UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA

COORDINATION AND CONTROL

Unit 1 The Nervous System

Nervous systems are composed f two unique categories of cells; nerve cells or neurons and glial cells. Neurons

are excitable: they can generate and propagate electrical signals known as nerve impulses or action potentials.

Most neurons have long extensions called axons that enable them to conduct action potentials over long

distances. Glial cells do not generate action potentials but support neurons physically, immunologically and

metabolically. A nerve is a bundle of neurons that come from many different neurons.

Nervous systems can process information because their neurons are organized into networks. These networks

include three functional categories of cells which are involved with input, integration and output. For input,

afferent neurons carry sensory information into the nervous system. That information comes from specialized

sensory neurons that transduce (convert) various kinds of sensory input into action potentials. Efferent

neurons carry commands to physiological and behavioral effectors such as muscles and glands. The third

category of cells called interneurons, integrate and store information and facilitate communication between

sensors and effectors.

Neuronal Complexity

Simple animals such as cnidarians (sea anemones) can process information with simple networks of neurons

that do little more than provide direct lines of communication from sensory cells to effectors. The cnidarian’s

nerve net is most developed around the tentacles and the oral opening, where it facilitates detection of food or

dangers and causes tentacles to extend or retract. Animals that are more complex and move around the

environment to search for food and mates need to process and integrate larger amounts of information. Even

animals such as earthworms fit this description, and their increased need for information processing is met by

higher numbers of neurons organized into cluster called ganglia. Ganglia serving different functions may be

distributed around the body as in the earthworm or the squid. In animals that are bilaterally symmetrical,

ganglia frequently increase in complexity, generally one pair of ganglia is larger than the others, and is therefore

given the designation of brain. The small nervous systems of invertebrates can be remarkably complex.

Consider the nervous system of spiders, which have programmed within them the thousands of precise

movements necessary to construct a beautiful web without prior experience or opportunities to learn the specific

web architecture of their species. In vertebrates most cells of the nervous system are found in the brain and

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spinal cord, the site of most information processing, storage and retrieval. Therefore the brain and spinal cord

are called the central nervous system (CNS). Information is transmitted from sensory cells to the CNS and

from the CNS to effectors via neurons that extend or reside outside of the brain and spinal cord; these neurons

and their supporting cells are called the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Vertebrates differ greatly in their

behavioural complexity and in their physiological specializations and their nervous systems reflect species of

similar body mass drawn to the same scale.

The human nervous system contains and estimated 1011 neurons Information is passed from one neuron to the

next where they come in close proximity at structure called synapses. The cell hat sends the message is the

presynaptic neuron, and the cell that receives it is the postsynaptic neuron.

Neurons

The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the spinal cord and the brain. These organs include neural

tissue, blood vessels and various connective tissues that provide physical protection and support. The CNS is

responsible for integrating, processing and coordinating sensory data and motor commands. Sensory data

convey information about conditions inside and outside the body. Motor commands control or adjust the

activities of peripheral organs, such as the skeletal muscles. For example when you stumble the CNS integrates

information concerning balance and limb position and then coordinates your recovery by sending motor

commands to appropriate skeletal muscles – all in a split second and without conscious effort. The CNS –

especially the brain is also the seat of higher functions such as intelligence, memory, learning and emotion.

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes all the neural tissue outside the CNS. The PNS delivers

sensory information to the CNS and carries motors commands to peripheral tissues and systems. Bundles of

nerve fibres (axons) carry sensory information and motor commands in the PNS. Such bundles, with associated

blood vessels and connective tissues are called peripheral nerves or simply nerves. Nerves connected to the

brain are called cranial nerves; those attached to the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.

Receptors are specialised cells, dendrite or organ that responds to specific stimuli in the extracellular

environment and whose stimulation alters the level of activity in a sensory neuron.

Effectors are muscles, glands or other specialised cells or organs that respond to neural stimulation by altering

its activity and producing a specific effect.

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1.4 Neurone Structure and Function

Cell Body/Soma

The soma or cell body contains a relatively large round nucleus with a prominent nucleolus. The cytoskeleton of

the cell body (perikaryon) contains neurofilaments and neurotubules. Bundles of neurofilaments called

neurofibrils extend into the dendrite and axon to support these relatively slender processes. The perikaryon

contains organelles that provide energy and synthesize organic materials, especially neurotransmitters. The

numerous mitochondria, free and fixed, give the perikaryon a coarse grainy appearance. Some areas of the

perikaryon contain clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes. These regions, which stain

darkly, are called nissl bodies, because they were first described by the German microscopist Franz Nissl. Nissl

Bodies are responsible for the gray colour of areas containing neuron cell bodies (the gray matter seen in

dissections).

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Most neurons lack centrioles, important organelles involved in the organization of cytoskeleton and the

movement of chromosomes during mitosis. An exception would be the neural stem cells of the olfactory (smell)

epithelium of the nose. Their divisions produce daughter cells that differentiate into highly specialised neurons,

the olfactory receptors. However stem cells are rare inside the CNS, and CNS neurons generally lose their

centrioles during differentiation. As a result typical CNS neurons cannot divide and will not be replaced if

damaged by injury or disease.

The Dendrite

The variable number of dendrites that extend from the soma are highly branched and bear fine processes called

dendritic spines. In the CNS a neuron receives information from other neurons via synaptic connections at the

dendritic spines: although some synaptic connections occur on the soma. The dendrites represent 80-90% of the

total surface area of the neuron. Chemicals released at these synapse cause localized changes in the

transmembrane potential of the dendrites and soma.

The Axon

An axon is a long cytoplasmic process capable of propagating an action potential. The axoplasm or cytoplasm

of the axon contains neurofibrils, neurotubules, small vesicles, lysosomes, mitochondria and various enzymes.

The axoplasm is surrounded by the axolemma (cell membrane). In the CNS the axolemma may be exposed to
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the interstitial fluid or covered by the processes of glial cells. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS) the

neurons axolemma is surrounded by Schwann cells. The base of the axon in a multipolar neuron is attached to

the soma at a thickened region called the axon hillock.

An axon may branch along its length producing side chains called collaterals. Collaterals enable a single neuron

to communicate with several other cells. The main axon trunk and any collaterals end in a series of fine

extensions or telodendria. The telodendria end at synaptic terminals, which is part of the synapse, is where the

neuron communicates with another cell.

The Synapse

A synapse is a specialized site of intercellular communication. There are two cells at every synapse: (1) The

presynaptic cell, which has the synaptic terminal and sends a message, and (2) the postsynaptic cell, which

receives the message. The communication between cells at a synapse most commonly involves the release of

chemicals called neurotransmitters by the synaptic terminal. These chemicals affect the activity of another

neuron or an effector. The release of these chemicals is triggered by electrical events such as the arrival of an

action potential. The neurotransmitters are packaged in synaptic vesicles.

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A : Neuron (Presynaptic) B : Neuron (Postsynaptic)

1. Mitochondria

2. Synaptic vesicle full of neurotransmitter

3. Autoreceptor

4. Synaptic cleft

5. Neurotransmitter receptor

6. Calcium Channel

7. Fused vesicle releasing neurotransmitter

8. Neurotransmitter re-uptake pump

When one neuron communicates with another the synapse may occur on a dendrite, on the soma or along the

length of the axon of the receiving cell. A synapse between a neuron and another cell type is called a

neuroeffector junction. There are two major classes of neuromuscular junctions. At a neuromuscular junction

the neuron communicates with a muscle cell. At a neuroglandular junction a neuron controls or regulates the

activity of a secretory cell. Neurons also innervate a variety of other cell types such as fat cells. The structure of

the synaptic terminal varies with the type of postsynaptic cell. The round synaptic knob occurs where the

postsynaptic cell is another neuron. The synaptic terminal at a neuromuscular junction is much more complex.

Neuron Classification

The anatomical classification of neurons is based on the relationship of the dendrites to the soma and to the

axon.

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 1. Anaxonic Neurons are small and have no anatomical clues to distinguish dendrite from axon; all the

cell processes look alike. These neurons

are located in the brain and in special

sense organs. Their functions are not

clearly understood.

 Relays message from sensory neuron to motor

neuron

 Make up the brain and spinal cord

2. Bipolar Neurons have two distinct processes – one dendritic

process that branches extensively at its distal tip and one axon with the

cell body between them. Their processes are short and these neurons

measure less than30 mm from tip to tip. Bipolar neurons are rare but

occur in special sense organs where they relay information about sight,

smell and hearing from the receptor cells to other neurons.

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3. In Unipolar Neuron or pseudounipolar neuron, the dendritic and axonal processes are continuous and

the cell body lies off to one side. In such neurons the initial segment lies at the base of the dendritic

branches; the rest of the process, which carries action potentials, is usually considered to be an axon. Most

sensory neurons of the PNS are unipolar. Their axons may extend a meter or more ending at synapses inside

the CNS.

 Afferent Neuron – Moving away from a central organ or point

 Relays messages from receptors to the brain or spinal cord

4. Multipolar Neurons have several dendrites and a single axon with one or more branches. These are the

most common type of neuron in the CNS. For example all motor neurons are of this type. Their axons may

also be a meter long or more.

1.5 Functions of Glial Cells

The CNS possesses four types of glial cells:

1. Astrocytes – maintain blood-brain barrier that isolates the CNS from the general circulation. This is

because hormones and other chemicals in the blood could alter neural functions; provide structural

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 support; regulate ion; nutrient and dissolved gas concentrations; absorb and recycle neurotransmitters;

assist in tissue repair after damage.

2. Oligodendrocytes – Myelinate CNS axons; provide structural framework.

3. Microglia – Remove cell debris, wastes and pathogens by phagocytosis.

4. Ependymal cells – Line ventricles (brain) and central canal (spinal cavity); assist in production,

circulation and monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid.

The PNS has two types of glial cells:

1. Satellite cells – Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia.

2. Schwann cells – Cover all axons in PNS; responsible for myelination of some peripheral axons;

participate in repair process after injury.

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Structure of a Nerve

(a bundle of axons in

the PNS)

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FUNCTIONS OF THE MAIN AREAS OF THE BRAIN

CEREBRUM

This region of the brain is divided into two sections, paired cerebral hemispheres. Conscious thoughts, intellect,

sensations, memory and complex movements originate in the cerebrum. The surface of the cerebrum and

cerebellum are highly folded and covered by neural cortex, a superficial layer of gray matter. The cerebrum is

the largest portion of the brain.

CEREBELLUM

The hemispheres of the cerebellum are partially hidden by the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebellum adjusts

ongoing movements on the basis of comparisons between arriving sensations and sensations previously

experienced, allowing you to perform the same movements (e.g. spinning around). The cerebellum essentially

controls movement and coordination.

DIENCEPHALON

The walls of the diencephalons are composed of the left and right thalamus. Each thalamus contains relay and

processing centers for sensory information. The thalamus is known to have multiple functions. Deduced from

the design of the isothalamus, it is generally believed to act as a translator for which various "prethalamic"

inputs are processed into a form readable by the cerebral cortex. The thalamus is believed to both process and

relay sensory information selectively to various parts of the cerebral cortex, as one thalamic point may reach

one or several regions in the cortex.

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A narrow stalk, the infundibulum, connects the hypothalamus or floor of the diencephalons to the pituitary

gland, a component of the endocrine system. The hypothalamus contains centres concerned with emotions,

autonomic functions and hormone production. The diencephalon is a structural and functional link between the

cerebral hemispheres and the components of the brain stem. The brain stem includes the mesencephalon, pons

and medulla oblongata. It contains a variety of important processing centers and nuclei that relay information

headed to or from the cerebrum or cerebellum.

PONS

Pons is the latin term for bridge; the pons connects the cerebellum to the brain stem. In addition to tracts and

relay centres the pons also contains nuclei involved with somatic and visceral motor control.

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

The spinal cord connects to the brain at the medulla oblongata. Near the pons, the roof of the medulla oblongata

is thin and membranous. The caudal (tail) portion of the medulla resembles the spinal cord in having a narrow

central canal. The medulla relays sensory information to the thalamus and to centers in other portions of the

brain stem. The medulla also contains major centers concerned with the regulation of autonomic function, such

as heart rate, blood pressure and digestion.

MID BRAIN/MESENCEPHALON

Sensory nuclei in the midbrain process visual and auditory information and control reflexes triggered by the

stimuli. For example your immediate response to a loud unexpected noise (eye movement and head turning) is

directed by nuclei in the midbrain. This region also contains centers involved with the maintenance of

consciousness.

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