Unit 5 (Energy) Revision Notes

What is the source of energy for an ecosystem? sunlight

What is the role of producers, consumers, decomposers in an ecosystem?

 producers = plants, perform photosynthesis, use light energy to make

biological molecules
 consumers = animals, cannot make their own biological molecules, need to eat
plants (primary consumers) or other animals
(secondary/tertiary consumers) to obtain biological molecules
 decomposers = bacteria and fungi, perform saprobiotic decomposition,
release enzyme onto dead plants/dead animals/animal
waste (organic matter) breaking them down to obtain
biological molecules

Why do producers (plants) need biological molecules?

 Glucose = respiration, store as starch, make cellulose

 Amino Acids = make proteins e.g. enzymes
 Fatty Acid & Glycerol = make triglyceride as energy store, make phospholipid
for membranes

Why do consumers (animals) need biological molecules?

 Glucose = respiration, store as glycogen

 Amino Acids = make proteins e.g. enzymes
 Fatty Acid & Glycerol = make triglyceride as energy store and
insulation/protection, make
phospholipid for membranes

Why do decomposers (bacteria/fungi) need biological molecules?

 Glucose = respiration
 Amino Acids = make proteins e.g. enzymes
 Fatty Acid & Glycerol = make phospholipid for membranes

How do organisms carry energy?

 Main Source = Glucose

 Stored as Starch in plants and Glycogen in animals
 Alternative Source = Lipids/Fats/Triglycerides and Proteins
How does energy move through an ecosystem? by the food chain, begin with producer and
then moves onto primary consumer, then secondary consumer, then tertiary consumer – with
decomposers occurring at each stage (trophic level)

Why is all the light energy not utilised by plants in photosynthesis? only 2% is used in
photosynthesis – of the rest, a certain part misses the chloroplast, the other parts would be
reflected or the wrong wavelength

Why is energy lost along a food chain?

 not all the glucose made by producers is stored as starch or used to build biomass,
as a certain part is lost in respiration (as heat)
 not all the stored energy in the plant is transferred to primary consumers as certain
parts of the plant are inedible and indigestible (available to decomposers)
 of the energy the primary consumer obtains, a certain amount is used in respiration,
the rest is stored as glycogen and used to build biomass
 not all this stored energy is transferred to secondary consumers due to inedible parts
and indigestible parts (available to decomposers)
 only 10% of energy is transferred from producer to primary consumer
 only 20% of energy is transferred from consumer to consumer
 the losses are due to respiration, inedible parts, indigestible parts
 higher proportion is transferred from consumer to consumer because consumers are
more edible and digestible, producers are made up of cellulose
 the higher consumers have the highest respiratory losses as they have increased
movement (hunt for food)

Effect of energy loss on a food chain? places a limit on the length of a food chain, those at
the higher trophic levels (just quaternary consumers) would not obtain enough energy from the
food it consumes

What is Productivity?

 Productivity = Amount of Glucose/Energy available to organism

 Primary Productivity = Amount of Glucose/Energy available in Plants
 Secondary Productivity = Amount of Glucose/Energy available in Animals
 Net Productivity = Gross Productivity – Respiratory [and Faeces] Losses
 Gross Primary Productivity is amount of glucose made by plant in photosynthesis,
Net Primary Productivity is amount of glucose stored as starch after respiration
 Gross Secondary Productivity is amount of glucose consumed by animal,
Net Secondary Productivity is amount of glucose stored as glycogen after respiration
 in all cases, net productivity is the glucose/energy available to organisms at next
stage of food chain
 respiratory losses are higher in consumers then producers due to movement
  and respiratory losses are higher in secondary/tertiary/quaternary consumers then
primary consumers as they move more to hunt for food
 and respiratory losses are higher in consumers that have to maintain a constant body
temperature (endotherms)

What does a Pyramid of Number represent?

 number of each type of organism at each trophic level – the numbers decrease as
we move up trophic levels due to the loss of energy (not as many individuals can
be supported)
 can look inverted when it does not take into account mass (e.g. 1 oak tree or millions
of fleas)

What does a Pyramid of Biomass represent?

 biomass of each type of organism at each trophic level

 biomass = mass of living tissue (based on dry mass, water excluded)
 biomass includes biological molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs
 units for biomass (g per m for land based animals, g per m for water based animals)
2 3

 so as we move along a food chain (up trophic levels) there is a loss of energy due
to respiration/inedible parts/indigestible parts, so there is less energy to build
biomass, so biomass decreases

What does a Pyramid of Energy represent?

 amount of energy found at each trophic level

 as before, loss of energy occurs along a food chain (respiration, inedible parts,
indigestible parts)

What are the units for energy? kJ/m /year

2

What is photosynthesis?

 using light energy to make glucose (and other biological molecules)

 occurs in plants and algae (both have chloroplast)

Adaptation of plant for photosynthesis?

 leaf located near top of plant = closer to light

 leaf is thin and wide = large surface area for light, short diffusion distance for CO 2

 has many veins = connect to xylem to bring in water

  has stomata for gas-exchange (CO /O )
2 2

 has air spaces to support ease of gas-exchange

 palisade cells located near top of leaf close to the light
 palisade cells are large = large surface area for light
 palisade cells have a thin cell wall = short diffusion distance for CO
2

 palisade cells contain many chloroplasts (site of photosynthesis)

 palisade cells have a large vacuole = pushes chloroplast to edge of cell closer to
light

Structure of chloroplast?

 site of photosynthesis
 has a double membrane (outer and inner)
 contains discs called thylakoids (contain chlorophyll)
 a stack of thylakoids = granum
 thylakoids are surrounded by a fluid material called stroma

How does photosynthesis take place?

 In 2 stages
 light dependent stage = on thylakoids, makes ATP and reduced NADP
 light independent stage = in stroma, uses the ATP and reduced NADP to make
glucose

Describe the light dependent stage?

 light hits chlorophyll

 chlorophyll absorbs the light if correct wavelength
 electrons become excited and are lost from the chlorophyll (photoionisation)
 electrons enter an electron carrier system
 electrons move down the system releasing energy
 this pumps protons from stroma into thylakoid space
 protons accumulate in thylakoid space, then diffuse back into stroma
 they pass though ATP Synthase which joins ADP and Pi to make
ATP (mechanism = chmeiosmosis, process = photophosphorylation)
 the electron ends up by joining with NADP to form reduced NADP
 light also hits water
 causes photolysis (breakdown of water due to light)
 forms: H+, e-, O 2

 the H+ joins with the reduced NADP (now carries a hydrogen atom: H+ and e-)
 the e- replaces electrons lost from chlorophyll
 O given off as waste
2

Describe the light independent stage?

  involves the calvin cycle
 RuBP (5 carbon) joins with CO to make 2 lots of GP (3 carbon)
2

 the GP is reduced into TP (3 carbon)

 this uses energy from ATP and hydrogen atom from reduced NADP
 the TP can be used to reform RuBP (uses energy from ATP)
 the TP can also be used to form glucose (carbohydrate)
 GP can also be used to form amino acids (proteins) and fatty acids
 TP can also be used to form glycerol
 fatty acids and glycerol will form a lipid
 photosynthesis/calvin cycle = produces all the main biological molecules

What are the limiting factors for photosynthesis? factors that limit the rate of
photosynthesis, when these factors are increased – the rate of photosynthesis increases, these
are Light and CO and Temperature
2

Effect of limiting Light on the calvin cycle?

 RuBP decreases – being converted into GP but not being reformed from TP (no
ATP)
 GP increases – not converted into TP (no ATP/reduced NADP) but is being formed
from RuBP

Effect of limiting CO on the calvin cycle?

2

 RuBP increases – not converted into GP (no CO ) but is being reformed from TP
2

 GP decreases – not being formed from RuBP (no CO ) but being converted into TP
2

What is the compensation point in plants?

 the point in the day (light intensity) when the CO taken in by photosynthesis equals
2

the amount given out by respiration = no net gas exchange

 at low light intensity: rate of respiration > rate of photosynthesis [CO released]
2

 at high light intensity: rate of photosynthesis > rate of respiration [CO absorbed]
2

How to measure rate of photosynthesis?

 measure amount of CO used or measure amount of O produced, in a certain time

2 2

 one method = photosynthometer

How does a photosynthometer work?

 measures amount of O produced

2
  uses aquatic plants (e.g. elodea), as the O produced can be observed and collected
2

 the plant is surrounded in sodium hydrogencarbonate solution (CO source)

2

 the plant is kept in darkness before experiment runs (uses up all the O in the plant)
2

 as the experiment runs, O will be produced, this will be collected in a capillary tube
2

 the amount collected can be measured, this will be converted into a volume by
multiplying length of oxygen bubble collected by πr 2

 volume of O collected can then be divided by time to calculate rate of

2

photosynthesis

Structure of ATP?

 Adenosine Triphosphate
 made from 1 adenosine and 3 phosphates
 energy carrier molecule
 formation: ADP + Pi (+ energy used) = ATP
 condensation reaction using enzyme ATP Synthase
 carries energy in its bonds
 breakdown: ATP = ADP + Pi (+ energy released)
 hydrolysis reaction using enzyme ATPase
 delivers energy after breakdown

How can ATP be formed?

 photophosphorylation (light dependent stage of photosynthesis)

 substrate-level phosphorylation (glycolysis and krebs cycle of respiration)
 oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain of respiration)

What makes ATP (from respiration) a good source of energy?

 immediate source = need to only break one bond to release energy (plus bond is
weak)
 manageable source = releases small amount of energy

Uses of ATP (made by respiration) in organisms?

 protein synthesis
 organelle synthesis
 DNA replication
 cell division (mitosis/meiosis)
 active transport
 metabolic reactions
 movement (e.g. muscle contraction)
 maintaining body temperature

What is respiration?
  releasing energy from glucose to make ATP
 ATP will provide energy for life processes
 occurs in all living organisms
 ATP can be made by substrate-level phosphorylation (glycolysis & krebs cycle) and
oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain)

What are the 2 types of respiration? aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen)

Describe Aerobic Respiration?

 occurs in 4 stages: Glycolysis, Link Reaction, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport

Chain
 glycolysis takes place in cytoplasm of the cell
 link reaction and krebs cycle take place in matrix of mitochondria
 electron transport chain takes place on inner membrane of mitochondria (cristae)
 the main job of the first 3 stages are to provide reduced NAD and reduced FAD for
the last stage, this is where most of the ATP is made by oxidative phosohorylation

 glycolysis
 uses glucose to produce 2x pyruvate, 2x ATP, 2x reduced NAD
 pyruvate enters link reaction
 ATP made by substrate-level phosphorylation
 reduced NAD used in ETC

 link reaction
 uses pyruvate to produce acetylcoenzyme A, reduced NAD, CO 2

 pyruvate + coenzyme A + NAD = acetylcoenzyme A + reduced NAD + CO 2

 acetylcoenzyme A used in krebs cycle

 reduced NAD used in ETC
 CO given off as waste
2

 krebs cycle
 uses acetylcoenzyme A to produce 3x reduced NAD, 1x reduced FAD, 1x ATP, 2x
CO 2

 reduced NAD and reduced FAD used in ETC

 ATP made by substrate-level phosphorylation
 CO given off as waste
2

 electron transport chain

 reduced NAD and reduced FAD release the hydrogen atom (H+/e-) they are
carrying
 the H+ build up in the matrix of the mitochondria
 the e- enter the ETC
  the electron (e-) moves along the chain releasing energy, this pumps the protons
(H+) from the matrix into the intermembranal space
 the H+ build up in the intermembranal space, then diffuse back into the matrix via
a transport protein carrying ATP Synthase enzyme
 this leads to the production of ATP = oxidative phosphorylation
 oxygen is used as a final electron acceptor and proton acceptor
 it removes the electron from the end of the ETC, so the ETC can continue
 it removes the proton from the matrix, hence maintaining concentration gradient
 it becomes water

Describe anaerobic respiration?

 no oxygen present, so no final electron acceptor and proton acceptor

 ETC stops
 Krebs Cycle and Link Reaction also stop as NAD amd FAD are not reformed in
ETC
 Glycolysis can continue as it reforms its own NAD
 so Anaerobic Respiration only relies on Glycolysis (making 2x ATP by substrate-
level phosphorylation
 NAD is reformed from the reduced NAD made in glycolysis
 the reduced NAD donates its hydrogen atom (H+/e-) to pyruvate to reform NAD
 in animals the pyruvate becomes lactate (lactic acid)
 in plants/yeast the pyruvate becomes ethanol and CO 2

How to measure rate of respiration?

 measure amount of O used or measure amount of CO produced, in a certain time

2 2

 one method = respirometer

How does a respirometer work?

 measures amount of gas exchange taking place between organism and the air in a
test tube
 the test tube is connected to a manometer (a U-shaped tube that contains a coloured
liquid)
 if the organism takes in more gas then it gives out (more O in), the amount of air in
2

the test tube decreases, therefore there will be less pressure on the coloured liquid
in the manometer, therefore the coloured liquid will move towards the test tube
 if the organism gives out more air than it takes in (more CO out), the amount of air
2

in the test tube increases, therefore there will be more pressure on the coloured
liquid in the manometer, therefore the coloured liquid will move away from the test
tube
 the amount/volume by which the coloured liquid moves represents the volume of
gas taken in or given out

What are the Respiratory Substrates?

  Carbohydrates, all forms of carbohydrates (starch/glycogen/lactose/sucrose) are
turned into glucose
 Proteins, excess amino acids are converted into keto acid
[keto acid turned into pyruvate and intermediates of krebs cycle]
 Lipids, provided fatty acids and glycerol
[fatty acids become acetylcoenzyme A, glycerol becomes triose phosphate]

What is the value of Nitrogen to organisms? used to make amino acids & proteins
and used to make nitrogenous bases in DNA

Describe the nitrogen cycle?

 nitrogen present in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas (N )

2

 N cannot be absorbed by plants, they can only absorb Nitrate ions (NO -)
2 3

 N converted into Ammonium Ions (NH +) by nitrogen fixation by nitrogen-fixing

2 4

bacteria
 there are 2 types of NFB: mutualistic and free-living
 mutualistic NFB are found in the root nodules of leguminous plants, they place the
NH + ions directly in the roots – these plants can use this to make AA and
4

nucleotides
 free-living NFB are found in the soil – they place NH + ions in the soil
4

 NH + ions cannot be absorbed by plants therefore is converted into NO - by

4 3

nitrification by nitrifying bacteria

 Ammonia ions (NH +) into Nitrite ions (NO -) into Nitrate ions (NO -)
4 2 3

 the NO - ions will be absorbed by plants to make AA/proteins and nucleotides/DNA

3

 consumers can eat the plant to obtain the AA and nucleotides

 organic material (dead plants, dead animals, animal waste) are broken down by
saprobiotic decomposers, this releases Ammonia ions (NH +) back into the soil by
4

a process called ammonification

 Nitrate ions (NO -) can be converted back into Nitrogen gas (N ) by denitrification
3 2

by denitrifying bacteria – they work in anaerobic conditions (when the field is

waterlogged and all the air spaces in the soil are filled with water)

What is the value of Phosphorous to organisms? used to make Phospholipid

used to make DNA
used to make ATP

Describe the phosphorous cycle?

 phosphorous present in sedimentary rock as phosphate ions (PO ) 4

3-

 when sedimentary rock erodes, leaves soil containing PO )4

3-

 plants absorb PO ) to make phospholipid/DNA/ATP

4
3-

 consumers eat plants to obtain phospholipid/DNA/ATP

 organic material (dead plants, dead animals, animal waste) are broken down by
saprobiotic decomposers, this releases Phosphate Ions (PO ) back into the soil
4
3-
  (if soil sediments and hardens, over time, it returns to a rock state)
 [mycorrhize are fungi in the roots of plants to support uptake of scarce minerals like
phosphate ions]

Agricultural ecosystem?

 description for farming ecosystems

 aim of farms is to grow crops and raise animals
 grow crops to sell & feed farm animals
 raise animals to sell meat & other resources (e.g. wool, eggs, milk, leather)

How are crops intensively farmed for high yield?

 select suitable location (sunlight, water, minerals)

 clear area of plants and animals (deforestation – removes competition/pest)
 selectively breed crop
 use greenhouse to provide high levels of light, CO , temperature
2

 provide water by irrigation

 add fertilisers (provides minerals = nitrate, phosphate, magnesium)
 control pests
 polyculture/crop rotation (ensures mineral levels in the soil do not become depleted)
 ploughing (adds air spaces to soil, so bacteria involved in nutrient cycles can
aerobically
respire)

What are pests? organisms that harm plants/crops – other plants (weeds) acts as
competitors, insects eat the plant, fungi cause disease

How can pests be controlled? pesticides or biological control

What are pesticides? chemical sprays that kill the pest, for weeds =
herbicide, insects = insecticide, fungi = fungicide

Advantages and Disadvantages of using pesticides?

 advantages
 fast acting
 can control area covered
 disadvantages
 non-specific
 non-biodegradable leading to bioaccumulation and toxicity in the higher trophic
levels
  pest may be resistant
 needs to be reapplied

What are biological control? using predators or parasites to the pest

Advantages and Disadvantages of using biological control?

 advantages
 specific
 does not cause bioaccumulation
 pests do not develop resistance
 does not need to be reapplied
 disadvantages
 slow acting
 may become a pest itself
 cannot control area covered

What is Bioaccumulation?

 Pesticides are not biodegradeable

 therefore, they remain stored in organism's tissues
 therefore, they accumulate along a food – up trophic levels
 therefore, they are toxic to consumers at higher trophic levels

What is an integrated pest control system?

 makes use of both pesticides and biological control – the aim is to reduced the
amount of pesticide used, as the pesticide harms food chains and ecosystems
 process:
 keep some native trees (will act as natural habitats to natural biological controls)
 monitor area for pests
 mechanically remove pests if present
 initial dose of pesticide – fast acting
 then apply biological control – will increase in number over time and provide long
term control
 reapply pesticides whenever there is an uncontrollable outbreak

What minerals do fertilisers provide?

 nitrate = make AA, make nitrogenous bases

 phosphate = make ATP, DNA, phospholipids
  magnesium = make chlorophyll

What are the 2 types of fertilisers?

 natural/organic = applying dead plants, dead animals, animal waste (decomposed

leading to ammonification, followed by nitrification to provide
source of NO -)
3

 artificial/chemical = spraying on concentrated solutions of the minerals

Natural vs Artificial Fertilisers?

 Natural = reduced risk of leaching/eutrophication but slower release of minerals

 Artificial = faster release of minerals and higher concentration but risk
of leaching/eutrophication and lowers water potential of
soil (so plant absorbs less water by osmosis)

What is the benefit of ploughing? increases amount of air spaces in the soil, supports aerobic
respiration of decomposers and bacteria involved in nitrogen cycles (nitrogen fixing bacteria
& nitrifying bacteria preveting denitrifying bacteria)

What is eutrophication?

 if large amounts of chemical fertilisers are sprayed onto fields and heavy rainfall
occurs, the fertiliser may leach into local water sources
 the fertiliser will travel and build up in ponds or lakes
 the mineral (e.g. nitrates to make AA) will be absorbed and used by Algae
 this will lead to an increase growth of algae = algal bloom
 the algae grows on the upper surface of the water, this prevents light reaching the
plants at the bottom of the water
 these plants cannot photosynthesise, so die
 these provide more nutrients to saprobitoic decomposers, so these increase in
number
 the decomposers will aerobically respire, using up the oxygen in the water
 therefore fish die as less oxygen is available

Environmental impact of Crop Farming?

 Deforestation = reduces species diversity, reduces plant species diversity, less

habitats and food sources, reduces animal species diversity
 Monoculture = one type of plant/crop grown, depletes certain nutrients in the soil
(no time provided for nutrient levels to recover)
 Selective Breeding = reduces genetic diversity of crop (reduces variation, reduces
ability to adapt to changes in the environment)
 Pollution = bioaccumulation of pesticides, eutrophication from chemical fertilisers
Reducing Environmental impact of Crop Farming?

 keep some native trees (helps to maintain species diversity)

 keep hedgerows (help to maintain species diversity + absorb chemical
fertilisers reducing eutrophication)
 polyculture (grow different crops at different times of the year, allows depleted
nutrients to recover in the soil)
 keep seeds of wild crop (maintain genetic diversity, use if environment changes)
 use biological control for pests & natural fertiliser for minerals

How are animals (domestic livestock) intensively reared in farming?

 selectively bred
 given predigested food (enzymes added), with high protein and high energy levels
 given antibiotics and vaccinations
 given steroid hormones
 restricted movement and kept warm (reduce energy loss)

Natural Ecosystem vs Agricultural Ecosystem (farms)?

 natural = light energy source, agricultural = light + food for farmer + fossil fuel
for machines
 natural = high biodiversity, agricultural = low
 natural = high species diversity, agricultural = low
 natural = high genetic diversity, agricultural = low
 natural = low productivity, agricultural = high
 natural = nutrients recycled, agricultural = nutrients added (fertiliser)
 natural = competition/predators control pests, agricultural = pesticides/biological
control
 natural = reaches climax community, agricultural = prevent climax from being
reached

Unit 6 (Response to Stimuli) Revision Notes

What is a Stimuli? a change in the internal or external environment

Why do Organisms need to Respond to Stimuli? for survival (predator/prey

awareness, homeostasis)

How do Simple Organisms Respond to Stimuli? Taxis and Kinesis

What is Taxis? directional response to a stimuli (towards or away from)

What is Kinesis?
  non-directional movement from an unfavourable area to a favourable area
 organism moves rapidly and randomly in unfavourable area until they reach
favourable area where they move slowly and less randomly
 so spends more time in favourable area, less time in unfavourable area

Example of Response to Stimuli in Plants? Tropism

What is Tropism?

 directional growth in plants in response to a stimuli

 towards = positive, away = negative
 light = photo, water = hydro, gravity = geo
 shoot shows positive phototropism and negative geotropism
 root shows positive geotropism and positive hydrotropism
 controlled by a Plant Growth Factor = Indoleacetic Acid (IAA) - auxin

What is a Plant Growth Factor?

 equivalent to animal hormones

 difference: made by cells throughout the plant, only affects cells locally, affects
growth

What are the affects of IAA? promotes growth in the shoot, inhibits growth in the root

How does positive phototropism in the shoot take place?

 normally: shoot tip produces IAA, sending it down both sides causing the shoot to
grow forwards
 if light is present on one side, the IAA redistributes to the opposite side (shaded
side)
 this causes the opposite side to grow faster
 so the shoot bends towards the light

How does negative geotropism in the shoot take place?

 if gravity is present on one side, the IAA redistributes to the same side
 this causes the same side to grow faster
 so the shoot bends away from gravity towards the light

How does positive geotropism/hydrotropism in the root take place?

  if gravity/water is present on one side, the IAA redistributes to the same side
 this causes the same side to grow slowly, so the opposite side grows faster
 so the root bends towards the gravity/water

Evidences for Tropism (positive phototropism in shoot)?

 removing or covering shoot tip prevents tropism [tip causes tropism]

 placing micin (prevents movement of chemicals e.g. IAA) across shoot inhibits
tropism [tropism caused by movement of chemicals]
 placing gelatine (prevents movement of electrical signals) across shoot does not
affect tropism [tropism not caused by movement of electrical signals]
 if shoot tip is moved to one side, that side grows faster and the shoot bends the
other way [IAA promotes growth in shoot]
 when in light or darkness the overall levels of IAA remain the same [light does
not inhibit or breakdown IAA but rather redistributes it]

Response to Stimuli in Mammals? uses Nervous System, Hormonal

System (nervous and hormonal systems coordinate response to
stimuli)

Job of Nervous System? coordinate response to certain stimuli – response is fast, short
acting, localised
Pathway of Nervous System?

stimuli to receptor to sensory neurone to spinal cord to brain to spinal cord to motor
neurone to effector for response

What does a Receptor do?

 detects stimuli
& converts stimuli energy into nerve impulse
(acts as a transducer – converts one type of energy into another)
 each type of stimuli has a specific receptor
 uses stimuli energy to send Na ions into the start of the sensory neurone
+

 2 examples of receptors: Pacinian Corpuscle, Retina of Eye

What does a Pacinian Corpuscle do?

 touch receptor
 found in skin, fingers and toes
 responds to pressure/touch
 structure = corpuscle (several layers of tissue) wrapped around the start of a
sensory neurone
 process = pressure applied, corpuscle compressed, stretch-mediated Na +

channels opened, Na ions move into the start of the sensory neurone
+
How does the Retina of the Eye work?

 detects light so the brain can generate an image

 detected by retina (located at back of eye)
 made of Cone and Rod cells
 Cone Cells detect high light intensity only, produces colour image, with high
visual acuity
 Rod Cells can detect low light intensity, produces black and white image, with
low visual acuity
 Cone Cells located in centre of retina (fovea) – site of high light intensity
 Rod Cells located in periphery of retina

Properties of Cone Cells in Retina?

 made of Iodopsin Pirgment which is only broken down at high light intensity
 one cone cell connects to one bipolar neurone which connects to one sensory
neurone (therefore no summation of light can take place so only detects high light
intensity)
 but because one cone cell connects to one bipolar neurone which connects to one
sensory neurone, each stimuli can be distinguished = high visual acuity

Properties of Rod Cells in Retina?

 made of Rhodopsin Pigment which can be broken down at low light intensity
 a few rod cells connect to one bipolar neurone which connects to one sensory
neurone (therefore summation of light can take place so can detect low light
intensity)
 but because a few rod cells connect to one bipolar neurone which connects to one
sensory neurone, the stimuli will be merged together = low visual acuity

What is the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

 made of brain and spinal cord

 brain = analyses and coordinates response to stimuli
 spinal cord = connects brain to sensory and motor neurones

What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

 made of the sensory and motor neurone

 a neurone transmits a nerve impulse
 sensory neurone takes nerve impulse from receptor to CNS
  motor neurone takes nerve impulse from CNS to effector
 sensory neurone has its cell body in the middle and has a dendron and axon
 motor neurone has its cell body at the start and only has a long axon

What are the 2 different types of Motor Neurone?

 Voluntary (Somatic) and Involuntary (Autonomic) Motor Neurones

 Somatic supplies skeletal muscle = under conscious control
 Autonomic supplies cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands = under
subconscious control
 Autonomic can be divided into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic (have opposite
effects)

What is a Nerve Impulse?

 movement of an action potential along a neurone

 action potential = change in membrane potential (charge' in one section of the
neurone
 changes from negative (polarised) to positive (depolarised) back to
negative (repolarised/
hyperpolarised
)
What is Resting Potential?

 membrane potential of neurone at rest

 is -65mV
 polarised
 caused by having more positive ions outside neurone compared to inside
 involves Na /K pump, pumping 3 Na ions out, 2 K ions in
+ + + +

 K channel allowing K ions to diffuse out

+ +

(K ions will eventually stop diffusing out due to a positive potential outside)
+

What happens during an Action Potential?

 stimuli causes Na ions to enter the start of the neurone

+

 makes membrane potential less negative

 if it reaches threshold (-50mV), Na channels open
+

 therefore more Na ions diffuse into the neurone, therefore membrane potential
+

becomes positive (depolarised)

 the membrane potential reaches +40mV
 then the Na channels close, the K channels open
+ +

 therefore K ions diffuse out, therefore membrane potential becomes negative

+

(repolarised)
 too many K ions move out, so the membrane potential becomes more negative
+

than normal (hyperpolarised)

 one action potential = depolarisation, repolarisation, hyperpolarisation
How does an Action Potential move along a Neurone?

 by local currents
 if the stimuli energy is large enough and enough Na ions enter the start of the
+

neurone, threshold will be reached and an AP will occur

(the 1 AP is called a Generator Potential)
st

 Na ions that move in during depolarisation of the generator potential diffuse

+

along the neurone causing the next section to reach threshold and an AP to occur
 this process continues along the neurone

* an AP will always move along the neurone to the end

* why does AP not move back? because previous section has just finished an AP, therefore
it is in refractory period (Na channels cannot be opened) and is hyperpolarised
+

(therefore threshold cannot be reached)

How does the Size of Stimuli affect a Nerve Impulse?

 does not affect size of AP

(AP is all or nothing – reach threshold = get AP [all]
do not reach threshold = no AP [nothing])
 larger stimuli increases the frequency (number) of APs

What affects Speed of Nerve Impulse?

 temperature = higher temp, higher kinetic energy, faster rate of diffusion of

ions (faster nerve impulse)

 axon diameter = wider diameter, neurone less leaky (faster nerve impulse)

 myelination = schwann cells wrap around axon, insulates axon preventing AP,
therefore AP only occurs in gaps – called node of ranvier, so AP jumps
from node to node = saltatory conduction (faster nerve impulse)

What is a Synapse?

 connection between 2 different neurones

 sends nerve impulse across the gap (synaptic cleft) using
neurotransmitters (e.g. acetylcholine)
  AP arrives in end of presynaptic neurone
 Ca channels open
2+

 Ca ions enter presynaptic neurone

2+

 causes vesicles containing neurotransmitter to move to presynaptic membrane

 vesicle binds to membrane releasing neurotransmitter into cleft
 neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft
 binds to complementary receptors on postsynaptic membrane
 Na channels open, Na ions enter
+ +

 if threshold is reached, AP occurs

(to return to rest: enzyme used to breakdown neurotransmitter, e.g.

acetylcholinesterase breaksdown acetylcholine into ethanoic acid and choline, diffuses
back into presynaptic neurone, ATP used to reform neurotransmitter into vesicle and
actively transport Ca ions out)
2+

What are the Properties of Synapses?

 unidirectionality = AP/nerve impulse travels in one direction, from pre to post, pre
has the neurotransmitter, post has the receptors

 filters out low level stimuli = low level stimuli do not release enough
neurotransmitter, therefore not enough Na ion channels open, therefore not
+

enough Na ions enter postsynaptic neurone for threshold to be reached,

+

therefore no AP produced

 summation = low level stimuli add together to release enough neurotransmitter

to produce an AP in postsynaptic neurone, can be temporal or spatial
temporal = low level stimuli present for extended period of time
spatial = a low level stimuli from a few presynaptic neurones add together

 inhibitory = normal synapses are excitatory (cause AP), some can be inhibitory –
prevent action potential from occurring by making postsynaptic neurone
hyperpolarised

What is a Reflex?

 a rapid involuntary response to a stimuli

 does not use the brain
 the sensory neurone connects directly to motor neurone
(stimuli to receptor to sensory neurone to relay neurone to motor neurone to effector for
response)
 ensures less damage done and does not require learning

How is Heart Rate controlled?

  the heart is myogenic, its heart beat is initiated by the SAN
 the Medulla Oblongata in the brain can increase or decrease heart rate
 receives nerve impulse from chemoreceptors (respond to blood pH) in the carotid
arteries and pressure receptors (respond to blood pressure) in the carotid arteries
and aorta
 sends impulse in sympathetic nerves to SAN to increase HR and sends impulse in
parasympathetic nerves to SAN to decrease HR

How does Exercise affect Heart Rate?

 exercise = muscle contraction, which requires respiration

 therefore, waste product CO is released into blood
2

 this lower pH of blood (acidic)

 this is detected by chemoreceptors in carotid arteries
 sends impulses to medulla oblongata
 then medulla oblongata sends impulses to SAN via the sympathetic nerves
causing the heart rate to increase
 benefit = increase blood flow to lungs to remove CO and take in O
2 2

How does Low Blood Pressure affect Heart Rate?

 if a person moves from lying/sitting to standing, blood pressure falls (reducing

blood flow to the brain)
 this is detected by pressure receptors in the carotid arteries and aorta
 sends impulses to medulla oblongata
 then medulla oblongata sends impulses to SAN via the sympathetic nerves
causing the heart rate to increase
 benefit = increasing heart rate leads to an increase in blood pressure (so enough
blood can reach the brain)

What are the different types of Muscles?

 Skeletal
 Smooth
 Cardiac

What is the job of the Skeletal Muscle?

 moves the body skeleton

 when the muscle contracts (shortens) the tendon pulls on joints causing movement

Structure of Skeletal Muscle?

 basic structure = sarcomeres

 made up of actin and myosin, actin is thin and has tropomysosin wrapped around
it, myosin is thick and has heads, when the sarcomere contracts the whole
muscle contracts, contracts/shortens by the sliding filament mechanism
 many sarcomeres = myofibril
 many myofibrils = muscle fibre
surrounded by a membrane called sarcolemma
contains myofibrils, fluid called sarcoplasm and tubes called sarcoplasmic
reticulum
 many muscle fibres = bundle
 many bundles = whole muscle

Locations in a Sarcomere?

 A band = location of myosin [no change in contraction]

 I band = location between the myosin [shortens in contraction]
 H zone = location between the actin [shortens in contraction]
 Z line = end line of sarcomere [moves closer together in contraction]

What occurs in Sliding Filament Mechanism?

 how the sarcomere shortens

 the myosin heads pull the actin inwards
 the somatic motor neurone connects to the skeletal muscle via a neuro-muscular
junction
 one motor neurone connects to a few muscle fibres = motor unit
(benefit = simultaneous muscle contraction and can control strength of contraction)
 releases acetylcholine that binds to complementary receptors on the muscle fibre
membrane (sarcomere)
 Na channels open, Na ions enter the muscle fibre causing depolarisation
+ +

 wave of depolarisation travels through sarcoplasmic reticulum

 causes release of Ca ions into the sarcoplasm (fluid surrounding
2+

sarcomeres/myofibril)
 this moves the tropomyosin on the actin
 exposes binding sites on the actin
 myosin heads now bind to the actin (form actin-myosin cross bridge)
 a power stroke occurs, the myosin pulling the actin inwards
 ATP attaches to myosin head so it detaches
 ATP brokendown by ATPase to release energy
 causes myosin head to go back to its original position
 so it reattaches, pulling the actin further inwards

Role of Ca ions and ATP in muscle contraction?

2+
  Ca ions causes the tropomyosin to move exposing binding sites on actin
2+

 Ca ions stimulate ATPase

2+

 ATP causes myosin head to detach

 ATP releases energy so myosin head returns to original position
 ATP actively transports Ca ions back into sarcoplasmic reticulum when the
2+

muscle is relaxed

What are the 2 types of Muscle Fibres? Fast Twitch and Slow Twitch

How does Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres work?

 provide powerful but short lasting contractions

 found in biceps and sprinters
 adapted for anaerobic respiration
 has thicker myosin for powerful contractions
 contains more enzymes for anaerobic respiration
 contains phosphocreatine, provides phosphate to ADP to reform ATP

How does Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres work?

 provide less powerful but long lasting contractions

 found in thigh muscles and marathon runners
 adapted for aerobic respiration
 has a rich blood supply
 contains many mitochondria
 contains glycogen
 contains myoglobin (stores oxygen)

Job of the Hormonal System?

 coordinates the response to certain stimuli

 involves chemical messengers released by endocrine glands into the blood
(exocrine glands release substance into open spaces e.g. salivary gland), travels to
target cells causing changes
 protein hormones bind to complementary receptors on target cells, activates
enzymes that convert ATP into Cyclic AMP in the cell, the Cyclic AMP then
makes changes in the cell (=2 messenger system) e.g. insulin
nd

 lipid hormones enter cells by simple diffusion and cause direct changes e.g.
oestrogen

Control of Blood Glucose Levels?

 if high = should be in cells for respiration, also lowers blood water potential
 if low = not enough to supply cells of the brain, also increases blood water
potential
  controlled by the Pancreas
 contains the Islets of Langerhans
 made of alpha and beta cells
 alpha cells produce glucagon
 beta cells produce insulin
What happens with High Blood Glucose Levels?

 occurs after a meal

 insulin is released
 most cells in the body have complementary receptors (particularly muscle, liver,
brain cells)
 causes increase in glucose channels and carriers
 glucose taken up and used in respiration
 in muscle and liver cells, glucose also converted into glycogen for storage
(glycogenesis)
 in liver cells, glucose also converted into fat

What happens with Low Blood Glucose Levels?

 occurs after starvation or exercise

 glucagon is released
 only liver cells have complementary receptors
 converts glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis)
 converts fats and amino acids into glucose (gluconeogenesis)
 glucose is released into blood

Diabetes?

 person loses control of blood glucose levels

 normally high (hyperglycaemia)
 2 types: type 1 and type 2
 type 1 starts at young age, person does not make insulin, beta cells damaged by an
autoimmune disorder (treatment = insulin injections)
 type 2 starts at middle age, person makes insulin but cells are less sensitive,
caused by obesity and diet high in simple sugars (treatment = diet and exercise,
drugs, insulin injection)
 symptoms = tiredness, increase urination, thirst
 diagnosis = high blood glucose levels on random testing & blood glucose levels
remain high following a fasting blood glucose test (person fasts for a number of
hours, then consumes a drink of glucose, should normally rise then decrease due
to insulin)

What is Homeostasis?

 maintenance of a constant internal environment (the blood and tissue fluid) in

animals
  control body temperature, blood pH, blood glucose levels, blood water levels,
blood salt levels, blood pressure

Homeostasis and Negative Feedback?

the response to the change is to oppose the change to bring levels back to
normal (e.g. body temperature increases – response is to bring it down to
normal, blood glucose levels decrease – response is to increase it back
to normal)

What is Positive Feedback? the response to the change is to continue the change (e.g. Na +

ions entering a neurone stimulating more to enter in depolarisation)

Why do organisms need to Maintain a Constant Body Temperature?

maintain optimum temperature for enzyme activity

What are Endotherms and Ectotherms?

 endotherms = animals that maintain a strict constant internal body temperature

irrespective of external environmental temperature (e.g. mammals)
 ectotherms = animal's internal body temperature maintained more generally and
varies with changes in external environmental temperature (e.g. reptiles)

Benefit of being an Endotherm?

 can maintain activity over a range of settings e.g. early morning or winter

Benefit of being an Ectotherm?

 require less food/energy

How is internal body temperature controlled?

 anatomical, behavioural, physiological changes

 ecotherms mainly rely on behavioural changes
 endotherms mainly rely on physiological changes

Anatomical adaptations in organisms in warm areas?

  small body size = large surface area to volume ratio (lose heat)
 less fur
 less fat
 large extremities e.g. ears/hand/feet (lose heat)

Anatomical adaptations in organisms in cold areas?

 large body size = small surface area to volume ratio

 more fur
 more fat
 small extremities

Behavioural/Physiological changes in Ectotherms?

 warming up = expose to sun, press on warm surface, darker skin colouration to

absorb heat, more respiration in liver, less breathing
 cooling down = shade from sun, press on cold surface, lighter skin
colouration, less respiration in liver, more breathing

Control of Body Temperature in Endotherms?

 controlled by Hypothalamus in the brain

 receives nerve impulse from peripheral thermoreceptors in the skin and
central thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus
 peripheral thermoreceptors monitor changes in external environmental
temperature
 central thermoreceptors monitor changes in core body temperature
(blood supplying major organs)

How an Endotherm warms itself up?

 reduce blood flow to the skin surface = vasoconstriction, smooth muscle in

arterioles to the skin contract, lumen narrows, less blood to skin surface, less
heat lost from blood by radiation

 hair on skin stands up = hair erector muscles contract, hairs stand up, traps in
air particles, forms an insulating layer, reduces heat loss

 shivering = involuntary contraction of muscles – friction in sliding filament

mechanism generates heat and respiration generates heat
  increase respiration in liver = generates heat

How an Endotherm cools itself down?

 increase blood supply to skin surface = vasodilation, smooth muscle in arterioles

to the skin relax, lumen widens, more blood to skin surface, more heat lost from
blood by radiation

 sweating = evaporation of water particles from the skin surface using the heat in
the blood

Structure of Kidneys? Outer region called Cortex, Middle region called Medulla

Role of Kidneys?

filters blood (removes urea, excess salts, excess water – combined known as urine)

Why remove urea? toxic waste product made from excess amino acids

Why remove excess salts and water? maintain correct water potential and pressure in blood

How do Kidneys filter? made up of millions of nephrons

(each nephron filters the blood producing urine)

Structure of Nephron?

1st
part = Bowmans Capsules
2nd
part = Proximal Convoluted Tubule
3rd
part = Loop of Henle
4th
part = Distal Convoluted Tubule
5th
part = Collecting Duct

Bowmans Capsule?

 start of nephron
 site of ultrafiltration (where blood is filtered)
 occurs between specialised capillaries called Glomerulus and Bowmans Capsule
  glomerulus located in the middle of an arteriole
 afferent arteriole before glomerulus is wide, efferent arteriole after glomerulus is
narrow
 so build up of hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus pushes fluid and small
substances from the glomerulus into the bowmans capsule
 small substances filtered = glucose, amino acids, salts, urea
 only small substances can pass through the 3 layers
(endothelium of glomerulus, basement membrane, podocytes of bowmans
capsule)
 results in glomerular filtrate in bowmans capsule
(water + glucose/amino acids/salts/urea)
 the job of the rest of the nephron is to send all the glucose/amino acids and some
of the salts/water back into the blood [reabsorption]

Proximal Convoluted Tubule?

 second part of the nephron

 site of selective reabsorption
 all the glucose/amino acids and some of the salts/water are sent back into blood
(from lumen of PCT, through cells lining PCT, into blood)
how:
 salts (sodium ions) are actively transported from cells lining the PCT into the
blood
 this lowers sodium ion concentration in the cells, so sodium ions diffuse from
the lumen of the PCT into the cells
 as sodium ions move, they pull in glucose and amino acids with them via co-
transport
 glucose and amino acids build up in the cell, then diffuse into the blood
 the movement of salt/glucose/amino acids into the blood, lowers it's water
potential, so water follows into blood by osmosis

Loop of Henle?

 third part of the nephron

 site of further water reabsorption
 occurs by hairpin countercurrent multiplier
how:
 sodium and chloride ions are actively transported out of the ascending limb of
the loop of henle into the surrounding medulla of kidney
 this lowers water potential of medulla
 so water moves out of the descending limb of loop of henle (and collecting
duct) by osmosis into the medulla
 this water then moves into the blood
 the sodium and chloride ions then diffuse into the descending limb of loop of
henle so the above process can be repeated

Distal Convoluted Tubule?

  fourth part of nephron
 site of further salt reabsorption
 corrects required salt balance between blood and urine

Collecting Duct?

 final part of nephron

 site of further water reabsorption and osmoregulation
 end up being left with urine that is sent into the ureter to the bladder
 water reabsorption occurs by the hairpin countercurrent multiplier
 amount of water being reabsorbed is controlled at this stage, this is known as
osmoregulation
 osmoregulation is the process by which the hypothalamus controls water potential
of the blood (an example of homeostasis)
if water levels become low (dehydration):
 osmoreceptors in hypothalamus shrink
 this stimulates the release of ADH from the posterior part of the pituitary
gland
 ADH stimulates the cells lining the collecting duct to increase the number of
aqauporins (water channels)
 so more water moves from the collecting duct back into blood
 so less water is lost in the urine
if water levels become high (overhydration):
 less ADH released
 less aquaporins in collecting duct
 less water moves from collecting duct into blood
 more water lost in urine (reduces overhydration)

Unit 7 (Population, Evolution, Inheritance) Revision Notes

What is a species? group of organisms with similar characteristics that can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring

What is a population? all the individuals of a particular species in a particular place

What is a community? all the population of different species in a particular place

What is a habitat? the place where an organism lives

What is an ecosystem? a mix of different communities and habitats and how they interact
based on abiotic and biotic factors

What is ecological niche? an organisms role/position in an ecosystem – in terms of its

interaction with abiotic and biotic factors

Why can 2 different species not occupy the same ecological niche? interspecific competition
will take place for the limiting factors/resources (abiotic & biotic factors) – better adapted
species will out compete the other = competitive exclusion principle

How to sample plant species over a large area?

 obtain a map of the area

 divide the map into grids
 select a large number of coordinates using a running mean
 select a random set of coordinates using a random number chart
 in each coordinate place a quadrat
 measure abundance of the plant species in each quadrat = frequency or percentage
cover
 calculate average for the whole area

How to sample plants species along a path?

 use a transect
 place a tape along the path, count number of plants touching tape (Line Transect)
 or
 place a tape along the path, at regular intervals along the tape place a quadrat,
measure abundance within the quadrat (Belt Transect)

How to sample animal species in an area?

 mark-release-recapture technique
 set a trap
 capture the animal species [Sample 1]
 mark them (tag or fluorescent marker – ensure its non-toxic and not harmful)
 release them
 after some time (sufficient time for them to mix with the whole population), replace
the trap
 count number in 2 set [Sample 2] and count the number marked
nd

 estimate population size by: number in sample 1 x number in sample 2

marked in sample 2

Assumptions of Mark-release-recapture technique?

  no births or deaths
 no immigration or emigration
 marked animals mix evenly with population
 mark is not toxic
 mark does not come off
 large population

What are the 3 stages of population growth?

 slow/lag phase: species becomes adapted to new environment

 rapid/log phase: species adapted, abundant resources, doubling with
reproduction, birth rate>death rate
 stationary phase: resources become limited, intraspecific competition
occurs, birth rate = death rate

How are resources/limiting factors grouped?

 abiotic (non-living): light, temperature, water, O /CO , minerals, pH, living space
2 2

 biotic (living): predator, prey, mates, competition, disease

What is competition? when organisms compete for resources (abiotic and biotic)

What are the 2 types of competition?

 intraspecific: occurs between organisms of the same species, only occurs when
resources become limited, leads to natural selection and adaptation
 interspecific: occurs between organisms of different species, can happen at any
time even if resources are not limited, leads to formation of climax
communities

Describe the predator/prey relationship?

 prey increases in number

 more food available for predator
 predator increases in number (more energy available for reproduction & growth)
 predator eats more of the prey
 prey decreases in number
 less food available for predator
 predator decreases in number
 less of the prey are eaten
 prey increases in number [cycle repeats]
What is succession? how an ecosystem changes over time (change in species diversity and
habitat diversity) – relies on environment being made less hostile by present
species via death and decomposition leading to it being outcompeted and
replaced by larger better adapted species

What are the 2 types of succession? primary (occurs on new land) and secondary (occurs
on previously colonised land that has become bare e.g. after a forest
fire)

Describe Primary Succession?

 new land appears (glacier retreats exposing rock, lava cools, sand dunes)
 pioneer species settle [adapted to surviving in hostile conditions of bare land]
 pioneer species are: _
 producers
 have mutualistic NFB
 asexually reproduce (one parent, genetically identical, faster)
 xerophytes
 handle extreme conditions (extreme wind & extreme temperatures on bare land)
 have wind dispersed seeds (spread wide – reduce competition, find favourable
environments)
 can anchor to land
 over time – the land erodes and soil forms, pioneer species die and decompose
adding humus & nutrients to the soil
 small plants can now grow
 they out compete the pioneer species
 over time – more soil forms, small plants die and decompose adding more humus
& nutrients to the soil
 large plants can now grow, they out compete the small plants
 this process continues until the climax community is reached
 the climax community contains the best adapted species to the environment (they
are the final community, there will be no more succession after them)

Properties of Succession?

 species diversity increases (peaks just before climax – species in climax will out
compete others)
 habitat diversity increases
 environment becomes less hostile
 food chains become more complex & biomass increases
Primary succession vs Secondary succession? secondary succession starts from small plants
not pioneer species (soil and nutrients already present) and secondary succession is faster (soil,
nutrients and seeds already present)

How can conservation be used to prevent succession?

 used to prevent formation of woody forests – either on hill sides (for tourism) and
farms (space for crops)
 involves: deforestation, burning trees, grazing, using pesticides

What is Evolution? change in allele frequency in a population

What are the 2 Types of Evolution? Adaptation and Speciation

What is Adaptation? a species adapting to changes in the environment (e.g. new diseases or
change in climate) – driven by natural selection, where most of the individuals in the species
will have the favourable allele/characteristic for that environment

Process of Adaptation?

 variation in population of species

(genetic diversity/genetic variation/variety in gene pool)
 new alleles arise by random mutation
 environment applies a selection pressure on the population
 those with favourable characteristics/alleles survive, the others die [natural
selection]
 the ones that survive will reproduce, passing on their favourable alleles =
reproductive success
 if this happens for many generations, then that characteristic will become most
common – the favourable alleles will become more frequent [adaptation]

What are the 3 types of selection? stabilising and directional and disruptive

What is stabilising selection?

 when the environment favours those with the most common characteristic – those
on the extreme dies out
 the common characteristic increases in proportion
 the range (standard deviation) will reduce

What is directional selection?

  when the environment favours those individuals with characteristics on one of the
extremes
 over time this will become the most common characteristic
 normal distribution will shift to that extreme

What is disruptive selection?

 when the environment changes between both extreme conditions

 hence, individuals on both extremes are favoured at different times and increase in
number
 those in the middle (average) will decrease in number

What is Speciation? process by which new species arise from existing species

What are the 2 Types of Speciation? Allopatric and Sympatric

What is Alloptaric Speciation? speciation driven by geographical isolation

Describe Allopatic Speciation?

 start with a population of species

 variation in the population
 population separated into different groups by geographical isolation
 each group is exposed to different environments/selection pressures
 each group undergoes different directional selections
 therefore each group changes so much in genetic diversity (variety of alleles) that
they can no longer interbreed with each other to produce fertile offspring = different
species
 changes include different courtship behaviour or incompatible gametes

What is Sympatric Speciaition? speciation occuring in the same geographical area (driven by
random mutation)

What is inheritance? offspring inheriting a combination of alleles (2 types –

paternal/maternal) for each gene which will help determine
characteristics
What is a gene? a section of DNA that codes for a protein

What is an allele? a type/form of a gene

What is a dominant allele? an allele that is always expressed if present

What is a recessive allele? an allele that is only expressed if 2 are present

What is genotype? combination of alleles for a particular gene

What is phenotype? expressed/observed characteristic (if discontinuous – only determined

by genotype, if continuous – determined by genotype and environment)

What is homozygous? having 2 of the same alleles (homozygous dominant – 2 of the

same dominant alleles, homozygous recessive – 2 of the same recessive alleles)

What is heterozygous? having 2 different alleles

What is Monohybrid Inheritance? inheritance dealing with One Characteristic

Examples of Monhybrid Inheritance?

 Dominant/Recessive
 Codominant
 Multiple Allele
 Sex Linkage

What is the Expected Ratio for Monohybrid Dominant/Recessive?

3 Dominant to 1 Recessive

Why are Observed Ratios different from Expected Ratios?

 random fertilisation of gametes

 small sample size
 mutation
 selection
How can 2 parents with a dominant characteristic give birth to a child with a recessive
characteristic? if both parents are Heterozygotes (carriers for recessive allele) they have a
25% chance of giving birth to a child who is Homozygous Recessive (has the recessive
characteristic)

What is co-dominance? when 2 different dominant alleles are inherited, both will be
expressed in the phenotype

What are multiple alleles? when the gene has more than 2 alleles (e.g. blood group)

Alleles for blood group?

 I,I,I
A B O

 I gives A antigen on RBC

A

 I gives B antigen on RBC

B

 I gives no antigen on RBC

O

 I , I are codominant
A B

 I is recessive
O

Genotypes/Phenotype for blood group?

 A=II,II A A A O

 B= I I, II
B B B O

 AB = I I A B

 O=II O O

Can receive blood from whom?

 A = from A & O
 B = from B & O
 AB = from A, B, AB, O
 O = only from O

What is a sex-linked gene? a gene carried on one of the sex chromosomes, normally the X
chromosome

What is an inherited disease? inheriting a mutated allele that leads to production of a faulty
protein, normally a recessive allele (dominant allele will decrease in frequency by natural
selection, recessive allele can be carried by heterozygotes)

What is a sex-linked disease? inheriting a mutated allele carried on one of the sex
chromosomes, normally a recessive allele & normally carried on X chromosome
Why do males have increased chance of inheriting a sex linked disease rather than
females? males only have 1 X chromosome, females have 2 X chromosomes, females can be
carriers, males cannot be carriers

What is Dihybrid Inheritance? inheritance dealing with Two Characteristics

Examples of Dihybrid Inheritance?

 Dominant/Recessive
 Autosomal Linkage
 Epistasis

What is the Expected Ratio for Dihybrid Dominant/Recessive?

9 Dominant/Dominant
3 Dominant/Recessive
3 Recessive/Dominant
1 Recessive/Recessive

What is Autosomal Linkage? 2 Genes (characteristics) carried on the same Chromosome

What is Epistasis? interaction between different genes

What are the 3 Types of Epistasis? Dominant and Recessive and Complementary

What is Dominant Epistasis? dominant genotype on one gene inhibits expression of other
gene

What is Expected Ratio for Dominant Epistasis?

12 Epistasis (inhibited)
3 Expressed (dominant)
1 Expressed (recessive)

What is Recessive Epistasis? recessive genotype on one gene inhibits expression of other gene

What is Expected Ratio for Recessive Epistasis?

9 Expressed (dominant)
3 Expressed (recessive)
4 Epistasis (inhibited)
What is Complementary Epistasis? dominant genotype required on both genes to achieve
final product

What is Expected Ratio for Complementary Epistasis?

9 Final Product
7 None

What does Hardy-Weinberg Principle calculate? frequency of an allele in a population

What does the HWP assume? that the frequency will not change over time, based on:

 isolated population
 large population
 random mating
 no mutation
 no selection

What is the HWP?

 p = frequency of dominant allele

 q = frequency of recessive allele
 p + q = 1 (100%, all the population)
 p = frequency of homozygous dominant
2

 2pq = frequency of heterozygous

 p + 2pq = frequency of the dominant condition
2

 q = frequency of homozygous recessive (of recessive condition)

2

p + 2pq + q = 1
2 2

Unit 8 (Genes) Revision Notes

What is a Stem Cell?

 a unspecialised/undifferentiated cell
 potential to form different types of cells

How does a stem cell be come a specialised cell?

 differentiation
 3 changes: cell shape, number of organelles, new content
 occurs by controlling gene expression (some gene are activated, other genes are
inhibited)
Stem Cell in Animals/Mammals/Humans?

 Totipotent = Zygote
 Pluripotent = Embryonic Stem Cells
 Multipotent = Bone Marrow Stem Cell
 Unipotent = Tissues

What are Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPS Cells)?

turning unipotent body cells into pluripotent cells (like embryonic stem cells),
involves activating certain deactivated genes using transcription factors

Stem Cell Therapy in Humans?

 2 uses,
 use stem cells to produce tissues/organs for transplant
 use stem cells to treat irreversible diseases e.g. heart disease, type 1 diabetes,
paralysis (inject stem cells at site of disorder – will differentiate to become local
specialised cells e.g. heart muscle cells, beta cells of pancreas, neurones)

Stem Cell in Plants?

 In embryo = Zygote/Embryonic Stem Cells

 In adult = Meristem Cells in Stem/Shoot/Root

Uses of Stem Cells from Plants?

 traditionally cuttings were taken from plants (stem/shoot/root) and used to grow
genetically identical plants – possible due to presence of meristem cells
 tissue culture (micro propagation) = large scale application of cuttings
 process,
 take cutting from shoot/stem/root (called explant)
 place explant in nutrient rich medium so meristem cells divide by mitosis
 produces a mass of meristem cells (called callus)
 take each meristem cell and grow in plant growth factor medium to promote
differentiation and formation of shoot/root
 transfer plant to soil and greenhouse
 then transfer to field

What is Controlling Gene Expression?

 either Activating or Inhibiting a Gene

  activating gene = protein made
 inhibiting gene = protein not made

Example of activating genes?

 using oestrogen
 oestrogen can enter a cell by simple diffusion and bind to receptors on the
transcriptional factor
 causes transcriptional factor to change shape
 so transcriptional factor can now enter nucleus and bind to promoters on the DNA
to activate transcription
= activated genes (protein to be made)

Example of inhibiting genes?

 using siRNA (small interfering RNA)

 making siRNA = double stranded RNA cut down into small sections, made single
stranded, then attaches to an enzyme
 siRNA will bind to complementary sections on mRNA = the enzyme will cut the
mRNA so translation cannot occur = gene inhibited (protein not made)

What is Epigenetics?

 Heritable changes in gene function without changes to base sequence of DNA

 Changes may due to lifestyle, stress, diet
 Chromatin (DNA-Histone Complex) is surrounded by an Epigenome (chemical
layer)
 Epigenome can either cause the Chromatin to become more condensed or more
loose
 Chromatin becoming more condensed means transcription factors cannot reach
the DNA and the gene will be inactivated
 Chromatin becoming more loose means transcription factors can reach the DNA
and the gene will be activated
 These changes may be brought about by Acetylation or Methylation

How does Methylation and Acetylation affect the Genome?

 Increased Methylation = adding methyl groups, this attracts proteins which

condense the DNA-Histone Complex so transciption factors cannot gain access
(gene inhibited)
 Decreased Acetylation = removing acetyl groups, increases positive charges on
the Histone which increases the attraction to the phosphate groups on DNA which
condense the DNA-Histone Complex so transciption factors cannot gain access
(gene inhibited)
What is a Gene Mutation?

 a change in the base sequence of DNA

 2 types = substitution and insertion/deletion
 substitution = replace one base for another, changes one triplet code
can be silent (new triplet code codes for same AA), mis-sense (codes for a
different AA, so protein shape changes slightly), non-sense (codes for a stop codon,
so polypeptide chain not produced)
 insertion = adding a base, deletion = removing a base
both insertion/deletion causes frameshift, all the triplet codes after the
mutation changes, so normal polypeptide chain/protein not produced

What is Cancer?

 formation of a malignant tumour

 due to uncontrolled cell division (mitosis)

Malignant vs Benign Tumour?

Malignant Tumours,

 Rapid Growth (rapidly dividing cells)

 Cells are unspeicialised
 Cells can spread (Metastasis)
 Systemic Effects
 Requires Surgery/Chemotherapy/Radiotherapy

What normally controls Cell Division (mitosis)?

 2 genes: proto-oncogene & tumour-supressor gene

 both produce proteins to control cell division
 proto-oncogene stimulates cell division
 tumour-suppressor gene inhibits cell division
 proto-oncogene produces growth factor and receptor protein, when the growth
factor binds to receptor protein on cells it stimulates DNA replication that leads to
cell division
 tumour-suppressor gene produces a protein that inhibits cell division
Cancer?

 caused by mutation of genes that control cell division

 causes of mutation = random or mutagens (chemicals/radiation)
 mutation of proto-oncogene leads to formation of a oncogene = over production of
growth factor or receptor proteins permanently active = over stimulation of cell
division (uncontrolled cell division)
 mutation of tumour-suppressor gene = loss of protein to inhibit cell division
(uncontrolled cell division)

Oestrogen and Cancer?

Oestrogen leads to activation of genes – high levels of oestrogen can lead to over
activation of Proto-Oncogen forming an Oncogene = Cancer (uncontrolled cell division)

Epigenetics and Cancer?

Main Example = increased methylation of tumour suppressor genes leads to inhibition

of tumour suppressor genes leading to cancer (uncontrolled cell division)

What is Genetic Engineering?

 changing the genetic make-up of an organism's DNA by adding or removing a

gene
 the DNA becomes Recombinant
 the Organism becomes Genetically Modified (Transgenic)

Why do we Genetically Engineer Animals?

 to give them additional characteristics

 so they can make useful products (proteins)

Examples of genetic engineering in animals?

 additional characteristics,
 add gene for disease resistance
 add gene for growth hormone for growth
 making useful products,
 use to produce anti-thrombin = protein used to make blood clot (people with
certain genetic disease may not produce), use milk producing animal to produce,
add gene for anti-thrombin next to milk producing gene in animal, therefore anti-
thrombin protein will be made in the milk (easily extracted)
Why do we Genetically Engineer Plants?

 to give them additional characteristics

 so they can make useful products (proteins)

Examples of genetic engineering in plants?

 additional characteristics,
 add gene for disease resistance
 add gene for pest resistance
 add gene for pesticide resistance
 add gene to promote growth for high yield
 produce genetically modified tomatoes = prevented from softening therefore
remain hardened (easy for storage and transport), involves preventing formation
of softening enzyme, a gene is added that is complementary to the the softening
enzyme gene, so its mRNA will bind to the mRNA of the softening enzyme
preventing translation of the softening enzyme
 making useful products,
 use to make golden rice (rice that contains beta-carotene, a pre-cursor to vitamin
A to treat malnutrition deficiency)
 use to make protein raw material for polymers

Why do we Genetically Engineer Bacteria? so they can make useful products (proteins)

Genetically engineering bacteria?

 to make useful proteins e,g, Insulin

 normally used animal sources (problems = limited supply, infection
risk, immunorejection)
 involves adding human insulin gene to a plasmid, then inserting this into a
bacteria = the bacteria now has the gene/code to produce the human insulin
protein

involves 5 steps =

1. Isolation, 2. Insertion, 3. Transformation, 4. Identification, 5. Growth/Cloning

1. Isolation

 either by Reverse Transcriptase or Restriction Enzyme or Gene Machine

 RT = enzyme found in virus, converts RNA into DNA, obtain mRNA for insulin,
the RT will convert it into cDNA (single stranded complementary DNA), DNA
Nucleotides and DNA Polymerase added to make it double stranded
  RE = enzyme found in bacteria, cuts DNA at certain base sequences (called
recognition sites) by breaking bond between sugar and phosphate, can cut straight
or staggered, staggered used in GE as it leaves exposed bases called 'sticky ends'
[cuts staggered at 6 base pair palindromes, were the 6 bases read forward are
identical to 6 bases read backward on both strands]
 GM = build DNA base sequence from know Amino Acid Sequence of the Protein
(uses oligosacchairdes)

end result = Isolated Human Insulin Gene

2. Insertion

 cut plasmid using the same RE from isolation stage

 leaves complementary sticky ends
 join human insulin gene with plasmid via the sticky ends
 use DNA Ligase to join the sugar-phosphate backbone

= Recombinant plasmid (carrying human insulin gene)

3. Transformation

 mix recombinant plasmid with bacteria

 add Ca ions and heat shock
2+

 bacteria will become permeable and take up the recombinant plasmid

= Genetically Modified Bacteria (carrying recombinant plasmid with human

insulin gene)

4. Identification

 identify which of the bacteria have taken up the recombinant plasmid and of these
which ones have accepted the new gene (human insulin gene)

step 1 = choose a plasmid that carries an Ampicillin Resistance Gene, so when Ampicillin is
added only the bacteria that have taken up the recombinant plasmid will survive (as they will
have obtained the ampicillin resistance gene)

step 2 = use gene markers (antibiotic resistant, fluorescent, enzyme) to identify which of the
remaining bacteria have accepted the human insulin gene, the human insulin gene will be
placed in the middle of these gene markers, if the bacteria accepts the human insulin gene
they will reject the gene marker & if the bacteria rejects the human insulin gene they will
accept the gene marker
  antibiotic resistant = tetracycline resistance gene lost if human insulin gene
accepted, so bacteria no longer resistant to tetracycline, add tetracycline by
replica plating (on another plate that carries a few of the bacteria from each
colony in their same position), the ones that die are the ones that we want,
identify on original plate
 fluorescent = fluorescent gene lost if human insulin gene accepted, so identify
bacteria showing no fluorescence
 enzyme = enzyme gene lost if human insulin gene accepted, therefore add
colourless substrate, where there is no colour change select those bacteria (as
enzyme not made to breakdown colourless substrate for colour change)

end result = Genetically Modified Bacteria

5. Growth/Cloning

 grow genetically modified bacteria (carrying human insulin gene)

 they will produce the protein (human insulin)

What is PCR?

 polymerase chain reaction

 used to replicate DNA artificially
 step 1: heat to 95 C, hydrogen bonds break, double strand separates, left with 2
o

template strands
 step 2: cool to 55 C, primers bind (short single stranded sections of DNA) to start
o

of each template strand, prevents the templates from rejoining and allows DNA
Polymerase to bind to build the new strand
 step 3: heat to 72 C, DNA nucleotides attach to complementary bases, DNA
o

Polymerase joins sugar-phosphate backbone of the new strands

= 2 copies of DNA (each made of 1 original strand, 1 new strand)

Polymerase Chain Reaction vs Semi-Conservative Replication?

 PCR can only replicate short DNA fragments, SCR can replicate whole DNA
 PCR use 95 C, SCR uses DNA Helicase
o

 PCR uses primers, SCR does not require primers

In-vitro vs In-vivo method of DNA Replication?

 In-vitro = PCR
 In-vivo = using bacteria to replicate DNA (add DNA fragment to the plasmid,
then replicate the bacteria to make many copies of DNA fragment)
 benefits of in-vitro = more rapid, less complex
  benefits of in-vivo = more accurate (less mutations), less chance of contamination

What is a DNA Probe?

 short single stranded section of DNA

 has a specific base sequence, so it binds to complementary genes
 is radioactively/fluorescently labelled
 if gene is present in DNA, DNA probe will bind to it and show up be
radioactivity/fluorescence

What is Genetic Screening?

 analyse an individual's DNA for the presence of a particular gene (e.g. mutated
allele)
 use DNA Probes (single stranded section of DNA, complementary to a particular
gene, is radioactively labelled)
 obtain individuals DNA, make it single stranded, add the specific DNA Probe for
the gene to be screened for, if the gene is present the DNA Probe will bind, will
show up as radioactivity on an X-ray film

What is Genetic Fingerprinting?

 used to produce a unique 'fingerprint' of an individual's DNA (produces a specific

banding pattern)
 used in forensics and paternity testing
 involves analysing the individual's introns (non-coding DNA)
 introns contain repetitive sequences called variable number tandem repeats
(VNTR)
 the number and length of the VNTR are unique for each individual organism

involves 5 steps:
1. Extraction, 2. Digestion, 3. Separation, 4. Hybridisation, 5. Development

1. Extraction
 extracting the individual's DNA
2. Digestion
 cutting the DNA down into fragments
 use Restriction Enzymes that cut just outside the VNTR (leaves the VNTR of the
introns)
3. Separation
 separate out the DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis
 add alkali to make the separated fragments single stranded
 transfer the fragments to a nylon membrane by Southern Blotting
 add UV light so the DNA fragments set
4. Hybridisation
  add radioactively labelled DNA Probes complementary to the DNA fragments
5. Development
 add photographic film and take an x-ray to produce the banding pattern picture

What is Genome Sequencing?

 determining base sequence of a genome (full set of DNA)

 uses Whole-Genome Shotgun (WGS) to cut DNA into smaller sections to be
sequenced
 Bioinformatics is the science by which the information is collected and analysed
 uses = supports phylogenetic classification, identify genes related to diseases

What is a Proteome?

 full set of proteins produced by a certain genome