tmnsition details refer to Figure 4. I

Notes
The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7 O 30' FA 0- I C I D
precast concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends.
Precast .concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted PIPE DROP WITH CONCRETE
provided joints are rubber gasketed.
I OUTLET TRANSITION
Country, R e g i o n , Project
U S A

I F i g u r e No. 6-63 I
 Plan Typical slide Section B-B
gate assembly
ly qote puides .

#4 0 8. Bend into hcodroll

4 0 12, Both w y s

or horizontolly with

obout rnid-Ienqth

Section A-A
& 16 bolts's f with squore heods, hex,'nuts
ond cut woshers; project 4"

F A o - IC'ID

CHECK AND PIPE INLET

oround corners

Country , Region, Project

continuous in ,walls ond floor US A
Figure No. 6-64
 Plan Section A-A

woll thickness to be some

. .

einforcement not shown

~onqitudinal section

into sidewalls
Section C-C

Reinforcemenl not shown

-
4~)
3
-
3 Lt4 tronsv. 12

Tronsversc bars continuous in wolb ond floor,

rpoced horizontally on structure C. L.

FrGURE 6- 65. - Concrete outlet transition

(supplement t o F i g u r e 6- 63).
 TABLE 6-13

Standard Dimensions E s t i m a t e d Quantities

Struc- No.of
ture T( sw) (FB) L walk Con- Reinf. Misc. Slide Gate 1.1
No.
Q D B H L H (hw) /
(P) (IN) (IN) (IN) (IN) Or ( =hw' planks Crete steel Metal Width x Ht. Frame
ft3/s (Tft)
(cu.yd) (lb) (lb) B(ga) H(ga) H(frrn)
12-1 5 12" 24" 21 6" 3' 6" 15" 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 3
15-1 7 15" 24" 2'61, 316,~ 15" 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 3 1.6 160 110
18-1 10 18" 2' 6" 2' 61, 31 68, 15" 6" 12" 4' 0" 4 1.7 170 110
18-2 6" 12" 4' 0" 4
15 180 21 69, 39 69, 4tov 21" 6"
6" 12" 4' 0" 5
18-3 21 18" 3' 0" 51 001 41 6" 3' 0" 6" 6"
21-1 13 21" 3'0" 3, 0,) 4 1 0" 15" 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 5 2.1 220 130
21-2 28 21" 3' 6" 5 ' 3" 51 0" 3' 0 8 , 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 6
24- 1 17 24" 3' 0" 3' 3" 4' o w 15" 6" 6'1 , 12" 4' 0" 5 2.2 230 140
24- 2 37 24" 410" 5 1 6" 51 61, 3to1t 6" 6" 12" 4' 0" 7
27- 1 21 2719 39 608 31 6" 4'6" 15" 6" 6" 15" 4'4" * 6 2.6 270 150
30- 1 26 30" 31 6" 31 qt? 4 1 61, 15" 6" 6" 15" 4' 4" 6 2.9 300 160
33-1 31 334, 41 0" 4, 0" 41 6" 15" 6" 6" 18" 4' 9" 7
36- 1 36 36" 4 , or! 4' 3" 58 0" 15" 6" 6" 18" 4' 9" 7 3.4 340 180

!' 1f a gate wlth a speclfled height IS not available, an available gate with the next g r e a t e r helght should b e u s e d wlth a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e h e ~ g h t .

TABLE 6-14

Struc- H B
ture Q D (P) B (OUT)l L (OUT) H5 (WW)~ H6 (Tft) L(ww) (Ttw)
No.

12-1 5 12" 6" 6"

15-1 7 15" 6" 6"
18-1 10 18" 6" 6"
18-2 15 18" 6" 61-
18-3 21 18" 6" 6"
21-1 13 21" 6" 6"
21-2 28 21" 6" 6"
24- 1 17 24" 6" 6"
24-2 37 24" 6" 6"
27-1 21 27" 6" 6"
30- 1 26 30" 9" 7 ' 6" 4' 9" 31 0" 3' 0" 12" 6" 24" 6"
33- 1 31 33" 6" 6"
36- 1 36 36" 11" 9 ' 6" 5 ' 3" 31 3" 3' 6" 15" 6" 246!? 6"
 TABLE 6-15

Pipe Drops with Metre Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition

3
Q = 10 ft / s Diameter of pipe = 24 inches H
(IN) = 3.25 feet
Dimensions given in the Table are in feet
 TABLE 6-16

P i p e D r o p s with M e t r e Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition

Q = 17 f t 3 / s D i a m e t e r of pipe = 30 inches H(IN) = 3 . 75 feet
Dimensions given in the Table a r e in feet
 TABLE 6-17

Pipe Drops with Metre Benda with Concrete Outlet Transition

3
Q = 25 ft / s Diameter of pipe = 30 inches H = 3.75 feet
(IN)
Dimensions given in the Table are in feet
 TABLE 6-18

P i p e Drops with M e t r e Bends with Concrete Outlet Transition

3
Q = 34 ft / s D i a m e t e r of pipe = 36 inches H(IN) = 4.25 f e e t
Dimensions given in the Table a r e i n feet
 3
F o r pipe drops with discharges exceeding 22 ft / s , a concrete outlet
transition i s required.

Refer to F i g u r e s 6- 64 and 6: 65 and Tables 6- 17 and 6- 18.

F o r the concrete outlet transition, s e e F i g u r e 6-65.

Design procedure for the check and pipe inlet and the pipe d r o p i s the
s a m e a s that given above f o r the pipe drop without concrete outlet transition.
,

6.12. 6 1/
Inclined P i p e Drop (U. S. S. R. ) -

6. 12. 6. 1 General

E a r l y pipe drop regulators used in the U. S. S. R. were built of a

number of one m e t r e diameter reinforced concrete pipes with m e t a l covered pipe
joints. Sudden water level fluctuations in the channels resulted in joint m i s -
alignment and downstream scour.

The revised construction now used i s simple and reliable in operation,

and provides dissipation of energy downstream. This pipe drop regulator i s both
a d r o p and a check s t r u c t u r e .

6. 1 2 . 6 . 2 Structural desipn

The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 6-66) consists of an inlet siil, an i n c l h e d pipe,

a stilling basin and a downstream apron.

The inlet sill i s designed in the f o r m of an inclined wall. A concrete

L' Based on information supplied by A . T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova,

D. D. Aliev and B. V. Kazarinov.
I Threshold l c o n c r e t e ) ~ Road Section 1-1

Section 2 - 2 Prefab. concrete slabs

/-

Reinforced concrete I
Reinforced concrete
Concrete, type 100, layer 6 cm
. . Stilling basin--/ I/ . 1
L c o s t -in- dace. p ecost -in - place,

I concrete, iype ioo ~ock-fillin~-q- '(E~o?) 4 L ~ ~ 100,

concrete loyer 6 crn

Concrete slobs

Cross section 4 - 4

PIPE DROP - REGULATOR

Type 100, cost-in-place
concrete layer 10 cm
(All dimensions are in cm
 threshold (the height of which i s equal to the difference between the water depth in
the channel and i t s critical depth a t threshold) i s provided to prevent a drop of the
upstream water level.

The inclined pipe, consisting of bell and spigot jointed pipes, 5 m long,
60 cm o r 80 cm in diameter, and the stilling basin, a r e constructed of reinforced
concrete. A small length of pipe with bevelled edges i s inserted where the pipe
levels off to the horizontal. The pipe joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool,
impregnated with bitumen and cement grouted.

A cylindrical stilling basin with a ring diaphragm a t the end i s provided

a t the end of the pipeline. Reinforced concrete slabs set on a gravel bed secure
the inlet and downstream p a r t s of the structure in place. A rock-filled support i s
provided'at the inlet and a t the end of the protected section.

These s t r t c t u r e s a r e equipped with slide gates and screw jacks and the
gate f r a m e s a r e secured to the inlets with bolts and rubber packing.

6. 12. 6. 3 Design formula

Maximum discharge capacity i s given by the formula:

where D = diameter of the pipe.

( P)

This formula has been deduced on the basis of laboratory t e s t s a t the

Central Asia Scientific and Research Institute of Irrigation.

The head, Hc, with a f r e e opening, according to laboratory t e s t

data, i s assumed a s follows :

where C1 = 0.'8
and H' = specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to the floor of the
(bas)l stilling basin; equal to the height between the u p s t r e a m
energy line and the floor of the stilling basin
= the depth of flow with n o r m a l discharge a t the beginning
H(j)l
of the hydraulic jump, and

q = the discharge downstream p e r m e t r e m e a n width of the

channel,

where s s = side slope.

Reciprocal depths downstream a r e calculated f r o m Table 6- 19 using

formulas:-11

and

where = reciprocal depth of flow with a discharge, considered

H(rec)l
a s controlling, a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump

and H(rec)2 '= r e c i p r o c a l depths of flow corresponding to discharge,

considered a s controlling, a t the end of the hydraulic
jump

H '
(bas)
= specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to floor of the
stilling basin; equal to the height between the
u p s t r e a m energy line and the'floor of the stilling basin.

C' and C" a r e coefficients whose values a r e given in Table 6- 19.

TABLE 6-19

-1/ according to Agroskin

 It i s a s s u m e d that t h e velocity coefficient i s 0.8; the coefficient of
hydraulic jump submergence C(js) = 1.1.

The length of the downstream protected section i s calculated according

to the following formula, (deduced a t the l a b o r a t o r y ) :
-1

where q =
B2 + (ss) YZ

6. 12. 6 . 4 Standard designs

The s t r u c t u r e s a r e designed f o r maximum d i s c h a r g e s of 0 . 4 and

3
0 . 8 5 m / s for d r o p s of 100 and 200 cm. Channel depths a r e a s s u m e d a t 60 and
80 c m according to pipe d i a m e t e r s 60 and 80 c m .

The height of the embankment above the u p s t r e a m and downstream

w a t e r l e v e l s i s 30 cm.

6.12. 6. 5 Numerical example (for type TPR-80- 100)

Data given

Pipe diameter,
D(~) = 0.60m
Hydraulic drop, H = 1.Om
(dr)
Downstream bed width, B2 = 1.2m
Downstream canal depth, = 0.6m
y2
(ss) = 1.5
Coefficient of hydraulic jump
submergence, C = 1.1.
(js)

It i s n e c e s s a r y to calculate the discharge capacity and the length of

the protected section
L(~rot)

According t o the formula

 The head a t the threshold of the s t r u c t u r e

Hc
= 0.86 D
(P)
= 0.86 . 0. 60 = 0.52 m

The depth a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump:

= 0.8
1

A f i r s t approximation :

F r o m Table 6-19; f o r H ( ~ ) = 0.15 and for interpolation:

Taking into consideration the coefficient of hydraulic jump

submergence

= 1.1
'(j s )
 The length of the protected section

= 8 . 0.436. 1.1
= 3.85 m, Say 4.00 m.

6.13 FARM DROP STRUCTURES

General

Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the same type and function

similarly to those in distribution canals, the only differences being that the f a r m
drops a r e smaller and their construction and equipment a r e simpler. They a r e
m o r e often than not provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate
o r a wooden shutter. Vertical drops a r e the most frequently used. F a r m drops
should comprise: a cut-off wall, long and deep enough to prevent leakage and by-
passing of the water a t the flanks; an opening with slots for a check gate; and a
stilling pool with some f o r m of end sill.

In 1971 the USDA Soil and Water Conservation Service published r e s u l t s of

field t e s t s of 16 different types of f a r m irrigation drop- check structures (60).
Out of the conclusions drawn, the following five m e r i t quotation h e r e .

"(1) Although there did not appear to be a consistent relationship between the
amount of scour and the end-sill height, visual observation indicated that t h e r e
was a greater degree of turbulence with the high sills.

( 2 ) Structures having relatively wide basins performed better than those

with narrow basins. The narrow basins contracted and accelerated the flow,
resulting in higher exit velocities; the wide basins provided a l a r g e r flow a r e a
and thus a lower velocity.

(3) With adequate tailwater depth, a trapezoidal stilling basin gave good
hydraulic performance: without sufficient tailwater, the performance was poor
and high velocity caused excessive downstream erosion.
 (4) F o r relatively s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s and water depths, a n o n - a e r a t e d nappe
contributed to good stilling within the s t r u c t u r e .

(5) With adequate cut-off depth and head wall length, head wall s t r u c t u r e s
with a gravel-lined b a s i n o r plunge pool w e r e the m o s t economical and the m o s t
effective s t r u c t u r e s t e s t e d . "

6. 13. 2 Head Wall D r o p with G r a v e l B a s i n

The s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d in conclusion ( 5 ) quoted above i s p e r h a p s the m o s t

economical type of f a r m d r o p under a l l conditions. The head wall o r cut-off wall
m a y be m a d e of c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y . The wall should be m a d e considerably
s t r o n g e r than i n the s t r u c t u r e s having supporting walls in the direction of flow.
- T h u s , for a m a s o n r y wall the thickness should be a t l e a s t 30 cm, for unreinforced
c o n c r e t e 20 c m and for r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 10 c m . The width of opening r e q u i r e d
m a y b e calculated f r o m the f o r m u l a given in Section 6. 2. The length of the g r a v e l
b a s i n m a y be taken a s approximately 3 to 4 t i m e s the difference between the
u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m bed l e v e l s . The width should be about 1.5 t i m e s the
c r e s t length of the opening. Figure 6-67 shows t h i s type of d r o p with a
h e a d wall m a d e of p r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e .

FIGURE 6-67. - P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e head wall d r o p (60).

 Cement Block Check and Drop

Figure 6-68 shows a design of a cement block check and drop a s developed
and used successfully in Canada. The length of the stilling pool i s about twice
the c r e s t height above the pool. This relatively short .distance i s compensated
for by the downstream gravel protection.

Wooden door

-
Flow Concrete
8 x b i 16 block8

Wooden doo

6 x 8 x 16 blocks

Directions
I. Dig down os shown by survey.
. 2 . Stock blocks t o desired shope for correct
locotion of 'woll ond h e i ~ h tof sill.
3. Pour concrete in cores of blocks-eoch
row seporotely.
4 . Pour remoining concrete for splosh ond
floor. .
5. Any steel (spud links,etc.) in cores will
( A l l dimensions i n inches ) greotly strengthen the structure.

FIGURE 6-68. - Cement block check and drop structure

(Canada).

Concrete Check Drop

The structure shown in Figure 6-69 i s widely used in the U. S. A. where i t

i s usually made in p r e - c a s t reinforced concrete with a wall thickness of 7.5 to
to 10 cm. The main dimensions are shown in the figure and in the tables below:

FIGURE 6-69. - Concrete check drop ( U . S. A. ).

Capacity of Width of
H C A
ditch in opening W
11 s cm cm * cm cm

60 30 30 15 60
170 60 30 15 60
230 75 38 15 60
280 90 46 20 75
400 105 46 ' 20 90

Drop (D) Length of Apron (L)

-
rn
30 75
45 90
60 120
90 180
6. 13.5 Wooden D r o p

F i g u r e s 6-70 and 6-71 show designs of wooden d r o p s for d i s c h a r g e

capacities of 100 l / s t o 250 l / s . These designs w e r e introduced some 30 y e a r s
ago by the USDA Soil Conservation Service and they have proved suitable and
economical. The wood u s e d for the s t r u c t u r e should b e thoroughly impregnated
before assembly.

6. 1 3 . 6 Piped ~ r o ~ s

A simple pipe d r o p s t r u c t u r e recommended by the USDA Soil Conservation

Service f o r f a r m i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s i s shown in F i g u r e 6-72. The figure a l s o
3
provides the n e c e s s a r y data f o r design capacities f r o m 45 11s ( 1 . 6 f t / s ) to
105 11s ( 3 . 7 f t 3 / s ) . Protection by r i p - r a p , g r a v e l o r concrete lining m a y be
r e q u i r e d on e r o s i v e s o i l s . The corrugated m e t a l pipe m a y be substituted by a
concrete pipe. 1

The s t e e l b a r r e l d r o p shown in F i g u r e 6-73 i s a simple and cheap pipe d r o p

recommended by the Alberta Department of Agriculture, Canada.

The following formula and table m a y be used for design purposes :

where Q = discharge in f 3 / s

2
A = pipe a r e a f t
X

head differential

L = pipe length

C = head l o s s coefficient.
 lide. See
below

g-ODMin. I B
I-

PLAN

subst~tutedhere

Pressure treat oll lumber w ~ t hcreosote and use cement

c o o t ~ dn o ~ l s Corr~ogebolts moy be substl -
tuted for n o ~ l swhere ~ndlcoted,~f deslred Upstreom
jolnts moy be covered w ~ t hloth bottens to moke
DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE structure more water-t~ght WOODEN DROP STRUCTURE
Use when drop serves FOR CHANNEL DEPTH
Bs Bottom w~dthof openlng
as a check
b = Bose width of dltch 20 cm ( 8 inches )
d =Depth of water In d~tch
H =He~ghtof fall In woter surfaces
L = Lengf h of opron
Q= Cublc feet per second
 OMETRIC VIEW

SECTION X- X

cooted nolls Corr~ogebolts may be substituted

for nolls where lnd~cated~f deslred Upstream joints
DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE moy be covered w ~ t hloth battens to make structure
Use when drop serves
as a check

water surfaces
 PLAN
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
water Surfoc* CONCRETE SLAB
(See no* No. (I)

r
Top of Ditch Bonk -,
water Surfac*>

SECTIONAL ELEVATION ON CENTER LlNE

- -..
NOTES
I SELECT A PIPE S I Z E THAT W I L L PROVIDE A GREATER CAPACITV THAN I S REQUIRED TO DISCHARGE
THE NORMAL STREAM USE0 W E N IRRIGATING. TRY TO KEEP THE VELOCITY I I THE P l P E B E L W
3 FPS BASE0 ON I O R W L I R R l G A T l I G STREAM.
1. W E R THE CMlRUGATEO METAL P I P E OROP I S U S I D AT A D I T C H CROSSIIG. INCREASE WIDTH OF
TOP OF DAY AND DIMENSIOI L2 BY 8'-0'
3. THE OROP (H) FOR ANY SPECIFIC STRUCTURE C A I BE IICREASED 3 IICHES BY PLAClIGrTHE TOP
OF THE RISER PIPE 3 l n c n c s BELW THE TOP OF THE CONCRETE FLOOR OF THE INLET THE
THICKIESS OF THE FLOOR SLAB ~OJICEIT TO THE PIPE s n o u L o BE INCREASED 3 INCHES TO MAKE
A WATERTIGW CMlNECTlOI WITH THE PIPE. THE I N L E T TO THE P l P E SHOULD BE ROUNDED TO A
3 I I C H RADIUS TO SAVE FORMING AN0 IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE INLET
U. THE DROP STRUCTURE I S FORMED BY CUTTING A STANDARD LEIGTH OF CORRUGATED WETAC P l P E
w n l c n IS M~IUFACTUREO II MULTIPLES OF 2 FT. IX LEIGTH. 01 A u 5 O &#OLE AND WELDING THE
C U i JOINTS TOGETHER TO F M l M A 90° BEN0 P l P E TO BE 1 6 GA CORRUGATED MET L JOINT
BETWEEN HORIZONTAL A I D VERTIC&L PIECES OF P l P E TO BE BUTT WELOEO AND WATE!TlGIIT
5. cowrf
SIX l N c n n r n o PLACEO RIP-RAP w r r BE s u s s r l r u r r o F ~ R SLAB.

NOMENCLATURE FAO-ICID
-
d
F
0
--
o E n n OF WATER IN o l i c n
FREEBOARD I I DITCH
DIAMETER OF P l P E
R -
LEIGTH OF VERTICAL P I P E ALONG CEMTER L l N E
CORRUGATED METAL PIPE
V -
--
VELOCITY OF PIPE FPS-
12-LENGTHOFHORIZONTALPIPEALMGCENTERLIRE

V O I S C L R G E THROiJCH PIPE C.F.S.-

II DROP OF WATER SURFACE DROP
T A B L E OF
CONCRETE Q U A N T I T I E S
O=IO' 0.15 CU.VDS.
0-12" 0 . 2 6 CU VOS
D=15. 029CUYOS Project, Region, Country
US A
Figure No. 6-72
 FIGURE 6-7.3. - Steel b a r r e l drop.

P i p e diameter Values of C
inches Concrete pipe Corrugated metal pipe

10 0.053 0.134
12 0.042 0.107
14 0.034 0.087
16 0.028 0.073
-6.13.7 Sloping Rock Drop

Another cheap drop design f r o m Canada i s shown in Figure 6-74. It i s

suitable where greater falls, say 1. 5 to 3 m, a r e encountered, and where suitable
rock o r stone i s available locally. Gravel-fill between the rocks, o r grouting,
improves greatly the durability of the structure.

."
to
N- - - , under 12
-Ditch bed line

bc- l+or more I

Note:
I.Grovel (if ovoiloble) should be
used to fill between rocks.
2.Rocks con be grouted.
Ditch crosa section

FIGURE 6-74. - Sloping rock drop structure (Canada).

 . 7. STRUCTURES AND DEVICES FOR WATER MEASUREMENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.1.1 Scope of this Chapter

The scope of this chapter i s restricted to the measurement of water in

irrigation systems and to methods of measurement which need only inexpensive,
but reliable and easily operated equipment. Almost any kind of obstacle that
partially r e s t r i c t s the flow of water in an irrigation channel can be used a s a
measuring device, provided that i t can be calibrated. However, the calibration
t e s t s n e c e s s a r y to detelop accurate ratings can be r a t h e r costly and time
consuming and justifiable only where the calibrated device i s to be utilized for
a number of different purposes, o r in the case of l a r g e structures outside the
scope of this Handbook. F o r measuring small flows (say below 1000 11s) i t i s
nearly always preferable to use one of the numerous standard measuring devices
o r ratings already d e ~ e l o p e d . In this chapter emphasis i s placed on standard
devices, which a r e defined a s those which have been fully described, accurately
calibrated, correctly installed and have proved to be consistently successful in
operation. Before proceeding to the descriptions of these various measuring
devices i t i s appropriate to r e c a l l a t this stage the reasons for the measurement
of irrigation water and where in the system such measurement should take place.

Why Measure ?

F o r efficient water distribution

Increased demand on available water r e s o u r c e s and ever increasing

irrigation development costs require that water be used economically and without
waste, and experience shows that this cannot be accomplished without water
measurement. Measurements s e r v e to ensure the maintenance of proper delivery
schedules, t o determine the amounts of water delivered, to single out anomalies,
and t o estimate and detect the origin of conveyance l o s s e s .
 F o r efficient water use at the f a r m level

More advanced knowledge of soil properties and soil m o i s t u r e / plant

relationships permits irrigation systems to be designed so that water can be
applied in the right amount and at the right time in relation to the soil moisture
status thereby obtaining maximum efficiency of water use and minimum damage
to the land. This knowledge can be utilized m o s t effectively only by reasonably
accurate meagurement of the water applied.

F o r applied r e s e a r c h

To establish c r i t e r i a for efficient water use and management,field

t r i a l s and evaluation of existing irrigation a r e required f o r a number of i e a s o n s
such a s the evaluation of the efficiency of existing irrigation and to determine
intake r a t e s , s t r e a m sizes required, length of furrows and border runs, w a t e r
l o s s e s , etc. Accurate water measuring devices a r e indispensable for such
t r i a l s and evaluations.

F o r socio-economic factors

Whether water be public o r private property, water m e a s u r e m e n t '

i s an important means f o r implementing a distribution pattern to meet actual
requirements o r legal rights o r both, and for providing a reasonable b a s i s for
estimating water charges. If the charge to the u s e r i s based on the r a t e of
flow, then rate-of-flow measurements and adequate r e c o r d s a r e required.
Charges on the b a s i s of volume necessitate a volumetric measuring device,
o r a rate-of-flow device combined with a time recording device. Ideally,
water flow should be measured at intakes from storage r e s e r v o i r s , canal
headworks, at strategic points in canals and l a t e r a l s and a t delivery points to
water u s e r s .

7.1.3 Where to Measure

In the terminal distribution system facilities for water measurement may

be required, o r be desirable at intakes to l a t e r a l canals (distributaries, e t c . )
o r at other bifurcation points. Clearly the m o s t important point for m e a s u r e -
ment i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout) which i s the meeting point between the
management and the water u s e r s .
 The degree of need for a measuring device at the outlet v a r i e s according to
the delivery system employed. Delivery on demand usually r e l i e s upon the
measurement of water a s a basis for equitable distribution a s well a s for
computing possible water charges. Where water i s distributed by rotation
among f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l ( o r distributary o r "minor" canal) and where the
amount of water supplied to each f a r m e r m a y be different, a measuring device at
the turnout i s required. On @e other hand, i f f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l receive
water on the b a s i s of a r e a of land o r crops irrigated measurement i s not entirely
necessary, but may still be desirable for other purposes, such a s improvement
of irrigation efficiency. Similarly, in all systems based on constant flow,
measurement i s not entirely n e c e s s a r y but may be advantageous.

Where s e v e r a l f a r m e r s s h a r e the water of each outlet and the flow in the

canal fluctuates considerably, each such outlet should be equipped with a
measuring device, ,even i f equitable distribution among outlets i s practised, so
that each group of f a r m e r s will know the flow available at any one time f r o m their
respective outlet.

It follows that i f all the irrigation water f r o m an outlet i s to be delivered

to one field ( o r f a r m ) a t a time, the measuring device on the outlet may be the
only one needed. But, i f the supply i s divided between two o r m o r e ditches i t
m a y be desirable to install some kind of simple measuring device a t each offtake.
( F o r a comprehensive description of f a r m outlets s e e Chapter 5. )

7. 1 . 4 Limitations

Water measurement i s a difficult problem in many irrigated a r e a s : the

head available in the irrigation system may be too small to allow accurate
measurement; the varying water requirements on the f a r m s and supply
variations cause fluctuations in the levels of the water in canals o r variations in
velocity, o r both; the presence of weeds and silt, the difficulty of maintaining
close tolerances during construction and many other factors may reduce the
accuracy of water measurement.

Considering that there may be a l a r g e number of outlets on an irrigation

scheme, the introduction of a delivery system based on water measurement a t
turnouts may require a l a r g e and costly operating organization which may involve
 problems of personnel, recruitment, training, etc.

The cost factor i s particularly important where f a r m units a r e small o r

economic r e t u r n s low. In such c a s e s , simple devices with l e s s accuracy should
be selected ( e . g. calibrated shut-off gates a s discussed in Section 7. 8).

7.1.5 Methods, Structures and Devices Available

The weir i s the most practical and economical device for water m e a s u r e -
ment, provided t h e r e i s sufficient head available. The three most commonly
used sharp-crested weirs a r e discussed in Section 7 . 2 .

Measuring flumes a r e extensively used in irrigation networks, where they

ape applicable to almost any flow condition. Their m o s t significant advantages
a r e small head l o s s e s , reasonable accuracy over a l a r g e flow range, insensitivity
to velocity of approach, and little affected by sediment and debris transport. Of
this category of measuring structure the P a r s h a l l flume i s treated in detail in
Section 7.4, and the Standing Wave Flume (India) in Chapter 6 because of i t s
other main application a s a drop. Because of i t s future potential the Cut-throat
Flume, (on which experimental work has almost been completed) may become a
strong competitor to the P a r s h a l l and other flumes, and i s described for f r e e fall
conditions in Section 7 . 6 . The cast-in-place Trapezoidal Flume i s also quoted
(7. 7), being a cheap and easily constructed device.

The use of the submerged orifice for the measyrement of water i s not
discussed h e r e since i t does not offer any advantage over the use of weirs (when
sufficient head i s available) o r flumes (for small head l o s s e s ) . It i s however
discussed in reference (81).

Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices which have been

in use for a number of y e a r s and their advantages and limitations a r e discussed
in Section 7 . 9 . They a r e particularly suited to systems where no head l o s s e s
can be permitted for water measurement and where water i s sold on a volumetric
basis.

F o r water measurement in small s t r e a m s , particularly in field ditches and

furrows and where head l o s s e s must be very small, the Deflection o r Vane Meter
h a s proved to be a useful device. Two types of such m e t e r s a r e presented in
Section 7 . 10.

As pointed out e a r l i e r , the m o s t important point of flow restriction in the

terminal portion of an irrigation system i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout). Many
outlets have been designed and calibrated to enable water measurement besides
the basic function of regulating the flow. Some of the m o r e common ones a r e
the Flume Type Outlet, the Double Orifice Turnout, the Neyrpic Distributor, the
Meter Gate for culvert-type outlets, the Weir Box Turnout and the Dethridge
Meter Outlet. The e r r o r of these devices under operational conditions i s
usually within the 5 5 % range but may exceed + 107'. (A comprehensive
discussion of these outlets appears in Chapter 5. )

There a r e however a number of other outlets which have either not been
calibrated o r a r e not suitable for water measurement. Where such s t r u c t u r e s
a r e used the installation of a separate standard type measuring device, located
some distance dowhstream of the outlet may be the best solution to obtain
sufficient accuracy in measurement without incurring further development o r
construction costs.

Trends

The evolution of water measurement techniques and devices h a s pro-

g r e s s e d independently in many p a r t s of the world, the result being an abundance
of types and designs, each one developed to suit certain local conditions.
However, many such devices could serve a s well in other a r e a s . There i s
also scope for certain desirable features of one device to be integrated with
those of another device to improve overall performance. Refinement in
accuracy may be achieved by better calibration and by building structures m o r e
exactly to standard dimensions. Structures may be further modified so a s to
become cheaper and e a s i e r to construct, such a s the Cut-throat Flume. F u r t h e r
standardization and calibration of distribution and control structures could add
to economies in water measurement, such a s for example the use of culverts a s
measuring devices.
7.2 SHARP CRESTED MEASURING WEIRS-i /

7.2.1 Synopsis

Weirs a r e probably the most extensively used devices for the measurement
of the r a t e of flow of water in open channels. Weirs may be divided into: sharp
crested weirs, and broad crested weirs. In this section only s h a r p c r e s t e d weirs
a r e discussed, Broad crested weirs a r e commonly incorporated in irrigation
structures but a r e not usually used to determine flow, with the exception of the
broad crested weir often known a s the "Romijn Gate", described in Section 7-3.

The types of sharp c r e s t e d weirs commonly used for measuring irrigation

water a r e the :

- s h a r p crested contracted rectangular w e i r s

- II I' suppressed 11

- I. 1 " and sharp sided trapezoidal (Cipolletti) weirs

- s h a r p sided 90° V-notch weirs.

Each of these weirs h a s characteristics appropriate to particular operating

and site conditions. The Cipolletti i s perhaps the most frequently used type,
(Figure 7- 1). However, a considerable number of rectangular weirs may be
found in irrigation systems, notably at the f a r m level since they a r e simple in
construction and operation. The 90' V-notch weir gives the most accurate
r e s u l t s when measuring small discharges and i s particularly adapted t o the
measurement of fluctuating flows. Measuring w e i r s require comparatively high
heads, considerable maintenance of the weir o r stilling pool and protection of the
channel downstream of the c r e s t . The accuracy of measurement i s comparatively
good. The selection of type and dimensions of the weir should in the f i r s t
instance be based on the expected r a t e of flow, o r the limits of the r a t e s in the
case of fluctuating s t r e a m s . Consideration should be given to the following.

(i) The head should be no l e s s than 6 cm (0.2.ft) for the expected r a t e of flow
and should not exceed 60 cm ( 2 ft).

L / ~ h einformation presented i s based largely on the US Bureau of Reclamation

Standards (81).
(ii) F o r rectangular and trapezoidal weirs, the head should not exceed one-third
of the weir length.

(iii) ,The weir length should be selected.so that the head for design discharge will
be n e a r the maximum subject to the limitations in (i) and (ii).

(iv) The c r e s t s should be placed high enough so that the water flowing over them
will fall freely, leaving an,airspace under and around the jets.

A weir, together with a turnout gate, operated with a f r e e falling nappe and
without submergence, may be considered a s a semi-module. Any change in
upstream level results in a change of discF-rrge.

Calibration curves and tables have been developed for the standard type
weirs mentioned above and discharge through the weirs can be estimated readily
by reading the head recordedon a staff gauge against the table to obtain the
actual r a t e of flow.

FIGURE 7 - 1 . - Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) measuring

weir of 61 cm ( 2 ft) c r e s t length installed at a f a r m outlet.
 Hydraulic Properties

When the water surface downstream from the bulkhead i s far enough below
the crest so that a i r moves freely to the area below the nappe, the weir i s said to
have free discharge, when the rate of flow can be determined from only the .
upstream gauge stick and a knowledge of the weir size and shape. (Figure 7-2).

Point t o rneosure depth H

Shorp- crested weir

Elevation of

--A

FIGURE 7-2. - Diagram of f r e e discharge contracted

weir showing position of staff gauge upstream.

If the water surface in the downstream channel does not permit free
aeration around the nappe the discharge may increaseddue to low pressure. When
the water level r i s e s above the elevation of the c r e s t the flow i s considered to be
submerged; this may o r may not affect the discharge rate to a measurable
degree, but dependable measurements under these conditions cannot be expected.

-
However, when the downstream water level r i s e s above the weir c r e s t a distance
of about 66 per cent o r more of the head on the crest, the degree of submergence
will appreciably affect the rate of flow through the weir notch. The rate of flow
can be determined under these submerged conditions provided that both the
upstream and downstream heads be measured and reference be made to sub-
merged flow tables. Submerged and non-ventilated flows a r e not desirable for
standard conditions and, except in unusual cases, should be avoided. In most
c a s e s therefore weirs should be placed so a s to obtain ventilated and free-flow
discharge conditions.

If the weir notch be made of a relatively thin plate with a sharp upstream
edge and it be mounted on the supporting wall so that the water does not contact
the wall a s i t p a s s e s (i.e. i t "springs" past it), the weir i s called a s h a r p crested
weir. If the weir notch be mounted in a wall too thick for the water to "spring"
past it, the weir i s classed a s broad crested. Discharge coefficients and
discharge tables a r e usually obtained for broad crested weirs by calibrating the
weir in place. Most measuring weirs a r e constructed a s sharp crested weirs.

When the distances from the ends o r sides of the weir notch to the sides of
the weir pool a r e great enough t o allow the sheet of water a f r e e and unconstrained
approach to the c r e s t , the water will flow uniformly and relatively slowly toward
the weir ends. As the water from the sides of the channel n e a r s the notch, it
accelerates and turns to pass through the notch opening. This turning effect
cannot occur instantaneously and a curved flow path o r contraction r e s u l t s with
the water "springing1' f r e e to form a jet narrower than the weir opening. When
approach conditions allow contraction a t both the ends and a t the bottom of the jet
the weir i s called a contracted weir. F o r contracted conditions, the ends of the
weir should not be closer to the sides of the channel than twice the head on the
weir. F o r complete bottom contraction the weir c r e s t should be placed no closer
than 2H from the bottom of the channel (Figure 7-2).

Setting of Weirs

The setting of weirs according to accepted standards i s a s important a s the

use of standard dimensions and shapes. Only then can the available rating tables
and graphs be applicable and individual calibrations be avoided.

Standard contracted rectangular weirs

The conditions and settings recommended for standard contracted

rectangular w e i r s a r e set forth below.

(i) The upstream face of the bulkhead should be smooth and perpendicular
to the axis of the channel.
(ii) The upstream face of the weir plate should be smooth, straight and
flush with the upstream face of the bulkhead.

(iii) The entire c r e s t should be a level, plane surface with a sharp,

right-angled edge facing upstream. The thickness of the c r e s t should
be between 1 and 2 m m (about 0.04 to 0.08 inches). Both ends of
rectangular weirs should be. truly vertical and of the same thickness a s
the c r e s t .

(iv) The upstream c o r n e r s of the notch m u s t be sharp. They should

be machined o r filed perpendicular to the upstream face, and f r e e of
b u r r s o r scratches. Knife edges should be avoided because they a r e
difficult to maintain.

(v) The downstream edges of the notch should be chamfered i f the

plate i s thicker than the prescribed c r e s t width (iii). This chamfer
0
should be a t an an angle of 45 o r more.

(4 The distance of the c r e s t f r o m the bottom of the approach channel

should preferably be not l e s s than twice the depth of water above the
c r e s t and in no case l e s s than 30 cm.

( vii) The distance f r o m the sides of the weir to the sides of the
approach channel should preferably be no l e s s than twice the depth of
water above the c r e s t and never l e s s than 30 c m .

(viii) The overflow sheet (nappe) should touch only the upstream edges
of the c r e s t and i t s sides.

(ix) Air should circulate freely both under and at the sides of the
nappe .
(x) The measurement of head of the weir should be taken a s the
difference in elevation between the c r e s t and the water surface at that
point upstream f r o m the weir which i s at a distance of four t i m e s the
maximum head on the c r e s t . (A staff gauge i s usually installed h e r e
having a graduated scale with zero placed at the same elevation a s
the weir c r e s t . )
\
The cross-sectional a r e a of the approach channel should be a t
(xi)
l e a s t eight t i m e s that of the overflow sheet a t the c r e s t for a distance
 upstream from 15 to 20 times the depth of the sheet,. (If the weir pool
i s ernaller than defined by these criteria, the velocity of approach may
. be too high and the staff gauge too low. )

7.2.3.2 Standard suppressed rectangular weirs

The standard suppre seed rectangular weir requires the same con-
ditions for accuracy of measurement a s the contracted rectangular weir, except
for the conditions relating to side contraction. In the suppressed weir the sides of
the approach channel should be coincident with the sides of the weir, and should
extend downstream beyond the c r e s t to prevent horizontal expansion of the nappe.

7.2.3. 3 Standard trapezoidal (Gipolletti) weirs

The standard trapezoidal weir, for which the discharge tables given
herein a r e applicable, has a trapezoidal shape (see Figure 7-3) with the sides in-
clining at a slope of 1 (horizontal) to 4 (vertical). All conditions for accuracy
listed'in 7.2.3.1 for the contracted rectangular weir apl)iy to the trapezoidal weir.

FIGURE 7-3. - Permanent'trapezoidal weir discharging

under free flow conditions.
7.2.3.4 Standard 90° V-notch w e i r s

The c r e s t of the standard 90° V-notch weir consists of a thin plate,

the sides of the notch being inclined 45O f r o m the vertical. This weir o p e r a t e s a s
a contracted weir and all conditions for a c c u r a c y stated f o r the standard contracted
rectangular weir apply again. The minimum distances of the s i d e s of the weir
f r o m the channel banks should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the weir, and should be
m e a s u r e d f r o m the intersection points of the maximum water surface with the
edges of the weir. The minimum distance f r o m the notch to the pool bottom
should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the w e i r , m e a s u r e d f r o m the point (apex) of
the notch t o the channel floor.

Because of the shape of this weir the head required f o r a s m a l l flow

through i t i s g r e a t e r than that required with the other types of w e i r s with a long
horizontal c r e s t . This m a k e s i t particularly suited to m e a s u r e s m a l l flows with
high accuracy.

7.2.4 Hydraulic F o r m u l a e and Discharge Measurement

7.2.4.1 Standard contracted rectangular w e i r s

Numerous formulae have been developed for computing the discharge

of rectangular, s h a r p c r e s t e d w e i r s with complete contraction. The m o s t popular
and generally accepted one i s the F r a n c i s f o r m u l a :

where Q = discharge in m 3 p e r second

L = length of c r e s t in m
H = head in m o r the vertical difference between the
elevation of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the
water surface in the weir pool.

Equivalent in English units :

3

where Q = discharge in ft 3 p e r second

L = length of c r e s t in ft
H = head in ft
 TABLE 7-1

Discharge of Standard Contracted Rectangular Weirs' (in m 3 per s e c ) -11

Head Length of Weir L (cm)

H(cm) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 *150.00 175.00 200.00

.50 .0001 .0002 .0003 .0005 .0006 .0008 .0009 .0011 .0013
1.00 .0003 .0005 .0009 .0014 .0018 .0022 .0027 .0032 .0036
1.50 .0005 .0008 .0017 .0025 .0033 .0042 .0050 .0059 .0067
2.00 .0008 .0013 .0026 .0039 .0051 .0064 .0077 .0090 .0103
2. 50 .0011 .0018 .0036 .0054 .0072 .0090 .0108 .0126 .0145
3.00 .0014 .0023 .0047 .0071 .0095 .0 118 .0142 .0166 .0190
3.50 .0017 .0029 .0059 .0089 .0119 .0149 .0179 .0209 .0239
4.00 .0021 .0036 .0072 .0109 .0145 .0182 .0219 .0256 .0293
4. 50 .0025 .0042 .0086 .0130 .0173 .0217 .0261- -0305 .0349
5.00 .0029 .0049 .0101 .0152 .0203 .0254 .0306 .0357 .0409
 TABLE 7- 1 (Cont'd.)

Head Length of Weir L ( c m )

H( c m ) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
 TABLE 7-1 ( C o n t t d . )

Head Lkngth of Weir L ( c m )

H( c m ) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

42.00 .4583 .5834 .7085 .8336 .9587

42.50 ,4660 .5934 .7207 .8481 .9754
43.00 .4738 .6034 .7330 .8626 .9921
43.50 .4815 .6134 .7452 .8771 1.0090
44.00 .4893 .6235 .7576 .8917 1.0259
44.50 .4971 .6336 .7700 .9064 1.0429
45.00 .5050 .6437 .7825 .9212 1.0599
45.50 .5129 .6539 .7950 .9360 1.0771
46.00 .5208 .6642 .8075 .9509 1.0943
46.50 .5287 .6744 .8202 .9659 1.1116
47.00 .5366 .6847 .8328 .9809 1.1290
47.50 .5446 .6951 .8456 .9960 1.1465
48.00 .5526 .7055 .8583 1.0112 1.1640
48.50 .5607 .7159 .8712 1.0264 1.1816
49.00 .5687 .7264 .8840 1.0417 1.1993
49.50 .5768 .7369 .8970 1.0570 1.2171
50.00 .5849 .7474 .9099 1.0724 1.2349

-1/
Values determined partly experimentally, partly f r o m the formula

Q = 3. 33 (L - 0.2H) H' and convertbd to m e t r i c unit? (81)

 Table 7 - 1 gives the discharges of standard contracted rectangular
weirs for 9 different lengths and for heads ranging f r o m 0 . 5 to 50 cm. The table
i s intended to be used for discharge measurements of standard rectangular weirs
but may serve a s well for their design. The discharge data may be interpolated
for other lengths of weir if their corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of
the c r e s t length.

An improved. method for computing r a t e s of flow through rectangular

thin-plated .weirs h a s been developed by Kindsvater and C a r t e r . In their formula
they have introduced the effective coefficient of discharge, the effective weir
length and the effective weir head in o r d e r to take account of effects of relative
depth and width of approach channel and of velocity of approach. Since the
formula i s hardly ever used in the measurement of irrigation water with small
s t r u c t u r e s i t i s not elaborated on h e r e , but reference may be made to (61) and (81).

7.2.4. 2 Standard suppressed rectangular weirs

F o r computation of discharge of the standard suppressed rectangular

weir the Rehbock formula and the F r a n c i s formula a r e commonly used. The
diagram shown in Figure 7-4 i s based on the Rehbock formula:

where
Q = d i s c h a r g e i n m 3 per second
u
, = discharge coefficient
L = length of weir c r e s t in m
H = headinm

The discharge coefficient u

, i s determined from:

where

D = distance from the c r e s t to the bottom of the approach

channel in millimetr e s
H = head in m i l l i m e t r e s
 Somplc calculation
Given: D =60
L = 80
Measured: H= 38
Wanted: 9 = 7
P = 4 6 0 x 0.80
0 = 3 6 8 1/r

1 I I I I I I I I l l
0 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
@ 10 20 30 40 60
loo per m crest length
@ I00 200 400 600 8 0 0 1000

- Discharge over a suppressed rectangular

FIGURE 7 - 4 .
weir per metre of creet length.
 According to Swiss standard (SIA No. 109)
H
D should not be s m a l l e r than H, (- 6 1 ),
D

Dmin = 300mm

Hmin = 25 m m

Hm, = 800 m m

The US B u r e a u of Reclamation (81) recommends that D should be a t l e a s t

2 t i m e s H, (D 2 Z H ) ,

Hmin = 60 m m (below this the nappe may not spring f r e e of the c r e s t )

The US Bureau of Reclamation u s e s the F r a n c i s formula

where
Q = discharge in f t 3 p e r second
L = length of weir c r e s t in ft
H = headinft

F o r discharge t a b l e s in English units r e f e r e n c e m a y be made to (81).

Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) w e i r s

Taking the F r a n c i s formula a s a b a s i s , Cipolletti h a s developed the

following formula f o r t h i s type of weir :

where
3
Q = d i s c h a r g e in ft p e r second
L = length of the c r e s t in ft
H = head in ft o r the v e r t i c a l difference between the elevation
of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the water surface in
the weir pool
 TABLE 7-2

Discharge of Standard Trapezoidal Weir e (CIPOLLETTI)

1/
(in m 3 per sec) -

Head Length of Weir L (cm)

H( cm) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
 TABLE 7 - 2 (Contld.)

Length of Weir L ( c m )
Head
H(cm) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00
 TABLE .7-2 (Conttd.)

Length of Weir L (cmf

Head
H (4 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

-1 /
Values determined partly experimentally, partly from the formula

P = 3. 367 LH and converted to metric units (81)

 Metric equivalent :

where
3
Q = discharge in m per second
L = length of c r e s t in m
H = headinm

Table 7-2 computed f r o m this formula and partly f r o m experiments

gives discharges over standard trapezoidal weirs of nine different c r e s t lengths
and for heads f r o m 0.5 cm to 50 cm.

Discharge measurements using the Cipolletti weir and the above

formula a r e not a s accurate a s those obtained from rectangular weirs using the
F r a n c i s formula, but accuracy i s sufficient for general irrigation use.

The discharge figures m a y be interpolated for other lengths of weir

if corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of the c r e s t length.

7.2.4.4 Standard 90° V-notch weirs

Of the several well known formulae used to compute the discharge

over 90° V-notch weirs the formula recommended by the WMO (Ref. 61) i s
quoted h e r e :

<

where
3
Q = discharge in m per second
2
g = acceleration due to gravity in m / s e c
Cd = coefficient of discharge

H = headinm

Cd i s a function of H and fluid property.

3
Table 7 - 3 gives discharges in m / s multiplied by 10 for heads from 5 to
38 cm.
 TABLE 7-3
3
Discharge of 90° V-notch Weirs (in m / s x 10)
-5
Computed from the Formula Q = BJG~
15
H (61)

Head Discharge Head Discharge Head Discharge

m m 3 / s x 10 m m 31 s x 10 m' m 3 / s x 10

F o r the English system of units the Cone formula, recommended by

the USBR, i s quoted :

where
Q = discharge in second-feet
H = head in feet o r the vertical distance between the elevation of the
vertex o r lowest p a r t of the.notch and the elevation of the water
surface in the weir pond.
 Table 7-4 i e computed f r o m the Cone formula f o r heads f r o m 0.20 t o
1.25 f t ( 6 1 t o 380 mm).

TABLE 7-4

Discharge of 90' V-notch Weirs (in second-feet)

2.48
Computed f r o m the F o r m u l a Q = 2.49 H (81)

Head in Discharge Head in Discharge Head in Discharge

feet in second- feet in second- feet in second-
feet feet feet
FIGURE 7 - 5 (a) and (b). - Small temporary V-notch
w e i r s made of sheet metal, (being used for studies on
irrigation efficiency and water l o s s e s ) .
7.2;5 Construction of Measuring Weirs
Measuring w e i r s m a y be t e m p o r a r y o r permanent. Temporary w e i r s may
be portable. F o r e a r t h channels portable w e i r s m a y be made f r o m sheet steel
cut approximately t o the shape of the c r o s s section of the channel but r a t h e r
larger., The weir opening in the sheet m u s t be cut carefully ( s e e 7. 2. 3 on setting
of weirs). F i g u r e 7-5 (a) and (b) shows portable 90° V-notch w e i r s m a d e of
3 m m and 5 mm sheet m e t a l respectively and F i g u r e 7-6 gives an example of a
suitable design.

FIGURE 7-6. - Example of a design f o r a 90° V-notch

w e i r plate.
 In lined channels temporary measuring w e i r s may be installed in a bulkhead
made of wood o r other m a t e r i a l that has been sealed in place. Another possibility
i s to use existing structures, such a s division boxes o r checks for measurements
by temporarily substituting the gate with a weir plate.

Permanent measuring weirs may be constructed in almost the same way a s

check o r drop s t r u c t u r e s (Chapter 6) and by applying standard proportions between
weir opening, bulkhead and weir pool a s indicated above. Again for accuracy the
weir c r e s t should always be formed of a thin plate of strong m a t e r i a l such a s
sheet steel. Measuring weirs a r e sometimes built a s an integral p a r t of f a r m
outlets, (an example of a design for this type i s given in Chapter 5).

Maintenance of weirs i s very important i f dependable measurements a r e to

be obtained over a long period of time. Maintenance involves :

- keeping the pool f r e e f r o m excessive deposits and weeds

,
- preventing leakage through and around the weir structure
- checking the elevation of the gauge in relation to the c r e s t
- checking the condition of the c r e s t and r e - d r e s s i n g i t if required.

7.3 THE ROMIJN BROAD CRESTED WEIR-1/

7.3.1 General

The Romijn weir was developed by the irrigation service in Indonesia a s a

regulating and measuring device for use in relatively flat irrigated regions
where the water demand i s variable because of different requirements during the
growing season.

A description of the weir was published for the f i r s t time in 1932 by D. G.

Romijn (134), after whom the structure has been named.

The Romijn weir consists of two sliding blades and a movable weir, c r e s t
which a r e mounted in one steel guide frame, (Figure 7-7). The bottom blade,

" Based on information provided by M. G. Bos, Irrigation Design Engineer,

Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, The Netherlands.
which i s locked in place under operational conditions acts a s the bottom
terminal for the movable weir. The upper blade, which i s connectdd to the
bottom blade by means of two ateel s t r i p s placed in the frame grooves, acts a s
the top terminal for the movable weir. The movable weir i s connected by two
steel strips to a horizontal lifting beam. The horizontal weir c r e s t i s
perpendicular to the water flow and slopes 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow.
Its upetream nose i s rounded off in such a way that flow separation does not
occur.

The operating range of the weir equals the maximum upstream head

(Hcrt) which hae been selected for the dimensioning of the regulating structure.

Upper slide

Grooves

y Lcr? = 0.78 Hlcrtl'lmox

------
Zero level
of crest .

Movoble weir crest

Stobilizinp console

.-

FIGURE 7-7. - Romijn broad crested weir, sliding

blades and movable weir crest.
 Weir Abutments

The weir abutments a r e vertical and a r e rounded in such a way that flow
separation does not occur. There i s a rectangular approach channel to ensure
regular velocity distribution. The total upstream head over the weir (Hcrt) i s
measured in this approach channel a t a distance of between two and three t i m e s
upstream of the weir.
Hicrt)max

The dimensions of the abutments should comply with those indicated in

Figure 7-8.

Aeration groove-

Diverted flow

Side s l o v
of c o n a l

FIGURE 7-8. -
Romijn broad crested welr,
hydraulic dimensions of weir abutments.

Undet certa* circumstances the radius ( r ) of the rounding-off of the

bbiutriients may be reduced, so that r >, Hot. This will happen, for
instance, if :
(a) the average flow velocity, v, in the undivided main canal i s low
so that t h e r e i s little danger of flow separation; in other words,
-1
i f the Froude Number, F r = v ( %)', i s equal to o r l e s s than

0.10, where g i s the acceleration due to gravity, A i s the c r o s s -

sectional a r e a of flow, and B i s the channel width at the f r e e
water surface;

(b) the centreline of the weir structure i s parallel to o r coincides

with the centreline of the undivided supply canal (in-line
structure);

(c) the water i s drawn directly from a storage basin.

'If several movable weirs a r e combined in a single structure, intermediate

p i e r s should be provided so that two-dimensional flow i s preserved over each
weir unit, allowing the upstream head over the weir to be measured independently
p e r unit. The parallel section of the pier should therefore commence at a.point
1
located at a distance of H(crt) max upstream of the head measurement station and
extend to the downstream edge of the weir c r e s t . P i e r s should have streamlined
noses, i. e. of semi-circular o r semi-elliptical profile ( 1 to 3 axes). To avoid
s h a r p curvatures at the cut-waters, the thickness of the intermediate p i e r s
should be equal to o r m o r e than 0 . 6 5 HI with a minimum of 0. 30 m .
( crt)max

Measurement of Head
.
I

To limit the effects of draw-down and to ensure that the energy l o s s between
the section of measurement and the upstream edge of the weir c r e s t i s negligible,
the total upstream head over the weir ( H ~ , ~ must
) be measured at a point located
at a distance of between two and three times the total maximum energy head over
the weir upstream of the (imaginary) weir face. Since.the weir c r e s t moves up
and down, a fixed staff gauge cannot be used to obtain a value for the upstream
head over the c r e s t .

A variety of devices for measuring head requiring two readings for the
calculation of the upstream head have been developed, but these a r e l e s s accurate
and m o r e liable to lead to e r r o r s in the determination of Hcrt than a device that
r e q u i r e s one reading only. Of the latter type, the most simple and reliable i s a
staff gauge that t r a v e l s up and down with the weir c r e s t . Zero level of this gauge
coincides with the downstream edge over the weir c r e s t (control section), s o that
the upstream head over the c r e s t equals the degree of immersion of the gauge.

Depending on circumstances, t h e r e a r e two ways in which the gauge can be

fixed to the movable weir :

(i) Where the water surface in the approach channel i s smooth (no waves),
where n a r r o w intermediate p i e r s a r e to be used, o r where no g r e a t
accuracy of gauge readings i s required, the gauge may be located in the
approach channel a s n e a r a s possible to one of the abutments. A steel
beam i s then welded o r bolted perpendicular to the lifting beam and
extended to the head measurement section. A second beam i s welded o r
bolted to the movable weir 0. 15 m below c r e s t level, and this i s also
extended to the head measurement section. The ends of the beams a r e
connected via a steel o r hardwood support to which the gauge i s mounted.

(ii) Where wave action in the approach channel makes i t difficult to make
gauge readings; o r where t h e r e i s a r i s k of the gauge o r i t s support being
damaged by floating debris, the gauge should be located in a rectangular
stilling o r gauge well. In such circumstances the lifting beam should be
extended on either the left o r right hand side of the guide f r a m e to just
above the well. Attached to the end of the extended beam i s a vertical
support to which the gauge i s mounted. To ensure accurate gauge readings,
the length of this rectangular well a s measured f r o m the face of the gauge
should be equal to o r g r e a t e r than two times the maximum depth to the
water surface in the well; i t s width should not be l e s s than 0. 20 m .

If desired, the m e t r e scale on the vertical staff can be replaced by a scale

3
in m /s o r l i t r e s / s so that the immersion of the scale equals the weir discharge;
(i.e. any changes in the upstream head over the c r e s t , and thus any changes in
the weir discharge caused by the vertical movement of the weir and/or a change
in water level in the approach channel, can be read direct without a time l a g . )

Since the f i r s t gauge arrangement (i) i s liable to damage by floating debris

and to some extent by vandalism, i t i s advisable to use the latter arrangement
(ii) a s a standard solution.
 If the rectangular gauge well i s used a s a stilling well t o prevent
oscillations of the water s u r f a c e caused by surging water and wave action, the
d i a m e t e r of the inlet pipe o r slot width (D ) i s limited by the minimum c r o s s -
P
sectional a r e a of flow a t the head m e a s u r e m e n t station (A,~,) a s follows :

The pipe o r slot should have i t s opening a t l e a s t 0 . 5 m below the lowest

c r e s t level and i t should t e r m i n a t e flush with and perpendicular to the boundary
of the approach channel.

7.3.4 Provision for F r e e Flow Conditions

The flow over the weir i s independent of variations in the tailwater head
over the weir c r e s t ( H ~ provided
~ ~ ) this downstream head does not r i s e above a
c e r t a i n amount of the u p s t r e a m head over the weir (Hcrt). If we a s s u m e sub-
c r i t i c a l flow in the tailwater channel, the ratio Hdwl should not exceed 0. 66 to
Hcrt
provide f r e e flow (modular flow).

7.3.5 Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

The shape of the weir c r e s t a s introduced by Vlugter ( 1 3 6 ) in 1940 h a s the

following advantages over a truly flat and horizontal round-nosed weir :

a. the length of the weir in the direction of flow ( L ~ , ~required

) to
produce a m o r e o r l e s s constant value of the d i s c h a r g e coefficient
(Cd) can be reduced, so that the r a t i o H { ~ ~ :~ L c) r t~ i~s l e, s s
than 0.78, which c o r r e s p o n d s with a reduction of L c r t by about 40%;

b. the l o s s of head due t o friction above the weir c r e s t i s reduced,

resulting in a 4% higher discharge coefficient;

c. the movable p a r t of the s t r u c t u r e i s s m a l l e r and thus m o r e rigid;

d. both the s t e e l s t r u c t u r e and the weir abutments a r e m o r e economical.

The general stage discharge equation for a b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir with

rectangular control section r e a d s
where Cd i s the discharge coefficient, C;, i s the approach velocity coefficient,
g i s the acceleration due t o gravity, and Bt i s the width ( o r breadth) of the weir
a c r o s s the direction of flow.

The value of the discharge coefficient, Cd , h a s been determined in

laboratory t e s t s , (Vlugter. Cohen, Groot). Variation of Cd values a s a function
of the r a t i o H' i s illustrated i n e ~ i g u r 7-9.
e
crt . Lcrt

ope rot in^ ronge of the movoble ROMIJN rneor~ring/re~ulotingweir 1

e l.06 - I
1.05 -
.-U
+I
.- 0 0
.-u
"- -
1-04 *,-
u 1.03 -
'C

8 1.02 -
U
g 1.01 - Averoge Cd reduction
due to friction/
I
5
.- 1.00 - W q t I 1
1 I

0-99 i
101 . .
0'2 Heft/ Lcrt
Rotio
0.4
0'3 (dimensionlesr)
0.3 0.6

o Doto offer d a Groot (19721, = 0-60 m

Doto of ter Cohen (19531, Lcrt = 0-30m

FIGURE 7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the

r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt f o r the Romijn weir.

F o r field s t r u c t u r e s with concrete abutments, i t i s advisable to u s e an

a v e r a g e value f o r Cd, equal to unity.

The maximum percentage e r r o r in Cd can be expected to be l e s s than 3%

if an average value Cd = 1.00 i s used.

Values f o r the approach velocity (Cv) a r e shown in F i g u r e 7- 10 a s a

function of the r a t i o Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt Hb-c ) where H +
(b- c)
i s the height

of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the rectangular approach channel.

 FIGURE 7- 10. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv,
for rectangular approach channels.

Limits of Application

The practical lower limit of Hcrt i s related to the roughness of the sloping
'
weir blade, to the fluid properties, and to the accuracy a t which gauge readings
can be made. The recommended lower limit i s 0.05 m or 0.12 Lcrt whichever
i s greater.

The width (or breadth) of the weir c r e s t (Bt) should not be l e s s than
0. 30 m , nor l e s s than the maximum value of the total energy head ~ i ~
over the weir c r e s t .

The height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the approach channel
H(b-c) should not be l e s s than 0.15 m , nor l e s s than 0.33 HI
(crt)max '
whichever i s g r e a t e r .

In o r d e r to obtain a reasonably constant discharge coefficient, Cd, the

 r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt should not exceed 0.78.

7.3.7 Commonly Used Weir Dimensions

It will be noted that a l l dimensions given h e r e of both the weir and i t s

abutments a r e r e l a t e d to the maximum value selected for the total energy head
over the weir c r e s t (HI
( c r t ) m a x)

The l o s s of head (hc) r e q u i r e d f o r modular flow i s a l s o r e l a t e d to the total

energy head a s h c > 0.33 H'
(crt)max '

Since a limiting factor in m o s t relatively flat i r r i g a t i o n a r e a s i s the

available head for open canal and weir flow, the maximum value of Hcrt i s limited
to a p r a c t i c a l value of approximately 0.47 m . The length of the weir c r e s t (in
the direction of flow), L(crt), consequently equals 0.60 m , of which 0.50 m i s
s t r a i g h t and sloping 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow, while the remaining
0. 10 m f o r m s the rounded nose, i t s r a d i u s being a l s o 0. 10 m .

Theoretically, the width ( o r breadth) of the weir, Bt, which m a y be used i s

flexible over a relatively wide range ( s e e l i m i t s of application), but differences
in t h i s dimension should be limited in the i n t e r e s t of standardization of the
s t r u c t u r e s of an i r r i g a t i o n project. It i s often p r e f e r a b l e for Bt not to exceed
1 . 50 m so that a c e n t r a l hand wheel can be mounted to move the weir in a simple
n a r r o w (0.01 m ) groove a r r a n g e m e n t . Drawings of constructional details a r e
given in F i g u r e 7- 1 1.

7. 3 . 8 Rating Tables f o r Standard W e i r s

F o r the standard weir shown in F i g u r e 7- 11 the following values f o r C

d'
Hcrt and Hb-c apply :

Cd = 1.00

0.05 m ,( Hcrt 0.45 m

0 . 5 5 4 Hb-, ( 0.95 m
t

0.60m
/
+ (Hcrt + H b - c ) < l.00m

Due t o the regulating function of the movable w e i r , both the u p s t r e a m head (H,,~)
 Ring

Welr toMe and

L o c k ~ n g handle Deto~l top corner frome Detoils cross sectlon A-6

L50x100x8
Strip 100x8 @

Cond~tlons e q u ~ r e d from dellvery ex- workshop

F A O - ICID
I Surface of plates to be perfectly fiat
2 Bottom of scourlnq qote to joln onqle Iron @ correctly
3 Holes for bolts and locklnq wedges to be sufftciently overd~menstoned
THE ROMIJN MOVABLE
(even ~f "red - ieoded*)
4 All metol work l o be twlce red - leaded MEASURING / REGULATING WEIR

5 Eoch qote (measurement + scourtnq) to be provlded wtth 2 sets of

padlocks (copper and steel, 2 inches)

Project. Reg~on,C o u n t r y
The Netherlonds / lndones~o

F~gureNo 7-11
 FIGURE 7- 11 SUPPLEMENT. - L i s t of Materials.
B = breadth of approach canal
W = design freeboard

Dimensions o r Breadth
Mark on ~e~uired Remarks
Drawing Amount
Profile Thickness Length

1 2 L50xlOOx8 W + 1950
1a 2 L50xlOOx8 W t 1850
2 1 L50xlOOx8 B t 600
3 1 L50xlOOx8 B t 550
4 2 L50x100~10 B - 20
t

5 1 L80x12OxlO B - 10
6 2 128x10 150
7 2 100x8 925
8 4 45x1 0 925
9 2 38x6 W - 100 Welded t o f r a m e
10 1 482 8 B + 100
11 1 665 8 B - 10
12 1 492 8 B + 100
13 1 W - 132 8 B + 180
14 1 50x10 B - 10
15 2 50x8 W + 476
16 2 50x8 W t 308
17 1 100x8 100
18 1 L50xlOOx8 150
19 1 Stem f3 32 c r 38 1
20 1 Steel housing with bronze nut )
21 1 Hand wheel 1
22 1 Wedge 1 See drawing
23 1 Blocking wedge
and the height of the weir above the bottom of the approach channel (Hb-c) a r e
variable. Consequently, the Cv values range between the broken l i n e s shown
in F i g u r e 7-12.

In i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e i t i s confusing to work with s e v e r a l Cv values f o r the

s a m e u p s t r e a m head. Therefore, the u s e of an average Cv value, a s a function
of the u p s t r e a m head only, i s advised. By using this a v e r a g e value, an e r r o r of
l e s s than 0.57'0 i s introduced in the r a t e of flow, with a maximum when
Hcrt = 0. 29 m .

3
This d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width (breadth) of weir c r e s t , ( q in m / s / m ) can
be calculated with the aid of F i g u r e 7- 1 2 .

Values of q for each 0.01 m of Hcrt a r e presented in Table 7-5.

If no bottom slide i s used and the movable weir i s lowered behind a d r o p in

the channel bottom, the height of the weir c r e s t above the approach channel
bottom (Hb-c) i s l e s s than in the previous (standard) c a s e . Consequently, the
approach velocity and thus the approach velocity coefficient (Cv) a r e significantly
higher.

F o r the standard weir with a length of weir c r e s t Lcrt, in the direction of

flow, of 0.60 m the values of Cd, Hcrt and Hb-c range between the following
value s :

Values of the ratio Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt t Hb- c ) thus range m o r e widely than

before, a s do Cv values a s a function of Hcrt. Minimum and maximum possible

Cv values a r e shown again. By using the average Cv value, an e r r o r of 3.3%

i s introduced in the discharge.

In t h i s context i t should be noted that the a v e r a g e accuracy of the discharge

m e a s u r e m e n t i s l e s s if the height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the
 b

Note:
I I I 7

T h e totol upstreom head over t h e welrfHcrt) should b e meosurtd

- between 0 . 9 0 m ond 1.35m upstreom of t h e foce of t h e weir
in o rectongulor opprooch chonnel whose the width equols t h e
width of t h e weir fq)ond t h e woter depth equols
- f&t + be,).
The flowwise length of t h e weir crest is Lot - 0 . 6 .

1.00
0 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.45 0.50
Upstream t'otal head over the weir crest /HCrt)

- Approach
FIGURE 7 - 1 2 . -- velocity coefficient, C, , a s a function of the total head over the
movable weir crest (HCrt) in the stage discharge equation
2 2 0.5 1.5
- C C
= 3 d v (7') BtHcrt
 TABLE 7-5

Discharge p e r Metre Width (Breadth) of Weir C r e s t

for the Romijn MeasuringfRegulating Weir
L~~~ = 0.60 m and. 0.60 m ,< (Hcrt + H ~ - ,
~( ) 1 - 0 0 m.

Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q

m m3/ s / m m m3/s/m m m3/s/m

NOTE : The width (breadtkS of the weir (Bt) should be equal to o r g r e a t e r

than 0.30 m and g r e a t e r than the total maxi'mum energy head over
the weir ( H : ~). ~

The total upstream head over the weir (HCrt) should be m e a s u r e d

between 0.90 m and 1.35 m upstream of the weir face in a
rectangular approach channel, the width of which equals the width
of the weir ( B ~ and
) whose water depth equals (Hcrt Hb-c).+
The number of significant figures given in the column for the dis-
charge should not be taken to imply a corresponding accuracy of
the values given, but only to a s s i s t in the interpolatioti'dnd rounding
off for various values of Bt.
a p p r o a c h channel (Hb-c) and t h e w a t e r depth in the approach channel
( H + ~ ~ v a~r y in such a way t h a t the r a t i o
Hb-c) Hcrt : ( H , , ~ + Hb-=) moves

in a wider r a n g e of v a l u e s while Hcrt r e m a i n s constant.

The d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width ( o r breadth) of t h e w e i r c r e s t (q) can b e

calculated with t h e aid of F i g u r e 7- 12. Values of q, in m 3 / s / m , f o r
e a c h 0 . 0 1 m of Hcrt a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 7-6.

TABLE 7 - 6

) Weir C r e s t (q)
D i s c h a r g e p e r M e t r e Width ( ~ r e a d t h of
f o r the Romijn MeasuringlRegulating ~ e k :

Lcrt = 0. 60 m and 0.20 m (Hcrt + Hb-c) 0.60 m.

Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q Head Hcrt Discharge q

m m3/?/m m m 3 / s/ m m m3/s/m

S e e Footnote Table 7- 5.
7.4 THE PARSHALL FLUME-11

7.4.1 General Description

The P a r s h a l l flume i s a critical depth measuring device which may be

installed in a canal, ditch o r furrow to m e a s u r e the r a t e of flow of water. It i s a
particular f o r m of venturi flume and i s named after i t s principal developer, the
late R. L . P a r s h a l l . The flume ( F i g u r e 7-13) has been standardized and
calibrated f o r a wide range of capacities in the United States.

FIGURE 7-13. - Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

The flume consists of three principal sections: a converging o r contracting

section at i t s upstream end; leading to a constricted section o r throat; and a
diverging o r expanding section downstream (Figure 7-14). ' The l a r g e r sized
flumes have an approach floor and wing walls a t the upstream end. The floor of
the converging section i s level, both longitudinally and transversely. The floor
of the throat inclines downward, and the floor of the diverging section slopes
upward.

L'Based on information in USBR Water Measurement Manual and USDA National

Engineering Handbook Chapter 9 - Measurement of Irrigation Water,(81 and 82).
 SEC n O N N-N

SECTION L-L

FIGURE 7 - 14. - Plan and elevation of a concrete Parshall

measuring flume showing component parts ( 8 2).
 TABLE 7-7

S t a n d a r d D i m e n s i o n s a n d C a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e P a r s h a l l F l u m e
f o r V a r i o u s T h r o a t Widths (W) f o r F r e e F l o w

I I
Throat I
l Free-Flow Capacity
Width W A B I C D E F G K N X Y
I Minimum Maximum
1. E n g l i s h u n i t s ft in ft in ft in ft in f t i n f t in f t i n in ft in in in
1. ft3/, 1. f t 3 / s
2. M e t r i c u n i t s cm c m I cm cm c m c m . cm)cm cm cm cm 2. 2. 11s
1 5 1
6 in 1 2 - 0 1-32 1-35 2 - 0 1 - 0 ' 2 - 0 1 3 0 - 4 ~2 3 0.05 3.9
15.2 c m 4 . 5 63.0 50.8 44.3 61.0 3 0 . 5 6 1 . 0 7.6 11.4 5.1 7.6 1.42 110.4

9 in 2-10 i 1 - 3 I I - l $ z - 6 1 - 0 ~ 2 . 6 1 3
1
0-42 2 3 0.09 8.9
I
22.9 c m 86.4 / 38.1 57.5 76.3 3 0 . 5 1 76.2; 7.6 11.4 5.1 7.6 2.55 251.8
I I I
1 ft 3 - 0 ' 7
4-43
1
2 - 0 2 - Q
1
3 - 0 2 - 0 1 3 - 0 )I 3 0 - 9 2 3 0.11 16. 1
30.5 c m 91.5 1 134.4 61.0 1 84.5 91.5 5.1i 91.51 7 . 6 ' 2 2 . 9 5.1 7.6 3.11 455.6
1 7 I
1 2 ft 3 - 2 4-75 2 - 6 3 - 0 1-01 3 - 0 3 0 - 9 21 3 0.15 24.6
45.8 c m 96.6 1 142.3 76.2 91.5 5 . 1 91.5 7.6 22.9 5.11 7 . 6 4. 29 696.2
7 1I
2 ft 3 - 4 / 4-1% 3 - 0 13-11-3-0 12-01 3 - 0 3 0 - 9 2 3 0.42 33.1
5 . 1 ,I
I
61 c m 101.7 1
I
149.6 9 1 . 5 1 120.711 9 1 . 5 1 91.5 I
7.6 22.9 5.1 7.6 11.89 936.7-
3 ft 3 - 8 1
I
3
5 - 4 ~4 - 0 5 - 3 0 - 9 2 3 0. 61 50.4
91.5 c m 111.8 / 164.6 122.0 7.6, 22.9 5.1 7.6 17.26 1426
4 ft 1.3 67.9
36.79 1922
1 5
5 ft 4 - 4 6 - 471 6 - 0 17-$ 3 - 0 2 - 0 3 - 0 3 0 - 9 2 3 1. 6 85.6
I
152.5crn 132.2 194.4 1183.0 / 230.3 91.5 5.1 91.5j 7 . 6 22.9 5.1 7.6 45.28 2422

6 ft 4 - 8 3 - 0 2 - 0 3-01 3 / 0 - 9 2 3 2. 6 103.5
183.0 c m 142.3 91.5 5.1 91.5 7.6 22.9 5.1 7. 6 73.58 2929
I I
-
 The flume has a number of significant advantages. It can operate with
relatively small head l o s s . This ability permits i t s use in relatively shallow
channels with flat grades. F o r a given discharge, the l o s s in head through a
P a r s h a l l flume i s only about one fourth that required by a weir under similar f r e e
flow'conditions. The flume i s relatively insensitive to velocity of approach. It
also enables good measurements with no submergence, moderate submergence
o r even with considerable submergence downstream. Properly constructed and
maintained accuracies within f 270 for f r e e flow and + 5% for submerged flow may
be obtained. The velocity of fiow i s sufficiently high to virtually eliminate
sediment deposition within the structure during operation. Another advantage i s
that there i s no easy way to alter the dimensions of flumes already constructed or
to change the device o r channel in any way to obtain an unfair proportion of water.

A disadvantage of the flume i s that standard dimensions must be followed

within close tolerances in o r d e r to obtain reasonable accuracy of measurement.
This requires accurate construction and a high standard of workman ship which
makes the device relatively expensive. A further drawback i s that flumes cannot
be used in close-coupled combination structures consisting of turnout, control and
measuring devices.

The P a r s h a l l flume can be constructed in a wide range of sizes to m e a s u r e

discharges from a l i t r e per second to m o r e than 100 m 3 per second. The width .
of the throat (W in Figure 7-14) i s used to designate the size of the flume. The
sizes discussed in this Handbook a r e limited to throat widths of from 15 cm ( 6
inches) to 183 cm (6 ft). This i s the size range especially suited to the measure-
ment of f a r m deliveries and the flow in relatively small s t r e a m s and their
capacity range i s 11 11s (3.9 f t 3 / s ) to 2.9 m 3 / s (103.5 ft 31s). The selection of
size of flume depends on the range of discharges to be measured. The ranges of
discharges and appropriate standard dimensions for various throat widths a r e
shown in m e t r i c and English units in Table 7-7. Care must be taken to construct
the devices according to the structural dimensions given for each one, because the
flumes a r e not geometrically similar. F o r example, i t cannot be assumed that a
dimension in the 6-ft flume will be three times the corresponding dimension in the
2-ft flume.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

Discharge through the P a r s h a l l flume can occur under either f r e e flow o r

submerged flow conditions. To determine the r a t e of discharge, two depth gauges,
(Ha and Hb) a r e provided ( F i g u r e 7-14). Both gauges a r e s e t with z e r o points a t
the mean elevation of the c r e s t of the flume.

When the c o r r e c t relation between throat width and discharge i s chosen, the
velocity of approach i s automatically controlled. This control i s accomplished by
selecting a throat wide enough t o accommodate the maximum flow to be m e a s u r e d
yet n a r r o w enough to cause an i n c r e a s e in the depth of flow upstream. The r e s u l t
i s a l a r g e r cross-sectional a r e a of the approaching s t r e a m and hence a reduction
in velocity.

F r e e flow

Under f r e e flow conditions, the r a t e of discharge i s dependent solely on the

length of c r e s t , W, and the depth of water at the gauge point,Ha, in the converging
section, this being s i m i l a r to a weir where only the length of c r e s t and head a r e
involved in computing the discharge. One of the important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
P a r s h a l l flume i s i t s ability t o withstand a relatively high degree of submergence,
over a wide range of backwater conditions downstream f r o m the structure, without
/
reduction in the indicated r a t e of f r e e flow. The s t r e a m passing through the
t h r o a t and diverging sections of the flume can flow a t two different stages:
(i) when the water a t high velocity moves in a thin sheet conforming closely to
the dip a t the lower end of the throat (indicated by Q in F i g u r e 7-14), and
(ii) when the backwater r a i s e s the water surface to elevation S , causing a ripple
o r wave to f o r m a t o r just downstream f r o m the end of the throat.

The relationship between gauge reading Ha , throat width W and discharge

Q a r e shown in Table 7- 8 in m e t r i c units. The equation which e x p r e s s e s this
relationship in English units for W f r o m 1 to 8 feet i s :

where Q i s in cubic feet p e r second, and W and Ha in feet.

The equation for the 9 inch (22.9 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7-8) r e a d s :
1.53
Q = 3.07Ha

The equation for the 6 inch (15.25 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7- 8) r e a d s :

1.58
Q = 2.06 Ha
 TABLE 7-8

F r e e Flow D i s c h a r g e Values f o r P a r s h a l l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e

Disch ge, Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of -

2 2 . 8 6 c m 30.48 cn 45.72cm 0 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44cm 121.92cm
(0. 75 ft) (1. 00 ft ' ( 1 . 5 0 ft) (2. 00 ft) (3.00 f t ) ( 4 . 00 ft) (5. 00 ft) ( 6 . 0 0 ft)

.0025 .0033 .0048

.0032 .0042 .0060 -
.0039 .0052 .0074
.0047 .0062 .0089 .0116 .0169
.0072 .0105 .0137 .0200
I
1 .0063 .0084 .0122 .0159 .0232
,0072 .0096 .0139 .0182 .0266 .0348
.0082 .0108 .0157 .0206 .0302 .0395
,0092 .0121 .0176 .0231 .0339 .0444
.0102 .0134 .0196 .0257 .0378 .0495 1 .0726
.0112 .0148 .0217 .0285 .0418 .0549 .0805
,0123 .0162 .0238 .0313 .0459 .0604 .0887
.0135 .0177 .0260 .0342 .0503 .0661 .0971
.0146 .0192 .0282 .0372 .0547 .0720 . 1059
.0158 .0208 .0306 .0402 .0593 .0780 .1149
.0170 .0224 .0329 .0434 .0640 .0843 . 1242
.0183 .0240 .0354 .0466 .0688 .0907 . 1338
.0196 .0254 .0379 .0500 .0738 .0973 . 1436
,0209 .0274 .0405 .0534 .0789 . 1040 .1537
.0222 .0292 .0431 .0569 .0841 .I110 .1640
.0236 .0310 .0458 .0604 .0894 . 1181 . 1746
.0250 .0328 .0485 .0641 .0949 . 1253 . 1854
.0264 .0347 .0513 .0678 . 1004 .. 1327 .1965
.0279 .0360 .054I .0716 .lo61 .I403 .2078
,0294 .0385 .0570 .0755 . 1119 . 1480 .2194
.0309 .0405 .Ob00 .0794 . 1178 . 1558 .2311
.0324 .0425 .0630 .0834 . 1238 . 1638 .2431
.0340 .0445 .0661 .0875 . 1299 . 1720 .2554
.0356 .0466 .0692 .0916 .I361 . 1803 .2678
.0372 .0487 .0723 .0958 . 1425 . 1887 .2805
.0388 .0508 .0755 . 1001 . 1489 . 1973 .2934
.0405 ,0530 .0788 . 1045 .I554 .2060 .3065
.0422 .0552 .0821 . 1089 .I620 .2149 .3198
.0439 .0574 .0854 . 1133 . 1688 .2239 .3333
.0456 .0597 .0888 . 1179 . 1756 .2330 .3471
.0474 .0619 .0923 . 1225 . 1825 .2423 .3610
.0492 .0643 .0957 .I271 .I896 .2516 .3752
.0509 .0666 .0993 . 1319 . 1967 .2612 .3895
.0528 .0690 . 1029 . 1366 .2039 .2708 .4040
.0546 .0714 . 1065 . 1415 .2112 .2806 .4188
.0565 .0738 . 1101 . 1464 .2186 .2905 .4337
.0584 .0762 . 1138 . 1513 .2261 .3005 .4489
.0603 ,0787 . 1176 . 1564 .2337 .3107 .4642
.0622 .0812 .I214 . 1614 .2413 .3210 .4797
.0642 .0838 .I252 . 1666 .2491 .3314 .4954
Cont'd.
 T a b l e 7-8 ( C o n t t d . )

. D i s c h a r g e , Q, for t h r o a t widths, W , of -
Head
Ha 15.24cm 22.86cm 30.48 45.72 c m 60.96 c m 9 1 . 4 4 c m 121.92 c m 152.40 c m 182.88 c m
(cm) ( 0 . 5 0 ft) ( 0 . 75 f t ) ( 1 . 0 0 f t ) ( 1 . 5 0 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 ft) ( 3 . 0 0 f t ) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) ( 5 . 00 ft) ( 6 . 00 ft)

25.50 .0440 .0661 .0863 .I291 . 1718 .2569 .3419 .4267 .5113
26.00 .0454 .0681 .0889 .I330 . 1770 .2649 .3525 .4400 .5274
26.50 .0468 .0701 .0915 '.I370 . 1823 .2729 .3633 .4535 .5436
27.00 .0482 .0722 .0942 . 1410 . 1877 .2810 .3741 .4672 .5601
27.50 .0496 .0742 .0968 . 1450 . 1931 .2892 .3851 .4810 .5767
28.00 .0510 .0763 .0995 .I491 . 1986 .2975 .3962 .4949 .5935
28.50 .0525 .0784 .lo23 . 1532 ,2041 .3058 .4075 .5090 .6105
29.00 .0539 .0805 .1050 .1573 .2097 .3143 .4188 .5233 .6277
29.50 .0554 -0826 .1078 . 1615 .2153 .3228 .4303 .5377 .6451
30.00 .0569 .0848 .I106 .I658 .2210 .3314 .4418 .5522 .6626
30.50 .0583 .0870 .I134 .I700 .2267 .3401 .4535 -5669 .6803
31.00 .0599 .0892 .I162 . 1743 .2325 .3489 .4653 .5817 .6981
31.50 .0614 .0914 .I191 . 1787 .2383 .3577 .4772 .5967 .7162
32.00 .0629 .0936 . 1219 .I831 .2442 .3667 .4892 .6118 .7344
32.50 .0645 .0959 . 1248 .I875 .2502 .3757 .5013 .6270 .7528
33.00 .0661 .0981 .I278 . 1919 . 2 5 62 . 3848 .5135 .6424 .7713
33.50 .0677 . 1004 .I307 . 1964 .2622 .3939 .5259 . 6579 .7901
34.00 .0693 . 1027 .I337 .2010 .2683 .4032 .5383 .6736 .8089
34.50 .0709 .lo50 . 1367 .2055 . 27.44 .4125 .5508 .6893 .8280
35.00 .0725 .lo74 . 1398 .2101 .2806 .4219 .5635 .7053 .8472
35.50 .0742 .lo97 .I428 .2148 .2869 .4314 .5762 .7213 .8666
36.00 .0758 .I121 . 1459 .2194 .2932 .4410 .5891 -7375 .8861
36.50 .0775 .I145 . 1490 .2241 .2995 .4506 . 6021 .7538 .9058
37:OO .0792 .I169 . 1521 .2289 .3059 .4603 .6151 .7703 .9257
37.50 .0809 .I193 . 1552 .2337 .3123 .4701 .6283 .7869 .9457
38.00 .0826 . 1218 . 1584 .2385 .3188 .4799 . 6416 .8036 .9659
38.50 .0843 . 1242 . 1616 .2433 .3253 .4898 . . 6549 .8204 .9863
39.00 .0861 . 1267 .I648 .2482 .3319 .4998 .6684 -8374 1.007
39.50 .0878 .I292 .I680 .2531 .3385 .5099 . 6820 .8545 1.027
40.00 .0896 . 1317 . 1713 .2580 .3452 .5201 .6957 .8718 1.048
40.50 .0914 . 1342 .I745 .2630 .3519 .5303 .7094 .8891 1.069
41.00 .0932 .I368 .I778 .2680 .3586 .5406 .7233 .9066 1.090
41.50 .0950 .I394 . 1811 .2731 .3654 .5509 .7373 .9242 1.112
42.00 ,0968 .I419 .I845 .2782 .3723 .5614 .7513 .9419 1.133
42.50 .0986 .I445 .I878 .2833 .3792 .5719 ,7655 .9598 1.155
43.00 .lo04 .1471 .I912 .2884 .3861 .5824 .7798 .9778 1.176
43.50 . 1023 . 1498 .I946 .2936 ,3931 .5931 .7941 .9959 1.198
44.00 . 1042 . 1524 . 1980 .2988 .4001 .6038 .8086 1.014 1.220
44.50 . 1060 .1551 .2014 .3040 .4072 .6146 .8231 1.033 1.243
45.00 ,1079 .I577 .2049 .3093 .4143 .6254 .8377 1.051 1.265
45.50 .I604 .2084 .3146 .4214 .6363 .8525 1.070 1.287
46.00 .I631 .2119 .3199 .4286 .6473 .8673 1.088 1.310
46.50 .I659 .2154 .3253 .4359 .6584 .8822 1.107 1.333
47.00 .I686 .2189 .3307 .4432 .6695 .8972 1.126 1.356
47.50 . 1713 .2225 .3361 .4505 .6807 .9124 1.145 1.379
48.00 .I741 .2260 .3416 .4579 .6919 .9276 1.164 1.402
48.50 . 1769 .2296 .3471 .4653 .7033 .9428 1.184 1.425
49.00 .I797 .2333 .3526 .4727 .7147 .9582 1.203 1.449
49.50 .I825 .2369 .3581 .4802 -7261 .9737 1.223 1.473
50.00 . 1853 .2405 .3637 .4878 .7376 .9893 1.242 1.496

Cont'd.
 T a b l e 7- 8 (Cont'd. )

Head D i s c h a r g e , Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of -
H 1 5 . 2 4 c m 22.86 c m 30.48 c m 45.72 c m 6 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44 c m 121.92cm 1 5 2 4 0 c m 1 8 2 8 8 c m
( c a (0.50 ft) (0. 75 ft) (1. 00 ft) (1.50 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 f t ) (3. 00 ft) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) (5.00 f t ) (6. 00 ft)
50.50 . 1882 .2442 .3693 .4953 .7492 1.005 1.262 1.520
51.00 .I910 .2479 .3750 .5030 .7609 1.021 1.282 1.544
51.50 .I939 .2516 .3806 .5106 .7726 1.037 1.302 1.569
52.00 .I968 .2553 .3863 .5183 .7844 1.052 1.322 1.593
52.50 .I997 .2591 .3921 .5261 .7962 1.068 1.342 1.617
53.00 .2026 .2628 .3978 .5339 .a081 1.085 1.363 1.642
53.50 .2056 .2666 .4036 ,5417 .a201 1.101 1.383 1.667
54.00 .2085 .2704 .4094 .5495 .a321 1.117 1.404 1.692
54.50 .21.15 .2743 .4153 .5575 ,8442 1.133 1.424 1.717
55.00 .2144 .2781 .4212 .5654 .a564 1.150 1.445 1.742
55.50 .2174 ,2820 .4271 ,5734 .a686 1.166 1.466 1.767
56.00 .2204 .2858 .4330 .5814 .a809 1.183 1.487 1.793
56.50 .2235 .2897 .4390 .5895 .a932 1.200 1.508 1.818
57.00 ' ,2265 .2936 .4449 .5976 .9057 1.217 1.529 1.844
57.50 .2295 .2976 .4510 .6057 .9181 1.233 1.551 1.870
58.00 .2326 .3015 .4570 .6139 ,9307 1.250 1.572 1.896
58.50 .2357 .3055 .4631 .6221 .9433 1.267 1.594 1.922
59.00 .2388 .3095 .4692 .6304 ,9559 1.285 1.615 1.948
59.50 .2419 .3135 .4753 .6387 .9686 1.302 1.637 1.975
60.00 .2450 t 3175 .4815 .6470 .9814 1.319 1.659 2.001
60.50 .2481 .3215 .4877 .6554 ,9943 1.336 1.681 2.028
61.00 .2513 .3256 .4939 .6638 1.007 1.354 1.703 2.055
61.50 .3296 .5001 .6723 1.020 1.371 1.725 2.082
62.00 .3337 .5064 .6808 1.033 1.389 1.748 2.109
62.50 .3378 .5127 .6893 1.046 1.407 1.770 2.136
63.00 ,3420 .5190 .6978 1.059 1.425 1.793 2.163
63.50 .3461 .5254 .7064 1.073 1.443 1.815 2.191
64.00 .3503 .5317 .7151 1.086 -1.460 1.838 2.218
64.50 .3544 .5381 .7238 1.099 1.479 1.861 2.246
65.00 .3586 ,5446 .7325 1.113 1.497 1.884 2.274
65.50 .3628 .5510 .7412 1.126 1.515 1.907 2.302
66.00 .3671 .5575 .7500 1.139 1.533 1.930 2.330
66.50 ,3713 .5640 .7588 1.153 1.552 1.953 2.358
67.00 .3755 .5706 .7677 1.167 1.570 1.977 2.386
67.50 .3798 .5771 .7766 1.180 1.588 2.000 2.415
68.00 .3841 .5837 .7855 1.194 1.607 2.024 2.443
68.50 .3884 .5903 .7945 1.208 1.626 2.047 2.472
69.00 .3927 .5970 .a035 1.222 1.645 2.071 2.501
69.50 .3971 .6036 .a125 1.236 1.663 2.095 2.530
70.00 .4014 .6103 .a216 1.249 1.682 2.119 2.559
70.50 .4058 .6170 .a307 1.263 1.701 2.143 2.588
71.00
71.50
72.00
,4102
.4146
.4190
j: 6238
6306
.6373
.a399
.8491
.a583
1.278
1.292
1.306
1.720
1.759
2.167 .
192
2.216
2.617
2. 647
2.676
72.50
73.00
.4235
.4279
1/ .6442
.6510
.a675
.a768
1.320
1.334
1.778
1.797
2.240
2.265
2.706
2.736
73.50 .4324 .6579 .8862 1.817 2.766
74.00
74.50
.4369
.4414
1, .6648
,6717
.8955
.9049
1.349
1.363
1.378
1.836
1.856
2.290
2.314
2.339
2.796
2.826
,75.00 .4459 / .6787 .9143 1.392 1.876 2.364 2.856

-
Note: 1 . ' T a b l e taken a n d c o n v e r t e d i n t o m e t r i c v a l u e s f r o m P a r s h a l l , R. L . , M e a s u r i n g
w a t e r i n i r r i g a t i o n ' c h a n n e l s , U. S.Dept.Agr., C i r . 843, p. 62, 1950 (out of print).
2. F o r Ha a n d W s e e F i g u r e 7-14
3. T o c o n v e r t m3/ s i n t o c u s e c s multiply above f i g u r e s By 35.3
Submerged flow

In m o s t installations, when the discharge i s increased above a critical value

the resistance to flow in the downstream channel becomes sufficient to reduce the
velocity, i n c r e a s e the flow depth, and cause a backwater effect at the P a r s h a l l
flume. It might be expected that the discharge would begin to be reduced a s soon
a s the backwater level Hb exceeded the elevation of the flume c r e s t ; however,
t h i s i s n o t t h e case. C a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s s h o w t h a t t h e d i s c h a r g e i s n o t reduced
until the submergence ratio Hb : Ha , expressed a s a percentage, exceeds the
following values :

Hb
Width of throat (W) F r e e flow limit of -
Ha

15.2 to 23 cm ( 6 to 9 inches) 60 %

30. 5 to 244cm (1 to 8 feet ) 70 %

The upper limit of the submergence ratio i s 95%. At this point the flume
c e a s e s to be an effective measuring device because the head differential between

Ha and Hb becomes so small that any slight inaccuracy in either head reading
r e s u l t s in a l a r g e e r r o r in flow measurement.

Approach flow conditions

Experience h a s shown that P a r s h a l l flumes should not be placed at right

angles to flowing s t r e a m s , such a s in turnouts, unless the flow i s effectively
straightened and uniformly redistributed before i t entefrs the flumes. Surges and
waves of any appreciable size should be eliminated. The water should enter the
converging section reasonably well distributed a c r o s s the entrance width, and the
flow lines should be essentially parallel to the flume centreline. Also, the flow
at the flume entrance should be f r e e of "white" water and f r e e f r o m turbulence in
the f o r m of visible surface "boils" such a s might occur below a control gate.
Only then can the flume m e a s u r e water a s intended.

Experience h a s also shown that i t i s better to provide standard conditions of

approach and exit than to t r y to estimate the effects of non-standard conditions;
such flow conditions cannot be described and evaluated in t e r m s of measurement
accuracy. Non- standard approach flow conditions should therefore be eliminated'
by deepening, widening, o r straightening the flow channel, o r by resetting o r r e -
 arranging the m e a s u r i n g station.

In locations where approach flow conditions have resulted in m e a s u r e m e n t

difficulties, and no u p s t r e a m wing walls have been included in the original con-
struction, the curved wing walls shown in F i g u r e 7- 14 should be considered.
Curved wing walls a r e p r e f e r r e d over straight 45O walls, although any
a r r a n g e m e n t of walls, channel banks, o r other shapes that achieve uniformity
and smoothness in the approaching flow i s acceptable.

7.4.3 Discharge Measurement

F r e e flow conditions
When the flow i s f r e e , o r when the submergence i s below the l i m i t s quoted
in 7.4.2, the discharge m a y be r e a d directly f r o m Table 7-8, using the u p s t r e a m
head Ha and the throat width, W, of the flume.

To i l l u s t r a t e the determination of the degree of submergence and r a t e of d i s -

charge, i t i s assumed that f o r a 2 f t flume the m e a s u f e d heads (Ha and Hb) a r e
1

67 c m (2.2 ft) and 40 c m ( 1 . 3 ft) respectively. The r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 40 divided

by 67, o r 0. 6, o r 60%. Since this value i s l e s s than 70% ( p a r a . 7.4.2), f r e e flow
conditions exist, and to find the discharge i t i s only n e c e s s a r y to u s e the one
m e a s u r e d head Ha = 67 cm. Referring to Table 7-8 f o r a 2 ft flume gives a
discharge of 768 11s.

Submerged conditions

When the ratio of the two heads Hb and Ha exceeds the l i m i t for f r e e flow
conditions, i t becomes n e c e s s a r y to apply a negative correction to the f r e e flow
discharge in o r d e r to determine the r a t e of submerged flow.

F o r throat widths of 15.2 cm (6 inches) and 23 cm (9 inches) the submerged

r a t e of flow can be r e a d directly f r o m F i g u r e s 7- 15 o r 7- 16 respectively.

Example:
Given 15.2 cm ( 6 inch) flume
m e a s u r e d Ha = 36.6 cm (1.20 ft)
m e a s u r e d Hb = 32.9 c m (1.08 ft)

Calculate percentage of submergence :

R e f e r to F i g u r e 7- 15. The submerged flow i s 50.9 l / s o r 1.80 ft 3 p e r s e c .

 $ e 8 8
~
E
~
n t o i n ! C
E E
v
E
v u
9
-
cu
E
o v P
cv
h
€
C,

c\r
0
€
C,

n3
t
C,

rr)
E
C,

3
C,
0
v
8
0

Q
C,

S
60

0 0.4 0.8 1-2 1-6 2.0 2.4 2.8' 32 3.6 4-0

Discharge in f t /s
1 I I I I I I I I
0 10
k
20
I I
30 40 . 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
ma/ s

F I G U R E 7- 15. - Diagram showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in

11 s and in ft3/ s, through a 1 5 . 2 crn ( 6 inch) P a r shall m e a s u r i n g flume
 E
E F & e e
E
0
E
o g
E
o
2
E
o
5
o
9
E
-
15
o
cu
o
€
v
c\r
o
h
nl
0
0
rr)
o
v
rr,
2
rr,
0t,
P 2
0 C,
<o
P

0 05 1.0 1.5 2.0 2-5 30 35 40 4.5 5.0 5.5 60

Discharge in f t /s

FIGURE 7- 16. - Diagram showing the rate of submerged flow.

in l / s and f t 3 / s , through a 23 crn (9 inch) Parshall flume.
 F o r flumes with throat widths between 1 and 8 ft, the submerged discharge
i s determined by using a correction diagram (Figure 7- 17). This diagram i s
for a 1 ft throat width and is made applicable to the l a r g e r fliunes by multiplying
the correction for a 1 f t flume by the factor (M) for the size of flume in use.
Thiebcorrectioni s then subtracted from the f r e e flow discharge f6r the measured
head (Ha), a s obtained from ~ a b l d7-8. The factor M for various throat widths
i s tabulated below.

Throat width Multiplying factor (M)

ft cm

0.06 0.10 0.20 050 , 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.5 4 5 6 810

Correction in f i l s

FIGURE 7- 17. -
Diagram fox computing the r a t e of
submerged flow through a 30.5 cm (1 ft) P a r shall
flume (82).
Example:

Find the submerged discharge through a 3 f t P a r s h a l l flume:

Given W = 91.5cm (3ft)

measured Ha = 64 c m ( 2 . 1 ft)
measured Hb = 61 c m (2.0 ft)

Percentage of submergence:

2.0
-
2.1
= 0.95 o r 95%

F r o m the correction diagram, Figure 7- 17:

Correction for a 1 f t throat width = 163 I / s (5.75 ft 3/ s )

Since this correction m u s t be made applicable to a 3 ft throat width,

multiply i t by the applicable value of M f r o m the above tabulation -

Correction for a 3 ft throat width:

165 x 2 . 4 = 391 11s (13.8 f t 3 / s )

F r o m Table 7-8 find the f r e e flow for W = 91.5 c m and Ha = 64 c m

Q f r e e flow = 1086 I / s (38.4 f t 3 / s )

Q submerged flow = 1086 - '391 = 695 l / s (24.6 ft 31s). .

Approximate determination of submerged discharges

Figure 7- 18 illustrates the effect of submergence on the discharge r a t e s of

various flume sizes. F o r example a t 70% submergence only the .6 inch to 1 ft
flumes would be affected. The 6 inch flume would discharge 94% of the f r e e
discharge rate. At a submergence of 80% the discharge f r o m all flumes will be
affected to some extent. The f r e e discharge values can be obtained f r o m Table
7-8 a s shown before.

The graph may be useful in determining approximately the size of flume

required and the beet setting in the channel. The curves represent data obtained
 during calibration tests and have a maximum deviation of + 7%.

50 60 70 80 90 100
Hb
Submergence , , in per cent

FIGURE 7- 18. Effect of submergence on Parshall

-
flume free discharge (81).

Siting of Flumes

Generally i t i s advantageous to have the measuring flume conveniently near

the of diversion o r regulating gate i f conditions bf operation require frequent
recording of discharge. On the other hand the flume should not be placed too
near the head gate, a s *e disturbed water just downstream from the outlet may
cause surging and unbalanced flow; i t should best be located in a straight section
of the channel.

7.4.5 Selection of Flume Size

Following the selection of the site, information should be obtained on the

maximum and minimum flows to be measured, the corresponding flow depths,
the maximum velocity and the dimensions of the channel at the site. These
dimensions should include width, side slopes and depth, and the height of the
upstream banks with special reference to their ability to contain the increased
depth caused by the flume installation. With this information and the use of
discharge tables for standard flume dimensions the size and proper elevation of
the c r e s t can be obtained. Examples a r e given below to a s s i s t in the problem of
size and setting of the measuring flume a s covered by general field conditions
usually found in irrigation practice.
Example:

Given - A discharge of up to 566 l / s (20 second ft) i s to be m e a s u r e d in

a channel of moderate grade where the water depth i s 77 c m
( 2 . 5 ft) and the channel banks a r e about 3 m (10 ft) apart.

Solution - This quantity of flow can be measured through several s i z e s of

flume, but for the sake of economy the smallest practical size
should be selected.

F i r s t l e t i t be assumed that a submergence of 70% m u s t not be exceeded in

o r d e r that the flow may be determined by the single gauge reading of Ha.

As a rule of thumb, the most economical flume size, W , i s from one-third

to one-half the width of the channel. Considering the 3 m (10 ft) channel width
the 4 ft (122 cm) flume s e e m s to be the most practical, but the 3 ft and 2 ft
flumes should be investigated a s well.

4 ft (122 cm) flume

F o r this size and the given maximum discharge of 566 l / s (20 s e c ft) the
head Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft) f r o m Table 7- 8.

FIGURE 7-19. -
Section of a P a r s h a l l measuring flume illustrating
the determination of the proper c r e s t elevation (82).
 F o r a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb gauge to Ha gauge i s 0 . 7 ; hence,
Hb for t h i s condition of flow is 25 c m (0.81 ft). At 70% submergence, .the w a t e r
surface in the throat a t the Hb gauge is essentially level with that a t the lower
end of the flume. Under t h i s condition of flow, the water depth just below the
s t r u c t u r e will be approximately the s a m e a s before the flume was installed, that
i s 77 c m ( 2 . 5 f t ) . InFigure 7-19thedimension D representsthisdepthof
77 cm. By subtracting Hb, o r 25 c m , f r o m 77 c m , the value of X, o r 52 c m
(1.69 ft) i s obtained. This i s the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the
channel. F o r t h i s s i z e of flume, s e t with the c r e s t a t 52 c m (1. 69 ft), the flow
of 566 11s (20 sec-ft) will be a t 7070 submergence, and the actual l o s s of head (L)
o r difference in elevation between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water s u r f a c e s
will.be 13 c m ( 0 . 4 2 ft) a s determined by F i g u r e 7-20.

2+4 Cm
zr3 5 cm
183cm
1525 crn
122 cm
91 5cm

61cm

30 5cm

93 90 85 80 70 6050 OM5002 003004 0.06QO8OlO 015020 0.30040 06008010

Psrcento~eof submergence Loss of heod L ~n feet

FIGURE 7-20. - Diagram for determining the head l o s s through

the P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume (82).

The depth of water upstream f r o m the s t r u c t u r e a t a flow of 566 11s (20 sec-ft)
will t h e r e f o r e be 90 c m (2.92 ft). It will b e n e c e s s a r y t o examine the f r e e b o a r d
of the channel, a s well a s the effect of the r i s e of the water surface upon the flow
through the head gate, in deciding which s i z e of flume i s the m o s t practical.

3 f t (91.5 c m ) flume

F o r t h i s s i z e and the given maximum d i s c h a r g e of 566 l / s (20 second-ft)

the head Ha i s found to be approx. 43 c m (1.39 ft) f r o m Table 7-8. Again for
a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 0.7; hence the Hb for this
condition of flow i s 30 c m (0.97 ft). By r e f e r e n c e to F i g u r e 7- 19, the value of X,
o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel, i s found to be 47 c m
( 1 . 5 3 ft), and the actual l o s s of head through the flume ( F i g u r e 7-20) i s found to
be 16 c m (0.52 ft). The depth of water u p s t r e a m for t h i s s i z e of flume will now
be 92 c m ( 3 . 0 2 ft).

2 f t (61 cm) flume

As before, find the Ha head in Table 7-8 for a f r e e flow of 566 11s
,
(20 second-ft). F o r the 2 ft flume t h i s head i s 55 c m (1.81 ft). At a sub-
m e r g e n c e of 70% the value of Hb i s 39 c m (1.27 ft). By again r e f e r r i n g to
F i g u r e 7-19 the value of X o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bed of the
channel i s found to be 77 - 39 o r 38 c m (1. 23 ft). F o r t h i s s i z e of flume d i s -
charging 566 l / s (20 second-ft) a t a submergence of 70%, the actual l o s s of head
( F i g u r e 7-20) i s 21 c m (0. 70 ft) and the depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 97 c m
( 3 . 20 ft).

If i t i s found that the banks of the channel and entrance conditions through
the head gates a r e satisfactory, the 2 f t flume will be m o s t economical because of
i t s s m a l l dimensions; however, when the width of the channel i s considered the
final selection m a y favour the 3 o r 4 f t flume because m o d e r a t e to long wing walls
m a y be r e q u i r e d .

In the above analysis of the t h r e e s i z e s of f l u m e s investigated, the actual

i n c r e a s e o r r i s e in the depth of water u p s t r e a m f r o m the s t r u c t u r e i s
considerably l e s s than the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel
(X). F o r the 4 f t flume the c r e s t i s 52 c m (1.69 ft) above the channel bed, and
the r i s e in water u p s t r e a m will be only 12 c m (0.42 ft).

This analysis shows f u r t h e r that a s the s i z e of flume i s d e c r e a s e d , the

 elevation of the c r e s t becomes l e s s , and the depth of water upstream f r o m the
s t r u c t u r e becomes g r e a t e r for similar r a t e s of discharge and like d e g r e e s of
submergence. It i s usually better to s e t the flume high rather than low, to
provide a margin of safety f o r variations of the water surface downstream. In
irrigation channels, especially those with e a r t h banks and bottom, deposits of
sand o r silt may change the downstream flow conditions, and weeds o r other .
debris may likewise affect the degree of submergence.

Although the above analysis of the f r e e flow data for the 4 ft flume shows
that i t would be n e c e s s a r y o r desirable to lower the upstream water surface
elevation a s much a s possible, the effect of operating the flume a t 95% sub-
mergence ( o r any other value between 70 and 95%) a t the maximum discharge
might be investigated. F o r example, a submergence above 70% would lower the
entire structure in the channel and because of reduced headloss could provide
m o r e bank freeboard upstream.

Using the data from the above example, suppose that the maximum
discharge of 566 11s (20 second-ft) i s to be passed with a depth of 77 cm (2. 5 ft)
but with 95% submergence (instead of 70% a s previously).

F r o m Table 7-8, Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft) .

F o r 95% submergence,

In Figure 7-19, X = D - Hb = 77 - 33 = 44 cm (1.41 ft)

Therefore, for 95% submergence the c r e s t of the 4 ft flume should be set

a t 44 cmabove the bottom of the channel, a s compared with 52 cm for 7070
submergence. F r o m Figure 7-20 the head l o s s i s found to be N 2 cm (0.077 ft),
a s compared with 13 cm (0.42 ft) for 70% submergence.

7.4.6 Deviation f r o m Standard Dimensions

In principle, i f standard measuring procedures, tables and graphs a r e to

be applicable under all flow conditions, the P a r s h a l l flume h a s to be constructed
exactly according to standard dimensions a s given in Table 7-7. However, if
the flume i s never to be operated above the 7070 (60% for 6 to 9 inch flumes)
submergence limit (i. e . where enough head i s available and no backwater f r o m
down s t r e a m i s anticipated in the future) modifications of the standard design
downstream f r o m the dip (e. g. different floor shape, stilling basin, wing walls)
should have no effect upon .discharge. With this submergence limit i t i s not
necessary to construct the portion of the flume downstream from the end of the
c r e s t , shown a s station 1 in Figure 7-19.

When only the upstream portion of the flume i s constructed, the flume i s
sometimes r e f e r r e d to a s the Montana flume. The c r e s t of the Montana flume
should be s e t above the channel bottom in the same manner a s worked out in the
above examples. This will ensure that the flow profile over the c r e s t section
i s not modified by backwater from the downstream channel. Erosion protection
t

downstream f r o m the flume may need to be considered.

In the case of submergence above the 70% ( o r 60%) limit, the effect of
modifications may cause measurements to be inaccurate when using standard
discharge tables. In such a case i t i s necessary to specially calibrate the
modified flume by the current m e t e r o r some other suitable method.

Construction

The P a r s h a l l measuring flume may be constructed of sheet metal, timber

o r reinforced concrete. Sheet metal flumes (Figures 7-21, 7-22) have proved
very satisfactory, but since the cost usually exceeds that of either wood o r
concrete, their use has been restricted to the smaller sizes. The most
common and practical sizes a r e those of l e s s than 6 1 c m ( 2 ft).

Sheet metal flumes have the advantage of being portable, and they
can readily be r e s e t and readjusted a s needed. They have a relatively
long life and a r e immune to f i r e hazards such a s those caused by ditch
cleaning.
 FIGURE 7- 21. - P a r shall flume of 152 cm (5 ft) throat width
assembled f r o m prefabricated sheet metal p a r t s .

FIGURE 7-22. - P a r s h a l l flume of 183 cm ( 6 ft) throat width

at full discharge.

Commercially made flumes of this type (Figure 7-23) a r e available in a

wide range of capacities.
 FIGURE 7- 23. - Commercially available P a r shall
measuring flume.

Monolithic reinforced concrete flumes constructed in any of the previously

discussed sizes have proved satisfactory. Such flumes have the distinct
advantage of permanence and a r e little subject to expansion o r contraction, thus
ensuring uniformity of operation. They a r e not subject to f i r e and other hazards
a s a r e timber structures. Their principal disadvantage i s their relatively high
initial cost,

Standard designs, a s used in the U . S. A . , a r e shown in Figures 7 - 2 4 and

7-25.

Where a number of flumes of the same size a r e to be built of concrete,

i t will be found economical and practicable to built portable knock-down f o r m s ,
preferably in sheet iron o r plywood. It i s advantageous to construct the sides
of the flume f i r s t and after the concrete is set, to remove the f o r m s and place
the floor. The floor i s screeded to proper grade by iron angles installed
a t the changes in grade along the floor.
 Ha gauge i f gauge H b gouge well
.
Dimensions,. co~ocitiesand ouantities for vorious throat widths
Notes :
Free- Flow
well not prwided Dimensions Quantities The dimensions X x D depend upon the setting

7 gauge well
(optional- if need*7 cawcitv
of the crest of the flume with reference to the
bed of the channel and will be determined for each
setting.
To obtain accurate discharge measurements,the flum
must be constructed exactly to dimensions listed in
table ond given on plans.
=i and X = d d

-
Quontities given in table are for D
All reinforcing steel to beg&. rods placed ot centre
Flow
of sections.
gouge not required unless Hb gouge reoding will
be over 70 % of the Ha gauge reading.
The use of an Ha gouge well is optional. If an
gouge well is not used, install the Ha gouge on
the side woll of the flume,
For discharge tables, loss of head and setting
.ords, ' set
icrete of crest of flume with reference t o the bed .
C/C
of the chonnel. see Engineering Handbook and
Plon U.S.D.A. Farmers Bulletin No. 1683.
gauge i f gauge well die. bolt set
6 tn concrete
is not pravided-1

Concrete morto
Bottom
Flow
of chonnel-)
- of flume
m of chonnel
Crest elevotion
Provide suitable rip-rop or
) stirrups 12C / C A concrete opron to protect
i d i a . galvonized pipe : 1 long rods l i c / c chonnel from scour ot flume Ll*common woshers. Top of washers to be ot
i f gauge well provided outlet exact crest elevation
Sectionol elevotion A-A
Sectionol elevotion 8 - 6
Showing We gauge well (optional)

~f a fixed gouge is used, install 1 8 din. or lorger vitrified FA0 -ICID

cloypipe, j long. If removable gouge is used, d dio. pipe
may be instolled
elbow. Set end of pipe STANDARD CONCRETE PARSHALL
with inside face of conc
MEASURING FLUME
Crest elevotion
Throot width I foot to 8 feet
-
2-6, i-i concrete base , Project, Regi0.n , Country
U S A
Sectional elevation C-C
Showing Hb gouge well Figure No. 7 - 24
 FIGURE 7 - 2 5 . - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l flume.
The water depth i s r e a d on the staff gauge in the stilling
well and i s converted to r a t e of flow by r e f e r e n c e to a
rating table.

7.4.8 Maintenance

After a P a r s h a l l flume h a s been properly installed, periodic maintenance i s

r e q u i r e d to e n s u r e satisfactory operation. Moss m a y collect on the walls of the
entrance section and in certain channels d e b r i s may collect on the floor of the
entrance section and they should be removed. Walls of steel flumes may become
encrusted and the encrustation should be removed with a steel wire b r u s h . Once
the walls have been s c r a p e d clean, applying asphaltic paint will add to the life of
the flume.

Commonly, P a r s h a l l flumes, o r any other type of flow m e a s u r i n g flumes,

placed in unlined channels will "settle" after being in operation f o r a period of
time. The levelness of the entrance floor should be checked a f t e r a few months
of operation, and again at the end of the season o r y e a r .

E i t h e r settling o r i m p r o p e r installation can cause a flume to tilt sideways.

If the settling i s m i n o r , the discharge can still be estimated with f a i r accuracy
by m e a s u r i n g the flow depths on both sides of the flume. By employing the
a v e r a g e of the two readings when using the d i s c h a r g e equations o r rating tables.
the d i s c h a r g e can be determined.
 Settlement occurs m o s t commonly n e a r the exit section because of channel
erosion immediately downstream from the flume caused by the jetting action of
the water. Use of the flow depths Ha o r Ha and Hb to obtain the discharge f r o m
standard discharge tables will yield values l e s s than the t r u e discharge. Satis-
factory solutions to this problem include raising the lower end of the flume so
that i t i s level again o r placing a new level floor in the flume. Correction values
for settled "Cut throat flumest1of a few sizes have been determined
experimentally and further r e s e a r c h i s being c a r r i e d out (83).

7.5 THE STANDING WAVE MEASURING FLUME

The standing wave measuring flume developed in India i s essentially a drop

which has been standardized and calibrated to s e r v e for the measurement of flow.
It i s described in detail in Chapter 6, sub- section 6.1 1.2.

7.6 THE CUT-THROAT FLUME-1/

7. 6. 1 General

. The Cut-throat Flume h a s been developed recently to overcome some of the

shortcomings of other types of flumes already in existence. Figure 7-26 shows
the standard shape of this flume which was derived eGperirnentally. The flume
has a flat bottom and vertical walls, a s seen in Figure 7- 27. It can be operated
( a s the P a r s h a l l flume) under both f r e e flow and submerged flow conditions.
Since the flume h a s no longitudinal throat section the flume was given the name
"Cut-throat" by i t s developers (Skogerboe, Hyatt, Anderson and Eggleston).
Figure 7-28 shows a 1 f t flume in operation. Advantages of the flume a s com-
pared with the P a r s h a l l flume a r e a s follows.

Construction of the flume i s facilitated by the horizontal floor and removal

of the throat section.

Since the angles of convergence and divergence remain the' same for all

L' The description i s based mainly on reference (85).

flumes, the s i z e of the flume can be changed by merely moving the walls in o r out.
Therefore, ratings for intermediate sized flumes can be developed from the
ratings available. This i s extremely helpful when sizes other than those with a
rating a r e required o r a miatake i s made in the throat width during construction.

FIGURE 7-26. - Sketch of Cut-throat flume. (85)

If circumstances allow, i t i s preferable to have the cut-throat flume operate

under f r e e flow conditions. This facilitates measurement and ensures a high
degree of accuracy. The following description i s limited to the f r e e flow con-
dition. F o r corresponding information on the submerged flow condition reference
(85) may be consulted. As to be expected there a r e similarities in the installation
and operation of the P a r s h a l l flume and the Cut-throat flume. As the former has
been described in considerable detail, discussion of the Cut-throat flume i s
limited to the essentials.
FIGURE 7-27. - F i n a l design of a 61 c m ( 2 ft) rectangular
cut-throat flume ( 9 0 ) .

FIGURE 7 - 28. - Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat

width, with automatic recording device, operating under
f r e e flow conditions.
 Determination of Discharge under F r e e Flow Conditions

F r e e flow through the Cut-throat flume i s given by the two formulae

3
where Q = flow r a t e in m / s
C = f r e e flow coefficient

Ha = u p s t r e a m flow depth ( m e a s u r e d a t a distance of - f r o m the

9
throat, s e e F i g u r e 7- 26 )

and

where C = f r e e flow coefficient ( a s above)

K = the flume length coefficient
W = the throat width in m .
,
The values of n and K a r e obtained f r o m F i g u r e 7-29 for a given flume
length.

The d i s c h a r g e can then be calculated for any Ha by using the above two
formulae, provided f r e e flow conditions exist in the flume, ( c r i t e r i a for these
conditions a r e described in 7.6.3). F o r a c c u r a t e d i s ~ h a r g em e a s u r e m e n t s , the
recommended r a t i o of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be equal to o r
l e s s than 0.4. Increasing values of this r a t i o r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r i n a c c u r a c i e s .

Example of flow calculation

A f r e e flow rating i s needed f o r a Cut-throat flume of length, L, of 1. 22 m and

width, W, of 0.36 m. F r o m F i g u r e 7- 29 the value of n i s found to be 1 . 7 5 and
the value K i s 3. 16. Then, using equation(2)the value of the f r e e flow coefficient
C i s calculated.
1.025
C = K W
1.025
= 3.16 . 0.36

Now, knowing the values of n and C, the flow r a t e through the flume can
be calculated for any value of Ha using equation (1).
 Assuming Ha = 0 . 3 6 6 m

Installation of Cut- throat Flumes for Operation under F r e e Flow Conditions

C r i t e r i a for location of the Cut-throat flume a r e identical to those already

described for P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.4). After the site h a s been selected i t i s
n e c e s s a r y to determine the design c r i t e r i a :

- maximum quantity of water to be measured;

- depth of flow n e c e s s a r y to obtain this discharge;
- allowable head l o s s through the flume.

F o r design purposes, the head l o s s may be taken a s the change in water

surface elevation between the flume entrance and exit. The downstream depth of
flow will remain essentially the s a m e after installation of the flume, a s i t was
p r i o r to installation, but the upstream depth will i n c r e a s e by the amount of head
loss. ,The allowable increase in upstream depth may be limited by the height of
the canal banks upstream of the flume, and such condition may require an
i n c r e a s e in the flume size in o r d e r to bring the water level down to acceptable
limits.

<
The flume must be placed level in the channel, both longitudinally and
laterally, and be aligned straight with it.

The most important dimension i s the throat width, W. (As already

mentioned one of the principal advantages of this flume i s that an e r r o r in con-
structing the throat resulting in an e r r o r in the width can be taken into account by
writing new flow ratings, using equation ( 2 ) ) . If a Cut-throat flume i s to be
constructed in concrete, a steel angle can be placed a t the throat cross-section
embedded in the concrete and this will fix the width correctly.

In the experience of the developers of this flume a transition structure

between the open channel and the flume i s not necessary. The only guidelines
to follow i s that the ratio of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be 0 . 4 o r
1
m
I
m
I
-4
I
m
I
w
-
I

0
-
I
-
I

0
-
I

0
-I
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 22 N W 0
Transition submergence, St, in per cent

FIGURE 7 - 2 9 . - G e n e r a l i z e d f r e e flow coefficients and

exponents and St for C u t - t h r o a t flumes, in m e t r i c u n i t s .
l e s s a s already pointed out. F o r the usual installations in channels of gentle
grade this will e n s u r e that approach conditions will satisfy the conditions under
which the laboratory ratings w e r e developed.

Measurements may be made in the flume by the use of a staff gauge o r

stilling well s e t a t the specified location f o r Ha. The staff gauge m u s t be
carefully referenced to the elevation of the flume bottom.

In o r d e r to e n s u r e f r e e flow conditions the ratio between the water depth a t

the exit and at the entrance ( H : ~H ~ should
) not exceed a certain limit, called the
transition submergence, St, which can be determined f r o m F i g u r e 7 - 2 9 .

The procedure to follow for installing a Cut-throat flume t o operate under

f r e e flow conditions i s s u m m a r i z e d a s follows :

(i) Determine the maximum flow r a t e to be m e a s u r e d .

(ii) At the site selected f o r installing the flume, locate the high water line
on the canal bank and a s c e r t a i n the maximum p e r m i s s i b l e depth of flow.

(iii) Using equation ( I ) , calculate the depth of water that corresponds to the
maximum discharge capacity of the canal for the flume being used.

(iv) P l a c e the floor of the flume a t a depth @Ib) which does not exceed Ha
multiplied by the transition submergence St (Hb 4 Hast). Generally,
the flume bottom should be placed a s high in the kana1 a s grade and other
conditions p e r m i t to e n s u r e f r e e flow.

There i s no established r u l e f o r proportions between W and L o r W and

Ha. Therefore, a s long a s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e pending i t i s

recommended that the range of proportions which have been laboratory tested
be applied, which, adjusted to even m e t r i c values, a r e given in Table 7-9.

The procedure i s f u r t h e r illustrated by F i g u r e 7-30 and by the following

two example s:

Example 1
.A Cut-throat flume of length L = 1. 22 m and throat width W = 0. 36 m i s
to be installed f o r f r e e flow operation ( F i g u r e 7-30). The maximum flow r a t e in
the channel is 0.200 m 3 / s .

Maximum water surface

after flume installation

surface before

L O r i g i n a l canal bottom
,

FIGURE 7-30. - Installation of a Cut-throat flume.

The transition .submergence f o r t h i s flume can be determined f r o m F i g u r e

_
7;29 a s St = 68.2%. F r o m equations (1) and (2) the value of Ha that c o r r e -
sponds to the maximum flow of 0.200 m 3 / s can be calculated:

n = 1.75 ( F i g u r e 7-29)
 TABLE 7-9

F r e e Flow Calibrations for Selected Cut-throat Flumes,

Expressed by Throatwidth W x Flume Length L (85)

5
Discharge Q (m per second)
Ha
 TABLE 7-9 ( C o n t t d . )

Discharge Q ( m 3 p e r second)
Ha
(cm) 10cm
X 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 30 270 60 270 100 270
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
.205 .019 .041 .060 .035 .071 .lo8 .052 .107 .I80
.210 ,020 .043 .062 ,036 .074 .112 .055 .111 . 187
.215 .021 .045 -065 .038- .077 .117 .057 .I15 . 194
.220 .022 .047 .068 .039 .080 .I21 .059 .119 . 201
.225 .023 .049 .071 .041 ,083 .I26 .061 .123 .209
.230 .024 .051 .074 ,042 .086 .130 .063 .128 .216
.235 .025 .053 -077 .044 .089 .135 .065 .132 .223
.240 .026 .055 .080 .045 .092 .140 .067 .I37 .231
.245 .027 -057 .083 .047 .096 .145 .069 .141 .238
.250 .028 .059 .086 .049 .099 .150 .072 . .146 .246
.255 .029 .061 .089 .050 .lo2 .155 .074 . 150 .254
.260 .030 .063 .092 .052 .lo6 ,160 .076 . 155 ,261
.265
.270
.031
,032
-066
.068
.096
.099
.053
.055
.lo9
.112
.165
.170
.078
.081
.. 164
159 .269
.277
,275 .033 .070 .102 .057 .116 .I75 .083 .169 .285
.280
.285
.034
.035
.073
.075
.186
.109
.059
.060
.119
.123
.I80
.186
.085
.088
..I79
174 .293
.302
.290 .037 .078 .I13 .062 .126 .I91 .090 . 183 .310
.295 .038 .080 .I16 .064 .130 ,197 .093 . 188 .318
.300 .039 .082 .120 .066 .134 .202 .095 .I93 .327
.305
.310
.040
.041
.085 . 124 .067 . 137 ,208 .098 .I99 .335
.088 .127 ,069 ,141 .213 .lo0 .204 .344
..315 .043 .090 .131 . .071 .I45 .219 .lo3 .209 .353
.320 .044 .093 . 135 .073 .149 ,225 . 105 .214 .361
.325 .045 .096 . 139 .075 .152 .231 . 108 .219 .370
.330 .046 .098 . 143 .077 .156 .237 .I10 .224 .379
.'335 .048 .lo1 .I47 .079 .160 .243 .I13 .230 .388
.340 .049 .lo4 .I51 .081 .164 .249 .116 .235 .397
.345
.350
.050
-052
.lo7
.110
.I55
.159
.083
.085
.168 .255 . 118 .241 .406
.172 .261 .121 .246 .416
.355 .053 .112 .I64 .087 .176 ,267 .124 .252 .425
.360 .054 . 115 .168 .089 .180 .273 .126 .257 .434
.365 .056 .118 .172 .091 .185 .279 . 129 .263 .444
.370 .057 . 121 .177 .093 .189 .286 . 132 .268 .453
.375 .059 . 124 .181 .095 ,193 ,292 .I35 ,274 .463
.380 .060 . 127 .185 .097 .197 ,299 . 138 .280 .473
.385 .062 . 131 .190 .099 .202 .305 .140 .286 .482
,390 .063 . 134 .195 .101 .206 .312 .I43 .291 .492
.395 .065 .137 .199 .103 .210 ,318 . 146 .297 .502
.400 .066 .I40 .204 .105 .215 .325 . 149 .303 .512
.405 .068 . 143 .209 . 108 .219 .332 .152 .309 .522
.410 .069 . 147 .213 . 110 .224 .339 .I55 . 315 .532
.415
.420
.071
.072
.150
.153
.218
.223
.112
.114
.228
.233
,345 .
158 .321 .542
.352 .I61 .327 .552
.425 .074 . 157 .228 .I16 .237 .359 .164 .333 .563
.430 .076 .160 .233 .119 .242 .366 .167 ,339 .573
.435 .077 . 163 .238 .121 .247 .373 .170 .346 .584
.440
.445
.079
.080
.167 .243 .123 .251 ,380 .173 .352 .594
.170 .248 .I26 ,256 .388 .176 .358 .605
.450 .082 . 174 .253 .128 .261 .395 .179 .364 .615
 TABLE 7 - 9 (Cont'd.)

Discharge Q ( m3 per second)

Ha
10 x 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 3Cx 270 60 x 270 100 x 270
( cm) cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
.455 . 130 .266 .402 .182 .37 1 .626
.460 .133 .270 .409 .185 .377 .637
.465
.470
. 135
. 138
.275
.280
.417
.424
. 189
. 192
.383
.390
.648
.659
.475 .I40 .285 .432 .195 .396 .669
.480 .142 .290 .439 . 198 .403 . 681
.485 . 145 .295 .447 .201 .409 .692
.490 . 147 .300 .454 .205 .416 .703
 The downstream flow depth, Hb, becomes

Hb = Hast = 0.377 . 0.682 = 0.257 m

T h e r e f o r e the floor of the flume should be placed no lower than 0 . 2 5 7 m

below the high w a t e r line in the canal ( F i g u r e 7-30).

Suppose the logical Cut-throat flume s i z e n e c e s s a r y to m e a s u r e a maximum

discharge of 350 11s under f r e e flow conditions m u s t be found. P r e s e n t l y , the
maximum flow depth in the channel i s 30 c m and the head l o s s i s not to exceed
15 cm. Under t h e s e conditions, the maximum downstream flow depth would be
30 c m and the maximum u p s t r e a m flow depth 45 c m (30 15 = 45). The +
30
submergence would b e 67% ( 45 = 0. 67). F r o m F i g u r e 7-29 i t i s found that the
only f l u m e s with a transition submergence g r e a t e r than 67% a r e those with a
length of 1.15 m and above. To s e l e c t the p r o p e r flume s i z e r e f e r to Table 7-9.
Tentatively 'select the 40 x 180 c m flume and find the value of Ha which
c o r r e s p o n d s to the given d i s c h a r g e of 350 11s. F o r this value the u p s t r e a m
depth i s 54 cm, which i s g r e a t e r than the allowable maximum u p s t r e a m depth of
45 cm. Consequently a l a r g e r flume s i z e i s n e c e s s a r y to satisfy the conditions
imposed. F r o m Table 7-9.it i s found that the 60 x 180 c m flume h a s an u p s t r e a m
depth of 42 c m f o r a discharge of 0.350 m 3 / s , and since this value i s l e s s than
the r e s t r i c t e d depth of 45 c m i t would be selected f o r u s e in this p a r t i c u l a r
situation. A slightly s m a l l e r flume s i z e could be used, e . g. a throat width, W,
between 40 and 60 c m could be selected, which however would n e c e s s i t a t e
preparation of a s e p a r a t e rating table. With known W and L the flume can be
dimensioned according to F i g u r e 7-26.

7. 6.4 Maintenance

As f o r P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.8).

Experience and r e s e a r c h have 'shown that, in many r e s p e c t s , trapezoidal

flumes a r e s u p e r i o r to the rectangular o r P a r s h a l l - t y p e flumes, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r
m e a s u r i n g s m a l l e r flows. The shape conforms to the n o r m a l shape of ditches,
particularly those that a r e lined. This m i n i m i z e s the amount of transition
section needed a s compared to that r e q u i r e d when changing f r o m a trapezoidal
shape to a rectangular one and back to the trapezoidal. The trapezoidal shape i s
a l s o desirable since the side walls expand a s the depth i n c r e a s e s . This m e a n s
that one s t r u c t u r e can convey a l a r g e r range of flow. Also, the e n t i r e range of
depth f o r a given range of discharge i s s m a l l e r . Another d e s i r a b l e feature of
the trapezoidal flume i s the flat bottom throughout r a t h e r than a dropped section
such a s with the.Parshal1 flume. The l o s s in head, i. e . total head l o s s , through
the trapezoidal s t r u c t u r e , m a y be l e s s f o r comparable discharges.

These f e a t u r e s make the trapezoidal flume particularly suited f o r

installation in concrete lined ditches. The flume i s usually put on top of the
lining, thus constricting the flow section to the extent required for f r e e flow
conditions over the whole range of discharges up to the design dischargk of the
ditch ( F i g u r e 7-31 (a) and (b) ). The elevation of the flume floor above the ditch
bottom depends on the existing grade of the ditch; the lower the' grade the higher
the elevation.

FIGURE 7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a

r a i s e d bottom c a s t in a concrete ditch. The discharge i s about
34 11s (1.2 f t 3 / s ) a t a submergence of about 70% (87).
 A tentative standard for trapezoidal flumes, coded ASAE S 359 T, was
adopted by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (AsAE) in 1972, see
(103). Two c l a s s e s of flume a r e included. The f i r s t - c l a s s consists of f o u ~
experimentally calibrated flumes of short length relative to their flow capacity.
Some of their characteristics a r e given in Table 7- 10. Figure 7-32 shows a
standard design for the No. 1 flume. Flumes Nos. 1 and 2 a r e designed for use
in two standard lined ditch sections. Flumes 3 and 4 a r e recommended primarily
for use in unlined channels.

TABLE 7-10

Some Characteristics of the Standard Calibrated Trapezoidal Flume

(Derived f r o m ASAE Standard S 359 T)

I
Width of approach Side slope of approach Range of Range of
Flume section (= bed section ( = side slope calibrated calibrated
No. width qf ditch) of ditch) flow depth flow
cm (horizontal : vertical) cm l/s

The second c l a s s of flume has a long enough thi-oat 'section to result in

parallel flow (in that section) to permit the discharge relationships td be
calculated by the solution of equations describing the conservatidn of energy
between the flume approach and throat sections, rather than by experimental
calibration. The size and shape of the flumes were also selected for use. in
ditches conforming to ASAE standard slipform lining. Submerged flow ratings
a r e not available for this c l a s s of flume since they will operate ilnder f r e e flow
conditions in channels with the specified slope o r a steeper one. Table 7- 11
gives some particulars of this c l a s s of flume which h a s been designed in 30
different types divided into five categories. Figure 7-33 illustrates a typical
parallel flow critical depth flume.
 PLAN VlEW THROAT SECTION

Fitting for
recorder w el I .
kl~5g +l'-@,'+A
3'-10g

PROFILE VlEW E N D VIEW

FIGURE 7 - 3 2 . - Trapezoidal flume for 1 ft i r r i g a t i o n channels.

 TABLE 7-11

Some Characteristics of the Standard Parallel Flow Flume

(Derived from ASAE Standard S 359 T)

Bed width of Range of Range of

approach section Side slope of approach maximum maximum
Flume
(= bed width of section ( = side slope upstream measurable
code 11
ditch) of ditch) flow depth flow
cm (horizontal : vertical) cm I/ 8

Each flume codp represents a group of 6 geometrically slightly different

flumes ,

Trapezoidal flumes can be used to measure discharge with an accuracy of

-+ 5% with free flow conditions. The accuracy i s however dependent on the

accuracy of the dimensions of the throat cross section, the stage of measurement
and the flume installation. Discharge e r r o r s will be approximately proportional
to throat area e r r o r s . For trapezoidal flumes with a wide throat width, the
discharge e r r o r approaches 1.5 times the e r r o r in stage *reading. F o r flumes
with a triangular throat section the discharge e r r o r wil1,pe about 2.5 times the
e r r o r in stage reading (103). Submerged conditions should be avoided but may
be necessary where head loss through the flume must be reduced to the minimum.

FIGURE 7- 33. - Typical parallel flow critical depth flume.

 Although the s t a n d a r d flumes mentioned above m a y be u s e d in unlined
ditches if cut-off walls a r e attached t o each end, they have been designed
p a r t i c u l a r l y for c o n c r e t e lined d i t c h e s . Installation i s b e s t accomplished by a
s t e e l f o r m a s shown in F i g u r e 7-34. If only a s m a l l n u m b e r of f l u m e s a r e to
be i n s t a l l e d a l i g h t e r f o r m , using plywood and t i m b e r , which a r e c h e a p e r , m a y
be s a t i s f a c t o r y . Construction of a c o n c r e t e flume without using a f o r m i s not
recommended i f s t a n d a r d r a t i n g t a b l e s a r e t o be applied. As with a l l f l u m e s
the a c c u r a c y of m e a s u r e m e n t depends to a g r e a t extent on the p r e c i s i o n of con-
struction. The t h r o a t section i s the control section and t h e r e f o r e the exact
dimensioning of t h i s a r e a i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t . F l u m e s in unlined ditches m a y be
built of galvanized s t e e l s h e e t o r r e i n f o r c e d p o l y e s t e r r e s i n s .

Complementary information such a s complete dimensions and r a t i n g s a r e

given in the ASAE Standard (103) a s well a s in ( 5 9 ) and (87).

FIGURE 7-34. - P o r t a b l e s t e e l f o r m used to c a s t

trapezoidal c o n c r e t e f l u m e s in c o n c r e t e ditches (87).

7.8 USE O F CULVERTS AS MEASURING DEVICES

7.8. 1 General

Numerous c u l v e r t s a r e found in i r r i g a t i o n distribution s y s t e m s a s well a s

in f a r m h e a d ditches. They a r e useful for c r o s s i n g w a t e r c o u r s e s , r o a d s o r
railway l i n e s and they a r e commonly placed through canal banks to d i v e r t water
into l a t e r a l s (pipe outlets), e i t h e r with a head gate placed a t the culvert inlet to
 ROD

HOOK BOLT CLIP

SPIGOT BACK WITH PlPE ATTACHED

7-71
ANCHOR

SEATING'
FACE

0
GROUT

<
c

FLAT BACK ATTACHED TO CONCRETE

o
c

I
l

' ,
,

NOTCH CUT IN LlFT STEM AT

TOP OF LlFT NUT WHEN GATE
IS AT POINT OF ZERO OPENING

f/ - GATE
1 OPENING IS DETERMINED BY MEASURING DISTANCE
BETWEEN NOTCH ON STEM AND TOP OF LlFT NUT

6 MINIMUM TO INSURE COMPLETE SUBMERGENCE OF THE

OUTLET PlPE AND A POSITIVE WATER MEASUREMENT IN THE
WELL CONNECTED TO THE TOP OF PlPE

XJ
'DIFFERENCE IN WATER
ELEVATION IN WELLS
NOT GREATPR T H A N 1 R
BOTTOM OF
OUTLET DITCH

xcIZ
r
I 4'MIN f
ON TOP OF PlPE

INSTALL PIPE ON LEVEL GRADE

F I G U R E 7 - 3 5 (a) and (b). - M e t e r g a t e f o r pipe o u t l e t s

(64).
control the quantity of flow diverted to the lateral, o r without any control device.
If properly calibrated, culverts with and without control gates can be used for
discharge measurements.

Gated Culverts

A shut-off is, in most instances, required at a farm outlet because of the

manner in which the system i s operated. If properly calibrated the shut-off can
also serve a s a means of measurement and there have been numerous attempts to
provide this combination.

A measuring gate used in the U. S. A. and in some other countries i s shown

in Figure 7-35 (a) and (b). It consists of a circular plate, operated by a screw,
which can shut off the outlet pipe. Two stilling wells, a s shown, a r e fixed to the
outlet; one is connected to the canal and the other to the delivery pipe on the
downstream side of the gate. The difference in water levels in the two wells and
the gate opening is measured and the discharge obtained from tables derived from
standard calibrations. The head loss i s low but changes in either upstream or
downstream water levels alter the rate of flow so that periodic observations and
manual adjustments a r e necessary.

The flow through gated culverts may be estimated by using the formula :

where Q = discharge in 11s

C = coefficient = 0 . 7 for short culvert%. (such a s those used
for farm outlets)
A = area of orifice in cm 2
g = 981 c m f s2
h = head in cm causing discharge through the orifice

Example:
Aasume orifice a r e a = 300 cm2 and H = 40 cm
Tertiary canal Farm ditch

-Sliding iron gate

I L = 300 cm (minimum I

FIGURE 7 - 3 6 . - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding 'gate fdr delivery

control and measurement (88)
 A simpler form of gate and method of measurement i s used in the
installation shown in Figure 7-36. Calibration of this type of concrete pipe
outlet has been conducted by 'the State Hydraulic Works Department in Turkey.
The r e s u l t s a r e shown in Figure 7-37. After the water level in the supply canal
has been established by a canal eheck gate, the r a t e of flow through the outlet i s
determined by correlating i t s gate opening to the head which i s read f r o m staff
gauges up and downstream of the pipe. Although accuracy i s relatively low, the
cost to provide this measuring facility i s negligible.

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Gote opening (cm) - meorurad inclined

FIGURE 7-37. - Rating curve for pipe outlet (88).

7.8.3 U n ~ a t e dCulverts

The discharge of a culvert i s dependent on effective head, i t s c r o s s section,

degree of submergence of inlet, pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) and outlet, shape of inlet, length,
slope, and roughness of the pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) . Of the basic flow conditions that
can exist, downstream conditions ( f r e e surface, o r submerged) usually control
the flow in culverts used in irrigation systems. So f a r only approximate dis-
charge formulae a r e available f o r f r e e surface flow affected by downstream
conditions, and hydraulic computations a r e involved. Recent r e s e a r c h on
culvert hydraulics conducted a t the Colorado State University, Report No. 17 (96),
h a s provided the theoretical b a s i s on which culverts can be accurately rated a s
flow measuring devices for t h r e e basic flow conditions. Rating tables have been
produced for a 30.5 cm (12 inch) diametric corrugated metal pipe for various
slopes, including horizontal, and pipe lengths of 1.5, 3 and 6 m (5, 10 and 20 ft),
and the r e p o r t recommends discharge rating experiments be extended to a
variety of culvert sizes and lengths.

PROPELLER METERS

General

Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices used near the

end of pipes o r conduits flowing full (under gravity flow) o r a s in-line m e t e r s in
pressurized pipe systems. The latter application will not be discussed h e r e ,
since p r e s s u r e distribution systems a r e excluded f r o m the scope of this Handbook
If used for gravity flow the m e t e r i s also known a s an open flow m e t e r . The
propeller rotates about a horizontal axle which i s geared to a totalizing head that
r e c o r d s the total number of cubic m e t r e s o r cubic feet, passing the measuring
section. Some m e t e r s indicate instantaneous discharge a s well.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s

Hydraulic properties such a s range of discharge, head l o s s and calibration

curves, vary slightly between manufacturers who usually furnish such data for
individual types. The data quoted below r e f e r to one make which may be
generally representative of m o s t of the available propeller m e t e r s .
 FIGURE 7-38. -

FIGURE 7-39. - Propeller meter FIGURE 7-40. - Register of a

installed at a pipe outlet. propeller meter.
 The diagram in Figure 7-41 shows that the flow velocity should fall within
the range from 0.35 m / s (1.15 f t / s ) to 2.5 m / a (8.2 f t / s ) and that *e normal
flow velocity should preferably range between the limits 1.3 to 2.0 m / s (4.25 to
6.5 ftfs). If the velocity falls short of 0.35 m / s accuracy rapidly deteriorates.

Max. test flow

velocitv ronoe
Min. test flow, 1I

FIGURE 7-41. - Range ability of a propeller meter and

the selection of meter diameter (t4% accuracy).
,

Example of determination of required propeller diameter :

Given Maximum design flow ' = 0.5 m3/ s

Minimumdesignflow = 0.15m3/s
Normal flow rate = 0.4 m 3 / s

Solution - F r o m Figure 7-41 it i s found that a propeller diameter of 600 mm

would best fit the given flows. Its permissible velocity range covers the
required maximum and minimum flows and the normal flow rate may be die-
charged within the normal velocity range.
 F r o m the p r o p e l l e r d i a m e t e r required, the suitable pipe d i a m e t e r i s d e t e r -
mined. The l a t t e r should be f r o m 1. 25 to 2.0 t i m e s a s l a r g e a s the propeller.

F o r n o r m a l velocity distribution in the m e a s u r i n g section the pipe u p s t r e a m

of the m e t e r should be s t r a i g h t f o r a length of 15 pipe d i a m e t e r s . Straightening
vanes may be r e q u i r e d ahead of the device i f spiralling flow i s expected. This
m a y develop a t the entrance f r o m the canal into the pipe.

F o r p r o p e r r e g i s t r a t i o n the p r o p e l l e r m u s t be completely submerged.

Therefore, if occasionally the pipe i s to be run only partly filled, a backwater h a s
t o be c r e a t e d a t the outlet. This i s done by installing a submerged weir with a
c r e s t 10 c m ( 4 inches) above the top of the pipe. The face of the weir should be a t
l e a s t 1 m e t r e plus 2 pipe d i a m e t e r s away f r o m the pipe mouth ( s e e F i g u r e 7-42).

The head l o s s e s of the m e t e r shown in F i g u r e s 7-38 to 7-40 a r e 10 c m

( 4 inches) for flow velocities below 2.5 m / s ( 8 . 2 f t / s ) and 15 c m ( 6 inches) for
flow velocities f r o m 2. 5 up to 3 m / s (10 f t / s ) .

Performance

P r o p e l l e r m e t e r s a r e used to a considerable extent in the U. S. A., Japan

and Australia, and some other countries have s t a r t e d to introduce them. They
may be used with advantage in s y s t e m s where water i s sold on a volumetric b a s i s
since flow volumes a r e given directly without computation. Other advantages
a r e s m a l l head l o s s e s , and independence f r o m external power. However,
propeller m e t e r s do suffer f r o m some distinct limitations :

- the m e t e r s a r e v e r y susceptible to weeds ahd other d e b r i s in the flowing

water;
- suspended sediments m a y enter into the bearings and reduce the number of
p r o p e l l e r revolutions thus resulting in under - r e g i s t r a t i o n ;
- the m e t e r s m u s t be submerged under a l l flow conditions;
- m a n u f a c t u r e r s usually c l a i m a d e g r e e of m e a s u r i n g accuracy which may be
obtained under controlled l a b o r a t o r y conditions (e.g. -
f 2% a c c u r a c y ) but

hardly under field conditions; a p a r t f r o m e r r o r s introduced by d e b r i s and

bearing problems, considerable registration e r r o r s may be caused by faulty
installation. Under average field conditions the m e a s u r i n g accuracy m a y
be c l o s e r to + 5% than -+ 2% and even l e s s .
-
- the serviceable life i s relatively short; Japanese s o u r c e s c l a i m a life of 5
 Dia. 13 (@ 2 5 0

Front elevation or plane

Section B-B

I. B = 1,200 mm for Dl 5 0 0 mm 5 = 1,500 mm for

43 6 0 0 mm
2 The half of the pipe is used for the attachment t o the
square box
3 The water vent and top is installed in the inside wolf
i f indicated
4 Standard size of 6 1 ,B2
61= 2 4 + 1,000 mm (min. 1,200 mm)
B2 if Dl & 5 0 0 mm 5, = 5 0 0 mm
Dl 3 5 0 0 m m 6, = 1,000 mm

F A O - lClO
Dia. 13 @ 2 5 0
STANDARD DESIGN OF OPEN TYPE

PROPELLER METER
Section A-A

Project , Reqron, Country

Unspeclfled , Jopon

F~gureNo 7-42
 to 8 y e a r s .
- propeller m e t e r s require continuous maintenance - purchase of spare p a r t s
may cause problems; the r i s k of damage i s high;
- propeller m e t e r s a r e relatively expensive to purchase.

7.9.4 Design Example

Figure 7-42 shows a standard design developed in Japan for low p r e s s u r e
pipe systems. The design i s easily modified to fit into a pipe outlet to an open ditch.

7.10 DEFLECTION METERS

7.10.1 General
A deflection m e t e r consists of a vane o r rod dipped in the flowing water and
mounted on a horizontal spindle a c r o s s the measuring section in a channel. The
deflection caused by the f o r c e of the flow against the vane o r rod i s indicated on a
calibrated scale giving the instantaneous discharge. At l e a s t two systems of
indication a r e in use: in the simplest one a pointer indicates the deflection on a
fixed vertical scale ( F i g u r e s 7-43 and 7-44); a m o r e advanced type consists of a
bubble glass tube attached to a scale that i s directly fixed on the top of the vane.
The discharge i s determined by reading the position of the centre of the bubble
against the scale ( F i g u r e 7-45).

FIGURE 7-43. - Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer

indicating against a fixed vertical scale (Rajasthan, India).
 FIGURE 7-44. - The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e

Deflection m e t e r s a r e usually manufactured commercially but a s shown

in F i g u r e 7-43 and 7-44 can be constructed locally a s well. The m e t e r s a r e
usually portable and m a y be e a s i l y moved f r o m one station to another. The
b e a r i n g s which keep the m e t e r in position a r e usually permanently installed in a
trapezoidal o r rectangular m e a s u r i n g section. Thus one m e t e r head can s e r v e a
number of ditches of about the s a m e flow capacities, provided these ditches a r e
equipped with permanent liner sections. Each m e t e r handles about 1: 15 range of
flows in a given size of ditch and automatically compensates for different com-
binations of velocity and depth.

Under ideal conditions a measuring accuracy of + 2% may be obtained but in

-
practice the level of accuracy depends on local factors. Wind i s a m a j o r source
of inaccuracy and can produce l a r g e e r r o r s .

Since deflection m e t e r s a r e handy and easy to install, they have been used
successfully in field t r i a l s for irrigation efficiency and water management studies,
a s well a s for water distribution control at the f a r m level.

FIGURE 7-45. - Commercially available deflection m e t e r .

 Elevotion End elevation

4nti-vortex
Slot to just OllOw, boffk
possoge of rod- _

Table of dimensions

_IZ. Rods, needle bearings, lock nuts

I 7- to be of brass
a,:*ionol elevotbn A-A Tube, 60f f le i n d heodwoll to
be of 245 G.I.

f
.- T
-
3
Plon

FIGURE 7-46. - Sketch of the Rajasthan channel

flow meter.
 The m e t e r shown i n F i g u r e 7-44 i s commercially available in 16 standard
models. The s m a l l e s t model h a s a capacity range of 3 t o 100 11s ( 0 . 1 to 3.5
ft3/ s ) while the l a r g e s t model i s applicable to a flow r a n g e f r o m 40 t o 850 l / s
(1.5 to 30 f t 3 / s ) . The cost (in 1968) ranged f r o m $595 t o $615 f o r the m e t e r s
and f r o m $ 4 3 to $ 8 3 f o r the l i n e r sections; i t i s c l e a r t h e r e f o r e that t h i s type of
device i s economic only if one m e t e r can s e r v e a s many m e a s u r i n g stations a s
po s sible .

7.10.2 The Rajasthan Channel Flow M e t e r

The Rajasthan Channel Flow Meter ( F i g u r e s 7-43, 7-44 and 7-46) was
developed by the FAO/UNDP P r o j e c t - Soil and Water Management R e s e a r c h and
Demonstration in the Rajasthan Canal A r e a , in 1970, a s a m e a n s of m e a s u r i n g
flows in i r r i g a t i o n efficiency t r i a l s .

Design c r i t e r l a for the m e t e r a r e : they should b e operated with a negligible

head l o s s in muddy water containing some t r a s h ; they should be simple, robust,
capable of manufacture by village c r a f t s m e n and portable; the a c c u r a c y should be
of the o r d e r of 10% o r b e t t e r and the indicating device should be simple to r e a d .
On this b a s i s four different s i z e s have been developed a s indicated below.

M e t e r Size Measurement Range

cm inch 11s ft5/ s

A cost of 150 Indian r u p e e s ($20) was quoted (in 1970) for the 30 c m m e t e r .
F i e l d testing showed that in g e n e r a l deflections and discharge corresponded
well in the middle r a n g e s of flow, with an a c c u r a c y of 10/o, while a t low o r
high flows r e s u l t s w e r e scattered. It i s concluded that the flow m e t e r a p p e a r s
to be a cheap and useful m e a s u r i n g device, that with reasonable c a r e in
manufacture, handling and installation, will attain m e a s u r e m e n t s within + 570
accuracy limits.
 0 I 3 3 4
Flow in ft/s
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 004 0 0 5 0 0 6 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
L I I I 1 ' 1 I 1 I I 1 1
3
Flow in m / s

FIGURE 7 - 4 7 . - Sample calibration curve. for 30 c m

( 1 2 inch) Rajasthan Channel flow m e t e r . '

7.11 THE DETHRIDGE METER

The Dethridge m e t e r i s a self-integrating m e a s u r i n g device developed in

Australia. It i s designed particularly to fit f a r m outlets and i s t h e r e f o r e
d i s c u s s e d in detail i n Chapter 5, F a r m Outlets, Section 5.5.

7.12 THE CONSTANT HEAD ORIFICE TURNOUT

The Constant Head Orifice Turnout i s a combined regulating and m e a s u r i n g

device that u s e s an adjustable submerged orifice for the m e a s u r e m e n t of d i s -
 charge. The structure may be installed in canal intakes o r (the m o s t common
application) may s e r v e a s a f a r m outlet (or f a r m turnout). A comprehensive
description of the structure i s given in Chapter 3, Section 3.4.

7.13 CALIBRATION O F MEASURING STRUCTURES

Calibration of a measuring -structure i s required in o r d e r to establish in

numerical values the exact relationships between water stage o r gauge height
and discharge for any given water depth o r opening (in the case of orifices).
Most of the standardized measuring weirs and flumes have been extensively
calibrated through laboratory o r field t e s t s and the r e s u l t s a r e available in
published rating tables o r graphs. If the individual measuring s t r u c t u r e s be
built to these standard dimensions, these tables will be directly applicable with
a high degree of accuracy, say f r o m + 170to + 5%. However, if in actual
practice dimensions and m a t e r i a l s of in-situ-built s t r u c t u r e s differ so much
f r o m standard that application of standard rating tables would cause e r r o r s above

-+ 5%, individual field calibration may be n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to i n c r e a s e accuracy

to acceptable values. Calibration i s usually required where ordinary gates,
sluices o r other existing s t r u c t u r e s a r e to be used for water measurement.

In calibrating an individual structure, a s e r i e s of discharge measurements

a r e made covering the whole range of water depths o r the whole range of gate
openings expected in the future and the working heads a r e recorded
simultaneously. F r o m this information curves o r tables have to be prepared.
F o r calibration measurements the current m e t e r method i s commonly used a s
described in many textbooks. Measurements a r e made in a rating section of
known dimensions. The rating section should be situated in a uniform channel
reach, f r e e f r o m disturbances caused by upstream conditions such a s bends,
waves and other distorting influences. A l a r g e number of current m e t e r
readings a r e required to obtain a good match curve a s individual readings may
vary considerably.

Another calibration method that, where applicable, will yield accurate

r e s u l t s i s the use of a temporary weir o r flume of standard type installed up-
s t r e a m or downstream of the permanent structure to be calibrated. F o r this
method, however, sufficient fall h a s to be available to ensure f r e e fall conditions.
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Measuring Weir on the Discharge Coefficient.) Report of Hydraulics
Laboratory, Delft.

A c k e r s , A. and H a r r i s o n , A. J. M. C r i t i c a l Depth F l u m e s f o r Flow Measurement

1963 in Open Channels. Hydraulic R e s e a r c h P a p e r No 5. HM Stationery
Office, London.

H a r r i s o n , A. J. M. The Streamlined B r o a d - C r e s t e d Weir. Proceedings

1967 Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 38. Dec. pp. 657-678.

B r i t i s h Standards Institution - Methods of Measurement of Liquid Flow in Open

1969 Channels. B r i t i s h Standard 3680; P a r t 4B, W e i r s and F l u m e s . London.
 NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS-11

Area

A r e a of c r o s s section

A r e a of c r i t i c a l section

Breadth o r width (usually a c r o s s the a x i s

of flow)

Bed width of canal u p s t r e a m a fall, syphon,

aqueduct, etc. , and in p a r e n t channel in
c a s e of intakes and outlets

Bed width of canal downstream a fall,

syphon, aqueduct, etc. Bed width i n the
offtake channel below the intake o r
w a t e r c o u r s e below the outlet

Width of t h r o a t o r controlling section o r

width of weir c r e s t a c r o s s the a x i s of
flow

Width of inlet

Width a t outlet end

Width of gate opening o r sluice opening

Wi dth of stilling basin, c i s t e r n , etc.

'/ F o r terminology and definitions r e f e r e n c e should be m a d e to the Multilingual

Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage published by the ICID in
1967.
Coefficient of discharge

Coefficient of roughness

Coefficient of submergence

Coefficient of submergence of hydraulic jump

Coefficient in Chezy's formula

Coefficient, approach velocity

Depth of canal

Designed depth of canal (if distinguished)

~ e ~ oft canal h u p s t r e a m of falls, proportional

d i s t r i b u t o r s o r d i v i s o r s , syphons, aqueducts,
e t c . , and i n parent channels of outlets and
offtake channels

Depth of canal downstream of falls, etc.

and depth of offtake channels below intakes
and of w a t e r c o u r s e s below outlets

Depth of stilling basin

Diameter

D i a m e t e r of pipe

Discharge

Discharge intensity o r discharge p e r unit

width

Discharge in the parent canal

Discharge of offtake channels o r outlets

Small i n c r e m e n t in discharge

Distances and spacings

Efficiencies

Flexibility

F r e e board

Froude number

Height over h a r ding s

Head over c r e s t , etc.

Working head
*

~ e a d - d u to
e velocity of approach

Head l o s s

Height of gate opening

Height of c r e s t above u p s t r e a m bed level

Height of c r e s t above bottom level of

stilling basin

Height of c r e s t above downstream bed level

Height of u p s t r e a m water level above

soffits of orifices, pipes, etc.

Height of orifice above c r e s t o r bottom

level of control section

Hydraulic d r o p

Depth of flow a t the beginning of hydraulic

jump o r super critical sequent depth

Depth of flow a t the end of hydraulic jump

o r subcritical sequent depth

Critical depth corresponding to minimum

energy
 -
L

Length

Length of c r e s t along the axis of flow

Length of glacis

Length of stilling basin

Length of pipe

Length of jump

Proportionality

Radius

Hydraulic radius

Ratio

Sensitivity

Shear s t r e s s

Slope (longitudinal)

Side slope

Thickness

Velocity

Critical velocity

von K a r m a n ' s constant

Weights
Specific weight of fluid
 .and and

econon