-3
PROCESS CONTROL
(Control de Procesos)
l/ processes are subject to disturbances that tend to
A change operating conditions, compositions, and
physical properties of the streams. In arder to
minimize the ill effects that could result from such
disturbances, chemical plants are implemented with
substantial amounts of instrumentation and automatic control
equipment. In critica/ cases and in especial/y large plants,
moreover, the instrumentation is computer monitored for
convenience, safety, and optimization.
For example, a typical bil/ion lb/ yr ethy/ene plant may
have 600 control Joops with control va/ves and 400 interacting
/oops with a cost of about $6 mil/ion. (Skrokov, 1980, pp. 13,
49; see Sec. 3. 1); the computer implementation of this
control system wil/ cost another $3 mil/ion. Figure 3. 1 shows
the control system of an ethylene fractionator which has 12
input signals to the computer and tour outgoing reset signals
to flow controllers.
In arder for a process to be controllable by machine, it
must represented by a mathematical model. Ideal/ y, each
element of a dynamic process, for example, a ref/ux drum or
an individual tray of a fractionator, is represented by
differential equations based on material and energy balances,
transfer rates, stage efficiencies, phase equilibrium relations,
etc., as well as the parameters of sensing devices, control
va/ves, and control instruments. The process as a whole then
is equivalent to a system of ordinary and partía/ differential
equations involving certain independent and dependent
variables. When the values of the independent variables are
specified or measured, corresponding values of the others are
found by computation, and the information is transmitted to
the control instruments. For example, if the temperature,
composition, and flow rate of the feed to a fractionator are
perturbed. the computer will determine the other flows and
the heat balance required to maintain constant overhead
purity. Economic factors a/so can be incorporated in process
models; then the computer can be made to optimize the
operation continually.
For control purposes, somewhat simplified mathematical
models usual/y are adequate. In distillation, for instance, the
Underwood-Fenske-Gil/iland model with constant relative
volatilities and a simplified enthalpy balance may be preferred
to a fu/1-fledged tray-by-tray calculation every time there is a
perturbation. In control situations, the demand for speed of
response may not be realizable with an overly e/abarate
mathematical system. Moreover, in practice not ali
disturbances are measurable, and the process characteristics
are not known exactly. Accordingly feedforward control is
supplemented in most instances with feedback. In a
well-designed system (Shinskey, 1984, p. 186) typically 90%
3.1. FEEDBACK CONTROL
In feedback control, after an offset of the controlled variable from a
preset value has been generated, the controller acts to eliminate or
reduce the offset. Usually there is produced an oscillation in the
value of the controlled variable whose amplitude, period, damping
and permanent offset depend on the nature of the system and the
of the corrective action is provided by feed forward and 10%
by feedback with the result that the integrated error is
reduced by a factor of 1O.
A majar feature of many modern control systems is
composition control which has become possible with the
development of fast and accurate on-Jine analyzers. Figure 3.2
shows that 10 analyzers are used for control of ethylene
composition in this plant within the purities shown. High
speed on-/ine gas chromatographs have analysis times of
30-120 sec and are capable of measuring severa/
components simultaneous/y with a sensitivity in the
parts/million range. Mass spectrometers are faster, more
stable, and easier to maintain but are not sensitive in the ppm
range. Any one instrument can be hooked up to a half-dozen
or so sample ports, but, of course, at the expense of time lag
for controller response. lnfrared and NMR spectrometers a/so
are feasible for on-line analysis. Less costly but a/so Jess
specific analyzers are available for measuring physical
properties such as refractive index and others that have been
calibrated against mixture composition or product purity.
The development of a mathematical model, even a
simplified one that is feasible for control purposes, takes a
majar effort and is well beyond the scope of the brief
treatment of process control that can be attempted here.
What will be given is examples of control loops for the
common kinds of equipment and operations. Primarily these
are feedback arrangements, but, as mentioned earlier,
feedback devices usual/ y are necessary supplements in
primarily feedforward situations.
When processes are subject only to slow and small
perturbations, conventional feedback PIO controllers usual/ y
are adequate with set points and instrument characteristics
fine-tuned in the field. As an example, two modes of control
of a heat exchange process are shown in Figure 3.8 where
the objective is to maintain constant out/et temperature by
exchanging process heat with a heat transfer medium. Part (a)
has a feedback control/er which goes into action when a
deviation from the preset temperature occurs and attempts to
restare the set point. lnevitably sorne oscillation of the out/et
temperature will be generated that wil/ persist for sorne time
and may never die down if perturbations of the in/et condition
occur often enough. In the operation of the feedforward
control of part (b), the flow rate and temperature of the
process input are continually signalled to a computer which
then finds the flow rate of heat transfer medium required to
maintain constant process out/et temperature and adjusts the
flow control va/ve appropriately. Temperature oscillation
amplitude and duration wil/ be much less in this mode.
39
mode of action of the controller. The usual controllers provide one, two,
or three of these modes of corrective action:

l. Proportional, in which the corrective action is proportional to the

error signa!.
2. Integral, in which the corrective action at time t is proportional to
the integral of the error up to that time.
40 PROCESS CONTROL

-------------
¡ 1
---rmml- 1

: --- _,_-c>-<:i----CJ
1 1 r - - -- -
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
- - - - _j R ESET 1

-=====--_J
1
-----------E--- 1

FEEO FOR WARD AlGORITHM \ - -- -- ---------- - - -, 1

( ON HEAT ANO MATER IAL BA LA NCE )

--¡ 1
1 1
1 1
1
ETHYlENE
PRODUCT
6
y
CH4
C2H2
C3H5
C02
co

Figure 3.1. Optimized control of an ethylene tower ( Skrokov (Ed. ), Mini- and Microcomputer Control in Industrial Processes, Van
Nostrand / Reinho/d, New York, 1980).

TYPICAL ETHYLENE SPECIFICATIONS

Ethylene 99.95% weight

Methane less than 500 ppm mol. %
FEED Ethane less than 500 ppm mol. %
Propylene (and heavier) less than 100 ppm mol. %
Acetylene less than 5 ppm mol. %
Carbon dioxide less than 1O ppm mol. %
GASQ.
Total sulfur less than ·5 ppm mol. %
UNE Hydrogen sulfide less than l ppm mol. %
C0\1PRESSOR Water less than 15 ppm mol. %
Oxygen less than 5 ppm mol. %
FURNACES QlE\ICH PRIMARY CAUSTIC DRYER Hydrogen Jess than l ppm mol. %
FRACTONATOR SCRUBBER Carbon monoxide less than 5 ppm mol. %

HEAT METHYLACETY-
EXCl-WGR LENES & PROPY-
LENE REMOVAL RECYCLE
DEMETHANIZER DEETHANIZER PROPANE

DEPROPANIZER PROPYLENE
SPLITTER
Figure 3.2. Flowsketch of an olefins plant and specifications of the ethylene product. AR designates a composition analyzer
and controller (after Skrokov (Ed.), Mini- and Microcomputer Control in Industrial Processes, Van Nostrand / Reinhold,
New York, 1980).
 3.1. FEEDBACK CONTROL 41

3. Derivative, in which the corrective action is proportional to the of cooling water is fixed accordingly. Suppose the heat load is
rate at which the error is being generated. doubled suddenly because of an increase in the reactor contents. At
steady state the valve will remain 50% open so that the water ftow
The relation between the change in output m - m0 and input e rate also will remain as before. Because of the greater rate of heat
signals accordingly is represented by evolution, however, the temperature will rise to a higher but still
steady value. On the other hand, the corrective action of an integral
l , f' e dt + Kr;d¡e
m - m 0 = KP (e + K ¡). controller depends on displacement of the temperature from the
0 original set point, so that this mode of control will restore the
original temperature.
Just how these modes of action are achieved in relatively The constants KP' K¡, and Kd are settings of the instrument.
inexpensive pneumatic or electrical devices is explained in books on When the controller is hooked up to the process, the settings
control instruments, for example, that of Considine (Process appropriate to a desired quality of control depend on the inertia
Instruments and Controls Handbook, Sec. 17, 1974). The low prices (capacitance) and various response times of the system, and they
and considerable ftexibility of PID controllers make them the can be determined by field tests. The method of Ziegler and Nichols
dominant types in use, and have discouraged the development of used in Example 3.1 is based on step response of a damped system
possibly superior types, particularly as one-shot deals which would and provides at least approximate values of instrument settings
be the usual case in process plants. Any desired mode of action can which can be further fine-tuned in the field.
be simulated by a computer, but at a price. The kinds of controllers suitable for the common variables may
A capsule summary of the merits of the three kinds of be stated briefty:
corrective action can be made. The proportional action is rapid but
has a permanent offset that increases as the action speeds up. The Variable Controller
addition of integral action reduces or entirely eliminates the offset
but has a more sluggish response. The further addition of derivative Flow and liquid pressure PI
Gas pressure p
action speeds up the correction. The action of a three-mode PID
Liquid level P or PI
controller can be made rapid and without offset. These effects are Temperature PID
illustrated in Figure 3.3 for a process subjected to a unit step upset, Composition P, PI, PID
in this case a change in the pressure of the control air. The ordinate
is the ratio of the displacements of the response and upset from the Derivative control is sensitive to noise that is made up of random
set point. higher frequency perturbations, such as splashing and turbulence
The reason for a permanent offset with a proportional con- generated by inftow in the case of liquid leve! control in a vessel, so
troller can be explained with an example. Suppose the tempera- that it is not satisfactory in such situations. The variety of
ture of a reactor is being controlled with a pneumatic system. composition controllers arises because of the variety of composition
At the set point, say the valve is 50% open and the ftow rate analyzers or detectors.
Many corrective actions ultimately adjust a ftow rate, for
instance, temperature control by adjusting the ftow of a heat
Prop lnlegral D.eriv Penod Oamping Max Ollsel transfer medium or pressure by regulating the ftow of an effiuent
Curve Mode ol Sens1liv1ty, Time, Time, ol e-1/T Error
Conlrol K K. Cycle, T, stream. A control unit thus consists of a detector, for example, a
p Kd sec
1 sec units units thermocouple, a transmitter, the control instrument itself, and a
control valve. The natures, sensitivities, response speeds, and
1 Proportional derivative 16 - 0.9 32 15 0.18 0.06
locations of these devices, together with the inertia or capacity of
2 Prop int deriv JO 22 2.0 44 20 0.21 o the process equipment, comprise the body of what is to be taken
into account when designing the control system. In the following
3 Proportional 8 - - 45 20 0.29 o.u
pages will be described only general characteristics of the major
4 Proportional integral 4 3 - 65 30 0.37 o kinds of control systems that are being used in process plants.
5 lnlegral - 35 - 210 100 0.69 o Details and criteria for choice between possible alternates must be
sought elsewhere. The practica! aspects of this subject are treated,
0.7 for example, in the References at the end of this chapter.

0.6
/ ,--.....
SYMBOLS
/
"'
a.
0.5

0.4
/ ""' \ \
On working ftowsheets the detectors, transmitters, and controllers
are identified individually by appropriate letters and serial numbers
in circles. Control valves are identified by the letters CV- followed
e: ,--·\ '\ by a serial number. When the intent is to show only in general the
a. 0.3
\4
!l\ \ \ kind of control system, no special symbol is used for detectors, but
::: 0.2

o 0.1
r 2 r\ \
'.
,/
-
\

'\
simply a point of contact of the signa! line with the equipment or
process line. Transmitters are devices that convert the measured
variable into air pressure for pneumatic controllers or units
I 1\;
'""", ----
"\. appropriate for electrical controllers. Temperature, for instance,

- _--
o / "\.. may be detected with thermocouples or electrical resistance or
.... .....
-o.1
o 10 20
'....... _,,..
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
height of a liquid column or radiant flux, etc., but the controller can
accept only pneumatic or electrical signals depending on its type.
Time, sec When the nature of the transmitter is clear, it may be represented
Figure 3.3. Response of various modes of control to step input by an encircled cross or left out entirely. For clarity, the ftowsheet
( Eckman, Automatic Process Control, Wiley, New York, 1958). can include only the most essential information. In an actual design
42 PROCESS CONTROL

EXAMPLE 3.1 Proportional-integral-derivative:

Constants of PID Controllers from Response Curves to a Step
Input % PB = 83RL/llm = 38.6%,
The method of Ziegler and Nichols [Trans ASM E, (Dec. 1941)] will K 1 = 2L = 4.8 min,
be used. The example is that of Tyner and May ( Process
Kd = 0.5L = 1.2 min.
Engineering Control, Ronald, New York, 1967). The response to a
change of 2 psi on the diaphragm of the control valve is shown. The
These are approximate instrument settings, and may need to be
full range of control pressure is from 3 to 15 psi, a difference of
adjusted in process. PB is proportional band.
12psi, and the range of temperature is from 100 to 200ºF, a
A recent improvement of the Ziegler-Nichols method due to
difference of lOOºF. Evaluate the % displacement of pressure as
Yuwana and Seborg [AIChE J. 28, 434 (1982)] is calculator
programmed by Jutan and Rodriguez [Chem. Eng. 91(18), 69-73
!lm = 100(2/12) = 16.7%.
(Sep. 3, 1984)].
From the curve, the slope at the inflection point is t.m (t) = 2 psig
170
r---------------------------- ------------
R = 17.5/100(7.8 -2.4) = 3.24%/min, '
1

and the apparent time delay is the intercept on the abscissa,

t 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
:l
L = 2.40 min. 160 1
1
Q)
c. !
1
17.5 F
The values of the constants for the several kinds of controllers are E
Q)
1
1
Proportional: 100/KP = % PB = lOORL/ llm = 100(3.24)(2.4)/ 1- 1
1
16.7 = 46.6%.
Proportional-integral: % PB = llORL/llm = 51.2%
r- L-1
K 1 = L/0.3 = 8 min nme (min) -

case, details of detectors and transmitters as well as ali other
elements of a control system are summarized on instrument
specification forms. The simplified coding used in this chapter is
summarized on Figure 3.4.
CASCADE(RESET)CONTROL
Sorne control situations require interacting controllers. On Figure
3.19(d), for instance, a composition controller regulates the setpoint
of the temperature controller of a reactor and on Figure 3.15(g) the
set point of the reflux flow rate is regulated by composition or
temperature control. Composite systems made up of regions that
respond with varying degrees of speed or sluggishness are
advantageously equipped with cascade control. In the reactor of
Figure 3.19(b), the temperature TT-1 of the vessel contents
responds only slowly to changes in flow rate of the heat transfer
medium, but the temperature TT-2 of the HTM leaving the cooling
coi! is comparatively sensitive to the flow rate. Accordingly,
controller TC-2 is allowed to adjust the setpoint of the primary
controller TC-1 with an overall improvement in control of the
reactor temperature. The controller being reset is identified on
flowsheets.
3.2. INDIVIDUAL PROCESS VARIABLES
The variables that need to be controlled in chemical processing are
temperature, pressure, liquid leve!, flow rate, flow ratio, com-
position, and certain physical properties whose magnitudes may be
influenced by sorne of the other variables, for instance, viscosity,
vapor pressure, refractive index, etc. When the temperature and
pressure are fixed, such properties are measures of composition
which may be known exactly upon calibration. Examples of control
of individual variables are shown in the rest of this chapter with the
various equipment (say pumps or compressors) and processes (say
distillation or refrigeration) and on the earlier flowsketches of this
and the preceding chapters, but sorne general statements also can
be made here. Most control actions ultimately depend on regulation
of a flow rate with a valve.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is regulated by heat exchange with a heat transfer
medium (HTM). The flow rate of the HTM may be adjusted, or the
condensing pressure of steam or other vapor, or the amount of heat
transfer surface exposed to condensing vapor may be regulated by
flooding with condensate, which always has a much lower heat
transfer coefficient than that of condensing vapor. In a reacting
system of appropriate vapor pressure, a boiling temperature at
sorne desired value can be maintained by refluxing at the proper
controlled pressure. Although examples of temperature control
appear throughout this chapter, the main emphasis is in the section
on heat exchangers.
PRESSURE
Pressure is controlled by regulating the flow of efiluent from the
vessel. The efiluent may be the process stream itself or a non-
condensable gas that is generated by the system or supplied for
blanketing purposes. The system also may be made to float on the
pressure of the blanketing gas supply. Control of the rate of
condensation of the efiluent by allowing the heat transfer surface to
flood partially is a common method of regulating pressure in
fractionation systems. Throttling a main efiluent vapor line usually
is not done because of the expense of large control valves. Figure
3.5 shows vacuum production and control with steam jet ejectors.

8 0 Analysis (composition) controller, transmitter
8 8 Differential pressure controller, transmitter
e
0 Flow rate controller, transmitter
80 Liquid leve! controller, transmitter
e 0 Pressure controller, transmitter
G B Temperature controller, transmitter
0 General symbol for transmitter
Control valve
/,'
' · Signa! line, pneumatic or electrical
Point of detection
Figure 3.4. Symbols for control elements to be used on flowsheets.
Instrument Society of America (ISA) publication no. S 51.5 is
devoted to process instrumentation terminology.
LEVEL OF LIQUID
Leve! of liquid in a vessel often is maintained by permanent or
adjustable built-in weirs for the effiuent, notably on the trays of
fractionators, extractors, etc., and in reactors and drums. Any
desired adjustments of weir height, however, can be made only on
shutdown. Control of the flow rate of effiuent (sometimes of the
input) is the most common other method of leve! control. Liquid
levels often are disturbed by splashing or flow turbulence, so that
rather sluggish controllers are used for this service. Conceivably, a
leve! could be controlled by forcing effiuent through an opening of
fixed size with a controlled pressure, but there do not appear to be
many such applications. Continua! control of the weight of a vessel
and its contents is another control method that is not used often.
Figure 3.6 is devoted to leve! control.
FLOW RATE
A rate of flow is commonly measured by differential pressure across
an orifice, but many other devices also are used on occasion.
Simultaneous measurements of temperature and pressure allow the
flow measurement to be known in mass units. Direct mass flow
3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 43
meters also are available. The flow measurement is transmitted to a
controller which then adjusts the opening of a control valve so as to
maintain the desired condition.
FLOW OF SOLIOS
Except for continuous weighing, control of the flow of solids is less
precise than that of fluids. Severa! devices used for control of feed
rates are shown schematically in Figure 3.7. They ali employ
variable speed drives and are individually calibrated to relate speed
and flow rate. Ordinarily these devices are in effect manually set,
but if the solid material is being fed to a reactor, sorne property of
the mixture could be used for feed back control. The continuous
belt weigher is capable ordinarily of ± 1% accuracy and even
±0.1% when necessary. For processes such as neutralizations with
lime, addition of the solid to process in slurry form is acceptable.
The slurry is prepared as a batch of definite concentration and
charged with a pump under flow control, often with a diaphragm
pump whose stroke can be put under feedback control. For sorne
applications it is adequate or necessary to feed weighed arnounts of
solids to a process on a timed basis.
FLOW RATIO
Flow ratio control is essential in processes such as fuel-air rnixing,
blending, and reactor feed systerns. In a two-strearn process, for
example, each strearn will have its own controller, but the signa!
frorn the prirnary controller will go to a ratio control device which
adjusts the set point of the other controller. Figure 3.17(a) is an
exarnple. Construction of the ratioing device rnay be an adjustable
mechanical linkage or rnay be entirely pneurnatic or electronic. In
other two-strearn operations, the flow rate of the secondary strearn
rnay be controlled by sorne property of the cornbined stream,
ternperature in the case of fuel-air systems or cornposition or sorne
physical property indicative of the proportions of the two strearns.
COMPOSITION
The rnost cornrnon detectors of specific substances are gas
chrornatographs and rnass spectrorneters, which have been
rnentioned earlier in this chapter in connection with feedforward
control. Also mentioned have been physical properties that have
been calibrated against mixture cornpositions. Devices that are
specific for individual substances also are sometimes available, for
example pH, oxygen, and combustion products. Impregnated
reactive tapes have been rnade as specific detectors for many
substances and are useful particularly for low concentrations.
Composition controllers act by adjusting sorne other condition of
the system: for instance, the residence time in converters by
adjusting the flow rate, or the temperature by adjusting the flow of
HTM, or the pressure of gaseous reactants, or the circulation rate
of regenerable catalysts, and so on. The taking of representative
samples is an aspect of on-line analysis that slows down the
responsiveness of such control. The application of continuously
measuring in-line analyzers is highly desirable. Sorne physical
properties can be measured this way, and also concentrations
of hydrogen and many other ions with suitable electrodes.
Composition controllers are shown for the processes of Figures 3.1
and 3.2.
3.3. EQUIPMENT CONTROL
Examples are presented of sorne usual control methods for the
more widely occurring equipment in chemical processing plants.
Other methods often are possible and may be preferable because of
44 PROCESS CONTROL

STEAM

SUMP
(a) (b)

STEAM STEAM

SUMP SUMP
(e) (d)

Figure 3.5. Vacuum control with steam jet ejectors and with mechanical vacuum pumps. (a) Air bleed on PC. The steam and water rates are
hand set. The air bleed can be made as small as desired. This can be used only if air is not harmful to the process. Air bleed also can be used
with mechanical vacuum pumps. (b) Both the steam and water supplies are on automatic control. This achieves the mínimum cost of utilities,
but the valves and controls are relatively expensive. (c) Throttling of process gas flow. The valve is larger and more expensive even than the
vapor valve of case (a). Butterfly valves are suitable. This method also is suitable with mechanical vacuum pumps. (d) No direct pressure
control. Settings of manual control valves for the utilities with guidance from pressure indicator PI. Commonly used where the greatest
vacuum attainable with the existing equipment is desired.

greater sensitivity or lower cost. Also it should be noted that the

choice of controls for particular equipment may depend on the kind
of equipment it is associated with. Only a few examples are shown
of feedforward control, which should always be considered when
superior control is needed, the higher cost is justified, and the
process simulation is known. Another relatively expensive method
is composition control, which has not been emphasized here except
EFFLUENT (b) for reactors and fractionators, but its possible utility always should
be borne in mind. Only primary controllers are shown. The
VAPOR complete instrumentation of a plant also includes detectors and
transmitters as well as indicators of various operating conditions.
Such indications may be input to a computer for the record or for
HTM control, or serve as guides for manual control by operators who
have not been entirely obsolesced.
LIOUID
INPUT HEAT TRANSFER EOUIPMENT
(e)
Figure 3.6. Sorne modes of control of liquid level. (a) Leve! control
by regulation of the effiuent flow rate. This mode is externally Four classes of this kind of equipment are considered: heat
adjustable. (b) Level control with built in overflow weir. The weir exchangers wíthout phase change, steam heaters, condensers, and
may be adjustable, but usually only during shutdown of the vaporizers or reboilers. These are grouped together with
equipment. (c) Overflow weir in a horizontal kettle reboiler. The descriptions in Figures 3.8-3.11. Where applicable, comments are
weir setting usually is permanent. made about the utility of the particular method. In these heat
 3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 45
(a)

PF

HTM
Adjustable
Undertlow
\J( / Weir
(e) o (b)
PF

Adjustable

ºº"" )/:r
cL
Adjustable

T2
Setpoint
HTM
(d)

Weight Sensing (e)

+( Element

(e)
0 ---1 .-ar .
PF
Figure 3.7. Solids feeders with variable speed drives. (a) Rotary
vane (star) feeder with variable speed drive. (b) Horizontal screw
feeder. (c) Belt feeder taking material from a bin with an adjustable
underflow weir. (d) Rotary plate feeder: Rate of discharge is
controlled by the rotation speed, height of the collar, and the
position of the plow. (e) Continuously weighing feeder with variable
speed belt conveyor.

(d)

Figure 3.8. Heat exchangers without phase change. PF = process

fluid, HTM = heat transfer medium. (a) Feedback control of PF
outlet temperature. Flow rate of HTM is adjusted as the PF outlet
temperature is perturbed. The valve may be in either the input or
output line. (b) Feedforward control. PF outlet setpoint T-2 and Dowtherm
perturbations of PF input flow and temperature are fed to the Boiler
monitor which adjusts the flow rate of the HTM to maintain Dowtherm circulation
constant PF outlet temperature T2. (c) Exchanger with bypass of
process fluid with a three-way valve. The purpose of TC-2 is to
conserve on that fluid or to limit its temperature. When the inherent
leakage of the three-way valve is objectionable, the more expensive
two two-way valves in the positions shown are operated off TC-1. (e)
(d) A two-fluid heat transfer system. The PF is heated with the
HTM which is a closed circuit heated by Dowtherm or combustion PF
gases. The Dowtherm is on flow control acting off TC-2 which is on
the HTM circuit and is reset by TC-1 on the PF outlet. The HTM
also is on flow control. Smoother control is achievable this way than
with direct heat transfer from very high temperature Dowtherm or
combustion gases. (e) Air cooler. Air flow rate is controllable with adjustable louvers
adjustable louvers or variable pitch fan or variable speed motors.
The latter two methods achieve sorne saving of power compared variable pitch tan
with the louver design. Multispeed motors are also used far change
between day and night and between winter and summer. The variable speed motor
switching can be made automatically off the air temperature.
46 PROCESS CONTROL

PF VAPOR
----------1
1

HTM
STM
----.
1
1

PF

(a) PF CONDENSATE
steam trap or
liquid level controller
PF VAPOR
(a) condensate
STM

HTM
PF

(b)

(b)

STM

PF PF CONDENSATE
(e)
three-way valve

t '"'
PF bypass

(e)
"'.. LT-
-
1
1
-----------·
1
1

accumulator drum
1
1
1
1

: T
1
STM
HTM 10-15 FT
_¡_ SUBCOOLED
PF PF CONDENSATE

(d)

trap
(d)
Figure 3.9. Steam heaters. (a) Flow of steam is controlled off the PF
outlet temperature, and condensate is removed with a steam
trap or under liquid level control. Subject to difficulties when
condensation pressure is below atmospheric. (b) Temperature
control on the condensate removal has the effect of varying the
amount of ftooding of the heat transfer surface and hence the rate
of condensation. Because the ftow of condensate through the valve
is relatively slow, this mode of control is sluggish compared with
(a). However, the Jiquid valve is cheaper than the vapor one. (c)
Bypass of process fluid around the exchanger. The condensing
pressure is maintained above atmospheric so that the trap can
discharge freely. (d) Cascade control. The steam pressure responds
quickly to upsets in steam supply conditions. The more sluggish PF
temperature is used to adjust the pressure so as to maintain the
proper rate of heat transfer.
Figure 3.10. Condensers. (a) Condenser on temperature control of
the PF condensate. Throttling of the ftow of the HTM may make it
too hot. (b) Condenser on pressure control of the HTM ftow.
Throttling of the ftow of the HTM may make it too hot. (c) Flow
rate of condensate controlled by pressure of PF vapor. If the
pressure rises, the condensate ftow rate increases and the amount of
unftooded surface increases, thereby increasing the rate of
condensation and Jowering the pressure to the correct value. (d)
Condenser with vapor bypass to the accumulator drum. The
condenser and drum become partially ftooded with subcooled
condensate. When the pressure falls, the vapor valve opens, and the
vapor ftows directly to the drum and heats up the liquid there. The
resulting increase in vapor pressure forces sorne of the liquid back
into the condenser so that the rate of condensation is decreased and
the pressure consequently is restored to the preset value. With
sufficient subcooling, a difference of 10-15 ft in levels of drum and
condenser is sufficient for good control by this method.
 3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 47
PF VAPOR DISTILLATION EOUIPMENT
As a mínimum, a distillation assembly consists of a tower, reboiler,
condenser, and overhead accumulator. The bottom of the tower
serves as accumulator for the bottoms product. The assembly must
be controlled as a whole. Almost invariably, the pressure at either
the top or bottom is maintained constant; at the top at such a value
that the necessary reflux can be condensed with the available
(a) coolant; at the bottom in order to keep the boiling temperature low
enough to prevent product degradation or low enough for the
available HTM, and definitely well below the critica! pressure of the

- --ª----
bottom composition. There still remain a relatively large number of
variables so that care must be taken to avoid overspecifying the
number and kinds of controls. For instance, it is not possible to
control the flow rates of the feed and the top and bottom products
under perturbed conditions without upsetting holdup in the system.
Two flowsketches are shown on Figures 3.1 and 3.12 of controls
on an ethylene fractionator. On Figure 3.1, which is part of the
PFLIQUID TRAP complete process of Figure 3.2, a feedforward control system with a
(b) multiplicity of composition analyzers is used to ensure the high
degree of purity that is needed for this product. The simpler
PF VAPOR diagram, Figure 3.12, is more nearly typical of two-product
fractionators, the only uncommon variation being the use of a feed-
overhead efftuent heat exchanger to recover sorne refrig- eration.
Crude oil fractionators are an example of a more elaborate
system. They make severa! products as side streams and usually
have sorne pumparound reflux in addition to top reflux which serve
to optimizeunder
operating the diameter
vacuumofinthe tower.
order to Figure 3.13temperature
keep the is of such a below
tower
(e)

HOT PF
¡-----------------------
'
--- REFRIG
VAPOR
cracking conditions. The side streams, particularly those drawn off
atmospheric towers, often are steam stripped in externa! towers
hooked up to the main tower in order to remove lighter com-
ponents. These strippers each have four or five trays, operate
REFRIG

OVHD PRODUCT

accumulator

(d) COLDPF

Figure 3.11. Vaporizers (reboilers). (a) Vaporizer with flow-rate of

HTM controlled by temperature of the PF vapor. HTM may be
liquid or vapor to start. (b) Thermosiphon reboiler. A constant rate
of heat input is assured by flow control of the HTM which may be
either liquid or vapor to start. (c) Cascade control of vaporizer. The
flow control on the HTM supply responds rapidly to changes in the
heat supply system. The more sluggish TC on the PF vapor resets
the FC if need be to maintain temperature. (d) Vaporization of
refrigerant and cooling of process fluid. Flow rate of the PF is the REFLUX PUMP
primary control. The flow rate of refrigerant vapor is controlled by
the leve! in the drum to ensure constant condensation when the
incoming PF is in vapor form.

STEAM

transfer processes the object is to control the final temperature of

the process fluid (PF) or the pressure of its source or to ensure a
constant rate of heat input. This is accomplished primarily by
regulation of the fiow of the heat transfer medium (HTM). BTMS PROOUCT
Regulation of the temperature of the HTM usually is Iess
convenient, although it is done indirectly in steam heaters by
Figure 3.12. Fractionator for separating ethylene and ethane with a
throttling of the supply which has the effect of simultaneously refrigerated condenser. FC on feed, reflux, and steam supply. LC
changing the condensing pressure and temperature of the steam on bottom product and refrigerant vapor. Pressure control PC on
side. overhead vapor product.
 48 PROCESS CONTROL

WATER

STM

LVGO

STM

RESIDUUM

TRIM CUT

HVGO

Figure 3.13. Crude oil vacuum tower. Pumparound reftux is provided at three lower positions as well as at
the top, with the object of optimizing the diameter of the tower. Cooling of the side streams is part of the
heat recovery system of the entire crude oil distillation plant. The cooling water and the steam for stripping
and to the vacuum ejector are on hand control.

off leve! control on the main tower, and return their vapors to the
main tower.
A variety of control schemes are shown separately in Figures
3.14 and 3.15 for the lower and upper sections of fractionators. To
sorne extent, these sections are controllable independently but not
entirely so because the ftows of mass and heat are interrelated by
the conservation laws. In many of the schemes shown, the top reftux
rate and the ftow of HTM to the reboiler are on ftow controls.
These quantities are not arbitrary, of course, but are found by
calculation from material and energy balances. Moreover, neither
the data nor the calculation method are entirely exact, so that sorne
adjustments of these ftow rates must be made in the field until the
best possible performance is obtained from the equipment. In
rnodern Iarge or especially sensitive operations, the fine tuning is
done by cornputer.
For the lower section of the fractionator, the cases of Figure 3.14
show the heat input to be regulated in these five different ways:
l. On ftow control of the heat transfer rnedium (HTM),
2. On ternperature control of the vapor leaving the reboiler or at
sorne point in the tower,
3. On differential pressure between key points in the tower,
4. On Iiquid leve] in the bottom section,
S. On control of cornposition or sorne physical property of the
bottom product.
Although only one of these rnethods can be shown clearly on a
particular sketch, others often are usable in cornbination with the
other controls that are necessary for cornpleteness. In sorne cases
the HTM shown is condensing vapor and in other cases it is hot oil,
but the particular ftowsketches are not necessarily restricted to one
or the other HTM. The sketches are shown with and without purnps
 3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 49

alternate location
K

STM

PRODUCT
(a) •
PRODUCT

(e) PRODUCT
(d)

(e) CONDENSATE (f) + CONDENSATE

Figure 3.14. The lower ends of fractionators. (a) Kettle reboiler. The heat source may be on TC of either of the two locations shown or on
flow control, or on difference of pressure between key locations in the tower. Because of the built-in weir, no LC is needed. Less head room
is needed than with the thermosiphon reboiler. (b) Thermosiphon reboiler. Compared with the kettle, the heat transfer coefficient is greater,
the shorter residence time may prevent overheating of thermally sensitive materials, surface fouling will be less, and the smaller holdup of hot
liquid is a safety precaution. (c) Forced circulation reboiler. High rate of heat transfer and a short residence time which is desirable with
thermally sensitive materials are achieved. (d) Rate of supply of heat transfer medium is controlled by the difference in pressure between two
key locations in the tower. (e) With the control valve in the condensate line, the rate of heat transfer is controlled by the amount of
unflooded heat transfer surface present at any time. (f) Withdrawal on TC ensures that the product has the correct boiling point and
presumably the correct composition. The LC on the steam supply ensures that the specified heat input is being maintained. (g) Cascade
control: The set point of the FC on the steam supply is adjusted by the TC to ensure constant temperature in the column. (h) Steam flow rate
is controlled to ensure specified composition of the PF efftuent. The composition may be measured directly or indirectly by measurement of
sorne physical property such as vapor pressure. (i) The three-way valve in the hot oíl heating supply prevents buildup of excessive pressure in
case the flow to the reboiler is throttled substantially. (j) The three-way valve of case (i) is replaced by a two-way valve and a differential
pressure controller. This method is more expensive but avoids use of the possibly troublesome three-way valve.
50 PROCESS CONTROL
(g) i CONDENSATE
(i)
HOT OIL
Figure 3.14-(continued )
for withdrawal of bottom product. When the tower pressure is
sufficient for transfer of the product to the following equipment, a
pump is not needed.
Upper section control methods are shown on Figure 3.15. They
ali incorporate control of the pressure on the tower, either by
throttling sorne vapor ftow rate or by controlling a rate of
condensation. In the latter case this can be done by regulating the
ftow or temperature of the HTM or by regulating the amount of
heat transfer surface exposed to contact with condensing vapor.
Flow control of reftux is most common. It is desirable in at least
these situations:
l. When the temperature on a possible control tray is insensitive to
the composition, which is particularly the case when high purity
overhead is being made,
2. When the expense of composition control is not justifiable,
3. When noncondensables are present,
4. With tall and wide columns that have large holdup and
consequently large lags in interchange of heat and mass between
phases,
S. When the process coupling of the top and bottom temperature
controllers makes their individual adjustments difficult,
6. When the critica! product is at the bottom.
In ali these cases the reftux rate is simply set at a safe value, enough
to nullify the effects of any possible perturbations in operation.
There rarely is any harm in obtaining greater purity than actually is
necessary. The cases that are not on direct control of reftux ftow
rate are: (g) is on cascade temperature (or composition) and ftow
control, (h) is on differential temperature control, and (i) is on
temperature control of the HTM flow rate.
(h) CONDENSATE
(j)
HOT OIL
LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION TOWERS
The internals of extraction towers can be packing, sieve trays,
empty with spray feeds or rotating disks. The same kinds of controls
are suitable in ali cases, and consist basically of leve! and ftow
controls. Figure 3.16 shows sorne variations of such arrangements.
If the solvent is lighter than the material being extracted, the two
inputs indicated are of course interchanged. Both inputs are on ftow
control. The light phase is removed from the tower on LC or at the
top or on leve! maintained with an interna! weir. The bottom stream
is removed on interfacial leve! control (ILC). A common type of
this kind of control employs a hollow float that is weighted to have a
density intermediate between those of the two phases. As indicated
by Figures 3.16(a) and 3.16(d), the interface can be maintained in
either the upper or lower sections of the tower. Sorne extractions
are performed with two solvents that are fed separately to the
tower, ordinarily on separate flow controls that may be, however,
linked by flow ratio control. The relative elevations of feed and
solvents input nozzles depend on the nature of the extraction
process.
Controls other than those of flow and leve! also may be needed
in sorne cases, of which examples are on Figure 3.17. The scheme of
part (a) maintains the flow rate of solvent in constant ratio with the
main feed stream, whatever the reasons for variation in ftow rate of
the latter stream. When there are fluctuations in the composition of
the feed, it may be essential to adjust the flow rate of the solvent
to maintain constancy of sorne property of one or the other of
the eflluent streams. Figure 3.17(b) shows reset of the solvent
flow rate by the composition of the raffinate. The temperature
of an extraction process ordinarily is controlled by regulating
the temperatures of the feed streams. Figure 3.17(c) shows the
 3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 51

temperature of one of the streams to be controlled by TC-2 acting
on the fiow rate of the HTM, with reset by the temperature of a
control point in the tower acting through TC-1. When the effiuents
are unusually sensitive to variation of input conditions, it may be
inadvisable to wait for feedback from an upset of output
performance, but to institute feedforward control instead. In this
kind of system, the input conditions are noted, and calculations are
made and implemented by on-line computer of other changes that
are needed in order to maintain satisfactory operation.
Mixer-settler assemblies for extraction purposes often are
preferable to differential contact towers in order to obtain very high
extraction yields or to handle large fiow rates or when phase

PF

(a) (b)

PF

(e) (d)

Figure 3.15. Control modes for the upper sections of fractionators. (a) Pressure control by throttling of the overhead vapor fiow. The
drawbacks of this method are the cost of the large control valve and the fact that the reflux pump operates with a variable suction head. The
fiow of HTM is hand set. (b) Applicable when the overhead product is taken off as vapor and only the reflux portion need be condensed.
Two two-way valves can replace the single three-way valve. The flow of HTM is hand set. (c) F1ow rate of the HTM is regulated to keep the
pressure constant. One precaution is to make sure that the HTM, for example water, does not overheat and cause scaling. The HTM fiow
control valve is small compared with the vapor valve of case (a). (d) Pressure control is maintained by throttling uncondensed vapors. Clearly
only systems with uncondensables can be handled this way. The flow of the HTM is manually set. (e) Bypass of vapor to the drum on PC:
The bypassed vapor heats up the liquid there, thereby causing the pressure to rise. When the bypass is closed, the pressure falls. Sufficient
heat transfer surface is provided to subcool the condensate. (f) Vapor bypass between the condenser and the accumulator, with the condenser
near ground leve! for the ease of maintenance: When the pressure in the tower falls, the bypass valve opens, and the subcooled Jiquid in the
drum heats up and is forced by its vapor pressure back into the condenser. Because of the smaller surface now exposed to the vapor, the rate
of condensation is decreased and consequently the tower pressure increases to the preset value. With normal subcooling, obtained with sorne
excess surface, a difference of 10-15 ft in levels of drum and condenser is sufficient for good control. (g) Cascade control: The same system as
case (a), but with addition of a TC (or composition controller) that resets the refiux flow rate. (h) Refiux rate on a differential temperature
controller. Ensures constant interna! reflux rate even when the performance of the condenser fiuctuates. (i) Refiux is provided by a separate
partía! condenser on TC. It may be mounted on top of the column as shown or inside the column or installed with its own accumulator and
refiux pump in the usual way. The overhead product is handled by an after condenser which can be operated with refrigerant if required to
handle low boiling components.
52 PROCESS CONTROL

PF

(e) (f)

PF PF

(g) (h)

PF

(i)

Figure 3.15-(continued)
 3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 53

Solvent
(b) (e)

Extrae! Raf!inate

(a) (d)

Figure 3.16. Extraction tower control. (a) Operation with heavy solvent, interface in the upper section, top
liquid Ievel on LC. (b) Sarne as part (a) but with overflow weir for the light phase. (c) Sarne as part (a) but with
cornpletely full tower and light phase out at the top. (d) Operation with interface on ILC in the lower section,
rernoval of the light phase frorn the upper section by any of the rnethods of (a), (b), or (c).

separation is slow and rnuch time is needed. Often, also, relatively
simple equiprnent is adequate for srnall capacities and easy
separations. Severa! designs of varying degrees of sophistication are
available cornrnercially, sorne of which are described by Lo, Baird,
Hanson ( Handbook of Solvent Extraction, Wiley, New York, 1983).
The basic concept, however, is illustrated on Figure 3.18. The
solvent and feed are thoroughly rnixed in one charnber and overflow
into another, partitioned chamber where separation into light and
heavy phases occurs by gravity. Ordinarily the settling charnber is
rnuch the larger. The heavy phase is removed on interfacial leve)
control and the light one on leve! control. The takeoffs also can be
controlled with interna! weirs or rnanually.
Severa! centrifuga! contactors of proprietary nature are on the
rnarket. Their controls are invariably built in.
CHEMICAL REACTORS
The progress of a given reaction depends on the ternperature,
pressure, flow rates, and residence times. Usually these variables
are controlled directly, but since the rnajor feature of a chernical
reaction is cornposition change, the analysis of cornposition and the
resetting of the other variables by its rneans is an often used rneans
of control. The possible occurrence of rnultiple steady states and the
onset of instabilities also are factors in deciding on the nature and
precision of a control systern.
Because of the sensitivity of reaction rates to ternperature,
control of that variable often dorninates the design of a reactor so
that it becornes rather a heat exchanger in which a reaction occurs
alrnost incidentally. Accordingly, besides the exarnples of reactor
controls of this section, those of heat exchangers in that section rnay
be consulted profitably. Heat transfer and holding time rnay be
provided in separate equiprnent, but the complete assernbly is
properly regarded as a reactor. An extreme exarnple, perhaps, is
the two-stage heater-reactor systern of Figure 3.19(f); three or more
such stages are used for endotherrnic catalytic reforrning of
naphthas, and similar arrangernents exist with intercoolers for
exotherrnic processes.
Although the bulk of chernical manufacture is done on a
continuous basis, there are sectors of the industry in which batch
reactors are essential, notably for ferrnentations and polyrneriza-
tions. Such plants rnay ernploy as rnany as 100 batch reactors. The
basic processing steps include the charging of severa) strearns,
bringing up to reaction ternperature, the reaction proper,
rnaintenance of reaction ternperature, discharge of the product, and
preparation for the next batch. Moreover, the quality of the product
depends on the accuracy of the tirning and the closeness of the
control.
Srnall installations are operated adequately and econornically
by human control, but the opening and closing of rnany valves and
the setting of conditions at precise times clearly call for cornputer
control of rnultiple batch installations. Cornputers actually have
taken over in rnodern synthetic rubber and other polyrnerization
industries. Interested readers will find a description, complete with
54 PROCESS CONTROL

(a) Stirred tanks are used either as batch or continuous flow

Feed reactors. Heat transfer may be provided with an externa! heat
exchanger, as shown on this figure, or through interna! surface
or a jacket. Alternate modes of control may be used with the
controls shown: (i) When the HTM is on temperature control,
the pumparound will be on flow control; (ii) when the
pumparound is on temperature control, the HTM will be on
Flow flow control; (iii) for continuous overflow of product, the
Ratio control point for temperature may be on that line or in the
Control vessel; (iv) for batch operation, the control point for
temperature clearly must be in the vessel. Although leve!
control is shown to be maintained with an interna! weir, the
product can be taken off with the pump on leve! control.
(b) This shows either direct or cascade control of the temperature
of a reactor with interna! heat transfer surface and an interna!
weir. The sluggishly responding temperature of the vessel is
(a) Salven!
used to reset the temperature controller of the HTM. For direct
control, the TC-2 is omitted and the control point can be on the
HTM outlet or the product line or in the vessel.
(e) Quite a uniform temperature can be maintained in a reactor if
the contents are boiling. The sketch shows temperature
maintenance by refluxing evolved vapors. A drum is shown
Raffinate from which uncondensed gases are drawn off on pressure
control, but the construction of the condenser may permit these
gases to be drawn off directly, thus eliminating need for the
drum. The HTM of the condenser is on TC which resets the
PC if necessary in order to maintain the correct boiling
Reset temperature in the reactor. Other modes of pressure control
are shown with -the fractionator sketches of Figure 3.15 and on
Figure 3.5 dealing with vacuum control.
(d) Flow reactors without mechanical agitation are of many
configurations, tanks or tubes, empty or containing fixed beds
(b) Salven! of particles or moving particles. When the thermal effects of
reaction are substantial, multiple small tubes in parallel are
used to provide adequate heat transfer surface. The sketch
shows a single tube provided with a jacket for heat transfer.
Feed to the reactor is on flow control, the effluent on pressure
control, and the flow of the HTM on temperature control of the
effluent with the possibility of reset by the composition of the
effluent.
(e) Heat transfer to high temperature reactions, above 300ºC or so,
may be accomplished by direct contact with combustion gases.
Solvent The reaction tubes are in the combustion zone but safely away
or Feed
from contact with the llame. The control mode is essentially
HTM similar to that for case (d), except that fuel-air mixture takes
(e) the place of the HTM. The supply of fue! is on either
temperature or composition control off the effluent stream, and
the air is maintained in constant ratio with the fue! with the
Figure 3.17. Sorne other controls on extraction towers. (a) Solvent flow ratio controller FRC.
flow rate maintained in constant ratio with the feed rate. (b) Solvent (f) High temperature endothermic processes may need severa!
flow rate reset by controlled composition of raffinate. (c) reaction vessels with intermediate heat input. For example, the
Temperature of solvent or feed reset by the temperature at a inlet temperature to each stage of a catalytic reformer is about
control point in the tower.
975ºF and the temperature drop ranges from about lOOºF in the
first stage to about 15ºF in the last one. In the two-stage
assembly of this figure, the input is on FC, the outlet of the last
reactor on PC, and the fue! supply to each furnace is on TC of
logic diagrams for normal and emergency operations, of the tasks its effluent, with the air supply on flow ratio control, as shown
involved in generating a computer system for a group of batch for example (e).
reactors in the book of Liptak (1973, pp. 536-565). Control of (g) Very effective heat transfer is accomplished by mixing of
discontinuous processes in general is treated in the book of Skrokov streams at different temperatures. The cumene process shown
(1980, pp. 128-163). here employs injection of cold reacting mixture and cold inert
In the present discussion, emphasis will be placed on the propane and water to preven! temperature escalation; by this
control of continuous reactors, concentrating on the severa! scheme, the inlet and outlet temperature are made essentially
examples of Figure 3.19 in the order of the letter designations of the same, about 500ºF. Although not shown here, the main
individual figures used there. feed is, as usual for reactors, on FC and the outlet on PC. The

Mixing
Chamber
Figure 3.18. Functioning and controls of a mixer-settler assembly for liquid-liquid extraction.
sidestreams are regulated with hand-set valves by experienced
operators in this particular plant, but they could be put on
automatic control if necessary. Other processes that employ
injection of cold process gas at intermediate points are sorne
cases of ammonia synthesis and sulfur dioxide oxidation.
(h) In catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions, an influential side
reaction is the formation of carbon which deposits on the
catalyst and deactivates it. Unacceptable deactivation occurs in
about 10 min, so that in practice continuous reactivation of a
portion of the catalyst in process must be performed. As shown
on this sketch, spent catalyst is transferred from the reactor to
the regenerator on leve! control, and retums after regeneration
under TC off the reactor temperature. Leve! in the regenerator
is maintained with an overflow standpipe. Smooth transfer of
catalyst between vessels is assisted by the differential pressure
control DPC, but in sorne plants transfer is improved by
injection of steam at high velocity into the lines as shown on
this sketch for the input of charge to the reactor. Feed to the
system as a whole is on flow control. Process effiuent from the
reactor is on pressure control, and of the regenerator gases on
the DPC. Fue! to regeneration air preheater is on TC off the
preheat air and the combustion air is on flow ratio control as in
part (e).
LIQUID PUMPS
Process pumps are three types: centrifuga!, rotary positive
displacement, and reciprocating. The outputs of ali of them are
controllable by regulation of the speed of the driver.
3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 55
Light Phase
Heavy Phase
Separating
Chamber
Controllability of centrifuga! pumps depends on their pressure-
flow characteristics, of which Figure 3.20 has two examples.
With the upper curve, two flow rates are possible above a head
of about 65 ft so that the flow is not reliably controllable above
this pressure. The pump with the Jower curve is stable at ali
pressures within its range. Throttling of the discharge is the usual
control method for smaller centrifugals, variable speed drives for
larger ones. Suction throttling may induce flashing and vapor
binding of the pump. Figures 3.21(a) and (b) are examples.
Rotary pumps deliver a nearly constant flow at a given speed,
regardless of the pressure. Bypass control is the usual method, with
speed control in larger sizes. Reciprocating pumps also may be
controlled on bypass if a pulsation damper is provided in the circuit
to smooth out pressure fluctuations; Figure 3.2l(c) shows this
mode.
Reciprocating positive displacement pumps may have adjust-
ment of the length or frequency of the stroke as another control
feature. These may be solenoid or pneumatic devices that can be
operated off a flow controller, as shown on Figure 3.2l(d).
SOLIOS FEEDERS
Severa! of the more common methods of controlling the rate of
supply of granular, free-flowing solids are represented in Figure 3.7.
COMPRESSORS
Three main classes of gas compressors are centrifuga! and axial,
rotary continuous positive displacement, and reciprocating positive
 56 PROCESS CONTROL

Feed Recycle
Feed

HTM

or CT)

or CT) HTM

Product

(a) Product (b)

Vent
1 e t--- -- Gases

Feed

(d)

Figure 3.19. Chemical reactor control examples. (a) Temperature control of a stirred tank reactor with pumparound through an external heat
exchanger, operable either in batch or continuously: Sorne alternate control modes are discussed in the text. Cascade control as in (b) can be
implemented with external heat transfer surface. (b) Either cascade or direct control of temperature: Por direct control, controller TC-2 is
omitted, and the control point can be taken on the eflluent line or in the vessel or on the HTM eflluent line. A similar scheme is feasible with
an externa! heat exchanger. (c) Reactor temperature control by regulation of the boiling pressure: The HTM is on TC off the reactor and
resets the PC on the vent gases when necessary to maintain the correct boiling temperature. Although shown for batch operation, the method
is entirely feasible for continuous ftow. (d) Basic controls on a ftow reactor: Peed on ftow control, eflluent on pressure control, and heat
transfer medium ftow rate on process eflluent temperature or reset by its composition. (e) A fired heater as a tubular ftow reactor: Peed is on
PC, the product is on PC, the fuel is on TC or AC off the product, and the air is on ftow ratio control. (f) A two-stage fired heater-reactor
assembly: Details of the fuel-air supply control are in (e). (g) Control of the temperature of the exothermic synthesis of cumene by splitting
the feed and by injection of cold propane and water into several zones. The water also serves to maintain activity of the phosphoric acid
catalyst. (h) The main controls of a ftuidized bed reactor-regenerator: Flow of spent catalyst is on level control, and that of regenerated
catalyst is on TC off the reactor; these ftows are assisted by maintenance of a differential pressure between the vessels. Details of the fuel-air
control for the preheater are in (e).
 3.3. EQUIPMENT CONTROL 57

Product

Fuel

Air
(e)

Product
Fuel

Air

Propylene
and Benzene

Water
Quench

Propane
Quench

(g) Cumene

Figure 3.19-( continued )

58 PROCESS CONTROL

Gas

Separator

Liquid

Regenerator

Spent Catalyst

Regenerated
Catalyst

Reactor
Steam
Fuel
and Air

Oil Charge at
Controlled Temperature
Regenerator Air
(h)

Figure 3.19-( continued )

"O
Cll 40
Q)
I
(a)

ºº 60
,
120
Flow Rate, gpm
Figure 3.20. Characteristics curves of two centrifuga! pumps.

displacement. The usual or feasible modes of control of pressure (b)

and flow may be tabulated:
Figure 3.21. Control of centrifuga!, rotary, and reciprocating
Control Mode Centrifuga! Rotary Reciprocating
pumps. (a) Throttling of the discharge of a centrifuga! pump. (b)
and Axial PO PO
Control of the flow rate of any kind of pump by regulation of the
speed of the driver. Although a turbine is shown, engine drive or
Suction throttling X speed control with gears, magnetic clutch, or hydraulic coupling
Oischarge throttling X may be feasible. (c) On the left, bypass control of rotary positive
Bypass X X X displacement pump; on the right, the reciprocating pump circuit has
Speed X X X a pulsation dampener to smooth out pressure fluctuations. (d)
Guide vanes X Adjustment of the length or frequency of the stroke of a constant
Suction valves X speed reciprocating pump with a servomechanism which is a feed-
Cylinder clearance X back method whose action is control of mechanical position.
 3.3. EOUIPMENT CONTROL 59
pressor must be maintained above the magnitude at the peak in
pressure. Figure 3.23(c) shows an automatic bypass for surge
protection which opens when the principal fiow falls to the critica!
mínimum; recycle brings the total fiow above the critica!.
Smaller rotary positive displacement compressors are con-
trolled with externa! bypass. Such equipment usually has a built-in
relief valve that opens at a pressure short of damaging the
equipment, but the externa! bypass still is necessary for smooth
control. Large units may be equipped with turbine or gas engine
drives which are speed adjustable. Variable speed gear boxes or
belt drives are not satisfactory. Variable speed de motors also are
not useful as compressor drives. Magnetic clutches and hydraulic
couplings are used.
Reciprocating compressors may be controlled in the same way
(e) as rotary units. The normal turndown with gasoline or diese!
engines is 50% of maximum in order that torque remains within

(d)

Figure 3.21-(continued ) (a) STM

Throttling of the suction of centrifuga! and axial compressors

wastes less power than throttling the discharge. Even less power is
wasted by adjustment of built-in inlet guide vanes with a
servomechanism which is a feedback control system in which the
controlled variable is mechanical position. Speed control is a
particularly effective control mode, applicable to large units that can
utilize turbine or interna! combustion drives; control is by throttling
of the supply of motive fiuids, steam or fue!.
Characteristic curves-pressure against fiowrate--<>f centrifuga!
and axial compressors usually have a peak. Figure 3.22 is an
example. In order to avoid surging, the fiow through the com- ..
(b)

(e)

Figure 3.23. Control of centrifuga! compressors with turbine or

motor drives. (a) Pressure control with turbine or motor drives. (b)
ºo 5 10 Flow control with turbine or motor drives. SC is a servomechanism
that adjusts the guide vanes in the suction of the compressor. (e)
Flow Rate, M lb/hr Surge and pressure control with either turbine or motor drive. The
Figure 3.22. Characteristic curves of a centrifuga! compressor at bypass valve opens only when the fiow reaches the mínimum
different speeds, showing surge limits. calculated for surge protection.
60 PROCESS CONTROL

(b) (e)

Figure 3.24. Control of positive displacement compressors, rotary and reciprocating. (a) Flow control with variable speed drives. (b) Pressure
control with bypass to the suction of the compressor. (c) Reciprocating compressor. SC is a servomechanism that opens sorne of suction
valves during discharge, thus permitting stepwise internal bypass. The clearance unloader is controllable similarly. These built-in devices may
be supplemented with externa! bypass to smooth out pressure fluctuations.

acceptable Iimits. Two other aids are available to control of recip-
rocating units.
l. Valve unloading, a process whereby sorne of the suction valves
remain open during discharge. Solenoid or pneumatic unloaders
can be operated from the output of a control instrument. The
stepwise controlled flow rate may need to be supplemented with
controlled external bypass to smooth out pressure fluctuations.
2. Clearance unloaders are small pockets into which the gas is
forced on the compression stroke and expands into the cylinder
on the return stroke, thus preventing compression of additional
gas.
Figure 3.24 shows control schemes for rotary and reciprocating
compressors. Vacuum pumps are compressors operating between a
Iow suction pressure and a fixed discharge pressure, usually
atmospheric. Mechanical pumps are used for small capacities, steam
jet ejectors for larger ones. Ejectors also are used as ther-
mocompressors to boost the pressure of low pressure steam to an
intermediate value. Control of suction pressure with either mech-
anical or jet pumps is by either air bleed (Fig. 3.5(a)] or suction
Iine throttling (Fig. 3.5(c)]; air bleed is the more economical process.
Up to five jets in series are used to produce high vacua. The steam
from each stage is condensed by direct contact with water in baro-
metric condensers or in surface condensers; condensation of steam
from the final stage is not essential to performance but only to avoid
atmospheric pollution. In a single stage ejector, motive steam flow
cannot be reduced below critical flow in the diffuser, and water to
the barometric condenser must not be throttled below 30-50% of
the maximum if proper contacting is to be maintained. Control by
throttling of steam and water supply, as on Figure 3.5(b), is subject
to these limitations.

REFERENCES 3. B. Liptak, lnstrumentation in the Process Industries, Chilton, New York,

l. Chemical Engineering Magazine, Practica/ Process Instrumentation and
Control, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980.
2. D.M. Considine, Process Instruments and Controls Handbook, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1985.
1973.
4. F.G. Shinskey, Process Control Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
5. F.G. Shinskey, Distillation Control, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.
6. M.R. Skrokov (Ed.), Mini- and Microcomputer Control in Industrial
Processes, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1980.