INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

ABPG1103

MAY 2016

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 1. Explain what is Evolutionary psychology.

Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to

explain useful mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language as
adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection. The purpose of this approach
is to bring the functional way of thinking about biological mechanisms such as the immune
system into the field of psychology, and to approach psychological mechanisms in a similar
way.

In short, evolutionary psychology is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind
and behaviour. Though applicable to any organism with a nervous system, most research in
evolutionary psychology focuses on humans. Evolutionary Psychology proposes that the
human brain comprises many functional mechanisms, called psychological adaptations or
evolved cognitive mechanisms designed by the process of natural selection. Examples
include language acquisition modules, incest avoidance mechanisms, cheater detection
mechanisms, intelligence and sex-specific mating preferences, foraging mechanisms,
alliance-tracking mechanisms, agent detection mechanisms, and so on.

From the scholar of Buss and Schmitt, 1993, they were given a question and situation
which is the number of male and female students were asked to answer the following
questions: "Ideally, how many sexual partners you want to have until next month, within six
months, a year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, 5 years, 10 years, 20 years, 30 years, and for a
lifetime? ". There are differences in the answers given by male and female students respond
to the questions above. Male students would like to have more sexual partners than the
desired student. This trend is consistent for each time interval. For example, for the next two
years, he wants to have an average of eight sexual partners, while women just want to have
only one sexual partner. Men want to have a mean of 18 sexual partners during their lifetime,
while women only want a mean 4 or 5 sexual partners (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). What theory
capable of explaining the differences between men and women regarding the desired number
of sexual partners that? Evolutionary psychology may be able to address this problem.

Evolutionary psychology is one of the new branches of psychology that attempts to

study the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behaviour.
Evolutionary psychology stresses the importance of adaptation, reproduction and "survival of

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the fittest" in shaping behaviour. "Fit" in the term refers to the ability to conceive offspring
that survive long enough to have their own offspring. In this view, the evolutionary process of
natural selection has chosen behaviours that increase our reproductive success, our ability to
continue our genes to the next generation. As an example, David Buss has a special effect in
stimulating new interest about how evolution can explain human behaviour. He believes that
just as the evolution of the form of our physical characteristics, such as body shape and
height, evolution also affect how the decision how aggressively ourselves, our fears and our
spouses pattern.

In psychology there are models or approaches used for research. Its new approach
began to be practiced and the old approach was abandoned. The old model is the standard
approach of social sciences (social science), which considers the human brain as "empty
coffers" that have the ability to learn a variety of flexible culture without the influence of
genes and biology. This assumption is wrong because our brains have the ability to recognize
objects, to identify the behaviours, sex discrimination, has a system of colour perception and
language components. This ability is what makes human beings can still reproduce and seek
offspring and her offspring to survive.

Another erroneous assumption is assuming some psychologists who think that human
behaviour can be inherited and learned. In fact, human behaviour is based on instinct, not
from the learning process. An example is the baby that makes certain facial expressions when
he was too young to be attempting various expressions in front of the mirror. Steven Pingker,
say that humans learn because it has a complexity of thought. When we look at human
behaviour, we cannot measure it if seen only from biological advantage alone. Human
behaviour is not only influenced by the selection of genes, but also influenced by the
selection of perception.

History of Psychology

1. Early

The history of psychology can be traced in Ancient Greece. In the 1600s. Beginning
psychology derived from the philosophy that talks about 'the mind' (René Descartes- s.d 1596
1650) and is also influenced by physiology. According Prosefor Germany, Wilhelm Wundt
(1832-1920) we should not judge someone without scientific method and therefore
psychology endeavoured that can be measured as an exact science. After conducting various

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studies, at the University of Leipzig and many of the entries received, in 1879 was born the
science of psychology. Structuralism began to appear, chaired by Edward Titchener who
believes that psychology requires introspection to analyze understanding. However, inspired
by William James, stated that functionalism open the way of the behaviour and psychology
more applications have a lot of influence than structuralism.

At this time, developing psychoanalysis and behaviourists. Psychoanalysis itself

inspired from an Australian physicist, Sigmund Freud. Feud idea is considered controversial.
Freud's idea is about specialization in personality, motivation and abnormal psychology.
While behaviourists itself inspired by John B. Watson. Psychology should only discuss issues
about human behaviour. Settle the debate about psychoanalysis and behaviourist, Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers offered a new theory called humanism. Humanism is about human
behaviour and human freedom in its development.

2. Modern Period

In World War II, clinical psychology developed rapidly in the 1950s. This causes the
psychology began to develop as a profession of applied science. In the era of 1950-1960,
developmental psychology back to its roots. Then, renewed specialization in cognition and
psychology. At this time studies on cognition increases. As of cognitive development (Piaget,
1954), Memory (Miller, 1956), Language (Chomsky, 1957), problem solving (Newel, Shaw
and Simon, 1958). Also discusses the relationship between mind, body and behaviour (Olds,
1956). Initially, most psychological research involves only the middle and upper class men
from the west. Because of their strong desire to develop their knowledge, in the 1980s the
psychologist began to spread its wings to conduct a study of non-western cultures, ethnic
minorities in the west and more to women than men. In the 1990s, the evolution of a science
of psychology. In this era of psychology is more directed to the anatomical characteristics and
human thought is affected by natural selection. In the 21st century, psychology began
trending be positive and clearer. Psychology began to seek clarity about adaptation, creative
and fulfilling aspects of human life.

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3. Present

The disciplines of psychology have experienced growth and major changes since the
early days of Wilhelm Wundt. Psychology is diverse. He has evolved has many branches of
applied science. In addition, psychology itself has evolved into a respected profession. The
areas of research in psychology now mainly concerning developmental psychology, social
psychology, experimental psychology, physiological psychology, cognitive psychology,
personality psychology, psychometrics, educational psychology, sports psychology and health
psychology.

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 2. Discuss the practical aspects of Evolutionary psychology in a relation to human
life.

(a) Health

In general, a distinguished medical on individual health and public health. Individual

health is reflected in the physical health and mental health of a person. Physically fit, if a
person feels he is healthy and can be proven clinically when the organs in the body function
normally. While mentally healthy covers healthy on the mind, emotional and spiritual. Public
health as a branch of science studying ways of preventing disease by identifying risk factors
for the disease so as to improve public health in the aggregate. Prof. Winslow of Yale
University imposes limits public health science is the science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life, improve physical and mental health, and efficiency through the business
community is organized to improve environmental sanitation, control of infection in the
community, education of individuals about personal hygiene, organization of services
medical treatment for early diagnosis, prevention of diseases and the development of social
aspects, which will support so that every person in the community has a strong standard of
living to maintain their health (Leavel and Clark, 1958). Refer to the question; the
evolutionary psychology has affect health aspect to the human life. This is because, at the
beginning of the 20th century, an understanding of health is dominated by the views of the
medical biological perspective, where health is defined as a situation where the absence of
disease. Then developed view of bio psychosocial emphasize socio-cultural role in shaping
the health or cause disease. As the definition of health by the WHO (World health
organization) in 1948, defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social
development and well-being and not only free of disease or infirmity.

When entering into the culture and psychology of applied health sciences is very
important. For example, in health promotion, preventive, rehabilitation, could not rule out the
local culture. Even some cultures there are various diseases that are typical of the culture,
which can only be understood, if we include the concept of culture in handling the disease.
For example some of the diseases that have a tendency received cultural influences such as
Hikokomori (common in Japan) and anorexia (common in western society). Understanding
the underlying reasons for this, prevention and effective treatment for the disease as this
would require a cultural approach. Psychological Science in Health is a distinguished medical

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generally on individual health and public health. Individual health is reflected in the physical
health and mental health of a person. Physically fit, if a person feels he is healthy and can be
proven clinically when the organs in the body function normally.

In human life, evolutionary psychology takes place in human life, such as health. To
have a healthy life they must have an excellent activity. Positive impact they are able to
achieve well-being and well-maintained health. In addition to studying the things above,
psychological health as one of example, promoting interventions to help people to stay
healthy and also overcome the pain he suffered. Psychological health does not define
"healthy" as it does not hurt. Healthy seen as the achievement of which involves a balance
between the physical, mental and social. Learn all aspects of psychological health and ill
health throughout the life span.

Health psychology focuses on the maintenance and improvement of health, such as

how to encourage children to develop healthy habits, how to increase physical activity, and
how to design a campaign to encourage people to improve their diets. Health psychology also
studies the psychological aspects of prevention and treatment of illness. A health psychology
for example, help those who work in environments that have high stress levels to manage
stress effectively, so that the stress experienced in the work environment does not affect their
health. A health psychologist may also work with those who are suffering from a disease in
order to adjust their mental and physical illness or treatment that is designed to comply with
the doctor who treated him. Health psychology also focuses on the etiologist and its relation
to health, pain and dysfunction. Etiologist refers to the origin and cause of the illness, and
health psychologists are specifically interested in the behavioural and social factors that
contribute to health and disease and dysfunction. These factors include destructive habits or
support health such as alcohol consumption, smoking, exercise, wear a seat belt, and means
'friends' with stress. In the end, health psychology to analyze and try to improve the health
care system and formulate health policy.

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 (b) Motivation

According Teevan and Smith (1967), motivation is a construct that activates and
directs behavior by giving encouragement or power to the organism to perform an activity.
According to Chauhan (1978), motivation is a process that causes the activity of the
organism, causing a behavior. Motivation is the driving force and giving directions in the
process of emergence of behavior and empowering the existing behavior, so that the behavior
remains persistent (continuous) until the goal is reached. Motivation as a giver directions, of
course, the direction is fixed on the object that is associated with behavioral objectives. Or
conversely, aiming to avoid the object in question. Therefore, the motivation can be said as a
behavioral control (Buck, 1988). As can be seen, that with the motivation it will display a
process that encourages and directs the organism to a specific action and ongoing persistent
so that the goal is reached. That is why in the evolutionary physiology, motivation is one of
the aspects that affect human behavior in life all day.

The motivation that drives organisms or move and direct the organism to perform
certain actions that, stimulated by internal factors such as thirst, hunger, pain and
physiological conditions and other external factors that are stimuli that come from the
environment. Conditions are hungry, for example, will encourage individuals to go to the
dining hall or looking for a restaurant and thirst will encourage people to open the refrigerator
to take a drink. Stimulation of an environment that encourages the emergence of behavior, for
example, the rhythm of music motivates people to dance, or someone who entered college
with the intention of getting a college degree (Dekkers, 20001).

Motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic is an internal condition that is the force or

impetus that exist in the organism. Extrinsic motivation is likely to bring the behavior to get
compensation or incentives from the external world, either in the form of material or non-
material. For example, a fisherman went to sea to get fish, a miner holding mining for gold or
mining else, a labourer working for a wage, an employee worked diligently and discipline in
the hope to get a promotion and appreciation of his boss, a student learning so hard to get the
title of exemplary student or to be quick to get a degree a reflection of extrinsic motivation.
Motivation either intrinsic or extrinsic both internal conditions become factors causing the
behavior.

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 (c) Biological

Last but not least, third aspect of evolutionary psychology that affect to human life is
biological. Perspective biological approach is an approach to psychology that emphasizes the
various events that take place in the body affect the behavior, feelings and thoughts of a
person. Biological evolution raises psychology perspective is a field of psychology that
emphasize the evolutionary mechanisms that help explain the similarities among humans in
cognition, developmental, emotional social practices, and other areas of behavior. We can
accept the opinion of Charles Darwin (1859) to demonstrate the notion that genetics and
evolution plays a role in influencing human behavior through natural selection.

The theory in the perspective of biology that studies the behavior of genomic consider
how genes affect behavior. Now that the human genome is mapped, maybe, someday we will
understand more precisely how behavior is influenced by the DNA. Biological factors such as
chromosomes, hormones and brain all have a significant influence on human behavior, for
sex, for example, biological approach argues that the behavior of some inherited and have a
function (or evolution) adaptive. For example, in the weeks immediately after the birth of a
child, the father's testosterone level more than 30 percent. Biology approaches (biological
approach) to focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.

In the biological approach explains that each person's behavior get biological effect.
As well as the influence of hormonal and nervous system is seen to have a significant
influence on a person's behavior. Where in the science of psychology is the study of human
behavior. For example, acts of aggression or violence by a person that is influenced by
biological factors. Scientists in biology approaches is studying how biology affects learning
and achievement, perceptions of reality, experience emotions, and the vulnerability of
emotional disorders. These scientists study how the mind and body interact with one another
in the cause of sick and healthy condition. They examine the contribution of genes and a
number of other biologist factor in influencing the development of one's abilities and
personality traits. Thus, this aspect may affect the human life as the whole.

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Summary

Evolutionary psychology is seen as one of the most important new developments in

behavioral sciences over the last 20 years and also the most controversial (Boyer &
Heckhausen, 2000). A number of criticisms addressed to evolutionary psychology. For
example, the concept of modularity formulated without any subjective support empirical
research in neurology, and speculative explanation of adaptation and like a fable (just-so
story) so it cannot be scientifically tested and do not (Evans & Zarate, 1999; Gould, 1997;).
Caporael (2001) also looked at the major limitations of evolutionary psychology is the
absence of hypotheses that can be tested on the theory. This paper introduces a glimpse of
evolutionary psychology, maybe even just a glimpse of one of the variations of the various
theories of evolutionary psychology (Caporael, 2001).

Psychology evolutionary provide a number of promises, such as "provides conceptual

tools to get out of the situation of scientific psychology fragmented, and provide the key to
unlocking the mysteries of where we come from, how we arrived at the current situation, and
the mechanism of the mind what defines who we are (Buss, 1995a, p. 27). Is this promise be
fulfilled? "For those who hoped for a quick unification of the social sciences, some
consolation can be taken from the Copernican Revolution; it took 150 years for people to
believe that the sun, and not earth, was the center of the universe. It should be no surprise if it
takes that long for the Darwinian Revolution (Caporael, 2001, h.622). The road is still long
evolutionary psychology to become a new paradigm in psychology.

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Reference

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