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Material and Methods

Thesis Report Soil Formation and Ecopedology (SFI-80826)

Organic matter stocks under different types of land use


in the Peanut Basin of the Nioro area, Senegal.

Author: Abibou Niang

September 2004

Supervisors: Dr. Jetse Stoorvogel, Dr. Marcel Hoosbeek, Dr. Bocar Diagana

Examiner: Prof. Dr. Nico van Breemen

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES


LABORATORY OF SOIL SCIENCE AND GEOLOGY

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Material and methods

Organic matter stocks under different types of land use


in the Peanut Basin of the Nioro area, Senegal.

Abibou Niang

Thesis submitted in the partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of


Science in Soil Science at Wageningen University and Research
Center.

Supervisors: Dr. Jetse Stoorvogel, Dr. Marcel Hoosbeek, Dr. Bocar Diagana

Examiner: Prof. Dr. Nico van Breemen

September 2004
Wageningen University
Laboratory of Soil Science and Geology

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Material and methods

TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………...…i

LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………iii

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………..……iv

LIST OF PICTURES……………………………………………………………………v

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLES…………………………………………………….vi

PREFACE……………………………………………………………...……………….vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………...………...………………viii

DEDICATION……………………………………………...……………………………ix

I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION ................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 ORGANIC MATTER POOLS IN SOILS ........................................................................................... 3

1.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA........................................................................................................ 5

1.3.1. LOCATION AND CLIMATE .......................................................................................................... 5

1.3.2 SOILS AND VEGETATION ............................................................................................................ 8

1.3.3. LAND USE AND LAND MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................... 9

II MATERIAL AND METHODS ............................................................................................................. 13

2.1 SOIL SAMPLING ............................................................................................................................ 13

2.2 SOIL PREPARATION AND SOIL ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 14

2.3 LAND MANAGEMENT SURVEY .................................................................................................... 15

2.4 DATA ANALYSIS............................................................................................................................ 15

III RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ....................................................................................................... 16

3.1 SOIL DESCRIPTIONS .................................................................................................................... 16

3.2 LAND USE DESCRIPTIONS .......................................................................................................... 16

3.3 CARBON STOCKS ......................................................................................................................... 17

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Material and methods

3.3.1 CARBON DISTRIBUTION AND PH ALONG THE LANDSCAPE .............................................. 17

3.3.2 DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC CARBON IN DIFFERENT LAND USE ...................................... 19

3.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TOTAL CARBON AND OTHER SOIL PROPERTIES .................... 22

3.4.1 CARBON AND NITROGEN ......................................................................................................... 22

3.4.2 CARBON AND PH ....................................................................................................................... 22

3.4.3 CARBON AND TOTAL FINE FRACTIONS ................................................................................. 23

3.4.4 CARBON AND BULK DENSITY ................................................................................................. 23

3.4.5 TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON, RECALCITRANT CARBON AND NITROGEN........................... 23

3.5 POTENTIAL FOR CARBON SEQUESTRATION ........................................................................... 26

IV CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 28

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 29

ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................................. 32

SOIL DATA ........................................................................................................................................... 33

LAND OBSERVATION AND LAND MANAGEMENT SURVEY .......................................................... 37

GRAPHS ............................................................................................................................................... 78

METEOROLOGICAL DATA ................................................................................................................. 84

PICTURES ............................................................................................................................................. 87

List of tables pages


Table 1: Identification of different types of land use in the Nioro area………………………………….17
Table 2: Soil properties along the landscape in the upper 20 cm………………………………………...19
Table 3: Carbon distribution (%) in three different landscapes in the upper 20 cm ……………..............19
Table 4: Distribution of carbon under different types of land use…………………………………..……20
Table 5: Average carbon content in the upper 20 cm in different types of land use ranked according to their
carbon input……………………………………………………………………..…………………….......20
Table 6: Total carbon and total nitrogen in different types of land use……………..……………………22
Table 7: Land use and carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance on the topsoil (upper 10cm)……….………….24
Table 8: Land use and carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance in the subsoil (20 cm depth)………….……….24

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Material and methods

Table 9: Land use and carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance in the bas fond subsoil……………….………..24
Table 10: Carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance in the whole profile of a bas fond (100 cm depth)………....25
Table 11: Carbon stocks in the upper 20 cm in t ha-1 in different positions of the landscape……….…….26
Table 12: Carbon stocks in the upper 20 cm in t ha-1 in different types of land use………………………26
Table 13: Djiguimar data set……………………………………………………………………………….34
Table 14: Paoskoto data set………………………………………………………………………………...35
Table 15: Porokhane data set………………………………………………………………………….........36
Table 16: Rainfall data in the Nioro area from 1950 to 2001………………………………………………85
Table 17: Mean annual maximum and mean annual minimum temperature in the Nioro area………..….86

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Material and methods

List of figures pages


Figure 1: Partial expanded view of belowground carbon cycling, recycling and dissipation as CO2..........5
Figure 2: Senegal localization in Africa……………………………………………………………………6
Figure 3: Overview of the study area……………………………………………………………….……....6
Figure 4 : Rainfall variation from 1950 to 2001……………………………………………………………7
Figure 5: Maximum and mean temperature in Nioro area from 1985 to 2000……………………………..7
Figure 6: Senegal simplified soil type’s representation……………………………………………………8
Figure 7: A typical topo-sequence in the Nioro area………………………………………………….…….9
Figure 8: Representation of the sampling pattern…………………………………………………….……13
Figure 9 : carbon content (%) in the upper 20 cm and carbon input…………………....................….……21
Figure 10: Relationship between total carbon and total nitrogen………………………….………….……22
Figure 11: Relationship between total carbon and recalcitrant carbon……………………….………….…24
Figure 12: Relationship between recalcitrant carbon and recalcitrant nitrogen……………………….……26
Figure 13: clay + silt, bulk density pH and carbon along the landscape (upper 20 cm)…………………...79
Figure 14: distribution of carbon in average along the landscape………………………………………….79
Figure 15: Carbon distribution in a short (602 m) sloping landscape (5 %)………………………………..79
Figure 16: carbon distribution in a long (1810 m) gentle slope (< 1%)……………………….……………80
Figure 17: carbon distribution in a short (685 m) gentle slope (< 1%)……………………………………..80
Figure 18: distribution of carbon in different types of land use…………………………………………….80
Figure 19: distribution of carbon in the bas fond profile in short sloping landscape………………………81
Figure 20: distribution of clay in the bas fond profile in short sloping landscape…………………………81
Figure 21: distribution of sand in the bas fond profile in short sloping landscape…………………….…...81
Figure 22: distribution of carbon in the bas fond profile in short and long gentle slope landscape…….….82
Figure 23: distribution of clay in the bas fond profile in short and long gentle slope landscape……….….82
Figure 24: distribution of sand in the bas fond profile in short and long gentle slope landscape………….82
Figure 25: distribution of sand in the bas fond profile in a long and a short gentle slope landscape……....83

List of pictures pages


picture 1: soil and vegetation in the plateau…………………………………………………88
picture 2: plateau soil profile………………………………………………………………...88

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Material and methods

picture 3: rock stone in the plateau subsoil…………………………………………………..88


picture 4: glacis soil profile………………………………………………………………….88
picture 5: terrace soil profile…………………………………………………………………88
picture 6: bas fond soil profile……………………………………………………………….88
picture 7: sand deposition in the bas fond sub soil…………………………………………..88
picture 8: sand deposition in the bas fond top soil…………………………………………...88
picture 9: cattle feeding with crop residues in dry season……………………………………88
picture 10: soil sample taking using auger…………………………………………………...88
picture 11: steps for bulk density measurement………………………………………...........89
picture 12: Steps for composite samples making…………………………………………….90
picture 13: pH measurement………………………………………………………………….90
picture 14: texture measurement by pipette method………………………………………….90
picture 15: carbon determination by Walkley and Black……………………………………..90

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Material and methods

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLES

TOA: Trade-Off Analysis


ISRA: Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles
SM-CRSP: Soil Management – Collaborative Research Support Program
USAID: United States of America Aid for International Development
OM: Organic Matter
SOM: Soil Organic Matter
BD: Bulk Density
TOC: Total Organic Carbon
Rec: Recalcitrant
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization
GPS: Geographical Position System
CRCPLI: Continuous Rotation Cereal Peanut without or Low external Input
CRCPHI: Continuous Rotation Cereal Peanut with High external Input
PFP: Permanent Fallow in the Plateau
PFT: Permanent Fallow in the Terrace
PFBF: Permanent Fallow in the Bas Fond
CCBF: Continuous Cereal Cultivation in the Bas Fond
CCP: Continuous Cereal cultivation under Parkland.

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Material and methods

Preface
This work is an Msc thesis in soil science in the University of Wageningen. Thesis research
was done in the ISRA (Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research) station of Nioro in
Senegal in the context of the Trade-Off Analysis project (TOA). The TOA project in West
Africa is a collaborative Carbon sequestration project between Montana State University,
Wageningen University and four West African countries (Senegal, Ghana, Mali and Togo). In
Senegal the project is collaborating with ISRA, and other relevant projects and institutions.
The aim of the project is to analyze the technical and economic potential for adoption of
technologies and practices that enhance carbon sequestration and the sustainability of
agricultural production systems. In addition, the TOA team is developing collaborations with
institutions in Ghana and Mali in conjunction with the SM-CRSP (Soil Management –
Collaborative Research Support Program) Carbon Project. More information is available at
the project’s website: http://www.tradeoffs.nl or http://www.tradeoffs.montana.edu.

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Material and methods

Acknowledgement
The work reported here was conducted with the collaboration of the trade off analysis project
of the USAID SM-CRSP program in Senegal and the Senegalese Institute for Agricultural
Research. Without their help this work will never be completed. I take this opportunity to
express my thanks to all of them.
My thanks go to the General Director of ISRA for allowing me a scholarship and giving me
the opportunity to complete my study in Wageningen University. Thanks are due to the
Scientific Director of ISRA, Dr Taib Diouf and to Dr Ali Ndiaye head of the training
program.
I’m indebted to my supervisors Dr. Jetse Stoorvogel and Marcel Hoosbeeck, who showed
confidence in my work during my field period in Senegal. They gave lots of constructive
criticism, which helped me a lot in writing down this report. Many thanks to Dr Jetse
Stoorvogel for allowing me a month of living allowance to complete this thesis report.
I want to thank Eef Velthorst of the laboratory of soil science and geology for his assistance
and help in laboratory matters.
Thanks and gratitude beyond measure go to Dr Mamadou Khouma Dr Modou Sene, and Dr
Bocar Diagana, my supervisors in Senegal, for their guidance and assistance during my
fieldwork. Special thanks are due to Dr Modou Sene and his technician Elhadji Moussa Diop
who provided me with all the equipment I needed for data collection and bulk density
measurement. I extend thanks to André Mankor with whom I shared office, to Merry Ndiaye
the secretary of the LNERPV, and to Cheikh Mbay, the car driver for his nice driving.
I want to give special thanks to Mbaye Diaw “my” field technician, he helped me a lot in the
field work and shared with me all the troubles with the high temperature in the area. Thanks
are also due to Macoumba Diop and his wife Cecile and all the staff of the Nioro station.
A lot of thanks are due to all the peasants of the villages of Djiguimar, Paoskoto and Prokhane
for their collaboration in this study and special thanks to Mor Coumba Toure, my host family
in Djiguimar.
I’m much thankful to Dr Alioune Fall head of ISRA St Louis, Dr Moustapha Dieye head of
soil laboratory and my brother Babacar Ngom, for their help and invaluable assistance and
through them I want to thank all the staff of ISRA St Louis.
I express here all my thanks and gratitude to my parents for their efforts to give me education,
to my brothers and sisters and to all my friends. I will never forget my brother Moussa Ndoye,
a qui je dis Merci du fond du cœur.
I want to thank Simone Radersma , Nico and Rijke van Breemen for helping me to forget the
long distance from home.
And finally to my wife and my daughter, Mounass and Aicha, love and affection beyond
words.
And last but not least to God for giving me faith and strength to live for a so long time so far
from home.

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Material and methods

This thesis is dedicated to the memory of the late Dr Mabeye Sylla, soil scientist in ISRA; he
has got his PHD degree in 1994 in Wageningen University. He made me fall in love with
soil science and provided me with long –lasting fun and flavor for the profession of soil
scientist. Very early, in August 1995,
he was taken out from our affection…We will never forget…

I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem definition
Soil degradation has become a major concern in sub-Saharan Africa (Oldeman et al. 1990).
Erosion, salinization, acidification and the loss of organic matter are the main forms of soil
degradation. The loss of soil organic matter (SOM) is a slow process that is related to
improper management practices and natural degradation processes. In low-input farming
systems in sub-Saharan Africa, organic matter is an important production factor (Manlay et al,
2002). Organic matter plays a major role in the productivity of soils and is particularly
important in terms of soil fertility and the water holding capacity of strongly weathered soils
of the tropics (Coleman et al, 1989). Additionally, SOM binds soil particles together to form
stable aggregates that are resistant to erosion, and at the same time, permit water to infiltrate
easily, thereby reducing runoff. In adequate quantities, SOM reduces soil crusting and soil
bulk density, and helps to maintain a stable soil pH. As SOM content increases, soil nutrients
such as available nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur increase as well; trace elements like zinc,
iron, copper, manganese also increase. As a result, SOM improves soil tilth, and helps to
provide a favorable medium for crop growth.

Soil organic matter is a dynamic soil property. Inputs to soil occur from above as leaf litter,
woody litter, insect and animal debris, and dissolved organic C from canopy drip. Assimilated
C is moved belowground in root systems, including exudates, and by soil fauna. Some organic
materials are utilized and turn over quickly (labile pools), but some remain in the soil for long
periods of time (stable pools). Turnover is affected by interactions involving inorganic soil
components, by location of organic matter in zones inaccessible to microorganisms and their

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Material and methods

enzymes (Coleman et al, 1989) and by climate factors (temperature, moisture). Annual
additions of C to most soils are matched by losses due to respiration and leaching and a steady
state exists so that the content of SOM remains constant. Turnover times of SOM in tropical
soils are much shorter than in temperate soils (Coleman et al, 1989), decreasing the steady C-
content of soils. Various management practices may further disturb the steady state C of soils.

Practices that increase the net primary production or the amount of plant material allocated
into litter have the potential to increase soil carbon stocks. Batjes (2000) stated that the
agricultural management practices recommended to build up carbon stocks in the soil are
basically those that increase the input of organic matter to the soil and/or decrease the rates of
soil organic matter decomposition. These practices will generally include a combination of the
followings: tillage methods and crop residue management - soil fertility and nutrient
management - erosion control - water management - crop selection and rotation.

The degradation of SOM results in the emission of carbon dioxide from the system. Carbon
dioxide absorbs heat and thus contributes to the greenhouse effect. The potential ramification
of elevated carbon dioxide on climate change makes it necessary to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing by more than 3
billion tons per year. Sokona (1995) cited by Manlay et al (2002) reported that in Senegal,
more than 40 % of carbon dioxide emissions come from agriculture, land use changes and
forest.

Thus, there is an increasing need to reduce the degradation of SOM or even sequester more
carbon in agricultural soils. Significant potential for carbon sequestration can be expected in
general with changes to agricultural management practices such as no-till cropping, pasture-
crop rotations and better grazing management (Hill, 2003). The estimated amount of carbon
stored in world soils is about 1100 to 1600 petagrams, more than twice the carbon in living
vegetation (560 petagrams) or in the atmosphere (750 petagrams). Hence, even relatively
small changes in soil carbon storage per unit area have a significant effect on the global
carbon balance.

Carbon sequestration in soils occurs through plant production or organic manure. Plants
convert carbon dioxide into tissue through photosynthesis. After the plant dies, plant material
is decomposed, primarily by microorganisms, and much of the carbon in the plant material is
eventually released through respiration back to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. But some of
it remains when organic material decays and leaves behind organic residues called humus.
These residues can persist in soils for hundred or even thousands of years. Many factors can
slow the decay of organic materials and, as a result, affect a soil’s capacity for storing carbon.
Inherent factors include climate variables (temperature and rainfall), clay content and
mineralogy. While SOM additions have been discussed in terms of dry matter inputs, SOM
losses fall under two major categories: losses from erosion and from decomposition. Erosion
represents the physical loss of SOM when clay and silt are removed from the field by wind
and water. Decomposition is a chemical loss of SOM as carbon dioxide when microbes use

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SOM as food for energy and growth. Since SOM is becoming increasingly scarce in West
African soils, there is a need to assess organic matter allocation in local ecosystems related to
land management (Manlay et al, 2002). In the context of the Trade-Off Analysis (TOA)
project in Senegal, we aim to study the relationship between organic matter and agricultural
management practices in the peanut basin at Nioro in Senegal.

The objective of this study is to contribute in the understanding of the effect of agricultural
land management on organic matter stocks and more specifically on the potential for carbon
sequestration in the area. Stocks of carbon and recalcitrant carbon pools are quantified for
different plots with differences in land use history.

1.2 Organic matter pools in soils


The quality of soil organic matter depends on its distribution among labile and recalcitrant
pools and the quality of each pool considered (Rovira et al, 2001). Batjes (2000) stated that
soil organic matter must be subdivided into several compartments considered more or less
‘homogeneous’ in terms of residence times Eswaran et al (1995) defined four pools based on
carbon dynamics. First, an ‘active or labile’ pool of readily oxidized compounds, the
formation of which is largely dictated by plant residue inputs and climate. Second a ‘slowly
oxidized pool’ associated with soil macro aggregates, the dynamics and pool size of which are
affected by soil physical properties such as mineralogy and aggregation, as well as agronomic
practices. Third, a ‘very slowly oxidized pool’ associated with micro aggregates, where the
main controlling factor is water stability of the aggregates and agronomic practices have only
little effect. Fourth, a ‘passive or recalcitrant pool’ where clay mineralogy is the main
controlling factor, and there are probably no effects due to agronomic practices. Duxbury et
al, (1989), cited by Gabrielle et al (2002) stated that the pools may be broken into three
categories:

1. microbial biomass, which comprises the living micro-organisms responsible for the
biological attack of the other forms of (dead) OM
2. labile, fresh OM derived from recent crop inputs (roots, root exudates, plant litter,
etc…), that are undergoing decomposition by the microbial biomass
3. Stabilized OM that decays more slowly because it is temporarily or permanently
inaccessible to the microbial biomass.
The three main pools of SOM are determined by their time for complete decomposition. They
are active (1-2 years), slow (15 – 100 years) and passive (500 – 5000 years) (Brady and Weil,
1999). Both active and slow SOM are biologically active, meaning they are continually being
decomposed by micro-organisms, releasing many organically bound nutrients, such as N, P,
and other essential nutrients back to the soil solution. Active SOM is primarily composed of
fresh plant and plant residues and will decompose fairly rapidly. Active SOM that is not
completely decomposed moves into slow or passive SOM pools. Slow SOM, consisting
primary of detritus (cells and tissue of decomposed material), is partially resistant to microbial
decomposition and will remain in the soil longer than active SOM. In contrast to active and

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Material and methods

slow SOM, passive SOM, or humus, is not biologically active and is the pool responsible for
many of the soil chemical and physical properties associated with SOM and soil quality.
Representing 35-50 % of total SOM, humus is a complex mixture of organic substances
modified from original organic tissue, synthesized by various soil organisms, and resistant to
further microbial decomposition (McCauley et al 2003) (figure 1) .

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Figure 1: Partial expanded view of belowground carbon cycling, recycling and dissipation as CO2 (source from
McCauley et al, 2003).

1.3. Description of the area


1.3.1. Location and climate

The study was carried out between April and June 2003 in the peanut Basin of the Nioro area
in Senegal (figure 2). The landscape can be subdivided into two major physiographic units
with sloping and gently sloping areas respectively. The gentle slope (1 to 2%) may have a
length of several kilometers while the sloping areas (2 to 5%) are generally less than a
kilometer. The villages of Djiguimar, Paoskoto and Prokhane have been selected to describe
the distribution of organic matter in different land use systems: Djiguimar and Paoskoto for
their particular landscape and Prokhane for the high input intensified agriculture practiced
herein. Djiguimar (between 13º 36’ and 13º 40’ North and 15º 31’ and 15º 35’ West) is
situated 26 km south east of Nioro du Rip and was selected to study the organic matter
distribution in a sloping landscape. Paoskoto (between 13º 45’ and 13º 50’ North and 15º 45’
and 15º 49’ West) situated 5 km north of Nioro was selected to study the organic matter
distribution in gentle sloping landscapes. Prokhane (between 13º 40’ and 13º 42’ North and
15º 50’ and 15º 52’ West) at 8 km West from Nioro is one of the villages where high input
agriculture takes place and is practiced by the rich farmers belonging to the influent
“mouride” religious family. This village was selected to compare carbon stocks under low and
high input agricultural management on gentle slopes (figure 3).

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Figure 2: Senegal localization in Africa

Kaolack
South

Paoskoto

Nioro Prokhane

Djiguimar

Administrative cities

villages
national roads
Secondary roads
Sandy roads

Figure 3: Overview of the study area

The climate is classified as Sudanian. Over the last years the average annual rainfall ranged
between 700 to 800 mm. Rainfall is mono-modal and lasts for 5 months from June to October
(figure 4). The mean annual temperature is about 28 º C. The mean maximum and minimum
temperatures are respectively 38 º C and 15 º C (figure 5). The mean potential
evapotranspiration is 1800 mm yr-1 (Iyamuremye, 2000).

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1400

1200

1000
Jun
Rainfall in mm

Jul
800
Aug
Sep
600
Oct
Tot
400

200

0
50

54

57

61

64

67

70

73

76

79

82

85

88

91

94

97

00
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20
Years

Figure 4 : Rainfall variation from 1950 to 2001 (data : see annexes, source : Meteorological center of CNRA de
Bambey).

40
35
Mean Temp (Clecius)

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Max mean temp
20
Min mean temp
15
10
5
0
1985
1986
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

Years since 1985

Figure 5: Maximum and mean temperature in Nioro area from 1985 to 2000 (data : see annexes, source :
Meteorological center of CNRA de Bambey).

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1.3.2 Soils and vegetation

Following FAO (1998), the soils are mainly classified as ferric lixisols on the plateau and
haplic lixisols in the glacis. In the bas fond with seasonal water flooding soils are mostly
classified as a haplic gleysol. In the French classification these soils are referred to the groups
“sols ferrugineux tropicaux lessivés”, “sols ferralitiques” and “sols hydromorphes” (Pieri,
1969, Khouma, 2000) (figure 6).

Figure 6: Senegal simplified soil type’s representation (Khouma, 2000)

The plateaus are generally populated with herbs and shrubs. Two shrub species dominate the
vegetation and account for 80 % of woody above-ground biomass: Guieria senegalensis and
Combretum glutinosum. Andropogon pseudapricus and Pennisetum pedicellatum are the most
dominant herbaceous plant.

The glacis, mostly cropped, is covered with food crops and it is common to find the same
shrub and herb species as on the plateaus. A few numbers of trees like acacia albida and
Cordyla pinnata are also found in this part of the landscape.

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Annual water flooding in the Bas fond may explain the good chemical status and better
physical conditions of the soils in that area. In the dry season, soils are well covered and more
species of trees, shrubs and herbs are found in this unit. In addition to the vegetation found on
the plateau we can find other species like Spermaceae achydea, Eragrostis tremula, Vitex
doniana, Mitracrapus scaber, for the herbaceous plants ; Prosopis africana, Hibiscus asper,
Piliostigma reticulatum, Combretum lecardii, Terminalia macroptera, Calotropis procera,
Strychnos spinosa, Acacia macrostachya, Securidaca longipedonculata, Cassia siberiana for
shrub population and Ziziphus mauritiana Azadirachta indica, Acacia seyal, Bombax
costatum for the tree species population (figure 7).

Soils ferric lixisol haplic lixisol haplic gleysol

-------------------- --------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------

Land use permanent fallow cereal / peanut continuous cereal

-------------- --------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- -------------------------------

Figure 7: A typical topo-sequence in the Nioro area (Picture from Manlay et al, 2002).

1.3.3. Land use and land management

a) Land use

Agriculture in the area is essentially based on intense cultivation (pressure on the land)
without mineral fertilizer or organic matter input. The cultivation is mainly rain-fed,
traditional and non-mechanized.

The glacis which is the sloping part situated between the plateau (high land) and the bas fond
(lowland) are mostly used for agriculture. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and millet
(Pennisetum glaucum L.) are the principal crops cultivated since a long time in the area.
Recently, this trend has been disrupted because of crop seeds shortage. In 2003 maize (Zea
mays L.) has been largely cultivated in the area as a result of a government program. Sesame
has been introduced recently into the area and is increasingly being cropped by farmers.
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is another important crop cultivated which together with millet
and maize are the main subsistence crops or food crops. In the past, rice was one of the main
crops cultivated in the flooded bas fond, but according to peasants this is not practiced
anymore for technical reasons.

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Material and methods

The plateaus with iron-stones are mostly uncultivated (picture 1); they are the only place
where permanent fallow can be found and are the only green part just after harvest. During the
dry season the fields where peanut have been cultivated are easily recognizable because no
crop residues are left behind to cover the land. As peanut crop residues are as valuable in the
market (as animal fodder) as the crop itself, everything is removed at harvest leaving the land
uncovered and the topsoil left to the wind (erosion) and water (runoff) for transportation to the
lower area..

From the other fields cultivated with the subsistence crops (millet, maize and sorghum), crop
residues are also removed but only the strongest stalks are taken away to build house fences
building and most of the straw is left behind, and is fodder for cattle. Consumption of crop
residues and the herbaceous biomass of fallows by cows is accompanied by irregular
manuring of the fields during browsing throughout the dry season (Manlay et al, 2002). In
addition, plant residues, on the top surface may help reduce wind erosion.

b) Land management

Removal or burning of crop residues predisposes the soil to serious erosion. Unfortunately in
the whole area the remaining crop residues are burnt in situ just before the start of the rainy
season when preparing seedbed for the next crop. For the peasants, burning is an inexpensive,
labor efficient means of removing unwanted crop residues prior to tillage or seedbed
preparation. Burning is mostly done not just simply to remove straw but also to reduce
diseases where it’s believed that straw serves as a pathogen host. According to some of the
landowners burning can also control weeds and insects to some extent, that’s why even in the
uncultivated rocky plateaus periodical fire may occur as the result of burning.

However, burning can have some detrimental effects. Crop residues consist of about 50
percent carbon, and carbon is volatile under most fire conditions, causing the loss of carbon to
the air. Nearly all of the nitrogen and about half of the sulfur and phosphorus are also lost
(USDA, 2004). Some of these effects are - removal of the extra vegetative material that
would add humus and nitrogen into the soil, - destruction of old vegetation in the soil which
acts to increase water holding capacity. A number of soil properties besides organic matter
level can be permanently affected by long term burning of crop residues. Some of the
detrimental effects of long term burning include decreases in organic matter, total nitrogen,
total sulfur, carbon/nitrogen ratios, extractable carbon, polysaccharide, ammonium, and
available phosphorus.

We learned, from talking to many farmers that plowing crop residues practices was introduced
to them in the early 1980s or even earlier by agriculture-based non government organizations
and some agricultural officers who had foresight and believed in the benefits of using crop
residues to fertilize the soil. Some of these farmers practiced it as long as those organizations
were around. As soon as they left, they gave up and went back to their old practices.

31
Material and methods

II Material and methods


2.1 Soil Sampling
The topo-sequences sampled ranged from the high land (plateau) to the low land (bas fond)
(figure 7). To assess the distribution of carbon through the landscape, three parallel transects
have been made in a short (602 m) sloping area (5 %) situated in the village of Djiguimar, one
transect in a long (1810 m) gentle slope (< 1%) area and one transect in a short (685 m )
gentle sloping area both in the village of Paoskoto. In Prokhane where land management was
the subject of study, two transects have been made, taking into account the two different types
of management, low input and high input cultivation. Neighboring crop fields, fallow plots
and parklands of different ages were considered as representative of the same plot, assuming
they shared the same initial soil properties and management history (Manlay et al 2002).

Soil sampling has been done along the 5 transects. Every individual field crossed by a transect
is considered as a different land use pattern and is a sampling point. The transects consisted of
16 sampling points in Djiguimar, 16 sampling points in Paoskoto and 8 sampling points in
Prokhane. The field is first explored and a representative area of the land was chosen. By
personal feeling the selected area is as similar as the majority of the piece of land in terms of
soil physical properties and nutrient status. Geographical coordinates of these points were
recorded using GPS. Four different samples were taken per field at two depths (10 and 20
cm), using an auger and mixed to form a composite sample. The sampling points were 2
meters distant from the bulk density measurement point and 4 meters from each other (figure
8). For bulk density measurements, the dry soil was first moistened using water to facilitate
the cylinder penetration into the soil. Then the cylinder was hammered into the soil and dug
out (pictures 11 in annexes). The soil was trimmed to the size of the cylinder, removed from
the cylinder and collected in a pre-weighed pot for further oven drying and weighing.
Knowing the weight of the soil and the dimensions of the cylinder, the bulk density of the soil
can be obtained. This has been done in horizontal planes at 10 cm and 20 cm depth.

32
2m

2m

Bulk density
measurement
point
Sampling
points

Figure 8: Representation of the sampling pattern.

In the bas fond where soils are deeper, samples were taken at 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm depth.
For one sampling point where the top 40 cm was very sandy, samples were taken until 1
meter depth (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 90, 100 cm).

The color of the soil has been described for each depth using the Munsell color chart
book. The different types of vegetation (tree, shrubs and herbs), the existence of roots and
the biological activity have been recorded for each field sampled. The table below has
been filled out for each sampling point.

i
Observation
Village:
Transect number:
Parcel number:
GPS Coordinates:
Position on the landscape:
Vegetation types:
Landowner:

Depth (cm) 10 20 30 40
Color
Texture
Roots
Biological
Activity
Other observ

2.2 Soil preparation and soil analysis


Soils have been already air dried while sampling. The temperature in the area was
between 45 and 49 degrees Celsius. The soil samples were grind and passed through a 2
mm sieve prior to analysis.

Soil analysis has been carried out in the soil laboratory of ISRA Saint Louis in Senegal.
The pH has been measured in a suspension of water (Houba et al, 1989). Soils were
analyzed for sand, silt, and clay contents by pipette analysis following dispersion by
sodium hexametaphosphate (Olivier, 1978). Carbon content was estimated using wet
combustion of the Walkley and Black method (Houba et al, 1989). A representative set of
samples representing each type of landscape and each type of land use was selected for
pools of organic matter determination. The pools of organic matter are extracted using
acid hydrolysis. The labile and the intermediate pools were hydrolyzed using respectively
20 ml of 5 N H2SO4 and 2 ml of 26 N H2SO4, the remaining considered as the non
hydrolysable fraction was considered as the recalcitrant fraction (Rovira et al, 2002).

Total carbon and total nitrogen were determined in the original sample and in the
recalcitrant pool using dry combustion of the elemental analysis. The sample under test is
weighed in using a tin capsule. The required amount is 2 to 3 mg of organic material and
can hardly exceed 10 mg. After folding the capsule the sample is placed in the auto
sampler. The tin capsule enclosing the sample falls into the reactor chamber where excess
oxygen is introduced before. At about 990 °C the material is "mineralized". The complete
oxidation is reached at a tungsten trioxide catalyst which is passed by the gaseous

ii
reaction products. The resulting mixture should thus consist of CO2, H2O und NOx. But
also some excess O2 passes the catalyst. High purity helium is used as carrier gas. Finally
the gas mixture is brought to a defined pressure/volume state and is passed to a gas
chromatographic system. Separation of the species is done by chromatography. In this
technique a staircase type signal is registrated. Step height is proportional to the
substance amount in the mixture. Blank values are taken from empty tin capsules.
Calibration is done by elemental analysis of standard substances supplied by the
instrument's manufacturer for this purpose.

2.3 Land management survey


For each field sampled the landowner is recorded and questions about land management
and land history are asked using a formal questionnaire. The questionnaire is shown
below.

Land management:
Year of clearing:

Actual crop Previous 2 years 3 4 5 6


Land use
Mineral
fertiliser
Organic
Fertiliser
Tillage
Crop
residues

2.4 Data analysis


Average values, maximum, minimum and standard deviation have been calculated using
Excel pivoting table. To study the relationships between carbon and soil properties in the
whole data set regression analysis has been performed. Types of land use have been
ranked using estimates of carbon input to each of them. A score was allocated to each
land use according to carbon input and relationship between land use and carbon content
has been studied with a regression analysis. All these statistical analysis have been
carried out using SPSS 12th version.

iii
III Results and discussions
3.1 Soil descriptions
Soils are generally very shallow in the plateaus and in the glacis (pictures 2 and 4,
annexes); they are respectively 30 cm and 40 cm deep. In the terraces and in the bas fond
soils are mostly deep; they are 60 to 70 cm deep in the terraces and more than 150 cm
deep in the bas fond ( picture 6 annexes). In the plateau the soil texture is loamy sand on
the top soil (10 cm deep) with brown to dark brown color. In the subsoil (20 cm deep) the
texture is mostly loamy sand with an average of 12 % clay content with reddish brown to
brown color. In the glacis the texture is sandy in the top soil and sandy to loamy sand in
the sub soil with an average of 90 % sand. The wet Munsell color is generally from
reddish brown to brown color. In the plateau and the glacis the soils overlie a layer of
cuirass. In the bas fond, the top 10 cm are generally sandy loam with dark brown color.
From 10 to 20 cm deep, a layer of pure sand is generally found. High clay content is
mostly found in deeper profile (more than 40 cm deep) with dark color due to high
organic matter content. The total fine soil fraction (clay + silt) is higher in the plateau
(16.3 %) decreasing down slope and attain its lowest value in the bas fond (9.5 %) where
coarse material content is mostly found in the upper 20 cm. The bulk density between 1.7
and 1.8 is lower in the plateau where clay + silt content is higher.

3.2 Land use descriptions


Overall seven different types of land use have been identified:

Continuous rotation cereal peanut without or low external input (CRCPLI)


Continuous rotation cereal peanut with high external input (CRCPHI)
Permanent fallow in the plateau (PFP)
Permanent fallow in the terrace (PFT)
Permanent fallow in the bas fond (PFBF)
Continuous cereal cultivation in the bas fond (CCBF)
Continuous cereal cultivation under parkland (CCP).

39 plots have been identified in this study with a total of 94 soil samples. These plots are
situated in different positions in the landscape in the 3 selected villages of the study area
(table 1).

iv
Table 1: Identification of different types of land use in the Nioro area.

Land use Farms reference Locations


CRCPLI D12, D21, D31, D13, D22, Djiguimar
D32, D14, D33, D23, D24,
D34.

Pa12, Pa13, Pa14, Pa15, Paoskoto


Pa16, Pa17, Pa18, Pa22,
Pa23, Pa24, Pa25.

Pr14, Pr15. Prokhane


CRCPHI Pr11, Pr12, Pr13, Pr21, Prokhane
Pr22.
PFP D11 Djiguimar

Pa11 Paoskoto
PFT D15 Djiguimar
PFBF D16 Djiguimar

Pa110 Paoskoto
CCBF D25, D35. Djiguimar

Pa26 Paoskoto
CCP Pa19 Paoskoto

Pr31 Prokhane

Land management is generally the same for all farmers in the area. It is characterized by
very low or no input of mineral fertilizer or organic matter. The peasants have very
limited means to buy fertilizers, and some of them who have manure lack transportation
mean and/or labor to bring organic matter in the fields, that’s why manure is generally
devoted to fields near the villages. As discussed earlier crop residues are removed from
the fields or simply burnt in situ prior to seedbed preparation. Superficial tillage (less than
10 cm) using hoe with animal traction is mostly practiced in the area.

v
3.3 Carbon stocks
3.3.1 Carbon distribution and pH along the landscape
The results showed that total carbon content in the upper 20 cm range from 0.49 % to
0.62 % in the rocky plateau, between 0.20 and 0.69 % in the glacis, between 0.34 % and
1.97 % in the terrace and between 0.15 % and 0.68 % in the bas fond (table 2). Data show
a relatively high organic carbon content in the plateau (0.49 %) decreasing down slope in
the glacis (0.37 %) increasing again at the lower slope on the terraces and decrease again
in the upper 20 cm of the bas fond. Terraces occur sometimes just before the bas fond and
is a transition area between glacis and the lowland. Wind and water erosion are most
prevalent in the glacis and may have increased the loss of organic matter, which may
have settled down slope in the terrace area, a flat area followed by a steep slope ending to
the bas fond. Sedimentation may take place herein and the accumulation of organic
matter in that part of the landscape may be explained by material transported with water
runoff from the upper land. Erosion directly removes soil C and breaks down soil
aggregates, exposing physically protected organic matter to decomposition and loss.
Organic-rich soil from the surface layer is carried away to the lower land. Erosion
intensity depends however on many factors: they are included in the universal soil-loss
equation (Brady, 1990). These factors are, climatic erosivity (rainfall and runoff), slope
length, slope steepness, land cover and land management.
Considerable variation is noticed however between terraces samples sites in the organic
carbon content (between 0.34 and 1.97; SD= 0.51). This is due to a parkland situated in a
terrace in the village of Hamdallahi in the Paoskoto transect , which show a carbon
content as high as 1.97 % on the top 10 cm. Parklands are generally near the villages
mostly situated in the terraces which are the most favorable area in the landscape for
population settling.
In the bas fond the bulk of the carbon is found in the deeper horizons. This explains the
low carbon content found in the upper 20 cm. Water stagnates herein and moves
downward into the soil, it causes both mechanical and chemical translocations of material
(organic matter and clay). This process moves fine particles and dissolved substances to
lower levels in the soil profile. This process called illuviation, proceeds to deposition of
fine particles at the lower level. This layer (10 to 20 cm) possibly represents an eluviated
horizon where the bulk of fine particles have moved downward with water infiltration
(picture 6 in annexes) . Another possible explanation is that with periodical water
flooding in the bas fond, organic matter with fine particles may also be deposited with
water runoff overlaid by a sandy layer. This situation may be repeated seasonally and this
may be the reason of high content of organic matter in deeper profile. However some top
soil of the bas fond may be very rich in fine particles and in organic matter. This may
happen when new organic material is deposited with lateral movement of water and not

vi
yet overlaid by sand. This is possibly the case in one of the transect in Djiguimar bas
fond, where organic carbon content increasing with fine particles probably deposited at
the same time is as high as 0.68 %. It also occurred to find pure sand on the top soil
(picture 8 in annexes), possibly deposited with the lateral movement of water.This
situation makes the bas fond the more complicated part of the landscape. Figures 20 to 26
show the distribution of carbon, fine particles and sand in the profile of the bas fond in
the different forms of landscape.

In overall, the pH ranges between 4.9 and 5.6 with lower values in the glacis where loss
of organic material from the top soil is likely to increase soil acidity. The higher value for
average pH (5.6) is found in the terrace largely influenced by the high pH in the parkland
(7.4).
However individual analysis of the transects may show some exceptions in the carbon
distribution. When this happens it’s generally due to many factors: a better land cover, a
specific land management practice for erosion control, a difference in slope length or in
slope steepness (Brady, 1990). The relationship between erosion intensity and slope
characteristics is out of the scope of this study but examples are shown in figures 16, 17,
and 18 with three different cases : short sloping landscape (602 m, 5%) ; long gentle
landscape (1810 m, < 1%) ; short sloping landscape (685 m, <1 %). Data show higher
gradient difference in organic carbon content between plateau and the glacis in the long
gentle slope (38 %), followed by the short sloping landscape (33 %) and the lowest value
(5 %) is found in the short gentle slope.

Table 2: Soil properties along the landscape in the upper 20 cm.

Toc1 % Clay + silt % Bd2 pH


n
______________________________________________________________________________________
____
Plateau 0.49± 0.13 13.5± 5.3 1.7± 0.12 5.3± 0.2
3
Glacis 0.37± 0.09 13.0± 3.5 1.8± 0.07 4.9± 0.3
20
Terrace 0.74± 0.51 14.0± 2.2 1.8± 0.06 5.5± 0.9
4
Bas fond0.40± 0.17 10.5± 3.7 1.7± 0.06 5.2± 0.2 5
1
total organic carbon ; 2 bulk density

Table 3: Carbon distribution (%) in three different landscapes in the upper 20 cm

Position Short sloping long gentle slope short gentle slope

vii
______________________________________________________________________________________
____
Plateau 0.58 0.56 0.34
Glacis 0.39 0.35 0.32
Terrace 0.66 1.15 0.49
Bas fond0.40 0.40 0.44

3.3.2 Distribution of organic carbon in different land use


Data show a range in organic carbon content at 10 cm between 0.43 % and 1.26 % and
between 0.27 % and 0.79 % in the subsoil (at 20 cm depth). The highest value of organic
carbon in the top soil is found in the CCP land use while the lowest value is in the
CRCPLI land use. The high content of organic carbon in the parkland with a low content
of clay and silt make this amount of carbon unstable and easily decomposable with the
high temperature in the area.
In general the concentration of organic carbon is lower in the subsoil compared to the top
soil. This is possibly due to the influence of fresh organic matter inputs on the top soil
from straws, dead roots, leaf litter and manure in some cases. However the data show
correlation between organic carbon and clay content in the sub soil (r = 0.72). But the
correlation is higher with silt fraction (r = 0.80). This indicates that clay and also silt play
a key role in organic carbon stabilization. Carbon in the subsoil is mainly bound to soil
micro-aggregates and is protected from decomposition. As reported by Bationo (2001)
fine fractions, higher in the subsoil are important soil component in the direct
stabilization of organic molecules. However this protection from decomposition can be
easily disrupted by management such as tillage.
For the subsoil the highest value of organic carbon is found in PFT (permanent fallow on
terrace) while the lowest value is found in PFBF (Figure 19). Soil carbon decreased with
depth which is normally expected, except for the PFT, where soil organic carbon content
increased with depth a least until 30 cm which have been effectively sampled and
measured. This is unlikely to happen but the hydrolysis of the SOC between 20 to 30 cm
shows a large part of this carbon is recalcitrant (part 3) ; this is likely to be charcoal
accumulation. As burning is an old practice in the area, charcoal from crop residues
burning products may be transported with water or wind from the upper land and
deposited in the terrace. Charcoal may also be produced in situ and further overlaid with
a new layer of deposited material. This situation is the only one we encounter in the area
and could not represent the general situation of permanent fallow in terrace but was
interesting to show how variable could be the soils standing in different positions of the
landscape.

Table 4: Distribution of carbon under different types of land use

viii
Land use Management PH Carbon % Clay + silt
%
______________________________________________________________________________________
___
Depth (cm) 10 20 10 20 10
20
________________________________________________________________________
___
CCBF n=3 no fertilizer, no tillage 5.2 5.1 0.51 0.36 11
11
CCP n=2 organic input, no tillage 6.7 6.2 1.26 0.42 9
12
CRCPHI n = 5 fertilizer input, tillage 5.0 4.8 0.48 0.38 12
15
CRCPLI n = 24 no fertilizer, no tillage 5.1 4.8 0.43 0.34 11
15
PFBF n=2 undisturbed1 5.5 5.3 0.48 0.27 10
9
PFP n=2 undisturbed2 5.4 5.1 0.62 0.52 15
18
PFT n=1 undisturbed3 5.2 5.1 0.65 0.71 13
14
1
hydromorphic soils seasonally water flooded, uncultivated
2
rocky plateau, uncultivated
3
terrace, uncultivated

To study the relationship between carbon input and total organic carbon content, the seven types
of land use identified in this study are ranked according to their carbon input. The lowest carbon
input land use will be given the lowest score and the highest score is given to the highest carbon
input land use. Scores are from 1 to 7. Thus, CRCPLI<CCBF<PFBF<CRCPHI<PFP<PFT<CCP
is the ranking made according to the estimate of carbon input for each type of land use. Data
show increasing carbon content in the upper 20 cm with increasing carbon input (table 5, figure
10). A strong relationship exists between carbon input and carbon content with a high correlation
factor r = 0.90 (p < 0.006). This gives insight how land use is important in organic matter
dynamics and in carbon content prediction for a given soil.

Table 5: Average carbon content in the upper 20 cm in different types of land use ranked according to their
carbon input
Rank Land use Carbon (%) Clay
+silt (%)
______________________________________________________________________________
____
1 CRCPLI 0.39 13
2 CCBF 0.44 11

ix
3 PFBF 0.38 10
4 CRCPHI 0.43 14
5 PFP 0.57 17
6 PFT 0.68 14
7 CCP 0.84 11
.

1
Carbon content

0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Carbon input rank

Figure 9 : carbon content (%) in the upper 20 cm and carbon input

x
3.4 Relationship between total carbon and other soil properties
3.4.1 Carbon and nitrogen
In the top 10 cm average total nitrogen content in the different types of land use range
between 0.029 % and 0.096 % (mean = 0.054 %) Carbon nitrogen ratio (C/N) are
between 10 and 20 (mean = 15). Data show a high correlation between total carbon and
total nitrogen (r = 0.9 p < 0.02). This indicates that the bulk of the soil nitrogen is tied
up in soil organic carbon. This is in total agreement with Stevenson (1982) who stated
that over 90 % of nitrogen in the soil is bound to organic matter, from which a large
amount becomes available to plants only after mineralization. The results of nitrogen
content and C/N ratio in the top 10 cm are shown in table 4. The graph (figure 11) shows
the relationship between total carbon and total nitrogen.

Table 6: Total carbon and total nitrogen in different types of land use
Land use Total nitrogen % Total carbon % C/N
________________________________________________________________________
___
CCBF 0.029 0.55 20
CCP 0.096 1.02 11
CRCPHI 0.043 0.67 16
CRCPLI 0.046 0.57 14
PFBF 0.059 0.67 12
PFP 0.055 0.74 15
PFT 0.082 0.83 10

0.12

0.1
R2 = 0.8692
Total nitrogen %

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Total carbon %

Figure 10: Relationship between total carbon and total nitrogen

xi
3.4.2 Carbon and pH
Soil pH is a measure of a soil solution’s acidity and alkalinity that affects solubility and
availability of nutrients in the soil (Mc Cauley et al, 2003). The exchange reactions
between soil solution and the soil particles surfaces are the main regulators of soil pH
(Coleman et al, 1989). Although processes such as the amount of CO2 dissolved in the
soil solution and the formed organic acids by microbial decomposition influence soil
acidity, the relative amounts of basic and acidic exchangeable cations determine its actual
value (Coleman et al, 1989). Our data show a weak relationship between pH and carbon
(r = 0.12) but a high correlation (r = 0.91) exists between pH in one hand and carbon and
total fine particles (clay + silt) in the other hand. The conclusion is that soil pH does not
determine the organic carbon of the soil, but organic matter content in part can predict the
pH of the soil. The relation is as follow
pH = 2.380*carbon - 0.051*(clay + silt) with (p = 0.011) at 95 % confidence.

3.4.3 Carbon and total fine fractions


Soils with high clay and silt content have generally high organic matter content. This is
attributed to restricted aeration in finer-textured soils, reducing the rate of organic matter
decomposition. Additionally, plant growth is greater in fine textured soils, resulting in a
larger return of residues to the soil (Mc Cauley et al, 2003). Our data do not show
significant relationship between carbon and total fine fractions in the whole data set but
there is a high correlation (r = 0.75 p < 0.03) between the two parameters in the subsoil
(10 to 20 cm depth). The strong relationship between carbon and fine particles in the
subsoil give insight how more protected is that part of the SOC. In the top soil rich in
sand, it is likely that organic carbon less protected are easily transported with wind and
water runoff.

3.4.4 Carbon and bulk density


Soil is composed of solid particles of different sizes (minerals and organic matter) often
"glued" together into tiny aggregates by organic matter, mineral oxides and charged clay
particles. The gaps between the particles link together into a meandering network of
pores of various sizes. Through this pore space the soil exchanges water and air with the
environment. The movement of air and water also allows for heat and nutrients to flow.
The number and size of pores directly relates to soil organic matter content, texture and
structure. Bulk density is the weight of a given volume of soil which includes the pore
spaces. Coarse textured soils will usually have a higher bulk density because they have
less pore space than fine textured soils. Bulk density is an important property of soils
since it affects how easily plant roots can penetrate the soil when they propagate.

xii
Our data show that bulk density could be predicted by soil organic matter content (r =
0.51) but the correlation is stronger if clay content is associated in the prediction (r =
0.91, p< 0.01). This indicates that bulk density depends on soil minerals and also on soil
organic matter.

3.4.5 Total organic carbon, recalcitrant carbon and nitrogen


The relative abundance of recalcitrant carbon and nitrogen are simple and useful
indicators of organic carbon and nitrogen quality (Rovira et al, 2002).
A regression analysis was performed with total carbon and recalcitrant carbon and
significant correlation (r = 0.97 p = 0.000) was observed (figure 12). This may indicate
that the proportion of stable carbon depends on the total carbon pools. Figure 13 shows
relationship between recalcitrant carbon and recalcitrant nitrogen. No significant
relationship exists however between recalcitrant carbon pool and the total fine fractions
of the soil. This indicates that this portion of carbon is not completely physically
protected in soil micro-aggregates; a large part may be possibly indecomposable
according to its inherent properties. This pool may have a residence time of thousand of
years and will probably not be disturbed by tillage or by any other form of land
management. This pool can be considered as irreversibly sequestered into the soil for a
long time.

2.000
1.800
Recalcitrant carbon

1.600
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Total carbon

Figure 11: Relationship between total carbon and recalcitrant carbon.

Table 7: Land use and carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance on the topsoil (upper 10 cm)
Land use total C total N Rec C Rec N %Rec C %Rec N
_____________________________________________________________________________________
CCBF 0.55 0.029 0.31 0.025 56 86
CCP 1.02 0.096 0.53 0.035 52 36
CRCPHI 0.67 0.043 0.44 0.054 65 125
CRCPLI 0.57 0.046 0.33 0.027 58 58
PFBF 0.67 0.059 0.39 0.036 58 61
PFP 0.74 0.055 0.35 0.039 47 70

xiii
PFT 0.83 0.082 0.49 0.020 59 24

Table 8: Land use and carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance in the subsoil (20 cm depth)
Land use total C total N Rec C Rec N %Rec C %Rec N
______________________________________________________________________________________
____
CCP 0.52 0.039 0.34 0.058 65 148
CRCPHI 0.53 0.040 0.35 0.048 66 120
CRCPLI 0.50 0.041 0.28 0.031 56 75
PFT 1.03 0.074 0.66 0.041 64 55
PFP 0.61 0.046 0.28 0.021 45 46

Table 9: Land use and carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance in the bas fond subsoil (40 cm depth)

Land use total C total N Rec C Rec N %Rec C %Rec N


______________________________________________________________________________________
____
CCBF 0.29 0.024 0.15 0.051 52 212
PFBF 0.39 0.032 0.20 0.032 51 100

Table 10: Carbon and nitrogen recalcitrance in the whole profile o a bas fond (100 cm depth)
Depth (cm) total C total N Rec C Rec N %Rec C %Rec N
______________________________________________________________________________________
____
10 0.55 0.029 0.31 0.025 56 86
40 0.29 0.024 0.15 0.051 52 212
60 0.48 0.015 0.32 0.004 67 26
100 0.95 0.030 0.67 0.013 70 43

No significant relationship between soil depth and recalcitrant carbon is found (p =


0.183). In spite of this result resistance to decomposition may depend on depth but this

xiv
could be involved to a lower microbial activity to certain depth and not to the carbon
inherent properties. This is in total agreement with the finding of Rovira et al (2002).

No direct relationship can be claimed however between land use and recalcitrance.
Agricultural management seems to have no effect on the passive pool. The slow pool
(protected pool) may show relationship with land use but this pool is extracted but not
quantified in this study for technical reason. It can be noticed however that PFP land use
has less proportion of recalcitrant carbon (46 %) and the high input land use (CRCPHI)
has recorded the highest proportion of recalcitrant carbon (66%).

In the recalcitrant pool there is always a decrease of carbon for all samples but we found
an increase in nitrogen content in the recalcitrant sample compared to the original sample.
This happened mostly in sub soil samples (20 cm and 40 cm) and in a top soil for the high
input land use. This was not the case for 60 and 100 cm depth. According to Rovira et al
(2002) this may happen because of the short time of hydrolysis to achieve a complete
release of hydrolysable N. Stevenson (1982) recommends hydrolysis times of 12 to 24 h
with hydrochloric acid which is more efficient than sulfuric acid used in this study.
R2 = 0.2774
Recalcitrant Nitrogen

0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000
Recalcitrant carbon

Figure 12: Relationship between recalcitrant carbon and recalcitrant nitrogen

3.5 Potential for carbon sequestration


The results for total carbon sequestrated in the upper 20 cm are described in average in
each position through the landscape and for each land use in the area.
Taking in consideration the carbon stocks in the landscape regardless the land use, data
showed that total carbon range in the upper 20 cm from 8.5 t ha-1 to 39.1 t ha-1 with an
average of 15.2 t ha-1 and a standard deviation of 6.04. The minimum carbon sequestrated
is in the glacis and the bas fond (upper 20 cm considered) and the maximum carbon is in
the terrace. In the Plateau data ranged between 11.6 t ha-1 and 19.5 t ha-1 (mean = 16.5 SD
± 4.3) while in the glacis they are between 8.5 and 21.6 t ha-1 (mean = 12.9 SD ± 3.1). In
the terrace they range between 14.9 and 39.1 t ha-1 (mean = 23.9 SD ± 9.4) and in the bas
fond carbon stocks are between 8.5 and 21 t ha-1 (mean = 14.2 SD± 4.5) (table 7).

xv
When regrouping data by land use type, highest carbon stocks are found in the CCP
(continuous cereal in parkland) land use (28.9 t ha-1) which seems to be related to the
considerable amounts of organic matter input with manure. The lowest carbon stock is
found in the CRCPLI (17.2 t ha-1) which is probably due to the lowest external input
(mineral fertilizer, and organic matter) and in the upper 20 cm of the CCBF which is
possibly due to the high sand content in this layer in the bas fond (table 11). The results
found in this study (table 10) are in the same line as those found in the west central part
of Senegal which range from 4.5 and 18 t ha-1 in the upper 20 cm (Tiessen et al, 1998). In
a recent study in the same area, Tschakert et al (Article in press) also found values for
soil carbon in the 20-40 cm horizon which ranged between 2.8 and 29.8 t ha-1.

Table 11: Carbon stocks in the upper 20 cm in t ha-1 in different positions of the landscape
Position min carbon max carbon average
SD
______________________________________________________________________________________
___
Plateau 11.6 19.5 16.5
4.3
Glacis 8.6 21.6 12.9
3.1
Terrace 14.9 39.1 23.9
9.4
Bas fond 8.6 21.0 14.2 4.5

Table 12: Carbon stocks in the upper 20 cm in t ha-1 in different types of land use
Land use min carbon max carbon average
SD
________________________________________________________________________
___
CCBF 8.6 21.0 14.9
6.2
CCP 18.7 39.1 28.9
14.4
CRCPHI 11.7 17.2 14.9
2.1
CRCPLI 8.6 23.1 13.7
3.5

xvi
PFBF 12.5 13.9 13.2
1.0
PFP 18.6 19.5 19.0
0.6
PFT 24.8 24.8 24.8
---

IV Conclusion

The data analysis has shown that the range of carbon sequestration potential in the Basin
Peanut of the Nioro area varies considerably depending on the position in the landscape,
the land use type and the land management practices. Terrace is the most promising area
for carbon sequestration in the landscape. In the glacis where carbon is mostly depleted,
specific land management practices like erosion control practice and no till cultivation are
needed to minimize material removal from the top soil. The upper 20 cm of the bas fond
contain a low amount of carbon which generally moved down in deeper profile replaced
by a layer of sand. This carbon is generally well protected and is considered as
irreversibly sequestrated. As long as rocks are standing in the plateau, this area will be
uncultivated and would be a promising potential area for carbon sequestration.
The more popular land use in the area is the continuous rotation cereal peanut with low
input (crcpli) which is practiced in the major part of the area. With the high pressure
exerted on the land, fallow is not practiced anymore in the area; it is always an occasional
practice and is an exception wherever it exists. Seeds crop or labour shortage are the main
reasons for a normal field to be left uncultivated. High input agriculture has the
advantage to provide more biomass but the drawback is that crop residues are not
returned into the soil and represent considerable organic carbon losses. The crop residues
produced in high input agriculture, if returned into the soil would represent a high C input
for the soil which would exceeds litter fall in natural agro-ecosystems (Coleman et al,
1989).
In the Peanut Basin, large areas are affected by land degradation mostly due to water
erosion, wind erosion, improper land management which induced chemical and physical
land deterioration (Batjes, 2001). Those degraded lands are potentially ideal areas for
carbon sequestration through adapted land management, provided that agro-ecological
and socio-economic factors are in place (Batjes, 2001). Soil carbon models are useful
tools to assess possible consequences of a range of land management options on soil
carbon pools and its evolution over time. They would be recommended for a future study
in the area for a thorough evaluation of the rate of carbon sequestrated in relation to land
management options.

xvii
References
Ardo J., Olsson L., 2003. Assessment of soil organic carbon in semi-arid Sudan using
GIS and the CENTURY model. Journal of Arid Environments 54, 633-651.

Bationo A., 2001. Soil Organic Carbon management for sustainable land use in Sudano-
Sahelian West Africa. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 61, 131-142.

Batjes N.H., 2001. Options for increasing carbon sequestration in West African soils: An
exploratory study with special focus on Senegal. Land degradation and development 12,
131-142.

Brady N. C.,1990. The Nature and properties of SOILS 10th Edition. In Macmillan
Publishing Company, New York. 621 pp

Coleman D.C., Oades J. M., Uehara G., 1989. Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in
Tropical Ecosystems. Published by NifTAL Project. 249 pp

Hill M.J., 2003. Generating generic response signals for scenario calculation of
management effects on carbon sequestration in agriculture: approximation of main effects
using CENTURY. Environmental Modelling & Software 18, 899-913.

Houba V.J.G., van der Lee J.J., Novozamsky I., Walinga I., 1989. Soil and Plant Analysis
a series of syllabi Part 5 Soil Analysis Procedures. Department of Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition. Wageningen Agricultural University.

Iyamuremye F., Gewin V., Dick R.P., Diack M., Sene M., Badiane A., Diatta M., 2000.
Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Mineralization Potential of Native Agroforestry Plant
Residues in Soils of Senegal. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation 14, 359-371.

Manlay R. J, Masse D, Chotte J. L., Ciornei G., Feller C., Kairé M., Fardoux J.,
Pontanier R., 2002. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus allocation in agro-ecosystems of a
West African savanna. II. The soil component under semi-permanent cultivation.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environnement 88, 233-248.

Manlay R. J., Kairé M., Masse D., Chotte J. L., Ciornei G., Floret C., 2002. Carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus allocation in agro-ecosystems of a West African savanna. I. The
plant component under semi-permanent cultivation. Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environnement 88, 215-232.

xviii
Mc Cauley A., Jones C., Jacobsen J., 2003. Soil pH and Organic Matter. A self study
course from the MSU extension service continuing education series. Montana
State University.12 pp.

Oldeman, L. R., Hakkeling, R. T. A. and W. G. Sombroek. 1990. World Map of the


Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation; ExplanatoryNote. (The) Global Assessment
of Soil Degradation, ISRIC and UNEP incooperation with the Winand Staring Centre,
ISSS, FAO and ITC; 27 pages.

Olivier R., 1978. Méthodes d’analyse des sols, des eaux et des plantes en usage au CNRA
de Bambey recueillis par R. Olivier. Centre National de Recherches Agronomiques,
Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles. Délégation Générale à la Recherche
Scientifique et Technique. République du Sénégal, Primature 70 pp.

Pieri C., 1969. Etude Pédologique de la Région de Nioro du Rip. Rapport Volume I.
Centre National de Recherches Agronomiques de Bambey.

Pieri C., 1992. Fertility of Soils, A Future for Farming in the West African Savannah.
Ministere de la Cooperation-CIRAD, translated from French by Philip Gething, original
title Fertilité des terres de savanes. In Springer-Verlag. Berlin. 346 pp

Plaster E. J., 1992. Soil Science and Management 2nd Edition

Rovira P., Vallejo V.R., 2002. Labile and Recalcitrant pools of carbon and nitrogen in
organic matter decomposing at different depths in soil: an acid hydrolysis approach.
Geoderma 107, 109-141.

Singer M. J.,. Munns D. N., 1999. Soils an introduction 4th Edition

Stevenson F. J., 1982. Nitrogen in Agricultural soils. American Society of America,


Publisher, Madison Wisconsin USA. 940 pp

Tiessen H., Feller C., Sampaio E.V.S.B., Garin P., 1998. Carbon sequestration and
turnover in semi arid savannas and dry forest. Climatic Change 40, 105-117.

Tschakert P., 2003. The costs of soil carbon sequestration: an economic analysis for
small-scale farming systems in Senegal. In press in Agricultural Systems. 27 pp.

xix
Tschakert P., khouma M., Sene M.. Unpublished. Biophysical Potential for Soil Carbon
Sequestration in the Old Peanut Basin of Senegal.

Annexes

xx
SOIL DATA

xxi
Transect Parcel Latitude Longitude Position Rotation L use Depth BD PH TOC Clay Silt
1 1 13.8219 -15.7758 Plateau Fal/Fal PFP 10 1.86 5.3 0.62 9.3 8.3
1 1 Plateau Fal/Fal PFP 20 1.48 4.9 0.54 14.0 6.8
1 2 13.8389 -15.7667 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.74 5.2 0.69 8.8 8.7
1 2 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.68 5.0 0.57 12.8 7.7
1 3 13.8478 -15.7608 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.80 5.0 0.50 6.5 7.2
1 3 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.91 4.9 0.43 11.5 6.3
1 4 13.8619 -15.7536 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.81 5.1 0.44 6.5 6.3
1 4 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.87 4.9 0.37 10.5 6.0
1 5 13.8828 -15.7542 terrace Fal/Fal PFT 10 1.76 5.2 0.65 6.0 6.8
1 5 terrace Fal/Fal PFT 20 1.89 5.1 0.71 7.8 6.5
1 5 terrace Fal/Fal PFT 30 5.0 1.45 9.3 8.7
Bas
1 6 13.9064 -15.7542 fond Fal/Fal PFBF 10 1.81 5.6 0.54 5.5 5.2
Bas
1 6 fond Fal/Fal PFBF 20 1.81 5.5 0.15 3.5 2.5
Bas
1 6 fond Fal/Fal PFBF 30 5.3 0.09 3.0 2.0
Bas
1 6 fond Fal/Fal PFBF 40 4.8 0.25 6.0 5.0
2 1 13.8283 -15.7342 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.78 5.0 0.33 7.0 4.2
2 1 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.99 4.5 0.35 11.3 4.2
2 2 13.8386 -15.7261 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.80 5.0 0.47 6.5 6.2
2 2 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.96 4.9 0.35 11.0 5.5
2 3 13.8564 -15.7269 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.82 5.2 0.46 7.0 7.3
2 3 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.78 4.8 0.29 9.8 6.4
2 4 13.8664 -15.7253 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.80 4.8 0.29 8.1 4.4
2 4 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.73 4.6 0.20 12.4 4.6
Bas
2 5 13.8939 -15.7172 fond Mi/Mi CCBF 10 1.78 5.3 0.68 7.6 5.5
Bas
2 5 fond Mi/Mi CCBF 20 1.63 5.1 0.55 7.1 5.1
Bas
2 5 fond Mi/Mi CCBF 30 4.8 1.12 11.1 11.1
Bas
2 5 fond Mi/Mi CCBF 40 4.9 1.31 13.4 15.5
3 1 13.8389 -15.7805 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.83 4.6 0.40 6.5 3.9
3 1 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.75 4.5 0.34 9.4 3.5
3 2 13.8547 -15.7764 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.65 5.0 0.40 5.3 4.7
3 2 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.84 4.7 0.30 8.0 6.1
3 3 13.8736 -15.7794 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.79 4.7 0.28 4.9 2.4
3 3 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.79 4.4 0.32 8.4 3.1
3 4 13.8908 -15.7797 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.77 5.1 0.65 7.4 5.0
3 4 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.84 5.0 0.63 8.6 6.6
Bas
3 5 13.6675 -15.7947 fond Mi/Ma CCBF 10 1.80 5.3 0.33 4.4 3.9
Bas
3 5 fond Mi/Ma CCBF 20 1.71 5.3 0.16 2.1 2.0
Bas
3 5 fond Mi/Ma CCBF 30 5.4 0.10 1.7 0.6
Bas
3 5 fond Mi/Ma CCBF 40 5.4 0.07 1.6 0.5
Bas
3 5 fond Mi/Ma CCBF 50 5.1 0.21 3.2 2.8
Bas
3 5 fond Mi/Ma CCBF 60 4.9 0.40 6.3 6.1

xxii
Bas
3 5 fond Mi/Ma CCBF 100 5.0 0.79 10 9.9

Table 12: Djiguimar data set

Transect Parcel Latitude Longitude Position Rotation L use Depth BD PH TOC Clay Silt
1 1 13.9839 -15.8700 Plateau Fal/Fal PFP 10 1.66 5.5 0.62 7.4 4.6
1 1 Plateau Fal/Fal PFP 20 1.68 5.2 0.49 11.1 4.0
1 2 13.9880 -15.8533 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.80 5.4 0.40 6.6 3.9
1 2 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.76 5.0 0.33 9.4 3.4
1 3 13.9889 -15.8383 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.71 5.2 0.49 7.6 9.0
1 3 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.71 5.0 0.34 11.0 8.1
1 4 13.9900 -15.8194 Glacis P/Ma CRCPLI 10 1.66 5.4 0.50 5.9 8.2
1 4 Glacis P/Ma CRCPLI 20 1.82 4.7 0.33 9.2 6.5
1 5 13.9950 -15.7958 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.76 5.3 0.34 4.5 4.4
1 5 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.74 4.9 0.26 9.1 4.4
1 6 13.9967 -16.0436 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.80 4.7 0.30 7.4 2.6
1 6 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.83 4.5 0.25 11.6 2.7
1 7 13.9989 -16.0197 Glacis WM/P CRCPLI 10 1.73 5.1 0.30 3.9 3.1
1 7 Glacis WM/P CRCPLI 20 1.71 4.4 0.25 9.1 2.9
1 8 14.0078 -15.9925 Glacis Ma/S CRCPLI 10 1.78 5.0 0.40 8.1 5.8
1 8 Glacis Ma/S CRCPLI 20 1.86 5.1 0.42 7.2 5.6
1 9 14.0358 -15.9183 terrace Mi/Mi CCP 10 1.68 7.4 1.97 5.9 4.5
1 9 terrace Mi/Mi CCP 20 1.77 6.2 0.34 9.0 5.2
1 10 14.0319 -15.8608 Bas fond Fal/Fal PFBF 10 1.75 5.4 0.42 3.8 5.9
1 10 Bas fond Fal/Fal PFBF 20 1.73 5.1 0.38 6.4 5.6
1 10 Bas fond Fal/Fal PFBF 30 5.1 0.23 9.4 3.6
1 10 Bas fond Fal/Fal PFBF 40 5.0 0.19 9.6 4.0
2 1 14.0222 -15.9561 Plateau Ma/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.73 5.6 0.42 3.1 3.4
2 1 Plateau Ma/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.63 5.2 0.27 6.9 2.1
2 2 14.0380 -15.9505 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.78 5.2 0.35 3.4 1.8
2 2 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.73 4.7 0.24 7.2 1.4
2 3 14.0561 -15.9380 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.69 5.2 0.33 4.1 3.0
2 3 Glacis P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.67 4.9 0.28 7.5 2.8
2 4 13.8114 -15.9339 Glacis Ma/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.68 5.2 0.41 6.5 5.4
2 4 Glacis Ma/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.74 5.0 0.33 10.4 5.1
2 5 13.8339 -15.9228 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.81 5.1 0.57 7.4 7.6
2 5 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.76 4.8 0.40 11.1 6.7
2 6 13.8542 -15.9097 Bas fond P/Mi CCBF 10 1.78 5.1 0.51 6.6 5.9
2 6 Bas fond P/Mi CCBF 20 1.67 4.9 0.37 11.1 5.9
2 6 Bas fond P/Mi CCBF 30 4.9 0.24 15.6 4.7
2 6 Bas fond P/Mi CCBF 40 4.8 0.19 18.2 4.6

Table 13: Paoskoto data set

xxiii
Transect Parcel Latitude Longitude Position Rotation L use Depth BD PH TOC Clay Silt
1 1 13.9325 -16.0111 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 10 1.68 5.3 0.39 4.4 2.7
1 1 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 20 1.76 4.8 0.29 8.0 4.2
1 2 13.9375 -15.9622 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 10 1.73 5.1 0.54 5.7 5.6
1 2 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 20 1.78 5.0 0.44 8.9 5.9
1 3 13.9400 -15.9436 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 10 1.73 4.7 0.51 7.1 4.6
1 3 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 20 1.67 4.7 0.41 10.9 4.5
1 4 13.6969 -15.9055 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.70 5.1 0.55 8.4 5.9
1 4 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.67 4.7 0.37 13.9 5.1
1 5 13.9255 -16.0408 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 10 1.73 5.2 0.47 6.6 5.0
1 5 terrace P/Mi CRCPLI 20 1.75 4.9 0.35 11.5 5.1
2 1 13.8761 -16.0189 terrace P/Mi CRCPHI 10 1.67 5.0 0.54 8.1 8.2
2 1 terrace P/Mi CRCPHI 20 1.80 4.7 0.39 12.0 7.5
2 2 13.8953 -16.0208 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 10 1.68 4.9 0.44 6.1 5.6
2 2 terrace Ma/Mi/P CRCPHI 20 1.91 4.8 0.35 10.6 4.4
3 1 13.9478 -15.9311 terrace Mi/Mi CCP 10 1.74 6.1 0.56 4.4 2.3
3 1 terrace Mi/Mi CCP 20 1.77 6.2 0.51 6.1 2.9

Table 14: Porokhane data set

xxiv
LAND OBSERVATION AND LAND
MANAGEMENT SURVEY

xxv
Observation 1
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number: 1
Parcel number from the top : 1
Coordinates: 13º38’679”N 15º33’813”W
Position on the landscape : Plateau
Vegetation type: guieria senegalensis, combretum glutinosum, penisetum pedicelatum, sparmaceae
achyde,’ndiangue’,’mboum ndour’.
Landowner: not cultivated, never cultivated because of the block of stones.

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture Sandy clay Clay
Roots many Few
Activité termites
biologique
Land management
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Fallow Fallow fallow fallow fallow Fallow fallow

xxvi
Observation 2
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 2
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º38’740”N 15º33’780”W
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : penisetum pedicelatum, Vitex doniana,’mboum ndour’.
Landowner : Ousmane Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR2/3 10YR2/3
Texture Clayey sand Clayey sand
Roots Yes Yes
Activité Termites
biologique

Land management, cleared 45 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Sorghum Peanut Millet P M P M
Mineral 150 kg/ha no 100kg/ha no Less than No
fertiliser 100 kg/ha
Organic No no No no No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial Superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed removed Removed removed Removed Removed Removed
residues and burnt and burnt and burnt and burnt

xxvii
Observation 3
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 3
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º38’772”N 15º33’759”W
Position on the landscape : Glacis ( on the slope)
Vegetation types : Eragrostis tremula, ‘ndjangue’, ‘ndeti noor’, guieria senegalensis, Ziziphus amuritiana
Landowner : Alioune Coumba Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR2/2 10YR2/3
Texture Loamy sand Loamy sand
Roots many Many fine
Activité Termites and other
biologique insects

Land management, cleared approximately in 1960


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Sorghum Peanut Millet Fallow Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral 100 kg/ha 150 kg/ha
fertiliser
Organic No no No No no no No
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial Superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed removed Removed Removed Removed Removed
residues and burnt and burnt and burnt

xxviii
Observation 4
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 4
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º38’823”N 15º33’733”
Position on the landscape : Glacis
Vegetation types : Herbs: ‘ndeti noor’, Spermaceae achydea, ‘ndiangue’,
Shrubs: guieria senegalensis, Piliostigma reticulatum, Hibiscus asper
Trees : acacia albida, Cordyla pinnata.
Landowner :

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 10YR3/3
Texture Sand Clayey sand
Roots fine Fine
Activité Termites, one
biologique worm

Land management, cleared in 1960


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet
Mineral Low input Low or no Low input Low or no Low input Low or no Low input
fertiliser input input input
Organic No No No no No no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial Superficial superficial Superficial superficial Superficial
Crop Remove and Remove for Remove and Remove for Remove and Remove for Remove and
residues burn animal burn animal burn animal burn
feeding feeding feeding

xxix
Observation 5
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 5
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º38’898”N 15º33’735”W
Position on the landscape : Teraces
Vegetation types : guieria senegalensis, Piliostigma reticulatum, Spermaceae achydea, Cassia siberiana,‘mboum
ndour’,
Landowner : cattle course never cultivated, always in fallow

Depth (cm) 10 20 30
Color 10YR2/2 10YR2/2 10YR2/1
Texture Clayey sand Sandy clay Sandy clay
Roots Yes Yes
Activité Lot of termites
biologique

Land management
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Fallow fallow Fallow fallow Fallow Fallow fallow

xxx
Observation 6
Village: Djiguimar
Transect number: 1
Parcel number from the top: 6
Coordonnées spatiales: 13º38'983’’N 15º33'735’’W
Position on the landscape: Bas Fond’ (low ground)
Vegetation types: guieria senegalensis, penisetum pedicelatum, ‘ndjiangue’, Eragrostis tremula, ‘mboum ndour’.
Landowner: Katim Antia Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 5YR4/6
Texture Clayey sand Sand
Roots Yes Yes
Activité Termites
biologique

Land management, cleared approximately in 1955, not cultivated since 1984 because of
water flooding. This land is almost abandoned.
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Fallow fallow fallow fallow fallow fallow fallow

xxxi
Observation 7
Village: Djiguimar
Transect number: 2
Parcel number from the top: 1
Coordonnées spatiales: 13º38’702”N 15º33’663”W
Position on the landscape: Glacis, just after the plateau starting the slope
Vegetation types: guieria senegalensis, Hibiscus asper, ‘ndeti noor’, Eragrostis tremula.
Landowner: Daouda Kani Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR4/3 5YR4/4
Texture Sand Clay
Roots Yes No. stones just
after 10 cm
Activité Termites Cuirass
biologique

Land management, cleared approximately in 1955


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral 150 kg/ha Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no
fertiliser imput imput imput imput imput imput
Organic No no No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial Superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed Removed and Removed Removed and removed Removed and removed
residues burnt burnt burnt

xxxii
Observation 8
Village: Djiguimar
Transect number: 2
Parcel number from the top: 2
Coordinates: 13º38’739”N 15º33’634”
Position on the landscape : Glacis
Vegetation types : guieria senegalensis, Eragrostis tremula, ‘ndeti noor’, Hibiscus asper, Cordyla pinnata.
Landowner: Daouda Kani Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 10YR3/3
Texture sand Clayey sand
Roots yes Yes
Activité termites No
biologique

Land management, cleared approximately in 1955


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral 150 kg/ha Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no
fertiliser imput imput imput imput imput imput
Organic No no No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial Superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed Removed Removed Removed removed Removed removed
residues and burnt and burnt and burnt

xxxiii
Observation 9
Village: Djiguimar
Transect number: 2
Parcel number from the top: 3
Coordinates: 13º38’803”N 15º33’637”
Position on the landscape: Glacis
Vegetation types: guieria senegalensis, ‘fouf’, Spermaceae achydea, Eragrostis tremula, penisetum pedicelatum.
Landowner: Mor Coumba Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR2/3 7.5YR3/3
Texture Clay sand Sandy clay
Roots Yes Yes
Activité Termites
biologique

Land management, cleared approximately in 1943


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Sorghum peanut Millet peanut millet peanut millet
Mineral Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no
fertiliser input input input input input input input
Organic No No No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial Superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed and removed Removed and removed Removed and removed Removed and
residues burnt burnt burnt burnt

xxxiv
Observation 10
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 4
Coordinates : 13º38’839”N 15º33’631”
Position on the landscape : Glacis
Vegetation types : guieria senegalensis, , penisetum pedicelatum, ‘fouf’
Landowner : Mor Coumba Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 5YR3/3 5YR4/6
Texture Loamy sand Loamy clay
Roots Yes Little
Activité Termites, ‘ndjalal’
biologique
Other observation Water crossing,
sign of erosion.

Land management
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no
fertiliser input input input input input input input
Organic No No No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial Superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed Removed and Removed Removed and removed Removed and removed
residues burnt burnt burnt

xxxv
Observation 11
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 5
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º38’938”N 15º33’602”
Position on the landscape : low ground
Vegetation types : ‘kirindol’, ‘wolo’, ‘baara(90%)’, ‘mboum ndour’, ‘dimb’ and others
Landowner : Dialigue Diallo

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 10YR2/2
Texture Loamy sand Clayey sand
Roots Many Yes
Activité Termites and other
biologique insects

Land management, cleared probably 40 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet millet Millet millet millet millet millet
Mineral No No No no no no no
fertiliser
Organic No No No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed and Removed and Removed and Removed and Removed and Removed and Removed and
residues burnt burnt burnt burnt burnt burnt burnt

Peanut has been cultivated in this parcel 7 years ago but the crop has been destroyed with
water flooding.

xxxvi
Observation 12
Village: Djiguimar
Transect number: 3
Parcel number: 1
Coordinates : 13º38’740” N 15º33’830”W
Position on the landscape: Glacis near the plateau
Vegetation types: ‘ndidji bopp’, ndiangue’, ‘mboum’, ngueria senegalensis, ‘rate’.
Landowner : Ousmane Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 10YR3/3
Texture Loamy sand Clayey sand
Roots Many Yes
Activité termites
biologique

Land management, cleared 45 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Fallow Peanut Millet P M P M
Mineral No No 100kg/ha no Less than No
fertiliser 100 kg/ha
Organic No No No no no No No
Fertiliser
Tillage No superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Burnt removed Removed removed Removed Removed Removed
residues and burnt and burnt and burnt

xxxvii
Observation 13
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 3
Parcel number from the top : 2
Coordinates : 13º38’797” N 15º33’815”W
Position on the landscape : Glacis far away from the plateau
Vegetation types :
Landowner : Ousmane Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR3/4 7.5YR3/2
Texture Sandy Loamy sand
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, cleared 45 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet
Mineral No or low No or low No or low No or low No or low No or low No or low
fertiliser input input input input input input input
Organic No no No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed, the removed Removed, the removed Removed, the removed Removed, the
residues strongest strongest strongest strongest
stalk, the stalk, the stalk, the stalk, the
remainings remainings remainings remainings
burnt burnt burnt burnt

xxxviii
Observation 14
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 3
Parcel number from the top : 3
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º38’865”N 15º33’826”W
Position on the landscape : Glacis, near the terraces and water crossing
Vegetation types : ngueria senegalensis, ‘ndidji bop’, ‘ndiangue’.
Landowner : Dialigue Diallo

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR3/4 7.5YR3/3
Texture sand Clayey sand
Roots yes Yes
Animal termites

Land management
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Sorghum Peanut Millet Peanut millet peanut Millet
Mineral Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no
fertiliser input input input input input input input
Organic No no No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed, the Removed for Removed, the Removed for Removed, the Removed for Removed, the
residues remaining livestock remaining livestock remaining livestock remaining
burnt feeding burnt feeding burnt feeding burnt

xxxix
Observation 15
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 3
Parcel number from the top : 4
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º38’927”N 15º33’827”W
Position on the landscape : Teraces
Vegetation types : shrubs : ngueria senegalensis, ‘rate’, trees : ‘khekhou’, ‘yiir’.
Landowner : Papa Sacko Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 10YR2/3
Texture sandy Loamy sand
Roots yes Yes
Biological termites
Activity

Land management, cleared 80 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Peanut Fallow Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no Low or no
fertiliser input input input input input input input
Organic No no No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed, Removed Burnt Removed, Removed Removed, Removed
residues remaining remaining remaining
burnt burnt burnt

xl
Observation 16
Village : Djiguimar
Transect number : 3
Parcel number from the top : 5
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º39’063”N 15º33’881”W
Position on the landscape : low ground (Bas Fond)
Vegetation types : shrubs : ngueria senegalensis, ‘jujubier’, ‘poftane’, ‘kirindol’, trees : asodactiva indica (nim),
acacia albida (kad), ‘gung’, ‘solom’, ‘founokh’.
Landowner : Daouda Antia Toure

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR3/2 5YR4/4
Texture Sand Sand
Roots many Many
Biological termites
activity

Land management, cleared in 1950 and rice is the first crop cultivated in this land in the
fifties.
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use millet maize Millet maize millet maize Millet
Mineral No no No no no no no
fertiliser
Organic No no No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial superficial
Crop Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for
residues fence animal fence animal fence animal fence
building, the feeding building, the feeding building, the feeding building, the
remaining remaining remaining remaining
burnt burnt burnt burnt

xli
Observation 17
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 1
Coordinates : 13º47’722”N 15º47’312”W
Position on the landscape : Plateau with may blocks
Vegetation types : ‘rate’, ngueria senegalensis, ‘khessaw’,’ tumb’.
Landowner : fallow never cultivated, because of the blocks of stones

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR4/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture sand Clay
Roots Fines Yes
Activité termites White worms
biologique

Land management
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Fallow fallow Fallow fallow fallow fallow fallow

xlii
Observation 18
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 2
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º47’737”N 15º47’252”W
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : ‘rate’, ngueria senegalensis, ‘khessaw’,’ tumb’, ‘sam’.
Landowner : Malick Drame

Depth (cm) 10 20
Munsell color 10YR3/4 7.5YR 4/4
Texture Loamy sand Loamy clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Activity Termites

Land management, since 1960 rotation millet-peanut except when seeds are not available
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use fallow Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet
Mineral no No no no no No
fertiliser
Organic No No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage No
Crop Burnt removed Burnt removed burnt removed burnt
residues

xliii
Observation 19
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 3
Coordinates : 13º47’740”N 15º47’198”W
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : ngueria senegalensis, ‘rate’, ‘fouf’.
Landowner : Malick Drame

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture Loamy Clayey Loam
Roots Yes Yes
Activité termites
biologique

Land management, rotation millet-peanut since 1960


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet
Mineral No No no no no no no
fertiliser
Organic No No no no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe
sine sine sine sine sine sine sine
Crop Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed
residues and burnt on and burnt on and burnt on and burnt on
the land the land the land the land

xliv
Observation 20
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 4
Coordinates : 13º47’744”N 15º47’130”W
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : ‘rate’, ‘dimb’.
Landowner : Kabe Deme

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR2/2 7.5YR4/4
Texture Loamy Clayey loam
Roots Many Few
Biological termites
activity

Land management, cleared 44 years ago, rotation peanut-maize which could be shifted
by a fallow in case of seed unavailability.
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Maize Peanut Maize Peanut Maize Peanut Maize
Mineral no No No no no no No
fertiliser
Organic no No No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage With hoe With hoe sine With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe
sine sine sine sine sine sine
Crop Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed
residues and burn the and burn and burn and burn
remainings the the the
remainings remainings remainings

xlv
Observation 21
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 5
Coordinates : 13º47’762”N 15º47’045”W
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : ‘ndjangue’, ‘bissap’, ‘baara’.
Landowner : Elhaji Deme

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/4 7.5YR4/6
Texture Loam sand Clayey loam
Roots Few No
Activité termites
biologique

Land management, cleared 60 years ago, rotation millet-peanut


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral No no No no no no no
fertiliser
Organic No no No no no no no
Fertiliser
Tillage With hoe With hoe sine With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe
sine sine sine sine sine sine
Crop Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed
residues and burn the and burn and burn and burn
remainings the the the
remainings remainings remainings

xlvi
Observation 22
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 6
Coordinates : 13º47’768”N 15º46’997”W
Position on the landscape : teraces
Vegetation types : ‘rate’, ‘nguiguis’, ‘bissap’.
Landowner : Elhadji Dem

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR4/3 7.5YR4/6
Texture Loam sand Loam clay
Roots many Few
Activité termites
biologique

Land management, same as previous parcel except for the actual season where maize has
been cultivated.
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Maize Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral no no No no no No no
fertiliser
Organic no no No no no No no
Fertiliser
Tillage With hoe With hoe sine With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe With hoe
sine sine sine sine sine sine
Crop Removed Removed and Removed Removed Removed Removed Removed
residues and burnt the burnt the and burnt and burnt
remainings remainings the the
remaining remaining

xlvii
Observation 23
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 7
Coordonnées spatiales : 13º47’776”N 15º46’911”W
Position on the landscape : teraces
Vegetation types : shrub and grass burnt during our visit, trees : ‘ronier’, ‘dimb’
Landowner : Matar Mane

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture Loamy sand Loam clay
Roots Many Few
Activité termites
biologique

Land management,
Cleared more than 60 years ago

Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Water melon Peanut Water Peanut Water Peanut Water
melon melon melon
Mineral Low input Low input Low input Low Low input Low input Low input
fertiliser input
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and
tractor tractor tractor tractor tractor tractor tractor
Crop residues removed Burnt removed Burnt removed Burnt removed

xlviii
Observation 24
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 8
Coordinates : 13º47’708”N 15º46’813”W
Position on the landscape : teraces
Vegetation types : ‘ndatoukane’, ‘baara’ (very few),’rate’, ‘ dimb’ (1)
Landowner : Abdou Niass

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 7.5YR4/3
Texture Clayey sand Sandy clay
Roots Many, long and Sharp
sharp
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management
Cleared more than 60 years ago

Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Sorghum Maize Sorghum Maize Sorghum Maize Sorghum
Mineral Yes but low Yes but low Yes but low Yes but low Yes but low Yes but low Yes but low
fertiliser
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor
Crop Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for Removed for
residues fence building cattle feeding fence building cattle feeding fence building cattle feeding fence building

xlix
Observation 25
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 9
Coordinates : 13º47’909”N 15º46’546”W
Position on the landscape : teraces (near the low ground)
Vegetation types : tree : dimb, no grass, no shrub (cattle enclosing)
Landowner : Ahmadou Ba

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/2 10YR3/4
Texture Clayey sand Clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological termites
Activity

Land management, cleared more than 60 years, cattle enclosing at least 20 years
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Millet Millet Millet Millet Millet Millet
Mineral No No No No No No No
fertiliser
Organic Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle
Fertiliser enclosing enclosing enclosing enclosing enclosing enclosing enclosing
Tillage Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine
Crop Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt
residues

l
Observation 26
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 1
Parcel number from the top : 10
Coordinates : 13º47’895”N 15º46’339”W
Position on the landscape : Low ground
Vegetation types : grass : ‘ndiangue’(100%), ‘wass wassou’, ‘ndattoukane’, shrubs : ‘tumb’, ‘rate’, ‘mboum
ndour’, ‘bissap’, trees: acacia sahel, ‘dimb’.
Landowner : Not cultivated because of water flooding during rainy season

Depth (cm) 10 20 30 40
Color 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 10YR4/2 10YR4/2
Texture Sandy loam Clayey loam Clayey loam Sandy clay
Roots Many, sharp Few, sharp yes Yes
Biological termites
Activity

Land management
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use fallow fallow fallow fallow fallow fallow fallow

li
Observation 27
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 1
Coordinates : 13º47’860”N 15º47’622”W
Position on the landscape : Plateau without any block
Vegetation types : shrub : ‘bissap sauvage’(70%), ‘mboum ndour’ (40%) grass : ‘baara’ (50%),
‘ndiangue’(70%),
Landowner : Sama Thiam

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR3/4 5YR4/4
Texture Loamy sand Clayey sand
Roots Yes Yes
Biological termites
Activity

Land management, cleared 80 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Maize Millet Maize Millet Maize Millet Maize
Mineral yes No yes no yes no Yes
fertiliser
Organic Yes but little Yes but little Yes but Yes but Yes but Yes but Yes but
Fertiliser little little little little little
Tillage Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine
Crop Removed for Burn Removed Burn Removed Burn Removed
residues cattle feeding remainings for cattle remainings for cattle remainings for cattle
after feeding after feeding after feeding
removing the removing removing
strongest the the
stalk strongest strongest
stalk stalk

lii
Observation 28
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 2
Coordinates : 13º47’917”N 15º47’602”W
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : grass : ‘salgouf’, ‘baara’, ‘ndatoukane’, shrubs: ‘ngueria senegalensis’, ‘rate’.
Landowner : Aladji Mane

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR3/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture Sandy Sandy clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological termites
Activity

Land management, cleared more than 45 years


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet and Peanut Millet and Peanut Millet and Peanut Millet and
Water melon Water Water Water
melon melon melon
Mineral Enough Enough input Enough Enough Enough Enough Enough
fertiliser input (250 input input input input input
kg )
Organic yes Yes yes yes yes yes yes
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and
tractor tractor tractor tractor tractor tractor tractor
Crop Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt
residues

liii
Observation 29
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 3
Coordinates : 13º47’982”N 15º47’557”
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : grass : ‘baara’ tree : ‘dimb’ (parcel completely burnt)
Landowner : Keba Khouredia Mane

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5 YR3/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture
Roots Many Few
Biological termites
activity

Land management, cleared 100 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet
Mineral Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes
fertiliser
Organic Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor Hoe/tractor
Crop Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt
residues

liv
Observation 30
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 4
Coordinates : 13º48’041”N 15º47’542”
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : grass : ‘baara’, ‘salgouf’, ‘ndiangue’, shrubs : ‘rate’, ‘nguiguis’, ngueria senegalensis, ‘tumb’,
trees : ‘dimb’
Landowner : Mamouth Mane

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR3/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, cleared approximately 50 years ago


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Maize Millet Maize Millet Maize Millet Maize
Mineral Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
fertiliser
Organic Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe Hoe sine Hoe sine Hoe sine
sine
Crop residues Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt

lv
Observation 31
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 5
Coordinates : 13º48’122”N 15º47’502”W
Position on the landscape : teraces
Vegetation types : grass : ‘baara’, ‘salgouf’. shrubs : ‘rate’, ngueria senegalensis, trees : ‘garabou laobe’, ‘dimb’.
Landowner : Cheikhou Mane

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR3/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture
Roots Yes Yes
Biological termites
Activity

Land management, cleared more than 45 years


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use millet Peanut millet Peanut Millet Peanut millet
Mineral No No No No No No No
fertiliser
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage No No No No No No No
Crop Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt
residues

lvi
Observation 32
Village : Paoskoto
Transect number : 2
Parcel number from the top : 6
Coordinates : 13º48’195”N 15º47’455”
Position on the landscape : Low ground (Bas fond)
Vegetation types : grass : ‘ndiangue’ (100%), shrub : ‘mboum ndour’, (90%), trees : ‘soto’, ‘dimb’.
Landowner : Moussa Sarr

Depth (cm) 10 20 30 40
Color 7.5YR3/2 7.5YR2/3
Texture
Roots Many many few Very few
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, cleared more than 45 years ago, mineral fertiliser once every 4 years
and never organic fertiliser
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet and Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet
sorgho
Mineral Yes No No No Yes No No
fertiliser
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe + tractor Hoe + tractor Hoe + Hoe + Hoe + Hoe + Hoe +
tractor tractor tractor tractor tractor
Crop Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt
residues

lvii
Observation 33
Village: Prokhane
Transect number: 1
Parcel number: 1
Coordinates: 13º40’957”N 15º51’580”W
Position on the landscape: plateau
Vegetation types: vegetation completely burnt, trees : no trees in the parcel but enclosed with ‘nim’ and ‘dimb’.
Landowner : Serigne Moustapha Bassirou Mbacke, managed by El hadji Ndiaye

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5 YR5/6 7.5YR4/4
Texture Sandy Clay
Roots Many many
Activité Termites
biologique

Land management, intensification started in 1968


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Maize Millet Peanut Maize Millet Peanut Maize
Mineral 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 6- 150 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha
fertiliser 15-10-10 15-10-10 20-10 kg/ha 15- 15-10-10 6-20-10 15-10-10
150 kg/ha 10-10 150 kg/ha
urea 150 urea
kg/ha
urea
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Tractor and Tractor and Tractor and Tractor Tractor and Tractor and Tractor and
hoe hoe hoe and hoe hoe hoe hoe
Crop Burnt Burnt Removed Burnt Burnt Removed Burnt
residues

lviii
Observation 34
Village: Prokhane
Transect number: 1
Parcel number: 2
Coordinates: 13º40’657”N 15º51’404”W
Position on the landscape: plateau (depression part)
Vegetation types : ‘ndeti noor’, ‘ndatoukane’, ‘bissap sauvage’, ‘roukh’, ‘salgouf’, enclosed with trees, ‘nim’
and’ dimb’.
Landowner : Serigne Moustapha Bassirou

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/3 10YR2/3
Texture Sandy clay Clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, intensification started in 1968


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Rice Millet Peanut Maize Millet Peanut Maize
Mineral 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 15- 150 kg/ha 150 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha
fertiliser 15-10-10 10-10 6-20-10 kg/ha 15-10-10 6-20-10 15-10-10
150 kg/ha 15-10- 150 kg/ha
urea 10 urea
150
kg/ha
urea
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe and No No No No No No
tractor
Crop residues Not removed Burnt Removed Burnt Burnt Removed Burnt
yet but will
be burnt

lix
Observation 35
Village: Prokhane
Transect number: 1
Parcel number: 3
Coordinates: 13º40’984”N 15º51’337”W
Position on the landscape: plateau
Vegetation types: crop residues, shrubs and grass completely burnt. Some remaining ‘bissap sauvage’
Landowner : Serigne Moustapha Bassirou

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/3 10YR4/4
Texture Sandy clay Clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, intensification started in 1968

Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Maize Millet Peanut Maize Millet Peanut Maize
Mineral 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 15- 150 kg/ha 150 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha
fertiliser 15-10-10 10-10 6-20-10 kg/ha 15-10-10 6-20-10 15-10-10
150 kg/ha 15-10- 150 kg/ha
urea 10 urea
150
kg/ha
urea
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Tractor and Tractor and Tractor and Tractor Tractor and Tractor and Tractor and
hoe hoe hoe and hoe hoe hoe
hoe
Crop residues Burnt Burnt Removed Burnt Burnt Removed Burnt

lx
Observation 36
Village : Prokhane
Transect number : 1
Parcel number : 4
Coordinates : 13º41’049”N 15º51'200’’W
Position on the landscape : plateau
Vegetation types : shrubs : ‘ngueria senegalensis’, grass : ‘ndiangue’, ‘ndatoukane’, ‘ndeti noor’, ‘roukh’.
Landowner :

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/3 7.5YR4/3
Texture Sandy clay Clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, not intensified since at least 10 years


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral No No No No No No No
fertiliser
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe
Crop residues Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed

lxi
Observation 37
Village : Prokhane
Transect number : 1
Parcel number : 5
Coordinates : 13º40’932”N 15º51’687”W
Position on the landscape : plateau
Vegetation types : shrubs : ngueria senegalensis, acacia albida, grass : ‘baara’‘ndeti noor’, ‘fouf’.
Landowner : Iman of the village

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 7.5YR2/3 7.5YR4/4
Texture Sandy clay Clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological termites
Activity

Land management, not intensified since at least 10 years


Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet
Mineral No No No No No No No
fertiliser
Organic No No No No No No No
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe hoe hoe hoe Hoe hoe hoe
Crop Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt
residues

lxii
Observation 38
Village : Prokhane
Transect number : 2
Parcel number : 1
Coordinates : 13º40’754”N 15º51’608”W
Position on the landscape : plateau
Vegetation types : shrub : ‘bissap sauvage’, grass : ‘baara’, ndidji bopp’, ‘ndeti noor’.
Landowner : Serigne Mountakha

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/2
Texture Clayey sand
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, intensification started in 1968 but since 10 years intensification in


term of mineral fertilizer input and of fossil energy has largely decreased but since then
organic fertiiser is used
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut Millet Peanut
Mineral No 100 kg/ha no 100 No 100 kg/ha No
fertiliser kg/ha
Organic No 15 carts in no 15 carts No 15 carts in No
Fertiliser the 4ha in the the 4ha
4ha
Tillage Tractor and Tractor and Tractor Tractor Tractor and Tractor and Tractor and
hoe hoe and hoe and hoe hoe hoe hoe
Crop Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed Burnt Removed
residues

lxiii
Observation 39
Village : Prokhane
Transect number : 2
Parcel number : 2
Coordinates : 13º40’823”N 15º51'615”W
Position on the landscape : Plateau
Vegetation types : shrubs: ngueria senegalensis, ‘rate’, ‘nguiguis’, acacia albida, grass: ‘baara’, ndidji bopp’,
‘ndeti noor’.
Landowner : Serigne Moustapha Bassirou

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR3/3 10YR3/4
Texture Clayey sand Clay
Roots Yes Yes
Biological Termites
Activity

Land management, this land is part of the previous parcel of Serigne Bassirou Mbacke
and the management is the same. The rotation is millet/maize/peanut
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Peanut Maize millet Peanut Maize millet
Mineral 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha 6- 150 kg/ha 150 150 kg/ha 6- 150 kg/ha 150 kg/ha
fertiliser 15-10-10 20-10 15-10-10 kg/ha 20-10 15-10-10 15-10-10
150 kg/ha 15-10- 150 kg/ha
urea 10 urea

Organic No No no no No no no
Fertiliser
Tillage Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and Hoe Hoe and Hoe and Hoe and
tractor tractor tractor and tractor tractor tractor
tractor
Crop residues Butrnt Removed Burnt Butrnt Removed Burnt Butrnt

lxiv
Observation 40
Village : Prokhane
Transect number : 3
Parcel number : 1
Coordinates : 13º41’952”N 15º50'352”W
Position on the landscape : glacis
Vegetation types : shrubs : ‘nguiguis’, ‘mbankha’, ngueria senegalensis, grass : ‘baara’ (60%), ‘ndeti noor’
trees : ‘nguiguis, ‘soto’, ‘nim’, ‘gang’
Landowner : Mamadou Diao

Depth (cm) 10 20
Color 10YR2/2 10YR2/3
Texture Sandy Clayey sand
Roots Yes Yes
Activité White warms,
biologique termites

Land management, this parcel has more than 100 years hold and is near the village (500
m). The village has moved 50 years ago from its original location and was closer to it
more than it is now. This parcel is used to benefit to the organic materal from household
waste. Since a long time this parcel is the cattle parking but the number of cows
decreased from more than to 100 units 10 years ago to less than 20 units.
Actual Previous 2 3 4 5 6
Land use Millet Millet Millet Millet Peanut Millet Millet
Mineral No No No No No No No
fertiliser
Organic Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle
Fertiliser parking parking parking parking parking parking parking
Tillage Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe Hoe
Crop Burnt Burnt Burnt Burnt Removed Burnt Burnt
residues

lxv
GRAPHS

lxvi
6
5
Carbon
4
log C+S
3
BD
2
PH
1
0
Plateau Glacis Terrace Bas fond

Figure 20: clay + silt, bulk density pH and carbon along the landscape (upper 20 cm).

1
% carbon content

0.8
0.6
Carbon
0.4
0.2
0
Plateau Glacis Terrace Bas fond
Position in the landscape

Figure 21: distribution of carbon in average along the landscape

1.4
% Carbon (20cm)

1.2
1
0.8 0.58 0.66
0.6 0.39 0.40
0.4
0.2
0
Plateau Glacis Terrace Bas fond
Position

Figure 22: Carbon distribution in a short (602 m) sloping landscape (5 %).

lxvii
1.4
1.15
% carbon (20 cm)

1.2
1
0.8 0.56
0.6 0.4
0.35
0.4
0.2
0
Plateau Glacis Terrace Bas fond
Position

Figure 23: carbon distribution in a long (1810 m) gentle slope (< 1%)

1.4
% carbon (20 cm)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6 0.49 0.44
0.34 0.32
0.4
0.2
0
Plateau Glacis Terrace Bas fond
Position

Figure 24: carbon distribution in a short (685 m) gentle slope (< 1%)

1.4
1.2
% carbon

1
0.8 top soil
0.6 sub soil
0.4
0.2
0
I

T
BF
PH
P

PL
BF

PF

PF
C

PF
C

C
C

R
C

C
C

land use

lxviii
Figure 25: distribution of carbon in different types of land use

lxix
METEOROLOGICAL DATA

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Table 15: Rainfall data in the Nioro area from 1950 to 2001 (Meteorology centre CNRA de Bambey,
Senegal)

1950 1951 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
Jan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Feb 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Apr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
May 4 22 0 0 53 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jun 129 115 45 75 135 62 75 87 76 40 81 0 79 155 129 63 44 17
Jul 170 245 233 175 209 128 155 135 125 313 77 253 237 128 70 236 186 371
Aug 575 266 327 575 398 351 135 638 332 173 317 171 368 217 212 330 140 302
Sep 280 264 303 163 256 189 184 195 121 158 67 152 181 216 343 300 44 272
Oct 148 132 126 62 48 58 161 42 12 0 48 91 7 45 159 22 0 49
Nov 8 31 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 9 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
Dec 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tot 1315 1074 1035 1064 1099 792 710 1099 670 684 598 667 871 764 913 951 415 1010

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987
Jan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Feb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Apr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
May 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 1 0 10 0 9 0 8 0 1 1 0
Jun 37 37 80 81 20 2 54 18 77 160 13 32 7 65 211 34 27 100
Jul 136 177 49 126 130 260 233 65 192 281 84 233 149 140 56 170 87 140
Aug 262 297 194 219 263 247 158 163 255 209 217 272 221 73 186 153 339 334
Sep 125 208 145 136 190 341 197 247 156 90 182 174 103 110 164 133 298 209
Oct 32 19 25 15 26 53 100 22 24 15 25 67 62 22 14 25 49 117
Nov 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 55 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 0
Dec 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 6 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tot 593 738 494 577 629 902 761 515 757 770 523 786 542 418 632 536 801 900

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Jan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Feb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Apr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
May 5 0 0 0 31 0 0 39 0 9 0 1 0 0
Jun 37 254 27 0 58 45 38 204 18 107 25 83 70 149
Jul 263 300 114 145 125 267 201 248 198 72 124 245 226 217
Aug 408 298 269 132 284 271 295 142 156 228 257 382 247 237
Sep 184 113 68 190 203 90 152 39 117 193 149 177 266 165
Oct 19 140 77 45 51 89 62 0 25 9 28 89 160 24
Nov 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dec 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

lxxi
Tot 915 1105 555 512 752 762 798 672 512 617 582 977 970 792

Table 16: Mean annual maximum and mean annual minimum temperature in the Nioro area (Meteorology
centre CNRA de Bambey, Senegal)

1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1992 1993 1994 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Max mean temp 35 35 36 35 36 35 36 35 37 36 36 35 36
Min mean temp 21 20 20 20 21 21 21 20 21 22 22 21 20

lxxii
PICTURES

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lxxiv

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