Thermodynamics

Lec-02, AE210 Gasdynamics

Why Thermodynamics is important?
• Gasdynamics is the study of fluid flows with high degree of compressibility.
• Mostly, mean kinetic energy is a significant portion of total energy of the
flow.
• There is a significant interaction between flow kinematics and energetics
• Generally, in incompressible flow, the energy equation can be treated
separately from the flow dynamic equations. Equations are de-coupled.
• This is no longer true in compressible flows.
• Since density is an important parameter, the equation of state is essential
to relate the three thermodynamic variables – pressure, temperature and
density.
Continuum
• Essentially, physical properties must vary continuously over space and time.
• Measurements of physical quantities are averages over space and time.
• Eg: If we consider the microscopic nature of matter, density of gas becomes a function of
sensitive volume. If the volume is small enough the density may become a function of
number of molecules within the volume, which may fluctuate drastically over time.
However, if the volume is large enough, the number of molecules are large, consequently
density fluctuations are extremely small.
• Important Non-dimensional number : Knudsen Number - l/L, where l is mean free path.
• Kn is small – continuum flow. Rarefied Gasdynamics deals with special cases when Kn can
be large eg: exospheric flow over satellites.
• L>0.1 µm, t>0.1 ns
• We will treat continuum gasdynamics in this course.
Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• Strictly, thermodynamics relates states that are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Absence
of any currents or gradients.
• Fluid dynamics involves motion of fluids with transfer of mass, momentum and energy.
• Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium is an essential concept whereby classical
thermodynamics can be extended to fluid flow scenarios.
• Essentially, the time scales of fluid motion are such that in the neighborhood of a point,
locally, thermodynamic variables such as temperature can be uniquely defined. I.e.
process are slow enough to allow the gas molecules to equilibrate such that a single
temperature can be defined.
• Extremely rapid processes that do not allow the molecules to equilibrate : eg. Laser
deposition of energy, or energy transfer in rarefied flow scenarios will violate LTE.
• Thermodynamic non-equilibrium becomes very important in hypersonic flow scenarios.
System
Pure substances

Example – Phases of Water.

Air, for all practical purposes, is considered a pure substance.
The Ideal Gas

R is Gas Constant unit kJ/KgK

In terms of Density
Processes and their representations
Isothermal Process

Isobaric Process

Isochoric Process
The First Law of Thermodynamics
∆𝐸 = ∆𝑄 + ∆𝑊
E=Total energy of the system includes internal energy, kinetic energy,
potential energy etc. For specific processes, change in KE and PE can be
neglected. In general, change in KE and PE have to be considered
Q is heated added into the system, W is work done on the system.
𝑊 = − න 𝑃𝑑𝑉

Considering specific quantities, we can write :

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑞 − 𝑃𝑑𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣
Where u is internal energy
Enthalpy
• The enthalpy is defined as H=U+PV, h=u+Pv
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃 ∴
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑞 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃
Important in control volume analysis, and particularly for isobaric
processes where 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑ℎ.
Specific Heats
• Amount of heat required to raise unit mass of the substance by 1K
• Heat gained is process dependent therefore there are two specific
heats :
𝜕𝑞
𝐶𝑣 = ቚ Specific heat at constant volume
𝜕𝑇 𝑣
𝜕𝑞
𝐶𝑝 = ቚ Specific heat at constant pressure
𝜕𝑇 𝑃
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐶𝑝 = + +𝑃
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑇
Perfect Gas
• Calorically Perfect Gas : Cp and Cv are constant (Good assumption for
low to moderate temperatures)
• Thermally Perfect Gas : Cp and Cv are functions of T only (Valid for
high temperatures, but not very high temperatures)
• Perfect gases – Cp-Cv=R
• Specific heats are dependent on the degree of freedom with which
energy interacts with the molecules of gas. For mono-atomic gas –
Cv=3/2R, For dia-atomic gases at moderate temperatures Cv=5/2R
Entropy
𝛿𝑞
• In general ∆𝑆 ≥ ‫𝑇׬‬ (second law of thermodynamics), for an isolated
system; ∆𝑆 ≥ 0.
• For reversible processes : dS=dq/T; or dq=TdS
• Gibbs Equation: h=u+Pv; dh=TdS+vdP; TdS=CpdT-vdP
• Method to calculate entropy:
T-S Diagram