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Distribution System Overview

1.1 Introduction

The electrical energy produced at the generating station is conveyedto the consumers
through a network of transmission and distribution systems. It is often difficultto draw a
line between te transmission and distribution systems of a large power system. It is
impossible to distinguish the two merely by their voltage because what was considered as
a high voltage a few years ago is now considered as a low voltage. In general, distribution
system is that part of power system which distributes power to the consumers utilization.
The transmission and distribution systems are similar to man's circulatory system. The
transmission system may be compared with arteries in the human body and distribution
system with capillaries. They serve the same purpose of supplying the ultimate consumer
in the city with the life-giving blood of civilization - electricity.

Components of Distribution System

It generally consists of:

 Feeders

 Distributor

 Service mains

Classification of Distribution System

According to Nature of Current:


- D.C. distribution system
- A.C. distribution system

According to Type of Construction:


- Overhead system
- Underground system

According to Scheme of Connection:


- Radial system
- Ring main system
- Inter-connected system

In distribution systems, three-phase systems are the most common; although for
certainspecial jobs, a greater number of phases is also used. All modern generators are
practically three-phase. For transmitting large amount of power, three-phase is invariable
used. The reason for this is:

1. It is more efficient
2. It uses less material for given capacity
3. It costs less than single phase apparatus

For larger installations all three phases and the neutral are taken to the main distribution
panel. From the three-phase main panel, both single and three-phase circuits may lead
off.

This delay between ‘phases’ has the effect of giving constant power transfer over each
cycle of the current, and also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an
electric motor. Figure 1.1 shows 3-phase connections of transmission lines.
1.2 Methods of generation of electricity

At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of
alternating electric currents, one from each electromagnetic coil or winding of the
generator.

The popular methods of power generation by conventional methods are:

 Thermal
 Hydro
 Nuclear
The alternative methods of generating electrical energy without the use of prime movers
are called the non-conventional methods of power generation. For example:

 Solar cells
 Fuel cells
 Tidal power
 Wind power
As an example, at a coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada USA, owners of the plant
ceased operations after declining to invest in pollution control equipment to comply with
pollution regulations.

1.2.1 Electric generators

An electric generator consists of two main sections – the revolving section called
the rotor, which is directly coupled to the steam turbine's drive shaft, and the stator, a
series of wire coils, which form a cylinder around the rotor. The rotor, which is really an
electro-magnet, revolves at high speed to generate electricity (alternating current) in the
stator. A separate static exciter energizes the wire coils of the rotor.
A generator produces electricity. Figure 1.2 shows production of electricity.

1.2.2 How electricity is made

Electricity has traditionally been generated from coal – a fossil fuel. The process to
produce electricity from coal comes through stages, which are:

 Mining coal
 The boiler
 Steam turbine
 Electrical generator
 Transmission
 Impact on the environment

Mining coal

Coal is mined at open cut or underground mines, then crushed, washed and transported
to power stations to be stockpiled and used as fuel.

The boiler

The pulverized coal is burned at very high temperature, converting water circulating in
the boiler tubes into high-pressure steam.

Steam turbine

The steam produced by the boiler is injected at very high pressure into the turbine,
spinning the fan-like blades mounted along the main drive shaft. This shaft continues like
an axle from one end of the turbine to the other.

Hydroelectric generation
The principle of electricity generation is same in both hydro and thermal (steam) power
stations. In a thermal station high-pressure steam produced drives horizontal turbines;
water drives vertical turbines in a hydro station.

The generator produces alternating current (AC), which, after being increased in voltage
via a transformer, is passed through a switchyard into the electricity grid.

TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY
Generators output at a voltage that ranges from hundreds of volts to 30,000V. at the power
stations, transformers ‘step-up’ this voltage to one more suitable for transmission.

Transmission is done between the power plant and a substation near a populated area.
Transmission normally takes place at high voltage (110kV or above).today, transmission level
voltages are usually considered to be 110kV and above. Lower voltages such as 66kV and 33kV
are usually considered sub transmission voltage but are occasionally used on long lines with the
light loads. Voltages less than 33kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 230kVare
considered extra high voltage (HV) and required different designs compared to equipment used at
lower voltages. The power lost is proportional to the square of voltage.

At generating plants the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage (LV) of up to 30kV then
stepped up by the power station transformer to a high voltage (138kV-765kV AC, +/-250-500kV
DC, varying by country) for transmission over long distances to grid exit points (substations).

Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to joule heating.
However, at extreme high voltages more than 20,000kV between conductor and ground, corona
discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistance loss in the line conductor.

Electrical power is always partially lost by transmission. The major component of power
loss is due to ohmic losses in the conductors and is equal to the product of the resistance of the
wire and the square of the current.

Ploss=RI^2

For a system which delivers a power, P, at unity power factor at a particular voltage, V,
t7he current flowing through the cables is given by

I=P/VThus, the power lost in the lines,


Ploss= R(P/V)^2 = RP^2/V^2
Therefore, the power lost is proportional to the square of the voltage. A higher
transmission voltage. A higher transmission voltage reduces the current and thus the power the
power lost during transmission.

ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
Electricity distribution is the penultimate stage in the delivery of electricity to the end users. It
is generally considered to include medium voltage (less than 50kV) power lines, electrical
substations and pole-mounted transformers, low-voltage (less than 1000V) distribution wiring and
sometimes electricity meters.

Distribution networks are typically of two types:

RADIAL

A radial network leaves the station and passes through the network area with no normal
connection to any other supply. This is typically for long rural lines with isolated load areas.
INTERCONNECTED

An interconnected network is generally found in more urban areas and will have multiple
connections to other points of supply.

Long feeder experience voltage drop requiring capacitors or voltage regulators to be


installed, and the phase physical relationship to be interchanged. Virtually all public electricity
supplies areas AC today. Users of large amounts of DC power have adjacent dedicated generating
equipment, or use rectifiers to derive DC from the public AC supply.

MODERN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM


The modern distribution system begins as the primary circuit leaves the sub-station and
ends as the secondary service enters the customers meter socket. A variety of methods, materials,
and equipment are used among the various utility companies, but the end result is similar. First, the
energy leaves the sub-station in a primary circuit, usually with all three phases.

WYE CONFIGURATION

The most common type of primary is known as a wye configuration. It includes 3 phases
(represented by the center of the Y) and a neutral (represented by the center of the Y). The neutral
is grounded both at the substation and the at every power pole. Wye primary is safer because if
one phase becomes grounded, makes connection to the ground, it should trip out the fused cutout
similar to a household circuit breaker tripping.

DELTA CONFIGURATION

This method is older and less common. Delta has only 3phases and no neutral. In delta there
is only s single voltage, between 2phases, while in wye there are 2 voltages, between two phases
and between a phase and neutral. In delta if a phase makes connection to the ground it will
continue to function normally.

Overview of Transmission System

Transmission may be compared to bulk delivery of a commodity from factory to


regional depots; subtransmission from the depot to central area warehouses; primary
distribution from area warehouse to local wholesale vendors; secondary distribution from
the vendors to local stores; services from store to consumer.

Water – Current Analogy

The flow of electric current may be visualized by comparing it withthe flow of


water. Where water is made to flow in pipes, electric current is conducted along wires. To
move a definite amount of water from one point to another in a given amount of time,
either a large-diameter pipe may be used and a low pressure applied on the water to force
it through, or a small-diameter pipe may be used and a high pressure applied to the water
to force it through. While doing this it must be borne in mind that when higher pressures
are used, the pipes must have thicker walls to withstand that pressure

The same rule applies to the transmission of electric current. In this case, the
diameter of the pipe corresponds to the diameter of the wire and the thickness of the pipe
walls corresponds to the thickness of the insulation around the wire.
Overview of Distribution System

At the substations, the incoming power is lowered in voltage for distribution over
the local area. Each substation feeds its local load area by means of primary distribution
feeders, some operating at 2400 volts and others at 4160 volts and 13,800 volts or higher.
Ordinarily, primary feeders are one to five miles in length; in rural sections where
demands for electricity are relatively light and scattered, they are sometimes as long as
10 or 12 miles. These circuits are usually carried on poles; but in the more densely
built-up sections, underground conduits convey the cables, or the cable may be buried
directly in the ground. Distribution transformers connect to the primary distribution lines.
These transformers step down the primary voltage from 2400 volts, 4160 volts, or 13,800
volts, as the case may be, to approximately 120 volts or 240 volts for distribution over
secondary mains to the consumer’s service.

The lines which carry the energy at


utilization voltage from the transformer to
consumer’s services are called secondary
distribution mains and may be found
overhead or underground. In the case of
transformers supplying large amounts of
electrical energy to individual consumers,
no secondary mains are required. Such
consumers are railroads, large stores, and
factories. The service wires or cables are
connected directly to these transformers.
Transformers may also serve a number of
consumers and secondary mains; they
are located in practically every street in
the area served by utility companies. Services and meters link the distribution system and
the consumer’s wiring. Energy is tapped from the secondary mains at the nearest location
and carried by the service wires to the consumer’s building. As it
passes on to operate the lights, motors, and various appliances supplied by the house
wiring, it is measured by a highly accurate device known as the watt-hour meter.

AC Distribution

One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in preference
to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be conveniently changed in
magnitude by means of a transformer. Transformer has made it possible to transmit AC
power at high voltage and utilize it at a safe potential. The AC distribution can be
classified into primary distribution and secondary distribution.

Primary Distribution System is that part of AC distribution system which operates


at voltages somewhat higher than the general utilization and handles large blocks of
electrical energy than the average low-voltage consumer uses. The voltage used for
primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed and the distance
of the substation required to be fed. The most commonly used primary distribution
voltages are 11KV, 6.6KV and 3.3KV. Due to economic considerations, primary
distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system.

Secondary Distribution System is that part of AC distribution which includes the


range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered to
him. The secondary distribution employs 400/230V 3,phase, 4-wire system.

DC Distribution

DC supply is necessary for certain applications such as for the operation of variable
speed machinery, for electro chemical work and for congested areas where storage
battery reserves are necessary. The DS supply from the substation may be obtained in
the form of 2-wire or 3-wire DC system.
A 2-wire DC system is composed of two wires, one outgoing or positive and the other
is the return of the negative wire. Loads such as lamps, motors, etc are connected in
parallel between the two wires. This system is never used for transmission purposes due
to low efficiency but may be employed for distribution systems.

A 3-wire DC system is composed of two outer wires and a middle or neutral wire
which is earthed at the substation. The voltage between the outer wires is twice the
voltage between either of the outer wires and neutral wire. The principal advantage of this
system is that is makes available two voltages at the consumer terminals.

Connection Schemes of Distribution System


All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In practice,
the following distribution circuits are generally used:
1. Radial System. In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation
and feed distributors at one end only. Fig. 12.8 (i) shows a single line diagram of
a radial system for d.c distribution where a feeder OC supplies a distributor A B
at point A. Obviously, the distributor is fed at one end only i.e., point A is this
case. Fig. 12.8 (ii) shows a single line diagram of a radial system for a.c
distribution. The radial system is employed only when power is generated at low
voltage and the substation is located at the center of the load.

This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost. However, it
suffers the following drawbacks:
a. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
b. The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor.
Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributors will cut off supply to the
consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation.
c. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to
serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
2. Ring main system. In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers
form a loop. The loop circuits starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop
through the area to be served, and returns to the substation. Fig. 12.9 shows the
single line diagram of ring main system for a.c distribution where substation
supplies the closed feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors are tapped from
different points M, N and Q of the feeder through distribution transformers. The
ring main system has the following advantages:

a. There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.


b. The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders. In the
event of fault occurs at any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is
maintained. For example, suppose the fault occurs at any point F of section
SLM of the feeder. Then the section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for
repairs and at the same time continuity of supply is maintained at all the
consumer’s via the feeder SRQPONM.
3. Interconnected System. When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than
two generating stations or substations, it is called inter-connected system. Fig.
12.10 shows the single line diagram of interconnected system where closed
feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations S1 and S2 at point D and C
respectively. Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder
ring through distribution transformers. The interconnected system has the
following advantages:

a. It increases the service reliability.


b. Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed
from the other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and
increases efficiency of the system.

Requirements of a Distribution System


A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an electric power supply
within the requirements of various types of consumers. Some of the requirements of a
good distribution system are:
1. Proper Voltage. One important requirements of a distribution system is
that voltage variations at consumer’s terminals should be as low as possible.
The changes in voltage are generally caused due to variation of load in the
system. Low voltage causes loss of revenue, inefficient lighting and possible
burning out of motors. High voltage causes lamps to burn out permanently
and may cause failure of other appliances. Therefore, a good distribution
system should ensure that the voltage variations at consumer’s terminals
are within the permissible limits. The statutory limit of voltage variation is
±6% of the rated value at the consumer’s terminals. Thus, if the declared
voltage is 230 V, then the highest voltage of the consumer should not
exceed 244 V while the lowest voltage of the consumer should not be less
than 216 V.
2. Availability of power demand. Power must be available to the consumers in
any amount that they may require from time to time. For example, motors
may be started or shutdown, lights may be turned on or off, without
advance warning to the electric supply company. As electrical energy cannot
be stored, therefore, the distribution system must be capable of supplying
load demands of the consumers. This necessitates that operating staff must
continuously study load patterns to predict in advance those major load
changes that follow the known schedules.
3. Reliability. Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its
operation. Homes and office buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and
ventilated by electric power. This calls for reliable service. Unfortunately,
electric power, like everything else that is man-made, can never be
absolutely reliable. However, the reliability can be improved to a
considerable extent by (a) interconnected system (b) reliable automatic
control system (c) providing additional reserve facilities.

Design Considerations in Distribution System


Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most important
factor responsible for delivering good service to the costumers. For this purpose, design
of feeders and distributors requires careful consideration.
1. Feeders. A feeder is designed from the point of view of its current carrying
capacity while the voltage drop consideration is relatively unimportant. It is
because voltage drop in a feeder can be compensated by means of voltage
regulating equipment at the substation.
2. Distributors. A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop
in it. It is because a distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a
statutory limit of voltage variations at the consumer’s terminals (±6% of rated
value). The size and length of the distributor should be such that voltage at the
consumer’s terminals is within the permissible limits.

SUBTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Subtransmission systems are those circuits that supply distribution substations. Several different
subtransmission systems can supply distribution substations. Common subtransmission voltages include
34.5, 69, 115, and 138 kV. Higher voltage subtransmission lines can carry more power with less losses
over greater distances. Distribution circuits are occasionally supplied by high-voltage transmission lines
such as 230 kV; such high voltages make for expensive high-side equipment in a substation.
Subtransmission circuits are normally supplied by bulk transmission lines at subtransmission substations.
For some utilities, one transmission system serves as both the subtransmission function (feeding
distribution substations) and the transmission function (distributing power from bulk generators).

Of all of the subtransmission circuit arrangements, a radial configuration is the simplest and
least expensive .But radial circuits provide the most unreliable supply; a fault on the subtransmission
circuit can force an interruption of several distribution substations and service to many customers.
A variety of redundant subtransmission circuits are available, including dual circuits and looped
or meshed circuits (see Figure 1.16). The design (and evolution) of subtransmission configurations
depends on how the circuit developed, where the load is needed now and in the future, what the
distribution circuit voltages are, where bulk transmission is available, where rights-of-way are available,
and, of course, economic factors.

Most subtransmission circuits are overhead. Many are built right along roads and streets just like
distribution lines. Some — especially higher voltage subtransmission circuits — use a private right-of-way
such as bulk transmission lines use. Some new subtransmission lines are put underground, as
development of solid-insulation cables has made costs more reasonable.

FIGURE 1.16 Looped subtransmission system.

Lower voltage subtransmission lines (69, 34.5, and 23 kV) tend to be designed and operated as
are distribution lines, with radial or simple loop arrangements, using wood-pole construction along roads,
with reclosers and regulators, often without a shield wire, and with time-overcurrent protection.Higher
voltage transmission lines (115, 138, and 230 kV) tend to be designedand operated like bulk transmission
lines, with loop or mesh arrangements,tower configurations on a private right-of-way, a shield wire or
wires for lightning protection, and directional or pilot-wire relaying from two ends.

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