CHE 313

PHYSICAL TRANSPORT PHENOMENA 1

 COURSE OUTLINE
Units and dimensions
Dimensional Analysis
Types of flow
Properties of fluid
Momentum and energy equations
Flow in pipes and open channels
Friction
Flow measurement devices
Vortex motion in liquids
Pumps and Compressors
Valves and Piping
 TEXTS
• CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, Volume 1.
BY Coulson, J.M. and Richardson, J.F.
Published by Butterworth-Heinemann
• FLUID MECHANICS FOR CHEMICALS ENGINEERS
By Noel de Nevers. Published by McGraw-Hill.
• TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
By Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E and LightFoot, E.N.
Published by John Wiley & Sons , New York.
• FLUID MECHANICS
By Olu Ogboja. Published by UNESCO, Kenya
• Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles
By Christie John Geankoplis. Published by Prentice-Hall.
 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
• INTRODUCTION
• Engineering is about real physical things which
can be measured and describe in terms of those
units of measure.
• Most engineering calculations involve these
units of measure.
• It would be simple if there were only one set of
such units that the whole world agreed upon
and used; but that is not the case today.
• In the United States most measurements used
the English System of Units, based on the foot,
the pound and Degree Fahrenheit, 𝑜𝐹 but most
of the world uses the metric (or SI) system of
units based on the meter, the Kg and the 𝑜𝐶 (K).
• The metric system has been legally accepted in
the United States since 1866, and it has been
declared policy of the U.S government to convert
to metric since 1975. Progress has been
disappointingly slow.
• In Chemical Engineering, the data used are
expressed in a great variety of different units, so that
quantities must be converted into a common system
before proceeding with calculations.
• Standardization has been largely achieved with the
introduction of the Systeme International d’unites
(SI).
• This system is now in general use in Europe and is
rapidly being adopted throughout the rest of the
world, including the USA where initial inertial is now
being overcome.
• Most of the physical properties determined in
the laboratory will originally have been
expressed in the cgs system, whereas the
dimensions of the full-Scale plant, its throughput
(mass flow rate), design and operating
characteristics appear either in some form of
general engineering units or in special units
which have their origin in the history of the
particular industry.
• This inconsistency is quite unavoidable and is a
reflection of the fact that chemical engineering
has in many cases developed as a synthesis of
scientific knowledge and practical experience.
• Familiarity with the various systems of units and
an ability to convert from one to another are
therefore essential, as it will frequently be
necessary to access literature in which the SI
system has not been used.
 SYSTEMS OF UNITS
• Measurement of any physical quantity involves
].

comparison with a certain basic, arbitrary

chosen, international accepted reference
standard called unit.
• The number of times a standard quantity is
present in the physical quantity is known as the
“magnitude” of the physical quantity.
 FOOD FOR THOUGHT
Which is the best (cost)?
• 2 liters of Milk at N380, or
• 1.5 liters of Milk at N270 ?
Assignment:
Find out the international accepted reference standards for the following
base units:
• Meter
• Second
• kelvin
• Kilogram
• mole
• It is convenient to regard certain quantities as
basic (fundamental) and other quantities as
derived.
• The choice of basic dimensions varies from one
system to another although it is usual to take
length and time as fundamental. These quantities
are denoted by L and T.
• The dimensions of velocity may be written as
−𝟏 −𝟐
𝑳𝑻 and those of acceleration are 𝑳𝑻 . An area
𝟐
has dimensions 𝑳 and a volume has the
𝟑
dimensions𝑳
• A third basic quantity is mass M.
• Thus density, mass per unit volume, has the
dimensions 𝑴𝑳−𝟑
• Force, F, which is the product of mass and
−𝟐
acceleration, has the dimension M𝑳𝑻
• However, in the British Engineering System force
F is used as the third fundamental and mass then
becomes a derived dimension.
• Area, pressure, density and speed are examples
of derived quantities and their units – Square
Meter, Pascal, Kilogram/Meter3 and Meter/
Second respectively in S.I. units are derived
from the fundamental units.
The Centimeter-Gram-Second (cgs) System

• In this system the basic units are of length L, mass,

M and time T with the nomenclature:

• Length: Dimension L: Unit 1 centimeter (1cm)

• Mass: Dimension M Unit 1 gram (1g)
• Time: Dimension T: Unit1 second (1s)
• The unit of force in cgs is that force which will give a
2
mass of 1g an acceleration of 1 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 and is known
as dyne.

• Force: Dimension 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 Unit 1 dyne (1dyn) ≡1g.cm/s2

• Energy: Dimension 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 Unit 1 erg ≡ 1 dyn.cm
• Power: Dimension 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 Unit 1 𝑒𝑟𝑔 𝑠 ≡1 dyn.cm.𝑠 −1

𝑔
The unit of dynamic viscosity in cgs is poise (P). 1 P = 1 .
𝑐𝑚.𝑠
A centipoise(cP) is one one-hundredth of a poise and is a
commonly used unit in the measurement of dynamic viscosity.
The Meter-Kilogram-Second (MKS) and the
systeme International of unites (SI)
• These systems are in essence modification of the
cgs system but employ larger units. The basic
dimensions are L, M and T.

• Length: Dimension L: Unit 1 meter (1m)

• Mass: Dimension M: Unit 1 kilogram (1 kg)
• Time: Dimension T: Unit 1 second (1s)
• The unit of force in SI system, known as the
Newton, is that force which will give an
acceleration of 1 𝑚 𝑠 to a mass of one kilogram.
2 5
• Thus 1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠 and 1 Newton equals 10
dynes.
7
• The energy unit, Newton-meter, is 10 ergs and
is called the Joule; and the power unit, equal to
one Joule per second, is known as the watt.
• Thus:
• Force: Dimension 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 Unit 1 Newton (1 N) ≡ 1 Kg.m/s2
• Energy: Dimension 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 Unit 1 Joule (1 J) ≡ 1 Kg.𝑚2 𝑠 2
• Power: Dimension 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 Unit 1 Watt (1 W) ≡ 1 Kg.𝑚2 𝑠 3
• In S.I system, the following prefixes are adopted as standard.
• 1018 exa (E) 10−1 deci (d)
• 1015 peta (P) 10−2 centi (cm)
• 1012 tera (T) 10−3 milli (mm)
• 109 giga (G) 10−6 micro (µ)
• 106 mega (M) 10−9 nano (n)
• 103 kilo (K) 10−12 pico (p)
• 102 hector (h) 10−15 femto (f)
• 101 deca (da) 10−18 alto (a)
• Some special terms are acceptable, and
commonly used in the (S.I) system, for example
3
10 kg (1Mg) is called a tonne (t).
• Pressure of 100 𝐾𝑁 𝑚2 = 105 𝑁 𝑚2 or 105 Pa
is called a bar.
 The foot-Pound-Second (fps) system
• The basic units in this system are:
• Length: Dimension L: Unit 1 foot (1 𝑓𝑡)
• Mass: Dimension M: Unit 1 pound (1 𝑙𝑏)
• Time: Dimension T: Unit 1 second (1 𝑠)

• The unit of force that gives a mass of 1 𝑙𝑏 an acceleration

of 1 𝑓𝑡 𝑠is known as the 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑑𝑙 .
• The unit of energy (or work) is the 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙and
the unit of power is the 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙 per second.
• Thus, the derived units are:
• Force: Dimension 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 Unit 1 poundal(1 pdl)
• Energy: Dimension 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 Unit 1 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙(1 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙)
• Power: Dimension 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 Unit 1𝑓𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑠
 The British Engineering System (BES)
• In an alternative form of the fps system, the unit of
length 𝑓𝑡 and time (s) are unchanged, but the third
fundamental is a unit of force (𝐹) instead of mass and
is known as the pound force (𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) .
• This is defined as the force which gives a mass of 1 𝑙𝑏
an acceleration of 32. 1740 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 2 the standard value
of acceleration due to gravity.
• This is equivalent to a force that gives a mass of
2
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 (32.1740 𝑙𝑏𝑚 )an acceleration of 1 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 .
• The unit of mass in this system is known as the slug
and is the mass which is given an acceleration of
1 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 2 by a one 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.
• 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 −1 𝑠 2
• The same pound which is the unit of mass in the fps
system has the same name as the unit of force in
British engineering system.
• To avoid confusion, the pound mass is written as 𝑙𝑏 or
𝑙𝑏𝑚 and the unit of force (pound-force) is always
written as 𝑙𝑏𝑓 .
• 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 32.1740 𝑙𝑏𝑚 and
2
• 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 = 32.1740 pdl = 32.1740 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 𝑠
• Force (𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) = mass (slug) x acc ( 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 2 )
• The basic units are:
• Length: Dimension L: Unit 1 foot (1 𝑓𝑡)
• Force: Dimension F: Unit 1 pound-force (1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
• Time: Dimension T: Unit 1 second (1 𝑠)
• The derived units are:
• Mass: Dimension 𝐹𝐿−1 𝑇 2 Unit 1 slug (32.1740 lb)
• Energy: Dimension 𝐹𝐿 Unit 1 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (1 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
• Power:Dimension𝐹𝐿𝑇 −1 Unit 1 𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑠(1 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠)

• Note: 1 horse power is defined as 550 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠 =

0.746 𝐾𝑊
• Many writers, particularly in America, use both the
pound mass and pound force as basic units in the
same equation because they are the units in common
use.
• This is an essential incoherent system and requires
great care in its use.
• In this system a proportionality factor between force
and mass is defined as 𝑔𝑐 given by:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 2
• Force (in pound−force, 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) =
𝑔𝑐
 𝑀 𝐿𝑇 −2
• In terms of dimension, 𝐹 =
𝑔𝑐
• But F itself has the dimension: 𝐹 = 𝑀 𝐿𝑇 −2
• Thus, 𝑔𝑐 can be seen to be dimensionless.
• 𝑔𝑐 = 32.1740.
• Force in the cgs system is sometimes expressed as a
gram force 𝑔𝑐 and in the mkssystem as kilogram
force 𝑘𝑔𝑐 .
• 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑥 9.80665 𝑚 𝑠 2 ≡ 9.80665 𝑁
• 1 𝑔𝑓 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑥 980.665 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 2 ≡ 980.665 𝑑𝑦𝑛
 THERMAL (HEAT) UNITS
• Heat is a form of energy and therefore its dimensions are
𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 .
• In SI unit the only unit of energy is the joule, 1 J = 1 N.m.
• In many cases however, heat is regarded as having its own
independent dimension 𝐻 which can be used as additional
fundamental.
• Temperature has the dimension 𝜃which is independent of
𝑴, 𝑳, and 𝑻, provided that no resort is made to the kinetic
theory of gases in which temperature is a function of the
velocity of molecules.
• It is not incorrect to express heat and
temperature in terms of M, L, T dimensions,
although it is unhelpful in the process of
dimensional analysis.
• Dimensionally, the relation between 𝑯, 𝑴and
𝜽can be expressed in the form:
• 𝐻 ∝ 𝑀 𝜃 ∴ 𝐻 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑀𝜃
• Where 𝐶𝑃 , the specific heat capacity, has the
−1 −1
dimension 𝐻𝑀 𝜃 .
• Prior to S.I system of units, the unit of heat was
defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of water by one degree.
• In the cgs system, the unit is calorie (cal), which is the
quantity of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water by 1 ℃ (degree Celsius).
• The unit is kilocalorie in the MKS unit which is the
quantity of heat required to raise 1kg of water by 1 ℃.
• In the British System of units, the British thermal unit
(Btu) is the quantity of measurement of thermal (heat)
energy.
• Btu is the quantity of thermal (heat) energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 of water by 1 ℉.
• Where the Btu is too small for a given application, the
5
therm(10 𝐵𝑡𝑢)is normally used.
• Sometimes quantity of heat is measured as the quantity
of thermal (heat) energy required to raise 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 of water
by 1 ℃, in this case it is referred to as pound-calorie.
• As the specific heat capacity is a function of
temperature, it has been necessary to set a
datum temperature which is chosen as 298 k or
25 ℃.
• In the S.I unit, kilocalorie is equivalent to
4186.8 𝐽, i.e 1 calorie is 4.1868 𝐽.
 Temperture
scale
System mass unit (degree) Unit of Heat
Cgs Gram Celsius Calorie
Mks Kilogram Celsius Kilocalorie
British Thermal Unit
Fps Pound Fahrenheit (BTU)
Pound-calorie or
centigrade heat unit
Fps Pound Celsius (CHU) 1CHU = 1.8 BTU
S.I Kilogram Kelvin Joule
 from Kelvin to Kelvin

Celsius
[°C] = [K] − 273.15 [K] = [°C] + 273.15

Fahrenheit
[°F] = [K] × 9⁄5 − 459.67 [K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5⁄9

Rankine
[°R] = [K] × 9⁄5 [K] = [°R] × 5⁄9

For temperature intervals rather than specific temperatures,

1 K = 1 °C = 1.8 °F = 1.8 °R
• Freezing point of water = 0 oC = 32 oF= 273.15K =
491.67 oR
• Boiling point of water = 100 oC = 212 oF = 373.15
K = 671.67 oR
 MOLAR UNITS
• When working with gases and systems in which
chemical reaction is taking place, it is usual to work in
terms of molar units rather than mass.
• The mole (or gram mole) is defined as the quantity of
material which contains as many entities (atoms,
molecules or formula units) as there are in 12g of
carbon 12 isotopes.
• The quantity of entities contained in 12g of carbon 12 is
Avogadro’s number and is roughly 6.02 x 1023 mol-1.
• 1 Kilomole (Kmol) or Kilogram mole (kg-mol) relates to 12
kg of carbon 12
• 1 pound-mole (1 lb-mol) refers 12lb of carbon 12.
• The number of molar units is denoted by dimensional
symbol N.
• The number of mole of a substance A is obtained by
dividing its mass by its molecular weight.
• When there is no prefix for mole then gram mole is being
referred to.
Value of Avogadro's number in variours units
• 6.02214179 ×1023 mol−1
• 2.73159757×1026 lb-mol−1
• 6.02214179×1026 kmol−1
Note that:
1000 mol (or gmol) = 1 kmol (or kg-mol)
 UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT
• Equal volume of all gases, under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure, contain the same
number of molecules and therefore the same number
of moles.
• This can be stated in other words thus:
• Under given conditions of temperature and pressure,
the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of
molecules present.
• For convenience, a temperature of 0 0C (273 K) and a
pressure of 1 atm (1.013 X 105 Pa) are taken as the
standard temperature and pressure (STP).
• Experimentally it is found that 1 mole of any gas at
STP occupies a volume of 22.4 litres.
• Thus the molar volume of a gas, (volume per mole), is
22.4 litres at STP.
• According to ideal gas law, the pressure P, volume V,
and temperature T, of a gas sample obey the
relationship PV/T = constant.
• We can find the value of the constant in terms of the
number of moles n of gas in the sample by making use
of the fact that the molar volume at STP is 22.4 litres.
• At STP we have T = 0 0C = 273 K, P = 1 atm, and V =
n(22.4 litres/mole), so that
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝑉 𝑛 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 (22.4 )
• = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
= 𝑛𝑅
𝑇 273 𝐾
• Where R is the universal gas constant
𝑃𝑉
• Thus 𝑅 = = 0.0821 𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒/𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑘
𝑛𝑇
• For SI units,
P = 1atm = 101325 Pa,
V=n(22.4 litres/mole) =
=n (22.4 x 10-3 m3/mole).
Thus, in SI units,
22.4 𝑥 10−3 𝑚3
𝑃𝑉 101325 𝑃𝑎
𝑅= = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑛𝑇 273 𝐾
= 8.314 Pa.m3/mol.Kor
= 8.314 J/mol.K
= 8314 J/kmol.K
 VALUES OF UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT, R, IN
DIFFERENT UNITS
Values of R Units Values of R Units
(V P 𝑇 −1 𝑛−1 ) (V P 𝑇 −1 𝑛−1 )
8.314472 J K−1 mol−1 84.78402×10−6 m3 kgf/cm2 K−1 mol−1
5.189×1019 eV K−1 mol−1 8.314472×10−2 L  bar K−1 mol−1
0.08205746 L atm K−1 mol−1 62.36367 L mmHg K−1 mol−1
1.9858775 cal K−1 mol−1 62.36367 L Torr K−1 mol−1
8.314472×107 erg K−1 mol−1 6.13244 ft lbf K−1 g-mol−1
8.314472 L kPa K−1 mol−1 1,545.35 ft lbf °R−1 lb-mol−1
8.314472 m3 Pa K−1 mol−1 10.73159 ft3 psi °R−1 lb-mol−1
8.314472 cm3 MPa K−1 mol−1 0.7302413 ft3 atm °R−1 lb-mol−1
8.314472×10−5 m3 bar K−1 mol−1 998.9701 ft3 mmHg K−1 lb-mol−1
8.205746×10−5 m3 atm K−1 mol−1 1.986 Btu /lb-mol−1 °R−1
82.05746 cm3 atm K−1 mol−1
 Pressure units
Technical Pound-
atmosphere force per
Pascal Bar (at) Atmosphere Torr square inch
(Pa) (bar) (atm) (Torr) (psi)
7.5006×10− 145.04×10−
1 Pa
≡ 1 N/m2 10−5 1.0197×10−5 9.8692×10−6 3 6

≡
1 bar
100,000 106 dyn/cm2 1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.5037744
1 at 98,066.50 0.980665 ≡ 1 kgf/cm2 0.96784 735.56 14.223
1 atm 101,325 1.01325 1.0332 ≡ 1 atm 760 14.696
`
1 torr 9 ≡ 1 Torr; 19.337×10−
133.322 1.3332×10−3 1.3595×10−3 1.3158×10−3 ≈ 1 mmHg 3

1 psi 6.894×103 68.948×10−3 70.307×10−3 68.046×10−3 51.715 ≡ 1 lbf/in2

 TABLE: CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SOME
COMMON UNITS
• Length: 1 in (inch) 25.4mm (2.54 cm)
1 ft 12 in (inches)
1 ft 0.3048m
1yd 0.9144m
1 mile 1.609344km (5,280 ft or 1,760 yards)
1 𝐴 (angstrom) 10−10 𝑚

Area: 1 acre 4046.9 𝑚2

1 hectare (ha) 104 𝑚2
• Volume: 1 UK gal (gallon) 4546.1 𝑐𝑚3
1 US gal (gallon) 3785.4 𝑐𝑚3
1 ltr (litre) 1 𝑑𝑚3 (1000 𝑐𝑚3 )
1 barrel (bbl) (for petroleum) 42 US gal
• Mass: 1 oz 28.352g
1 lb0.45359kg
1 tonne (metric ton) 1000 kg
1 ton (long ton) 1016.06kg
Dynamic Viscosity: 1P (poise) 1 𝑔𝑐𝑚−1 𝑠 −1 (0.1 Pa.s or 100 mPa.s)
Kinematic Viscosity: 1S (stoke) 10−4 𝑚2 𝑠
• Pressure: 1 Standard atm (atmosphere) 101325 𝑁 𝑚2 or (pa)
1 at (𝑘𝑔𝑓 𝑐𝑚2 )98.066 𝑘𝑁 𝑚2
1 bar 105 𝑁 𝑚2 or 100 𝑘𝑁 𝑚2
1 Standard atm 760 mm Hg (mm of mercury)
1 atm 14.696 psi (𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑖𝑛2 )
Power: 1 horse power 550 (𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠)
Energy (work, heat): 1 calorie (cal) 4.1868 J
1 Btu (British thermal unit) 1.05506kJ = 252 Cal
5
Temperature ℃ (degree Celsius) ℉ − 32 x
9
9
1 degRankine °𝑅 𝐾 (kelvin)
5
 5
Temperature difference: 1 ∆deg F (∆ deg R) ∆deg C (∆deg K)
9
Molar Units 1 lb-mol453.59 g-mol = 0.45359 kg-mol
1 kmol (kg-mol) 1000 mol (g-mol)
 EXAMPLES
1) Convert a speed of 327 𝑚𝑖 ℎ to a speed in 𝑓𝑡 𝑠.
Solution

327 mile 1.6093 km 1000 m 1 ft 1 h 1 min

h 1 mile 1 km 0.3048 m 60 mins 60 sec

526241.1 ft
1097.28 s

= 479.6 𝑓𝑡 𝑠
2) A mass of 10 𝑙𝑏𝑚 is acted on by a force of 3.5 𝑙𝑏𝑓 . What is the
acceleration in 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛2 .
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐. 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 2
Force (𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) =
𝑔𝑐
10 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐. 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 2
3.5 𝑙𝑏𝑓 =
32.1740
∴ 𝑎𝑐𝑐. = 0.35 ∗ 32.1740 𝑓𝑡 𝑠 2
𝑓𝑡
= 11.2609 2
1
𝑚𝑖𝑛
60
11.2609 𝑓𝑡
= 2
1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
60
11.2609 𝑓𝑡
=
2.7778 𝑋 10−4 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
≅ 40539 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛2
 ASSIGNMENT
1) From ideal gas equation, R is given by:
PV
R= = 8.314 J gmol. K
nT
where P = pressure, V = volume, n = mole,
T = temperature and R = Universal gas constant.
Obtain the value of R in the following Units:
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐿.𝑎𝑡𝑚
(i) (ii)
𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙 °𝑅 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾

2) Convert 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑓𝑡 −2 to cP (centipoise)

3) Determine the value of X in the equation:
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑙
1 =𝑋
𝑙𝑏𝑚 °𝐹 𝑔 °𝑐
𝜌𝑢𝑑
4) The Reynolds, number, (Re) is defined for a pipe as:
𝜇
where 𝜌 = density, 𝑢 = velocity 𝑑 = diameter and 𝜇 = viscosity.
Water, at 20 ℃, flows in a pipe with a diameter of 6 𝑖𝑛at 10 𝑓𝑡 𝑠.
(i) Obtain from the literature, the value of viscosity of the water, in
centipoise cP, and density of water in cgs
(ii) With the data obtained in (i) evaluate the value of the
Reynolds number, Re.
(iii) Determine the dimension of the Reynolds number
5) Most US engineers work with heat fluxes
with the unit 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ. 𝑓𝑡 2 . In rocket
2
business the common unit is 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠. 𝑐𝑚 .
2 2
How many 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ. 𝑓𝑡 is 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠. 𝑐𝑚 ?
2
The proper SI unit is 𝐽 𝑚 . 𝑠 . How many
2 2
𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ. 𝑓𝑡 is 1 𝐽 𝑚 . 𝑠 ?
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
• Usually we find it impossible to determine all the
essential facts for a given fluid flow, heat or mass
transfer by pure theory alone, and so we must often
depend on experimental investigations.
• Thus in engineering it is very often necessary to study
the behavior of systems or equipment against some
variables.
• Where these variables are very many, the study itself
as well as the presentation of its results becomes
cumbersome.
• An example is the volume, V, of a given mass of gas
subjected to variations in temperature, T and
pressure, P, where V = f(P, T).
• To study this, the gas is kept at a selected value of
pressure while varying the temperature and recording
the volume for each pair of the variables.
• The procedure can be repeated for more pressure
values.
• This presentation of this result is shown in the figure
below.
 V P1
P2
P3

T
When the number of the independent variables
exceeds two, the determination and presentation of
the relationship between the dependent and the
independent variables become cumbersome.
• The study of problems in fluid dynamics and in heat
transfer is made difficult by the many parameters which
appear to affect them.
• It is rarely possible, and certainly time consuming, to try to
vary these many variables separately.
• In most instances further study shows that the variables
may be grouped together in dimensionless groups, thus
reducing the effective number of variables.
• The method of dimensional analysis in providing a smaller
number of independent groups is most helpful.
• This enables us to apply test data of one experiment to
other cases than those observed.
• Dimensional analysis depends upon the fundamental
principle that any equation or relation between
variables must be dimensionally consistent, that is,
each term in the relationship must have the same
dimensions.
• That is, if A = B + C, then A, B and C must have the
same dimensions or if D = E.F then the dimensions of
D must be equal to the product of those of E and F.
• If the whole equation is divided through by any one of
the terms, each remaining term in the equation must
be dimensionless.
• Since the dimensions of the physical quantities may
be expressed in terms of a number of fundamentals,
usually mass, length and time and sometimes
temperature and thermal energy, the requirement of
dimensional consistency must be satisfied in respect
of each of the fundamentals.
• Dimensional analysis gives no information about the
form of the functions, nor does it provide any means
of evaluating numerical proportionality constants.
Consider an example: (Indices method)
• It is found, as a result of experiment that the
pressure difference (∆𝑃) between two ends of a
pipe in which a fluid is flowing is a function of
the pipe diameter 𝑑the pipe length 𝑙, the fluid
velocity, 𝑢, the fluid density 𝜌, and the fluid
viscosity, 𝜇. Find a set of dimensionless group for
the variables.
SOLUTION
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑓1 𝑑, 𝑙, 𝑢, 𝜌, 𝜇 ------------------------------------ (1)
• The form of the function is unknown. The simplest
form of relation will be where the function consists
simply of a single term, or:
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑑 𝑛1 𝑙 𝑛2 𝑢𝑛3 𝜌𝑛4 𝜇 𝑛5 --------------------- (2)
• The requirement of dimensional consistency is that
the combined term on the right hand side will have
the same dimensions as that on the left; that is, it
must have the dimensions of pressure.
• Each of the variables in equation (2) may be expressed
in terms of mass, length, and time. Thus,
dimensionally:
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
•𝑑 = 𝐿
•𝑙 = 𝐿
• 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑇 −1
• 𝜌 = 𝑀𝐿−3
−1 −1
• 𝜇 = 𝑀𝐿 𝑇
• Equation (2) in terms of the dimension, thus becomes:
• 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 = 𝐿𝑛1 𝐿𝑛2 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑛3 𝑀𝐿−3 𝑛4 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑛5
----------(3)
• Thus, simplifying:
• 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 =(𝐿𝑛1 +𝑛2 +𝑛3 −3𝑛4 −𝑛5 ) 𝑇 −𝑛3−𝑛5 𝑀𝑛4 +𝑛5
Hence, equating the powers of the two sides:
• 𝑀: 1 = 𝑛4 + 𝑛5 -------------------------------- (4)
• 𝐿: −1 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 +𝑛3 −3𝑛4 − 𝑛5 ---------------- (5)
• 𝑇: −2 = −𝑛3 − 𝑛5 ------------------------------- (6)
• Thus, we have three equations and five unknowns;
hence the equations may be solved in terms of any
two unknowns.
• 𝑛4 = 1 − 𝑛5 from Eqn. (4)
• 𝑛3 = 2 − 𝑛5 from Eqn. (6)
• Substituting 𝑛4 and 𝑛3 into Eqn. (5) gives:
• −1 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + (2 − 𝑛5 ) − 3(1 − 𝑛5 ) − 𝑛5
• 0 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛5
• Thus,
• 𝑛1 = −𝑛2 − 𝑛5
• Thus, substituting 𝑛1 ,𝑛3 and 𝑛4 into Eqn. (2) gives:
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑑 −𝑛2 −𝑛5 𝑙 𝑛2 𝑢2−𝑛5 𝜌1−𝑛5 𝜇 𝑛5
• Collecting like powers:
𝑙 𝑛2 𝜇 𝑛5 2
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝜌𝑢
𝑑 𝜌𝑢𝑑
• Hence,
∆𝑃 𝑙 𝑛2 𝜇 𝑛5
• 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ----------------------- (7)
𝜌𝑢 𝑑 𝜌𝑢𝑑
• Evaluating the dimensions of each group shows that
each of the terms is dimensionless.
 𝜌𝑢𝑑
• The group known as the Reynolds number, is
𝜇
one which frequently arises in the study of fluid flow
and affords a criterion by which the type of flow in a
given geometry may be characterized.
• Equation (7) involves the reciprocal of the Reynolds
number, it may be written as:
∆𝑃 𝑙 𝑛2 𝜌𝑢𝑑 −𝑛5
• 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ---------------------- (8)
𝜌𝑢 𝑑 𝜇
• Comparing equation (1) and (8), it is seen that a
relationship between six variables has been reduced
to a relationship between three dimensionless groups.
• Number of dimensionless group is normally the
number of variable less the number of fundamentals.
• Clearly, the maximum degree of simplification of the
problem is achieved by using the greatest possible
number of fundamental, since each yields a
simultaneous equation of its own.
• In certain problems, force may be used as a
fundamental in addition to mass, length and time,
provided that at no stage in the problem is force
defined in terms of mass and acceleration.
• In heat transfer problems, heat and temperature can
also be used as fundamentals provided heat is not
defined in terms of mass and temperature.
• Chemical engineering analysis requires the
formulation of relationships which will apply over a
wide range of size of the individual items of a plant.
• This problem of scale up is vital and it is much helped
by dimensional analysis.
BUCKINGHAM’S THEOREM METHOD
• Another systematic approach to finding the
dimensionless numbers is the method of
Buckingham’s 𝜋theorem.
• This states that, if there is some relationship in which
𝜃1 (the dependent variable) is a function of 𝜃2 , 𝜃3
…………. 𝜃𝑛 (the independent variables) then the
relationships can be written as:
• 𝜃1 = 𝑓 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 ...……. 𝜃𝑛 or alternatively:
• 𝑓 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 ...……. 𝜃𝑛 = 0
• If there are m fundamental dimensions, there will be
(n-m) dimensionless group, 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , … … … … . 𝜋𝑛−𝑚
and the functional relationship between them may be
written as:
• 𝑓 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , … … . 𝜋𝑛−𝑚 = 0
• The groups, 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , … … . 𝜋𝑛−𝑚 must be independent
of one another, and no one group should be capable
of being formed by multiplying together powers of the
other groups.
• The method involves choosing m of the original
variable to form what is called a recurring set.
Any set m of the variables may be chosen with
the following two provisions.
• (1) Each of the fundamental must appear in at
least one of the m variables.
• (2) It must not be possible to form a
dimensionless group from some or all of the
variables within the recurring set.
• In general, the procedure is easiest if the
recurrent variables chosen have the simplest
combination of dimensions, consistent with the
preceding criteria.
• The procedure is then to take each of the
remaining (n-m) variables on its own and to form
it into a dimensionless group by combining it
with one or more members of the recurring set.
• In this way the (n-m) 𝜋 groups are formed, the
only variables appearing in more than one group
being those that constitutes the recurring set.
• Thus, if it is desirable to obtain an explicit
functional relation for one particular variable,
that variable should not be included in the
recurring set.
Consider an example :BUCKINGHAM 𝜋 MTD.
• Using dimensional analysis, determine the
appropriate set of dimensionless group that can be
used to represent the relationship between the
driving force for moving an incompressible fluid, ∆P
(pressure difference) and the fluid properties (density
ρ and viscosity μ), its velocity u, the dimension of the
pipeline (length l and diameter d) and the texture of
the pipe wall (i.e surface roughness ε, with length
dimension).
SOLUTION
• The relationship between the variables affecting the pressure
difference for flow of fluid in a pipe may be written as:
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑓 𝑑, 𝑙, 𝑢, 𝜌, 𝑢, 𝜀,
• Writing the dimensions:
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
•𝑑 =𝐿
•𝑙 =𝐿
• 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑇 −1
• 𝜌 = 𝑀𝐿−3
• 𝜇 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
•𝜀 =𝐿
• Equation above includes seven variables (n), and three
fundamental quantities, (m), (mass, length and time) are
involved. Thus:
• Number of dimensionless groups (n-m) = (7-3) = 4
• The recurring set must contain three (m) variables that
cannot themselves be formed into dimensionless group and
each of the fundamental must appear in at least one of the
variables.
• Thus, 𝑙 and 𝑑, or 𝑙 and 𝜀 or 𝑑 and 𝜀 cannot be chosen
together as they can be formed into dimensionless group.
∆𝑃
Also, ∆𝑃, 𝜌 and 𝑢 cannot be chosen together as 2 is
𝜌𝑢
dimensionless.
• As this problem deals with the effect of conditions on the
pressure difference, ∆𝑃, it is Preferable not to include it in
the recurring set.
• Thus, m (3) variables, that fulfills all the above conditions,
are chosen as recurring set as: 𝑑, 𝑢, 𝜌.
• Writing dimensions of the recurring set and expressing each
dimension as a function of the variables:
•𝑑 =𝐿 ∴ L=𝑑
• 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑇 −1 ∴ T = 𝑑𝑢−1
• 𝜌 = 𝑀𝐿−3 ∴ M = 𝜌𝑑 3
• The n-m (4) dimensionless groups are thus obtained by
taking each of the remaining variables, ∆𝑃, 𝑙, 𝜇 and 𝜀 in turn
to form dimensionless group.
• ∆𝑃 ∶ ∆𝑃 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
∆𝑃
•∴ is dimensionless
𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
• Substituting the values for 𝑀, 𝐿 and 𝑇:
∆𝑃
•∴ is dimensionless
𝜌𝑑 3 𝑑 −1 𝑑𝑢−1 −2
• Simplifying,
∆𝑃
• ∴ 𝜋1 =
𝜌𝑢2
𝑙: 𝑙= 𝐿
𝑙
• ∴ is dimensionless
𝐿
• Substituting the values for 𝐿 :
𝑙
•∴ is dimensionless
𝑑
𝑙
• ∴ 𝜋2 =
𝑑
𝜇 ∶ 𝜇 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
𝜇
•∴ is dimensionless
𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
• Substituting the values for 𝑀, 𝐿 and 𝑇:
𝜇
•∴ 3 −1 −1 −1 is dimensionless
𝜌𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
• Simplifying,
𝜇
• ∴ 𝜋3 =
𝜌𝑢𝑑
𝜀: ε = 𝐿
𝜀
• ∴ is dimensionless
𝐿
• Substituting the values for 𝐿 :
𝜀
•∴ is dimensionless
𝑑
𝜀
• ∴ 𝜋4 =
𝑑
∆𝑃 𝑙 𝜇 𝜀
• Thus, 𝑓 2 , , , = 0 or
𝜌𝑢 𝑑 𝜌𝑢𝑑 𝑑
∆𝑃 𝑙 𝜇 𝜀
• =𝑓 , ,
𝜌𝑢2 𝑑 𝜌𝑢𝑑 𝑑
𝜇
• is inverse of Reynolds number.
𝜌𝑢𝑑
• The following are permissible modifications of dimensionless
groups:
(a) A dimensionless term π can be multiplied by a numerical
constant, for example replaced by kπ if K is a number such
as 1.1, 5.0, 109 and so on.
(b) π term can be replaced with itself raised to any power, for
example π may be replaced with π-1/2 π3/2 and so on.
(c) A π term can be expressed as a function of another π term
for example, if g(π1, π2, π3) = 0, we can write π2 = g1 (π1,
π3)
SOME APLLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
• It is routinely used by physical scientists and engineers to check
the plausibility of derived equations and computations. This can
be done by using dimensional analysis to check the consistency
of the units in equations and in converting units.
• It reduces the number of variables to be experimented on in an
experiment by combining them into dimensionless groups.
• It is used in the scale up of data obtained in module test units to
predict the performance of full scale equipment, i.e scale up or
scale down of a similar experiment.
 ASSIGNMENT

• 1) When fluid in a pipe is accelerated linearly

from rest, it begins as laminar flow and then
undergoes transition to turbulence at a time ttr
which depends upon the pipe diameter D, fluid
acceleration a, density ρ, and viscosity µ.
Arrange this into a dimensionless relation.
• 2) The drag force 𝐹𝑑 exerted on submerged sphere as it
moves through a viscous fluid is a function of the following
variables: the sphere diameter, 𝑑; the velocity of the sphere,
𝑢; the density of the fluid, 𝜌; and viscosity of the fluid, 𝜇.
Obtain the dimensionless group for these variables.
• 3) A drop of liquid spreads over a horizontal surface. Given
that the rate at which the liquid spreads, 𝑢𝑅 𝑚 𝑠 , will be
influenced by viscosity of the fluid, 𝜇; volume of the drop, V;
density of the fluid, 𝜌; acceleration due to gravity, g; and
surface tension of the liquid, 𝜎 𝑁𝑚−1 . Obtain the
dimensionless groups of the variables which will influence
the rate at which the liquid spreads,𝑢𝑅 .
• 4) A steady stream of liquid in turbulent flow is heated by passing it through a long,
straight, heated pipe. The temperature of the pipe is assumed to be greater by a
constant amount than the average temperature of the liquid. Using dimensional analysis,
it is desired to find a relationship that can be used to predict the rate of heat transfer
from the wall of the liquid.
• Thetheoretical equation for this problem may be written in the general form as:
𝑞
• = 𝑓 (𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝐾, ∆𝑇)
𝐴
• Symbol Quantity Dimensions
𝑞
• = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 HL-2T-1
𝐴
• D= Diameter of pipe (inside) -
• V= Average velocity of liquid -
• 𝜌= 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 -
• 𝜇= Viscosity of liquid -
• 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 HM-1θ-1
• K= Thermal conductivity of liquid HL-1T-1 θ-1
• ∆𝑇 = Temperature difference between wall and fluid θ
• 5) The 300 Level chemical engineering class is organizing a get-together
for the coming Shiloh and decided that self produced zobo drink would
be served. An observer on the zobo extraction process concluded that
the power, ∅ (J/s) required in mixing the content for proper extraction is
dependent on the diameter, d (m) of the stirrer, the rotation, n (s-1), of
the stirrer, the density, ρ (kg/m3), and the viscosity, μ (Pa.s) of the zobo
mixture. Use dimensional analysis to show an expression representing
this observation is:
𝛼 𝛽
∅ 𝜌𝑛𝑑 2 𝑛2 𝑑
• =𝑓
𝜌𝑛3 𝑑 5 𝜇 𝑔
• The power consumption is found, experimentally, to be proportional to
the square of the speed of rotation. By what factor would the power be
expected to increase if the impeller diameter were doubled?
• 6a) It is found experimentally that the terminal settling
velocity uo of a spherical particle in a fluid is a function of
the following quantities: particle diameter, d; buoyant
weight of particle (weight of particle - weight of displaced
fluid), W; fluid density, ρ, and fluid viscosity, µ. Obtain a
relationship for uo using dimensional analysis.
• b)Stokes established, from theoretical considerations, that
for small particles which settle at very low velocities, the
settling velocity is independent of the density of the fluid
except in so far as this affects the buoyancy. Show that the
settling velocity must then be inversely proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid.
7) A sphere, initially at a constant temperature, is immersed in a
liquid whose temperature is maintained constant. The time 𝑡
taken for the temperature of the centre of the sphere to reach a
given temperature 𝜃𝑐 is a function of the following variables:
• The given temperature 𝜃𝑐
• Diameter of sphere, 𝑑
• Thermal conductivity of sphere, 𝑘 𝐽 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑚. ℃
• Density of sphere, 𝜌
• Specific heat capacity of sphere, 𝐶𝑝 𝐽 𝑘𝑔. ℃
• Temperature of fluid in which it is immersed, 𝜃𝑠 .
Obtain relevant dimensionless groups for this problem.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
• Chemical Engineers use the principles of chemistry,
Physics and Mathematics to understand and describe
the various phenomena that occur in a chemical
process.
• Some of the fundamental physical phenomena of
interest to chemical engineers that pertains to
movement of quantities can be grouped into the
following:
Fluid mechanics, momentum transfer (how fluid flow)
so that the movement of fluids can be described and
produced (e.g. in pump-pipeline system).
Heat transfer (how heat transfers) so that the heating
or cooling of chemical materials can be described and
produced (e.g. in heat exchangers.)
Mass transfer (how molecules move relative to each
other) so that the mixing or separation of chemical
species can be described and produced.
• Transport phenomenon in chemical engineering
is basically the transfer of these three basic
quantities.
• Mass transfer and momentum transfer are
phenomena that occur in fluid while heat
transfer takes place in both fluid and solids as
well as in vacuum (radiation).
• The fundamental principles that apply to the analysis
of transport of quantities are few and can be
described by the conservation laws:
Conservation of mass
Conservation of energy (1st law of thermodynamics)
Conservation of momentum (Newton’s 2nd law)
• To these may be added:
• The second law of thermodynamics
• Conservation of dimensions
• These conservation laws are basic and along
with appropriate rate or transport models, are
the starting point for the solution of most
problems.
• Although the 2nd law of thermodynamics is not a
conservation law, it states that a process can occur
spontaneously only if it goes from a state of higher
energy to one of lower energy.
• In more mundane terms, this law tells us that, for
example, water will run downhill spontaneously but
cannot run uphill unless it is “pushed” (i.e., unless
mechanical energy is supplied to it from an external
source.
 TRANSPORT LAWS
• In addition to the conservation laws for mass, energy,
momentum etc, there are additional laws that govern
the rate at which these quantities are transported
from one region to another in a continuous medium.
• These are called transport or phenomenological laws
because they are based upon observable phenomena
and logic but they cannot be derived from more
fundamental principles.
• These rate or “transport” models can be written for all
conserved quantities (mass, energy, momentum,
electric charge, etc.) and can be expressed in the
general form as:
Driving force
• Rate of transport = =
Resistance
=Driving force xConductance (1)
This expression applies to the transport of any
conserved quantity, R, e.g. mass, energy, momentum or
electric charge.
• The rate of transport of R per unit area normal to the
direction of transport is called the flux of R.
• This transport equation can be applied on a
microscopic or molecular scale to a stationary
medium or a fluid in laminar flow, in which the
mechanism for the transport of R is the intermolecular
forces of attraction between molecules or groups of
molecules.
• It also applies to fluid in turbulent flow, on a
“turbulent convective” scale, in which the
mechanism for transport is the result of the
motion of turbulent eddies in the fluid that
moves in three directions and carry R with them.
• On the microscopic or molecular level (i.e. stationary
media or laminar flow), the “driving force” for the
transport is the negative of the gradient (with respect
to the direction of transport) of the concentration of
R.
• This means that R flows “downhill,” from a region of
high concentration to a region of low concentration,
at a rate proportional to the magnitude of the change
in concentration divided by the distance over which it
changes.
• This can be expressed in the form:
−d(conc. of R)
Flux of R in the y direction = KT
dy
(2)

• Where KT is the transport coefficient for the

quantity R.
• For microscopic (molecular) transport, KT is a
property only of the medium (i.e. the material).
• It is assumed that the medium is a continuum,
i.e. all relevant physical properties can be
defined at any point within the medium.
• It is further assumed that these properties of the
medium are homogenous and isotropic.
• For macroscopic systems involving turbulent
convective transport, the driving force is a
representative difference in the concentration of
R.
• In this case, the transport coefficient includes the
effective distance over which this difference
occurs and consequently is a function of flow
conditions as well as the properties of the
medium.
• The conservation law for a flow problem with respect
to any conserved quantity, R, can be written as follows:
• Rate of R – Rate of R = Rate of accumulation
into the out of the of R within the
System system system
(3)
• It is assumed that chemical or nuclear reaction is not
taking place, hence, there is no consumption or
generation of R.
 APPLICATION OF GENERAL MICROSCOPIC RATE
LAW
• The general microscopic rate law, as given in Equation
(2), can be applied to the individual conserved quantities,
R, in order to obtain expressions for the rate of transfer
of the respective quantities.
• The expressions derived from the general microscopic
rate law applied to thermal energy, mass and momentum
are termed Fourier’s law, Fick’s law and Newton’s law of
viscosity respectively.
• This derivations are enumerated in the following session.
 FOURIER’S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION
• As an example, figure below illustrates two horizontal
parallel plates with a “medium” (either solid or fluid)
between them.
• If the top plate is kept at a temperature T1 that is
higher than the temperature T0 of the bottom plate,
there will be a transport of thermal energy (heat)
from the upper plate to the lower plate through the
medium, in the –y direction.
 y T1 C1 V1 qy, ny, my

x
T0 C0 V0
Figure: Transport of energy, mass and momentum from upper to lower surface.
• If the flux of heat in the y direction is denoted by qy, then
the transport law can be written as:
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡)
• 𝑞𝑦 = − 𝛼𝑇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑 (𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇)/𝑣𝑜𝑙
= − 𝛼𝑇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑(𝜌𝑐𝑣 𝑇)
𝑞𝑦 = − 𝛼𝑇 (4)
𝑑𝑦
• Where ∝T is called the thermal diffusion coefficient,
m = mass and
(ρcvT) is the “concentration of heat”.
• Because the density (ρ) and heat capacity (Cv) are
assumed to be independent of position, this equation
can be written in simpler form:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑦 = −𝐾 (5)
𝑑𝑦
• Where K =𝛼 𝑇 ρcv is the thermal conductivity of the
medium.
• This law was formalized by Fourier in 1822 and is
known as Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
• The law applies to stationary solids or fluids and the
fluids moving in x direction with straight streamlines
(i.e. laminar flow).
• Thus the driving force for the heat transfer is
temperature gradient or temperature difference.
• This equation is the one dimensional form of Fourier’s
Law of heat conduction, valid when T = T(y).
• It states that the heat flux by conduction is
proportional to the temperature gradient.
EXAMPLE
• Estimate the heat loss per square metre of
surface through a brick wall 0.5m thick when the
inner surface is at 400k and the outside surface
is at 300k. The thermal conductivity of the brick
may be taken as 0.7 W/mK.
 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
• An analogous situation, to Fourier law, can be
envisioned if the medium is stationary (or a fluid in
laminar flow in the x direction).
• The temperature difference (T1 – T0) is replaced by the
concentration difference (C1 - C0) of some species, A,
that is soluble in the fluid (e.g. a top plate of pure salt
in contact with water).
• A will diffuse through the medium (B) from high
concentration (C1 ) to low concentration (C0).
• If the molar flux of A in the y direction is denoted by nAy, then
the transport law is given by:
𝑑𝐶𝐴
𝑛𝐴𝑦 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 (6)
𝑑𝑦
Where DAB is the molecular diffusivity of the species A in the
medium B.
• nAyis negative, because species A is diffusing in the –y direction.
• Equation (6) is known as Fick’s law of diffusion and was
formulated in 1855.
• Thus the driving force for mass transfer in stationary or laminar
flow of homogenous medium is concentration difference
(gradient).
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
• Momentum is also a conserved quantity, and we can
write an equivalent expression for the transport of
momentum.
• However, velocity and momentum are vectors, in
contrast to mass,energy, and charge, which are scalars.
• Hence, even though we may draw some analogies
between the one-dimensional transport of these
quantities, these analogies do not generally hold in
multidimensional systems or for complex geometries.
• Consider a fluid- either a gas or a liquid-contained
between two large parallel plates of area A, which
are everywhere separated by a very small distance
Y.
• Here we consider the top plate to be subject to a
forcein the xdirection that causes it to move with a
velocity 𝑉1 , and the lowerplate is stationary
𝑉0 = 0 .
 X

Y moving plate momentum transfer

Large time stationary plate

Figure: Steady laminar velocity profile for fluid contained between two plates.
• In the very neighborhood of the moving surface
at y = 0 the fluid acquires a certain amount of x-
momentum.
• This fluid, in turn, imparts some of its
momentum to the adjacent “layer” of liquid
causing it to remain in motion in the x-direction.
• Hence x-momentum is transmitted through the
fluid in the y-direction.
• Since ‘‘x-momentum’’ at any point where the local velocity is 𝑣𝑥 is 𝑚𝑣𝑥 , the
concentration of momentum must be 𝜌𝑣𝑥 .
• If we denote the flux of x-momentum in the y direction by 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , the
transport equation is given by:
𝑑 𝜌𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜈 (7)
𝑑𝑦
• where 𝜈 is called the kinematic viscosity.
• Because the density is assumed to be independentof position, this can also
be written as:
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 (8)
𝑑𝑦
• where 𝜇 = 𝜌𝜈is the viscosity (or sometimes called the dynamic viscosity).
• This equation can be written as:
𝐹 0−𝑉
≡ 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 (9)
𝐴 𝑌−0
• That is, the force per unit area is proportional to the
velocity decrease in the distance Y, and the constant of
proportionality, 𝜇, is the viscosity of the fluid.
• Equation (9) is valid if Y (or Y-0) is small and the velocity
profile can be assumed to be linear.
• If Y (or Y-0) is large and the velocity profile is therefore
parabolic, the differential form of the equation, (8),
should be used.
• The momentum flux, 𝜏𝑦𝑥 is same as the shear stress
exerted in the x-direction on a fluid surface of
constant 𝑦by the fluid in the region of lesser 𝑌.
• It may be seen from equation (8) that the viscous
momentum flux is in the direction of the negative
velocity gradient.
• That is, momentum tends to coast from a region of
high velocity to a region of low velocity.
• A velocity gradient can thus be thought of as a driving
force for momentum transport.
• Equation (8) applies for laminar flow in the x direction
and is known as Newton’s law of viscosity.
• Newton formulated this law in 1687! It applies directly
to a class of (common) fluids called Newtonian fluids.
• The physical property that characterizes the flow
resistance of simple fluid is the viscosity.
• Viscosity is a measure of internal, frictional resistance
to flow.
• Fluids that obey equation (8), Newton’s law of viscosity are
termed Newtonian fluids.
• All gases and most simple liquids are described by equation
(8), that is, are Newtonian fluids.
• Examples of Newtonian fluids also include: most dilute
solution of simple molecules in water or organic solvent such
as solution of inorganic salt, or sugar in water or benzene.
• Fluids that do not obey this simple law (primarily pastes,
slurries and high polymers are termed Non-Newtonian fluids.
 Example:
• Compute the steady-state momentum flux 𝜏𝑦𝑥 in
−2 𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 when the lower plate velocity 𝑉 is 1 in the
𝑠𝑐𝑒
positive x-direction, the plate separation. Y is 0.001 𝑓𝑡
and the fluid viscosity, 𝜇 is 0.7 𝑐𝑃.
• Solution:
 FLOW PHENOMENA
• There are two principal types of flow namely streamline
(laminar) and turbulent flow.
• In streamline (laminar) flow, movement across streamlines
occurs solely as the result of diffusion on a molecular scale
and the flow rate is steady.
• At low velocities fluids tend to flow without lateral mixing and
adjacent layers slide past one another as playing cards do.
• There are neither cross-current nor eddies.
• This regime is called laminar flow.
• In turbulent flow the presence of circulating currents
results in transference of fluid on a large scale, and
cyclic fluctuations occur in the flow rate.
• At high velocities turbulence appears and eddies form,
which lead to lateral mixing.
• At low flow rates the pressure drop in the fluid
increases directly with the fluid velocity; at high rates
it increases much more rapidly, roughly as the square
of the velocity.
• The distinction between the two types of flow
was first demonstrated in a classic experiment
by Osborne Reynolds, reported in 1883.
• The arrangement in the figure below is similar to
his apparatus.
• Dye from a tank can be injected into a transparent
straight tube through which water is flowing from a
reservoir.
• By maintaining a constant level in the water tank, the
velocity of outflow can be kept constant.
• At low flow rates, the dye traces a straight line path,
this is the laminar flow regime.
• By increasing the rate of flow beyond this regime, the
dye streak becomes wavy, this is the transition
regime.
• In this regime the flow is neither laminar nor
turbulent.
• On further increase, the dye streak breaks into
particles which are completely mixed with the water,
this is the turbulent regime.
• Reynolds studied the conditions under which one type of
flow changes to the other and found that the critical
velocity, at which laminar flow changes to turbulent
depends on the diameter of the tube, the viscosity,
density, and average linear velocity of the liquid.
• Reynolds used this technique to show that the
𝜌𝑢𝐷
dimensionless group is a good measure of the
𝜇
condition of the flow.
• The name Reynolds number, Re, has been given
to the group after the proponent.
• It will be noticed that the group combines ρ and
μ which are properties of the fluid with the
velocity of the fluid, u and a characteristic
dimension of the conduit, D.
• In pipe flow, D is usually taken as the diameter of
the pipe.
• Under ordinary conditions, the flow in a pipe or tube
is turbulent at Reynolds numbers above about 4,000.
Between 2,100 and 4,000 a transition region is found.
• Besides the rate of flow, the properties of the fluid
and the geometry of the conduit, the transition is
affected by fluid purity and the roughness of the
surface of the conduit.
• Additional observations have shown that the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow actually
may occur over a wide range of Reynolds numbers.
• In a pipe, flow is always laminar at Reynolds number
below 2,100 but laminar flow can persist up to
Reynolds numbers well above 24,000 by eliminating
all disturbances at the inlet.
• If the laminar flow at such high Reynolds numbers
is disturbed, however say by a fluctuation in
velocity, the flow quickly becomes turbulent.
• Disturbances under these conditions are
amplified, whereas at Reynolds numbers below
2,100 all disturbances are damped and the flow
remains laminar.
• In a laminar flow or stationary fluid in which there is a
momentum gradient, a temperature gradient or a
concentration gradient, the consequential momentum, heat
and mass transfer processes arise as a result of the random
motion of the molecules.
• A fluid in turbulent flow is characterised by the presence of
circulating or eddy currents, and these are responsible for fluid
mixing which in turn gives rise to momentum, heat or mass
transfer when there is an appropriate gradient of the
“property” in question.
 BOUNDARY LAYERS
• When a fluid is in turbulent flow over a surface, the
eddy currents tend to die out in the region very close
to the surface, giving rise to a laminar sub-layer.
• With increasing distance from the surface the effect of
the turbulence becomes progressively greater from
zero in the laminar sub–layer.
• Immediately outside the laminar sub-layer is a buffer
zone in which the molecular and eddy influence are of
comparable influence.
• At its outer edge, the eddy influence have become
much larger than the molecular influence and the
latter can be neglected – in what can now be regarded
as the fully turbulent region.
• A boundary layer is defined as that part of a moving fluid in
which the fluid motion is influenced by the presence of a
solid boundary.
• Far away from the wall, the effect of the wall disappears and
we have free stream flow.
• Therefore the flow can be divided into two regions: the
boundary layer contiguous to the wall and the free stream
far away from the wall.
• Viscosity causes loss of energy in fluid flow just as friction
causes loss of energy during the motion of one solid over
another.
• In non-viscous (inviscid) fluids, fluid friction is negligible and
therefore, the fluid particles maintain their relative
positions and move in the same direction with the same
velocity.
• In fluids with small viscosities, the effect of fluid friction is
also negligible except in the region contiguous to the
conduit wall.
• In this region, the fluid transfer properties (velocity and
temperature), vary with position from the wall, whereas at
positions far away from the wall, these properties remain
constant.
• In viscous fluid flow, the fluid particles in contact with
the wall are brought to rest as a result of the drag
action of the wall.
• The fluid velocity increases from this zero value until it
attains the value in the main stream.
• The effect of the wall is to set up a shear force in the
direction normal to the direction of flow.
• Consequently, a velocity gradient is set up in this
direction which gradually decreases until it attains
zero value.
• The region in the flowing fluid contiguous to the wall
in which velocity gradient exists is called the boundary
layer.
• The point where the velocity gradient becomes zero
and the velocity attains the same value as in the main
stream of the fluid is called the upper limit of the
boundary layer.
• The flow conditions in the boundary layer are of
considerable interest to Chemical Engineers because these
influence, not only the drag effects of the fluid on the
surface, but also the heat or mass transfer rates where a
temperature or a concentration gradient exists.
• This is so because the boundary region is where the
greater part of the resistance to transfer lies.
• High heat and mass transfer rates therefore depend on the
laminar sub-layer being thin.
TURBULENT MACROSCOPIC (CONVECTIVE)
TRANSPORT MODELS
• The preceding transport laws describe the rate of transfer of
heat, mass, or momentum from one region of a continuum to
another by virtue of molecular interactions only.
• That is, there is no actual bulk motion of material in the
transport direction (𝑦), which means that the medium must
be stationary or moving only in the direction (𝑥)normal to
the transport direction.
• This means that the flow (if any) must be ‘‘laminar’’; i.e., all
fluid elements move in straight, smooth streamlines in the x
direction.
• This occurs if the velocity is sufficiently low and is
dominated by stabilizing viscous forces.
• However, as the velocity increases, destabilizing
inertial forces eventually overcome the viscous forces
and the flow becomes turbulent.
• Under turbulent conditions, a three-dimensional
fluctuating flow field develops that results in a high
degree of mixing or ‘‘convection’’ due to the bulk
motion of the turbulent eddies.
• As a result, the flow is highly mixed, except for a region near
solid boundaries that is called the boundary layer (𝛿).
• The fluid velocity approaches zero at a stationary boundary,
and thus there is a region in the immediate vicinity of the wall
that is laminar.
• Consequently, the major resistance to transport in turbulent
(convective) flow is within this boundary layer, the size of
which depends upon the dynamic state of the flow field as well
as fluid properties.
• In turbulent flows the boundary layer is typically quite small
relative to the dimensions of the total flow area
• The general transport models for the turbulent
convective transport of heat and mass can be
expressed as follows:
∆𝑇
• Heat flux: 𝑞𝑦 = 𝑘𝑒 = ℎ∆𝑇 (10)
𝛿
∆𝐶𝐴
• Mass flus: 𝑛𝐴𝑦 = 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐾𝑚 ∆𝐶𝐴 (11)
𝛿
• where 𝑘𝑒 is a turbulent or ‘‘eddy’’ thermal
conductivity, 𝐷𝑒 is a turbulent or ‘‘eddy’’ diffusivity,
and 𝛿 is the boundary layer thickness.
• Since 𝑘𝑒 , 𝐷𝑒 , all depend on the dynamic state of flow
as well as the fluid properties, they are combined with
𝛿 into the terms ℎ, the heat transfer coefficient, and
𝐾𝑚 , the mass transfer coefficient, respectively.
• ℎ, and 𝐾𝑚 are the convective (turbulent) transport
coefficients for heat and mass.
• The situation with regard to convective (turbulent)
momentum transport is somewhat more complex
because of the tensor character of momentum flux.
• Newton’s second law provides a correspondence
between a force in the 𝑥 direction, 𝐹𝑥 , and the rate of
transport of 𝑥-momentum.
• For continuous steady flow in the 𝑥 direction at a bulk
velocity 𝑉𝑥 in a conduit of cross-sectional area 𝐴𝑥 ,
there is a transport of 𝑥 momentumin the 𝑥 direction
given by:
 𝑑(𝑚 𝑉𝑥 )
• 𝐹𝑥 = = 𝑚𝑉𝑥
𝑑𝑡
= 𝜌𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝑉𝑥
= 𝜌𝑉𝑥2 𝐴𝑥 (12)
• The corresponding flux of 𝑥-momentum in the 𝑥
𝐹𝑥
direction is = 𝜌𝑉𝑥2
𝐴𝑥
• This 𝑥-momentum is also the driving force for
convective transport of 𝑥-momentum in the 𝑦
direction (toward the wall), i.e.,
𝐹𝑥
• 𝜏𝑦𝑥 =
𝐴𝑦
• Therefore, the convective flux of x-momentum from
the fluid to the wall (or the stress exerted by the fluid
on the wall) can be expressed as:
𝑓
• Momentum flux: 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜌𝑉𝑥2 (13)
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 2
• where 𝑓 is called the Fanning friction factor (other
definitions of the friction factor are also used, which
differ by a factor of 2 or 4 from the Fanning friction
factor).
• Although Eq. (13) is the counterpart of the turbulent
flux expressions for heat and mass, the form of this
equation appears somewhat different because of the
correspondence between force and rate of momentum
and the tensor nature of the momentum flux and
stress.
• Like the heat and mass transfer coefficients, the
friction factor depends upon dynamic flow conditions
as well as upon fluid properties.
• Laminar flows are dominated by the fluid
viscosity (which is stabilizing), as shown in Eq (8).
• Whereas turbulent flows are dominated by the
fluid density (i.e., inertial forces), which is
destabilizing, as Shown in Eq. (13).
 MECHANISM OF FLUID FLOW
• Given that a processing plant is a network of pipes,
where fluid flow, and vessels, it is clearly important
to be able to size every pump and all of the pipes.
• Thus techniques to calculate the pressure drop
between the ends of each pipe are important as
well as power requirement for pumping.
• A stress is the ratio of the applied force to the area
over which it is exerted (𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎).
• There are different types of force.
• The force that tries to pull things apart is called the
tensile force and the stress tensile stress.
• The force that tends to crush is compressible force
(pressure force) and the stress is called compressive
stress or pressure.
• The force which tends to make one surface slide
parallel to adjacent surface is called a shear force
and the stress shear stress.
• Fluid are materials that obviously cannot
permanently resist a shear force, no matter how
small, when subject to a shear force, they start
to move and keep on moving as long as the force
is applied.
• Fluids may be classified according to their
behavior under the action of externally applied
pressure, or according to the effects produced
by the action of a shear stress.
• Fluid may also be classified according to the type
of flow which will simply be called ‘ordered
streamline’ (laminar flow) and ‘chaotic’
(turbulent flow).
• If the volume or density of an element of fluid is
independent of its pressure and temperature the
fluid is said to be incompressible; if its volume
changes it is said to be compressible.
• Liquid is generally regarded as incompressible fluid.
• Gases have a very much higher compressibility
than liquids and appreciable changes in volume
may occur if the pressure or temperature is
altered.
• However, if the percentage change in the
pressure or in the absolute temperature is small,
for practical purposes a gas may also be
regarded as incompressible.
• The behavior of a fluid under the action of a shear stress
is important in that it determines the way in which it will
flow.
• The most important physical property affecting the
stress distribution within the fluid is its viscosity.
• Viscosity is a measure of fluid friction and is
proportional to the force required to move a layer of
fluid over another layer.
• For a gas the viscosity is low and even at high rates
of shear, the viscous stresses are small.
• Under such condition the gas approximates in its
behavior to an inviscid (frictionless or zero-
viscous) fluid.
• In many problems involving the flow of a gas or a
liquid, the viscous stresses are important and
give rise to appreciable velocity gradients within
the fluids, and dissipation of energy occurs as a
result of the frictional forces set up.
• The instrument for measuring viscosity is called
viscometer.
• There are certain boundary conditions that are important in
engineering calculations:
• (a): At solid-fluid interfaces the fluid velocity equals the velocity
with which the surface itself is moving; that is the fluid is
assumed to cling to any solid surfaces with which it is in
contact.
• (b): At liquid-gas interfaces momentum flux (hence the velocity
gradient) in the liquid phase is very nearly zero and can be
assumed to be zero in most calculation.
• (c): At liquid-liquid interfaces the momentum flux perpendicular
to the interface, and the velocity, are continuous across the
surfaces.
 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID
• According to Newton’s law of viscosity in
𝑑𝑉𝑥
equation (8), a plot of 𝜏𝑦𝑥 versus - for a
𝑑𝑦
given fluid should give a straight line through the
origin, and the slope of this line is the viscosity
of the fluid at the given temperature and
pressure. (see figure below).
• Experiments have shown that 𝜏𝑦𝑥 is indeed proportional
to − 𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑦 for all gases and all liquids for which we
can write a simple chemical formula such as water,
benzene, ethyl alcohol, carbon tetrachloride and hexane.
• The steady-state of most non-Newtonian fluids can be
expressed by a generalized form of equation (8):
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜂
𝑑𝑦
• Where η may be expressed as a function of either
𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑦 or 𝜏𝑦𝑥 .
• η is called apparent viscosity.
𝜏𝑦𝑥 Bingham Pseudoplastic

+ 𝜏𝑜 Newtonian

Dilatant

𝑑 𝑉𝑥
Shear rate −
𝑑𝑦

− 𝜏𝑜 Figure: Summary of steady –state non -

Newtonian & Newtonian models.
• In regions in which η decreases with increasing
rate of shear 𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑦 the behavior is termed
psuedoplastic.
• This behavior is referred to as shear thinning.
• Examples are most slurries, muds, polymer
solutions, solutions of natural gums, and blood.
• In regions in which η increases with increasing rate
of shear 𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑦 the behavior is termed
dilatant.
• This behavior is referred to as shear thickening.
• Examples are starch suspension and some muds.
• If η is independent of the rate of shear, the
behavior is Newtonian, with η= μ.
•Numerous empirical equations or models
have been proposed to express the steady-
state relation between 𝜏𝑦𝑥 and 𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑦 .
•The common ones are given below:
 THE BINGHAM MODEL
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇0 ± 𝜏0 𝑖𝑓 𝜏𝑦𝑥 > 𝜏0
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣𝑥
=0 𝑖𝑓 𝜏𝑦𝑥 < 𝜏0
𝑑𝑦
• The positive sign is used when 𝜏𝑦𝑥 is positive and the
negative sign is used when 𝜏𝑦𝑥 is negative.
• A substance that follows this model is called Bingham
Plastic.
•It remains rigid when the shear stress is of
smaller magnitude than the yield stress 𝜏0
but flows somewhat like a Newtonian fluid
when the shear stress exceeds 𝜏0 .
•Examples are bread dough, toothpaste,
some paints, jellies and some slurries.
 THE OSWALD-DE-WEALE MODEL
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑣𝑥
• 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝑚
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• This is known as the power law.
• For n = 1 it reduces to Newton’s law of viscosity, with m = 𝜇
• Thus the deviation of n from unity indicates the degree of
deviation from Newtonian behavior.
• For values of n less than unity, the behavior is
pseudoplastic, whereas for n greater than unity the
behavior is dilatant.
 𝑑𝑉𝑥
• The curve of 𝜏 versus can also be a function
𝑑𝑦
of time. There are three possibilities:
• The viscosity can remain constant with time, in
which case the fluid is called time independent.
• All Newtonian fluids and most non-Newtonian
are time independent.
• The viscosity can decrease with time in which
case the fluid is called thixotropic, e.g. slurries or
solution of polymers.
• The viscosity can increase with time in which
case the fluid is called rheopectic.
• Some fluids, called viscoelastic fluids, posses
elastic properties which allow them to “spring
back” when shear force is released.
 ASSIGNMENT
• 1) Starting from Fourier’s Law, derive the equation for Steady-
State heat transfer through a solid spherical shell of inner radius
𝑟1 and outer radius 𝑟2 . Note: Area of a sphere = 4𝜋𝑟 2
• 2) A tube of 60-mm outer diameter is insulated with a 50-mm
𝑊
layer of silica foam, for which the conductivity is 0.055 ,
𝑚℃
followed with a 40-mm layer of cork with a conductivity of 0.05
𝑊
. If the temperature of the outer surface of the pipe is 150℃
𝑚℃
and the temperature of the outer surface of the cork is 30 ℃,
calculate the heat loss in watts per meter of pipe.
• 3) The rectangular roof of an electrically heated home is 6m
long, 8m wide and 0.25m thick and is made of a flat layer of
concrete whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.8W/m.oC. The
temperature of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof
one night are measured to be 150C and 40C, respectively, for a
period of 10 hours. Determine (i) the rate of heat loss through
the roof that night. (ii) the cost of that heat loss to the home
owner if the cost of electricity is N80 per KWh
• 4) The front of a rectangular slab of lead (k = 35W/m.K) is kept
at 110oC and the back is kept at 50oC. If the length of the slab
is 0.8 m and the breadth is 0.5 m and it is 0.03 m thick,
compute the heat flux, q, and the heat transfer rate Q.
• 5) A truncated cone 30cm high is constructed of aluminium. The
diameter at the top is 7.5 cm the diameter at the bottom is 12.5 cm.
The lower surface is maintained at 93℃; the upper surface, at 540 ℃.
The other surface is insulated. Assuming one-dimensional heat flow,
what is the rate of heat transfer in watts? Take K for aluminium at 310
𝑊
℃ = 230 .
𝑚℃
• 6) fluid sample is contained between two parallel plates separated by
a distance of 2 𝑚𝑚 The area of the plates is 100 𝑐𝑚2 . The bottom
plate is stationary, and the top plate moves with a velocity of 1 𝑐𝑚 𝑠
when a force of 330 dyn is applied to it and at 5 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 when the force
is 1650 dyn. (i) Is the fluid a dilatant fluid? Give reason for your
answer (ii) What is its viscosity?
• 7) A slider bearing consists of a sleeve surrounding a cylindrical
shaft that is free to move axially within the sleeve. A lubricant
(e.g., grease) is in the gap between the sleeve and the shaft to
isolate the metal surfaces and support the stress resulting from
the shaft motion. The diameter of the shaft is 1 in., and the
sleeve has an inside diameter of 1.02 in. and a length of 2 in. If
the grease becomes contaminated, it could be corrosive to the
shaft metal. Assume that this occurs and the surface of the
shaft starts to corrode at a rate of 0.1 μm/yr. If this corrosion
rate is constant, determine the maximum concentration of
metal ions in the grease when the ions from the shaft just reach
the sleeve. Properties of the shaft metal may be assumed to be
MW = 65; SG = 8.5; diffusivity of metal ions in grease
= 8.5 𝑋 10−5 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠.
8) A fluid sample is subjected to a “sliding plate” (simple shear)
test. The area of the plates is 100 cm2 and the spacing
between them is 2mm. When the moving plate travels a
speed of 0.5 cm/s, the force required to move it is measured
to be 150 dyn, and at a speed of 3cm/s the force is 1100 dyn.
a) What can you deduce about the viscous properties of the
sample? b) What type of fluid is it?
 CONSERVATION PRINCIPLE
• The conservation law for a flow problem with respect to
any conserved quantity, R, can be written as follows:
• Rate of R – Rate of R = Rate of accumulation
into the out of the of R within the
System system system
• It is assumed that chemical or nuclear reaction is not
taking place, hence, there is no consumption or
generation of R.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
• The continuity equation is a mathematical statement
of the law of conservation of mass which states that
the mass of a system is constant.
• For conservation of mass the rate of mass inflow from
the control volume minus the rate of mass outflow
from the control volume must be equal to the rate of
increase of mass within the control volume as:
 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓
• 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 - 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑁 𝑂𝑈𝑇
• Consider a one dimensional steady flow of an
incompressible fluid through a stream tube as
represented in the figure below.
• The cross sectional area is not uniform along the
length of the tube.
 2
1 V2

dA2
V1
dA1
2

1
• The density and the average velocity are 𝜌1 and 𝑣1 for
the inlet section and 𝜌2 and 𝑣2 for the exit section.
• Consequently, the corresponding mass flow rates are
𝜌1 𝑣1 𝑑𝐴1 and 𝜌2 𝑣2 𝑑𝐴2 .
𝑑𝑚
• Let be the rate of increase of mass of the system
𝑑𝑡
due to net inflow.
• If 𝑑𝐴1 and 𝑑𝐴2 are the flow area at section 1 and 2
respectively.
• Now, we apply the principle of mass conservation
(mass balance) thus:

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓

• 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 - 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑁 𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑑𝑚 𝑑(𝜌𝑉)
•∴ = = 𝜌1 𝑣1 𝑑𝐴1 - 𝜌2 𝑣2 𝑑𝐴2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Where 𝑉 is the volume
 𝑑𝑚
• For steady state flow, =0
𝑑𝑡
• Integrating the mass flow rate across each section gives:

• 𝐴
𝜌1 𝑣1 𝑑𝐴1 = 𝐴
𝜌2 𝑣2 𝑑𝐴2
• Density 𝜌 and average velocity 𝑣 is constant over each
section (1) and (2), thus the integration gives:
𝝆𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝑨𝟐
• This is continuity equation for steady flow.
• For an incompressible fluid, the density 𝜌 is constant,
(𝜌1 = 𝜌2 ) and the equation reduces to:
𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2
• Equation Above simply states that the volumetric flow
rate or discharge, Q, is constant from section to
section as long as the same flow goes through all the
sections.
• It can be deduced from the equation that the flow
velocity is inversely proportional to the flow area.
• Therefore, when the flow area increases, the velocity
decreases and vice versa.
• For a flow with many flow ports, the sum of the flows
through the inlet must be equal to the sum of the
flows through the exit ports.
• If there are m inlet ports and n exit ports, then
𝑚 𝑛

𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑗
𝑖 𝑗
• In certain problems, the mass flow rate per unit area
(mass flux), 𝐺, is the important quantity.
𝑚
•𝐺 = = 𝜌𝑣
𝐴
Example
• Water is flowing at a velocity of 7 ft/s in both 1 in. and
2 in. ID pipes, which are joined together and feed into
a 3 in. ID pipe. Determine the water velocity in the 3
in. pipe.
• SOLUTION
• Figure:
For steady flow, Mass flowrate IN = Mass flowrate OUT
Thus
𝜌𝐴𝑣 1 + 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3
• For incompressible flow; constant density, 𝑣3 can be
solved for as:
𝐴1 𝐴2
• 𝑣3 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣1
𝐴3 𝐴3
𝐷2
•𝐴 = 𝜋
4
• In this example 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 7 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
1 1
• ∴ 𝑣3 = 7 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 +
9 4
• 𝑣3 = 3.89𝑓𝑡/𝑠
 ASSIGNMENT
• 1) Water flows through a divergent conduit at the rate of 1000
𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛. Determine the velocities at the ports if their diameter are
100mm and 150mm respectively.
• 2) A constant level tank is fed at the rate of 6,000 litres per
minute from the top. There are three pipes situated 6 meters
from the top of the tank. If the diameters of the pipes are in the
ratio 1:2:3, determine the flow rate in each pipe. The velocity of
water through an opening at depth ℎ from the top of a reservoir
is given by 𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ
• 3) A water tank is to be emptied using a 100mm pipe installed at
its base. The initial height of water in the tank is 0.63m and its
diameter is 2m. (i) Starting from the mass conservation law, show
that the unsteady state, mass balance (continuity equation) for
𝑑ℎ
the incompressible flow, in the tank is given by: −𝐴𝑝 𝑣𝑝 = 𝐴𝑡
𝑑𝑡
• where 𝒉=height of water in tank,
• 𝑣𝑝 = Velocity in pipe,
• 𝐴𝑝 , 𝐴𝑡 = cross sectional area in the pipe and tank respectively &
t=time. Hence or otherwise (ii) Calculate the emptying time if the
velocity in the pipe is given by 𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ
• 4) Water flows into a reservoir at 2000 litres/min. The
depth in the reservoir is to be kept constant by
installing some discharge pipes at the base. If the
diameter of the pipes is 25mm and they are installed
1m below the surface of the water in the reservoir,
calculate the number of pipes needed.
ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS AND THE BERNOULLI
EQUATION
• The total energy of a fluid in motion consists of the
following components: internal, potential, pressure
and kinetic energies.
• Each of these energies may be considered with
reference to an arbitrary base level.
• It is also convenient to make calculations on unit mass
of fluid.
 INTERNAL ENERGY
• This is the energy associated with the physical state of
the fluid, ie, the energy of the atoms and molecules
resulting from their motion and configuration.
• Internal energy is a function of temperature.
• The internal energy per unit mass of fluid is denoted
by U.
 POTENTIAL ENERGY
• This is the energy that a fluid has by virtue of its
position in the Earth’s field of gravity.
• The work required to raise a unit mass of fluid to a
height z above an arbitrarily chosen datum is zg,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
• This work is equal to the potential energy of unit mass
of fluid above the datum.
 PRESSURE ENERGY
• This is the energy or work required to introduce the fluid
into the system without a change of volume.
• If P is the pressure and V is the volume of mass m of
fluid, then 𝑃𝑉 𝑚 is the pressure energy per unit mass of
fluid.
• Thus the pressure energy per unit mass of fluid is equal
to P/p.
• KINETIC ENERGY
• This is the energy of fluid motion.
𝟐
• The kinetic energy of unit mass of the fluid is 𝒗 𝟐, where
𝒗 is the velocity of the fluid relative to some fixed body.
• TOTAL ENERGY
• Summing these components, the total energy E per unit
mass of fluid is given by the equation:
𝑃 𝑣2
𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑧𝑔 + +
𝜌 2
• Each term of the total energy has the dimensions of
force times distance per unit mass, ie 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 .
• Apart from the energy of the flowing fluid, energy
may also cross the boundary of the system in the
following ways:
Thermal energy may cross the boundary of the
flowing. Let 𝒒 represent heat transfer to the fluid per
unit mass of fluid.
Mechanical energy (shaft work) may be added to the
fluid, for example through pump.
• Let 𝑾𝒊 represent the work input per unit mass of fluid.
Work may also be extracted from the fluid, for
example, to overcome viscous frictional forces or for
turbine work.
• Let 𝑾𝒐 represent the work output per unit mass of
fluid.
• Consider fluid flowing from point 1 to point 2.
• Assuming the conditions to be steady, so that there is
no accumulation of energy within the fluid between
points 1 and 2.
• An energy balance can be written per unit mass of
fluid as:
𝐸1 + 𝑞 + 𝑊𝑖 = 𝐸2 + 𝑊𝑜
rearranging
𝐸2 = 𝐸1 + 𝑞 + 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑜
• If the fluid has a constant density or behaves as an
ideal gas, then the internal energy remains constant if
the temperature is constant.
• If no heat transfer to the fluid takes place, 𝒒 = 𝟎.
• For these conditions, the equation becomes:
2 2
𝑃2 𝑣2 𝑃1 𝑣1
𝑧2 𝑔 + + = 𝑧1 𝑔 + + + 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑜
𝜌2 2 𝜌1 2
• In a case where there is no work input, such as pump, and
there is no work output, that is, the flow is frictionless (an
inviscid fluid), then the equation becomes:
𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃1 𝑣12
𝑧2 𝑔 + + = 𝑧1 𝑔 + +
𝜌2 2 𝜌1 2
This may be divided throughout by g to have:
𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃1 𝑣12
𝑧2 + + = 𝑧1 + +
𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔
This equation is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
• If there exist work input and work output, then the
equation is written as:
2 2
𝑃2 𝑣2 𝑃1 𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑜𝑣1
𝑧2 + + = 𝑧1 + + + −
𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
• In this form, each term is energy per weight and has the
dimensions of length.
• The terms 𝑧, 𝑃/(𝑝𝑔) and 𝑣 2 /(2𝑔) are known as the
potential, pressure and velocity heads, respectively.
• If the work input is that due to pump alone, and the
work output is just the energy dissipated by friction,
then the equation may be written in terms of head as:
𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃1 𝑣12
𝑧2 + + = 𝑧1 + + + ℎ𝑝 − ℎ𝑓
𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔
• Where ℎ𝑝 is the head imparted to the fluid by the pump
and ℎ𝑓 is the head loss due to friction.
• The term ℎ𝑝 is known as the total head of the pump.
• Bernoulli equation represents a mechanical energy
balance, although mechanical energy is not a conserved
quantity.
• Bernoulli equation is the form of the energy balance that
is most convenient when mechanical energy dominates
and thermal effects are minor.
• The various forms of the energy balance are often called
Bernoulli’s equation.
• Some people reserve the name, Bernoulli equation,
for the case where the right hand side is zero, ie when
there is no friction and no pump.
• The forms of the equation including the work terms is
thus called the ‘extended’ or ‘engineering’ Bernoulli
equation.
• The frictional head loss, ℎ𝑓 , represents the conversion
of mechanical energy into internal energy.
• Bernoulli’s equation is based on the principle of
conservation of energy
• In the form in which the work terms are zero, it states
that the total mechanical energy remains constant
along a streamline.
• Fluids flowing along different streamlines have
different total energies.
• For laminar flow in a horizontal pipe, for an element of
fluid flowing in the centre of the pipe, their kinetic
energies are significantly different because the velocity
near the wall is much lower than that at the centre.
• To enable Bernoulli’s equation to be used for the fluid
flowing through the whole cross section of a pipe or
duct, the equation can be modified as follows:
𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃1 𝑣12
• 𝑧2 + + = 𝑧1 + + + ℎ𝑝 − ℎ𝑓
𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔𝛼 𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔𝛼
• where 𝒗 is the volumetric average velocity
• 𝛼 is a dimensionless correction factor, which accounts for
the velocity distribution across the pipe or duct.
• For the relatively flat velocity profile that is found in
turbulent flow, 𝛼 has a value of approximately unity.
• It can be shown that 𝛼 has a value of 0.5 for laminar flow
of a Newtonian fluid in a pipe of circular section.
• Frictional losses occur as the fluid flows through the
plain pipe, pipe fittings (bends, valves), and at
expansions and contractions such as into and out of
vessels.
• Considering a general case of an incompressible flow
through gravity in a pipe having a change of diameter.
• In this case the fluid’s velocity and velocity head will
change.
• Thus, the equation may be re-arranged in terms of the
pressure drop, 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 , experienced by the fluid in
flowing from location 1 to location , given by:
2 2
𝜌 𝑣2− 𝑣1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑝
2𝛼
This may as well be written in terms of the head by dividing
the equation by 𝜌𝑔 as:
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑣22 − 𝑣12
− = 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + + ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑝
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔𝛼
• In some cases, one or more of the terms on the right
hand side of the equation will be zero, or may be
negative.
• For downward flow the hydrostatic pressure increases
in the direction of flow.
• For decelerating flow the loss of kinetic energy
produces an increase in pressure (pressure recovery).
 𝑃1 𝑃2
• Denoting the total pressure head drop − by
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
∆𝑃 𝑡 , the equation can be written as:
∆𝑃 𝑡 = ∆𝑃𝑠 + ∆𝑃𝑎 + ∆𝑃𝑓 + ∆𝑃𝑝
Where ∆𝑃𝑠 , ∆𝑃𝑎 , ∆𝑃𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑃𝑝 are respectively, static
head, accelerative head, frictional head and pump head
of the components of the total pressure drop given in
the equation.
EXAMPLE
• Water issues from the nozzle of a horizontal hose-
pipe. The hose has an internal diameter of
60 𝑚𝑚 and the nozzle tapers to an exit diameter of
20 𝑚𝑚 . If the gauge pressure at the connection
between the nozzle and the pipe is 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎. what is
3
the flow rate? The density of water is 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 .
SOLUTION
• The pressure is given at the connection of the nozzle
to the pipe so this will be taken as location 1.
• The pressure in the jet at the exit from the nozzle will
be very nearly the same as the atmospheric pressure
so the exit plane can be taken as location 2.
• Friction is negligible in a short tapering nozzle. The
nozzle is horizontal so 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 and for turbulent flow
𝛼 = 1.0.
• With these simplifications and the fact that there is no pump
in the section, Bernoulli's equation reduces to:
𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃1 𝑣12
+ = +
𝜌2 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌1 𝑔 2𝑔
• Thus,
𝑣22 − 𝑣12 = 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝜌
• The fluid pressure 𝑃2 at the exit plane is the atmospheric
pressure, ie zero gauge pressure. Therefore
2 2 5 3
• 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 2 2 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
= 400 𝑚2 𝑠 2
• By continuity,
• 𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2
• For a circular pipe, A is 𝜋𝑑 2 4. Thus,
• 𝑣1 𝑑12 = 𝑣2 𝑑22
𝑑1 2
• ∴ 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
𝑑2
= 9𝑣1
Thus,
• 80 𝑣12 = 400 𝑚2 𝑠 2
Hence,
• 𝑣1 = 2.236 𝑚 𝑠
• ∴ 𝑣2 = 20.12 𝑚 𝑠
At steady incompressible flow,
• 𝑄 = 𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2
• ∴ = 2.236 𝑚 𝑠 𝜋 6 𝑋 10−2 𝑚 2
4
• 6.32 𝑥 10−3 𝑚3 𝑠
 ASSIGNMENT
• 1) A pump draws a solution of specific gravity 1.75
from a tank of large area through a 0.075m pipe.
Velocity in the suction line is 0.855m/s. The pump
discharges through a 0.0600m pipe to an overhead
tank. The discharge line is 17.20 metres above
solution level in the tank. Friction losses in the line are
3.05 metres. What pressure must the pump develop?
What is the power required by the pump.
 MOMENTUM EQUATION AND FLOW IN PIPES
• Momentum is a conserved quantity and its balance implies
that:
• Rate of – Rate of = Rate of change
momentum momentum of momentum (1)
into the System out of the system within the system
• Force is defined as rate of change of momentum.
• Momentum balance can therefore be seen as force balance
• For a steady state flow, rate of change of momentum
term is zero.
• The summation of the total force contribution in a
steady state flow is therefore zero.
• The forces that exists within a flowing fluid at any
point may arise from various sources.
• These include:
Gravity or the “weight” of the fluid.
The internal resistance to relative motion between
fluid elements ( friction).
Inertial effects resulting from variation in local
velocity and the mass of fluid.
External driving force such as pump or compressor.
• The flow of fluids in circular tubes or pipes is
encountered frequently in engineering.
• The laminar flow of fluids in circular tubes may be
analyzed by means of shell momentum balance.
• For the circular tube, the use of cylindrical coordinates
is employed, which are natural co-ordinates for
describing positions in a pipe of circular section.
• consider the steady-state, laminar flow of a fluid of
constant density 𝜌 and viscosity 𝜇 in a vertical tube
length of 𝐿 and radius 𝑅.
• The liquid flows downward under the influence of a
pressure difference and gravity.
• The tube length is specified to be very large with
respect to the tube radius so that end effects can be
ignored.
• We select our system a cylindrical shell of thickness
∆𝑟 and length 𝐿 and we begin by listing the various
contributions to the Z-momentum balance.
• Momentum in and out by flow (convective velocity
terms) are neglected since we are considering steady
state flow.
• That is, the velocity along Z, Vz is constant, thus the
terms eventually cancel out.
 Momentum
in by flow Pressure 𝑃1

R Tube wall

L Momentum flow in
Shell
and out by the
of viscous transfer
thickn
es ∆𝑟

Z
r Figure: cylindrical shell of fluid
Momentum Pressure 𝑃2 over Z-momentum balance
out by flow
• Rate of Z-momentum IN across cylindrical surface at 𝑟
(by molecular transport) 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟 (2)
• Rate of Z-momentum OUT across cylindrical surface at
r + ∆𝑟 (by molecular transport) 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟+∆𝑟 (3)
• Pressure force acting on annular surface at Z = 𝑍1
2𝜋𝑟∆𝑟 𝑃1 (4)
• Pressure force acting on annular surface at Z = 𝑍2
- 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑟 𝑃2 (5)
• Gravity force acting on fluid 2𝜋𝑟𝐿∆𝑟 𝜌𝑔 (6)
• We now add up the contributions to the momentum balance:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓
• 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 + =0
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐼𝑁 𝑂𝑈𝑇
• Here the forces acting on system are pressure forces (acting on
surface) and gravity force (acting on the volume as a whole).
• As liquid flows there is also frictional force acting against its
flow.

2𝜋𝑟∆𝑟 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝐿∆𝑟 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟 −

2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟+∆𝑟 = 0 (9)
• Divide the equation by 2𝜋∆𝑟𝐿 and take limit as ∆𝑟 → 0 to
obtain:
• (Note: we do not divide by 𝑟 because |𝑟 ≠ |𝑟+∆𝑟 hence is not a
common (constant) throughout.
𝑟 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟 −𝑟 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟+∆𝑟 𝑃1 −𝑃2
• lim = + 𝜌𝑔 𝑟 (10)
∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟 𝐿
• But 𝐿 = 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 , the difference between the heights of the
cylindrical tube relative to the axis.
• Substitute this into the equation to obtain:
𝑟 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟 −𝑟 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟+∆𝑟 𝑃1 −𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍1 −𝜌𝑔𝑍2
• lim = 𝑟 (11)
∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟 𝑍1 −𝑍2
• The expression on the left hand side is the definition of first
derivative, and rearranging the right hand side give:
𝑑 𝑃1 +𝜌𝑔𝑍1 − 𝑃2 +𝜌𝑔𝑍2
• 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟 (12)
𝑑𝑟 𝑍1 −𝑍2
• let ∅ = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍 (13)
• The quantity represents ∅ the combined effect of static pressure
and gravitational force.
• Thus,
𝑑 ∅1 −∅2
• 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟 (14)
𝑑𝑟 𝐿
• Note that ∅1 − ∅2 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑍1 − 𝑍2
• = ∆𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔∆𝑍 (15)
• Integration of the equation gives
∅1 −∅2 𝑐1
• 𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟+ (16)
2𝐿 𝑟
• The constant 𝑐1 must be zero if momentum flux is not
to be infinite at 𝑟 = 0.
• Hence the momentum flux distribution is:
∅1 −∅2
• 𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟 (17)
2𝐿
• This is a linear momentum flux distribution.
 𝑑𝑉𝑍
• For Newtonian fluid, substitute Newton’s law of viscosity, 𝜏𝑟𝑧 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑟
hence the equation becomes:
𝑑𝑉𝑍 ∅1 −∅2
• =− 𝑟 (18)
𝑑𝑟 2𝜇𝐿

• Integration gives:
∅1 −∅2
• 𝑉𝑍 = − 𝑟 2 + 𝑐2 (19)
4𝜇𝐿

• Using boundary condition, 𝑉𝑍 = 0 at 𝑟 = 𝑅, the constant 𝑐2 has the

value
∅1 −∅2
• 𝑐2 = 𝑅2 (20)
4𝜇𝐿
• Hence the velocity distribution implies:

∅1 −∅2 2 𝑟 2
•𝑉𝑍 = 𝑅 1− (21)
4𝜇𝐿 𝑅

• This result tells us that the velocity distribution for

laminar, incompressible flow in a tube is parabolic.

• Once the velocity profile has been established, various

derived quantities are easily calculated:
• i) The maximum velocity, 𝑉𝑧,𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs a t 𝑟 = 0 and has the
value:
∅1 −∅2
• 𝑉𝑧,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅2 (22)
4𝜇𝐿

• ii) Volume flow rate, Q can be deduced by considering the

flow through an annulus of radius r and thickness dr.
• Volume flow rate is cross sectional area multiply by velocity.
• 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑉𝑧 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 (23)
𝑅
• ∴ 𝑄 = 2𝜋 0
𝑟 . 𝑉𝑍 . 𝑑𝑟 (24)
• Substituting 𝑉𝑍
∅1 − ∅2 𝑅 𝑟3
• 𝑄 = 2𝜋 . 𝑅2 𝑟− . 𝑑𝑟
4𝜇𝐿 0 𝑅2

∅1 − ∅2 2 𝑅4
2 𝑅
• 𝑄 = 2𝜋 .𝑅 −
4𝜇𝐿 2 4𝑅 2
∅1 − ∅2 4
•∴ 𝑄 = 𝜋 . 𝑅 or (25)
8𝜇𝐿
∅1 − ∅2 4
•∴ 𝑄 = 𝜋 .𝐷 (26)
128𝜇𝐿
• Equation for 𝑄 above is called the Hagen-Poiseuille law.
• It gives the relationship between the volume rate of flow and the
forces causing the flow- the forces associated with the pressure
drop and the gravitational acceleration.
• iii) Average velocity 𝑉𝑍 is calculated dividing the
volume flow rate, 𝑄 by the cross sectional area, 𝐴.
∅1 − ∅2
𝜋 .𝑅 4
8𝜇𝐿
• 𝑉𝑍 = 𝑅 (27)
0
2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
∅1 − ∅2
𝜋 .𝑅 4
8𝜇𝐿
• ∴ 𝑉𝑍 =
𝜋𝑅 2

• Thus,
∅1 − ∅ 2
• 𝑉𝑍 = . 𝑅2 (28)
8𝜇𝐿
• Comparing the expression for maximum velocity,
𝑉𝑧,𝑚𝑎𝑥 and average velocity, 𝑉𝑍 , shows that:
1
• 𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝑧,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (29)
2
• iv) The mass rate of flow, 𝑚 is the product of the
volume flow rate, 𝑄 and the density, 𝜌, i. e, 𝑚 = 𝑄. 𝜌.
• Thus,
∅1 − ∅ 2
•𝑚 = 𝜋 𝑅4 . 𝜌 (30)
8𝜇𝐿
• v) The 𝑧-component of the force of the fluid on the
wetted surface of the pipe 𝐹𝑍 is just the momentum
flux integrated over the wetted area.
• 𝐹𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐿 . 𝜏𝑤 (31)
• Where 𝜏𝑤 is the momentum flux or shear stress at the
wall, that is shear stress exerted by the fluid on the
wall.
• 𝜏𝑤 represents resistance to flow per unit area of pipe
surface.
• Thus, for a circular tube,
• 𝐹𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐿 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟=𝑅 (32)
• For Newtonian fluid, at the wall, when r = R, 𝜏𝑤 from
Equation (17) becomes:
∅1 −∅2
• 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟=𝑅 = 𝑅 (33)
2𝐿
• Thus, from Equation (32)
• ∴ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝜋𝑅2 ∅1 − ∅2 (34)
• ∴ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝜋𝑅2 ∆𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔∆𝑍 (35)
 EXAMPLE
• Glycerine at 26.5 0C is flowing through a horizontal
tube 1 ft long and 0.1in inside diameter. For a
pressure drop of 40 psi, the flow rate is 0.00398
ft3/min. The density of glycerine at 26.5 0C is 1.261
g/cm3. From the flow data
• i) Find the viscosity of glycerine in centipoises
• ii) What flow regime is the glycerine flow.
Solution:
∅1 − ∅2
•𝑄 = 𝜋 . 𝑅4
8𝜇𝐿

• ∅ = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )+𝜌𝑔(𝑍1 − 𝑍2 )
•∴ 𝑄 = 𝜋 . 𝑅4
8𝜇𝐿
• 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑍 =
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑,
• 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒,
• 𝜇 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
• For horizontal tube 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 , and the equation becomes:
𝜋∙∆𝑃∙𝑅 4
• 𝑄=
8𝜇𝐿
𝜋∙∆𝑃∙𝑅 4
• ∴𝜇=
8𝑄𝐿
• In cgs,
• 𝐿 = 1 𝑓𝑡 = 30.48 𝑐𝑚
𝐷 0.1 𝑖𝑛
•𝑅= = = 0.05 2.54 𝑐𝑚
2 2
= 0.127 𝑐𝑚
𝑄 = 0.00398 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 0.00398 ∙ 30.48 𝑐𝑚 3 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 1.88 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• ∆𝑃 = 40 𝑝𝑠𝑖
But 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 14.696 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 101325 𝑁 𝑚2
= 101325 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 𝑚2
1 101325 𝑘𝑔.𝑚.𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 𝑚2
• ∴ 1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚 =
14.696 14.696
101325
• = 103 𝑔 ∙ 102 𝑐𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 102 𝑐𝑚 2
14.696
= 68947.3 𝑔. 𝑐𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 𝑐𝑚2
∴ ∆𝑃 = 40 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 40 𝑥 68947.3 𝑑𝑦𝑛 𝑐𝑚2
6 2
= 2.758 𝑥 10 𝑑𝑦𝑛 𝑐𝑚
6 2
𝑜𝑟 2.758 𝑥 10 𝑔 𝑐𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 𝜋 2.758 𝑥 106 𝑔.𝑐𝑚.𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 ∙ 0.127 𝑐𝑚 4
• Thus, 𝜇 =
8 1.88 𝑐𝑚3 ∙𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ∙ 30.48 𝑐𝑚
−1
= 4.92 𝑔. 𝑐𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• 𝑔. 𝑐𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 = 1𝑃 = 1 𝑥 102 𝑐𝑃
2
• ∴ 𝜇 = 4.92 𝑥 10 𝑐𝑃
= 492 𝑐𝑃
• 𝑔. 𝑐𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 = 1𝑃 = 1 𝑥 102 𝑐𝑃
• ∴ 𝜇 = 4.92 𝑥 102 𝑐𝑃
• = 492 𝑐𝑃
• To obtain flow regime, Reynolds number, Re, is used:
𝜌𝑢𝐷
• 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
𝑄 𝑄 4𝑄
• But 𝑢 = = =
𝐴 𝜋𝐷2 4 𝜋𝐷2
𝜌.4𝑄.𝐷 4𝜌𝑄
• ∴ 𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇.𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷𝜇

• 𝐷 = 2𝑅 = 2 𝑥 0.127 𝑐𝑚 = 0.254 𝑐𝑚
 4 1.261 g/𝑐𝑚3 1.88 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• ∴ 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜋 0.254 𝑐𝑚 4.92 𝑔.𝑐𝑚.𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1

• = 2.415 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
• ∴ 𝑅𝑒 = 2.42
• Since 𝑅𝑒 = 2.42 < 2100, then the flow regime is
laminar.
 SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION
• Shear stress distribution, 𝜏𝑟𝑧 , may also be obtained in
terms of the shear stress at the wall, 𝜏𝑤 , by dividing
𝜏𝑟𝑧 in Equation (17) by 𝜏𝑤 to obtain:
∅1 −∅2
𝜏𝑟𝑧 𝑟 𝑟
• = 2𝐿
∅1 −∅2 =
𝜏𝑤 𝑅 𝑅
2𝐿

• This implies that:

𝑟
• 𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝜏𝑤 (36)
𝑅
 PRESSURE DROP IN LAMINAR FLOW OF
NEWTONIAN FLUID
• From the expression for average velocity in Newtonian
laminar flow, Equation (28), 𝑉𝑍 may also be written as:
∅1 − ∅2
• 𝑉𝑍 = . 𝐷2 (37)
32𝜇𝐿
𝑃1 +𝜌𝑔𝑍1 − 𝑃2 +𝜌𝑔𝑍2 .𝐷2
=
32𝜇𝐿
 Equation (37) may be written as
32𝜇𝐿𝑉𝑍
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = (38)
𝐷2
𝑃1 𝑃2 32𝜇𝐿𝑉𝑍
+ 𝑍1 − + 𝑍2 = (39)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
• Equation (38) can be written similar to Bernoulli
equation as:
𝑃1 𝑃2 32𝜇𝐿𝑉𝑍
• + 𝑍1 = + 𝑍2 + or (40)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
𝑃1 𝑃2 32𝜇𝐿𝑉𝑍
• − = 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + (41)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐷2
• Comparing Equation (41) with the engineering
Bernoulli equation given as:
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑣22 −𝑣12
• − = 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + + ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑝
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔𝛼

• Because the diameter of the conduit is the same at

Points 1 and 2, then from continuity equation, 𝑣1 =
𝑣2 and the kinetic term thus cancels out.
• Also, there is no pump between Points 1 and 2 hence
the pump head, ℎ𝑝 also cancels out.
• This then implies that:
32𝜇𝐿𝑣𝑧
• ℎ𝑓 = (42)
𝜌𝑔𝐷2
• This shows that in laminar flow of Newtonian fluid,
the head loss, ℎ𝑓 is proportional to the velocity, 𝑣𝑧 .
• Thus, frictional head drop, ∆𝑃𝑓 implies:
• ∆𝑃𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 . (43)
• Thus, ℎ𝑓 is the head loss for a steady laminar flow of
Newtonian fluid through a circular tube or pipe with
uniform diameter.
• ℎ𝑓 may be written as:
32 𝐿𝑣𝑧2
• ℎ𝑓 = = ∆𝑃𝑓 (44)
𝑅𝑒 𝑔𝐷
 ASSIGNMENT
• 1) An oil with density, ρ = 900 kg/m3 and kinematic
viscosity,ν = 0.0002 m2/s flows upward through a pipe
of 6 cm diameter, inclined at an angle of 40o to the
horizontal. The pressure at the lower section 1 and
upper section 2 which are 10 m apart are 350 KPa and
250 KPa respectively. Assuming steady laminar flow,
compute: (i) The volumetric flow rate, Q (ii) The
Reynolds number Re (iii) Is the flow really laminar?
Give reason for your answer.
• 2) A fluid of constant density flows at the rate of 15
litres/sec along a pipe AB of 100mm diameter. This
pipe branches at B into two pipes BC and BD each of
25mm diameter and a third pipe BE of 50mm
diameter. The flow rates are such that the flow
through BC is three times the flow rate through BE
and the velocity through BD is 4m/s. Find the flow
rates in the three branches BC, BD and BE and the
velocities in pipes AB, BC and BE.
• 3) A piece of circular pipe, length 10m and diameter
0.67m, connects an elevated water tank to a ground
reservoir. The slope of the pipe is 450. If pressure drop
is not to exceed 2.5 KN/m2, what flow rate can the
arrangement support?
• 4) A Newtonian fluid with SG = 0.8 is forced through a
capillary tube at a rate of 5 cm3/min. The tube has a
downward slope of 300 to the horizontal and the pressure
drop is measured between two taps located 40 cm apart on
the tube using a mercury manometer which reads 3cm.
When water is forced through the tube at a rate of 10
cm3/min, the manometer reading is 2cm. Take density of
water to be 1g/cm3 and its viscosity to be 1 cP. (a) What is
the viscosity of the unknown Newtonian fluid. (b) What is
the Reynolds number of the flow for each fluid.
• 5) Glycerine at 26.5 0C is flowing through a horizontal
tube 1 ft long and 0.1in inside diameter. For a
pressure drop of 40 psi, the flow rate is 0.00398
ft3/min. The density of glycerine at 26.5 0C is 1.261
g/cm3. From the flow data i) Find the viscosity of
glycerine in centipoises ii) What flow regime is the
glycerine flow.
• 6) A jet of water is discharged through a nozzle with
an effective diameter of 75mm and a velocity of 22.5
𝑚/𝑠. Calculate the power of issuing jet. If the nozzle is
supplied from a reservoir which is 30m above it, what
is the loss of head in the pipeline and nozzle and the
efficiency of power transmission.
 FRICTION
• 𝜏𝑤 , the shear stress at the wall, may be defined as the
work required to overcome the frictional resistance to
flow in the conduit.
• From Equation (33)
∅1 −∅2
• 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜏𝑟𝑧 |𝑟=𝑅 = 𝑅
2𝐿
• Substitute ∅1 − ∅2 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 from
𝐷
Eqn. (13) and 𝑅 = .
2
• Thus,
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝜌𝑔𝐷
• 𝜏𝑤 = − + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 (45)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 4𝐿
• This implies that:
𝑃1 𝑃2 4𝐿𝜏𝑤
• − = 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + (46)
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐷
• Compare this with the Bernoulli’s equation for uniform
cross section between Point 1 and 2, i.e 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 , and
where there is no pump work:
𝑃1 𝑃2
• − = 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
• Hence, the pressure drop due to frictional head loss is:
4𝜏𝑤𝐿
• ℎ𝑓 = = ∆𝑃𝑓 (47)
𝜌𝑔𝐷
• Thus, 𝜏𝑤 , may be written as:
𝜌𝑔𝐷 𝜌𝑔𝐷
• 𝜏𝑤 = ∆𝑃𝑓 or 𝜏𝑤 = ℎ𝑓 (48)
4𝐿 4𝐿
• For laminar flow of Newtonian fluid, from Eqn. (44),
ℎ𝑓 or ∆𝑃𝑓 is given by:
𝟑𝟐 𝑳𝒗𝟐𝒛
• 𝒉𝒇 = = ∆𝑷𝒇 (49)
𝑹𝒆 𝒈𝑫
• The pressure drop, due to friction, ∆𝑃, over a length 𝐿
of pipe of diameter 𝐷 and surface roughness, 𝜖, can
be expressed in functional terms as:
• ∆𝑃 = 𝑓1 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝑣, 𝜇, 𝐿, 𝜖 (50)
• By dimensional analysis, the equation may be
expressed as:
∆𝑃 𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜖 𝐿
• 2 = 𝑓2 , , (51)
𝜌𝑣 𝜇 𝐷 𝐷
This equation can also be written as follows:
∆𝑃 𝐿 𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜖
= 𝑓3 , (52)
𝜌𝑣 2 𝐷 𝜇 𝐷

• But ∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑃𝑓
𝐿
• = 4𝜏𝑤 from Equation (47)
𝐷
• This implies that
4𝜏𝑤 𝐿 𝐿 𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜖
• 2 = 𝑓3 ,
𝜌𝑣 𝐷 𝐷 𝜇 𝐷
• Thus,
4𝜏𝑤 𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜖
• 2 = 𝑓3 , (53)
𝜌𝑣 𝜇 𝐷
• If the basic friction factor, 𝜑, is defined as
𝜏𝑤
•𝜑 = (54)
𝜌𝑣 2
• Then,
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜖
•𝜑 = 𝑓4 , (55)
𝜇 𝐷
VALUES OF ABSOLUTE ROUGHNESS 𝜖
• Friction factor is thus a function of Reynolds number,
𝜖
𝑅𝑒 and relative roughness, .
𝐷
• Equation (54) implies that
2
• 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜑. 𝜌𝑣 (56)
• Substituting 𝜏𝑤 into Equation (47) implies:
4𝜏𝑤𝐿 𝐿 𝑣2 𝐿 𝑣2
• ℎ𝑓 = = 4𝜑 = 8𝜑 (57)
𝜌𝑔𝐷 𝐷 𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
• Fanning defined the friction factor as:
𝜏𝑤
•𝑓 = 1 (58)
𝜌𝑣 2
2

• Fanning expression gives the friction factor as the

ratio of the shear stress at the wall to kinetic energy
per unit volume.
• Moody defines friction factor as a form of Equation
(53) as:
′ 4𝜏𝑤
•𝑓 = 1 (59)
𝜌𝑣 2
2
• With the friction factors used by Moody and Fanning, 𝑓 ′
and 𝑓 respectively, the head loss due to friction is obtained
from the following equations:
𝐿 𝑣 2
• Moody: ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓′ (60)
𝐷 2𝑔
• Equation (60) is also called Darcy-Weisbach equation.
𝐿 𝑣2
• Fanning: ℎ𝑓 = 4𝑓 (61)
𝐷 2𝑔
• Thus,
𝑓 𝑓′
•𝜑 = = or 8𝜑 = 4𝑓 = 𝑓 ′ (62)
2 8
• From Equation (60) –(62), it may be seen that friction factor may also
be defined as the head loss due to friction per unit kinetic head of the
flow per unit length-diameter ratio.
• That is:
ℎ𝑓
• 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑣2 𝐿
(63)
𝐾
2𝑔 𝐷

• Where 𝐾 is a constant that depends on the type of friction factor.

• For basic friction factor, K = 8
• For Fanning friction factor, K = 4
• For Moody friction factor, K = 1
• For laminar flow of Newtonian fluid, from Eqn. (44) or
𝟑𝟐 𝑳𝒗𝟐𝒛
(49), ℎ𝑓 or ∆𝑃𝑓 is given by: 𝒉𝒇 = = ∆𝑷𝒇
𝑹𝒆 𝒈𝑫

• This may be written as:

𝟔𝟒 𝒗𝟐𝒛 𝑳
• 𝒉𝒇 = = ∆𝑷𝒇 (64)
𝑹𝒆 𝟐𝒈 𝑫

• Comparing Equation (64) with Equations (57), (61) and

(62) shows that, for laminar flow:
 𝟖
•𝜑 = (65)
𝑹𝒆
′ 𝟔𝟒
•𝒇 = (66)
𝑹𝒆
𝟏𝟔
•𝒇 = (67)
𝑹𝒆
• Where 𝑓 ′ and 𝑓 are Moody and Fanning friction factor
respectively.
• This implies that for laminar flow, friction factor is a unique
function of Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 and does not depend on
𝜖
relative roughness, .
𝐷
 EXAMPLE
• 1) 98% sulphuric acid is pumped at 4.5 tonne/h (1.25
kg/s) through a 25mm diameter mild steel pipe, 30 m
long, to a reservoir 12 m higher than the feed point.
Calculate the pressure drop in the pipeline. The
viscosity of the acid is 25 𝑥 10−3 𝑁 𝑠 𝑚2 and its
density is 1840 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 . The absolute roughness, 𝜖, of
the pipe may be taken as 0.15 mm.
 SOLUTION
• Engineering Bernoulli’s equation is given as:
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑣22 −𝑣12
• − = 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + + ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑝
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔𝛼
• The pipe is of uniform diameter, hence from
continuity equation, 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 , and the accelerative
term, 2nd term on the R.H.S., thus cancels out.
• Also assuming within the length of the pipe being
considered, Point 1 and 2, there is no pump installed, the
pump head, ℎ𝑓 then cancels out.
• The Bernoulli’s equation then becomes:
𝑃1 𝑃2
• − = 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

• ∴ 𝑃1 −𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓
• Given: 𝑙 = 30 𝑚 𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚 = 25 𝑥 10−3 𝑚
• 𝜇 = 25 𝑥 10−3 𝑁 𝑠 𝑚2 𝑚 = 1.25 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
• 𝜖 = 0.15 𝑚𝑚 = 0.00015 m 𝜌 = 1840 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
• The acid flows from Point 1, the feed, to Point 2, the
reservoir that is 12m higher than the feed.
• Thus, 𝑍2 > 𝑍1
• Hence 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 = 12𝑚
𝐿 𝑣 2
′ ′
• ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 , where 𝑓 is Moody friction factor.
𝐷 2𝑔
• In order to obtain 𝑓 ′ from the Moody friction chart,
𝜖
Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 and Relative roughness, must
𝐷
be known.
• 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣𝐴
𝑚 𝑚 1.25
•𝑣 = = 𝜋𝐷2
= −3 2
𝜌𝐴 𝜌 𝜋 25 𝑥 10
4 1840
4
• ∴ 𝑣 = 1.384 𝑚 𝑠
𝜌𝑣𝐷 1840 𝑥 1.384 𝑥 25 𝑥 10−3
• Hence , 𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 25 𝑥 10−3
• ∴ 𝑅𝑒 = 2547
𝜖 0.00015
• Now, =
𝐷 0.025
𝜖
• = 0.006
𝐷
 𝜖
• From the Moody friction chart, for 𝑅𝑒 = 2547 and =
𝐷
0.006, the Moody friction factor, 𝑓 ′ , implies:
• 𝑓 ′ = 0.05
𝐿 𝑣 2 30 1.384 2
• ∴ ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓′ = 0.05
𝐷 2𝑔 0.025 2 𝑥 9.81

• ℎ𝑓 = 5.858 𝑚
• Hence, 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓 implies:
• ∴ 𝑃1 −𝑃2 = 1840 𝑥 9.81 12 + 5.858
• ∴ 𝑃1 −𝑃2 = 3.22 𝑥 10−5 𝑁 𝑚2 = 322 𝑘𝑁 𝑚2
• The inverse problem is to determine the flow rate (velocity)
for a given pressure drop.
• For turbulent flow, this is not so straightforward because
the value of friction factor is unknown until the flow rate,
and hence Re, are known.
• The traditional solution to this problem is to use the plot of
𝜑𝑅𝑒 2 against Re or 𝑓 ′ 𝑅𝑒 2 against Re or 𝑓𝑅𝑒 2 against Re.
2
• The plot of 𝜑𝑅𝑒 against Re is shown in the Figure below.
• The reason for using this combination can be seen by
rearranging Equation(57), (60) or (61).
• Rearranging Equation (57) for the basic friction factor:
∆𝑃𝐷
•𝜑 = (68)
4𝐿𝜌𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓
• Where ∆𝑃 = is the pressure drop due to friction.
𝜌𝑔
• Thus, the unknown 𝑣 can be eliminated by multiplying by
𝑅𝑒 2 to give:
∆𝑃𝐷 𝜌𝑣𝐷 2 ∆𝑃𝐷3 𝜌
• 𝜑𝑅𝑒 2 = = (69)
4𝐿𝜌𝑣 2 𝜇 4𝐿𝜇2
• Equation (69) may be written in terms Fanning and
Moody friction factor by substituting Equation (62)
into (69) to obtain:
2 ∆𝑃𝐷3 𝜌
• Fanning: 𝑓𝑅𝑒 = (70)
2𝐿𝜇2

2∆𝑃𝐷3 𝜌
• Moody: 𝑓 ′ 𝑅𝑒 2 = (71)
𝐿𝜇2
 EXAMPLE
• Water flows in a 50 mm pipe, 100 m long, whose
roughness 𝜖 is equal to 0.013 mm. if the pressure drop
2
across this length of pipe is not to exceed 50 𝑘𝑁 𝑚 ,
what is the maximum allowable water velocity? The
density and viscosity of water may be taken as 1000
3 2
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 and 1.0 𝑚𝑁 𝑠 𝑚 respectively.
 SOLUTION
• Using the basic friction factor variant of head loss:
𝐿 𝑣2
ℎ𝑓 = 8𝜑
𝐷 2𝑔
• If the friction factor, 𝜑 is known then the velocity, 𝑣,
can be determined.
• However, to determine 𝜑, Reynolds number, Re is
required, which also requires 𝑣 for its determination.
• Thus, we use:
∆𝑃𝐷3 𝜌
• 𝜑𝑅𝑒 2 =
4𝐿𝜇 2

50000 𝑥 0.050 3 𝑥 1000

=
4 𝑥 100 𝑥 1𝑥10−3 2

= 1.563 𝑥 107
𝜖 0.013
= = 0.00026
𝐷 50
• From the friction factor group chart, for 𝜑𝑅𝑒 2 =
7 𝜖
1.563 𝑥 10 and = 0.00026, Re = 70,000.
𝐷
𝜌𝑣 D
• ∴ 𝑅𝑒 = = 70000
𝜇
70000 𝑥 1𝑥10−3
•𝑣 =
1000 𝑥 0.05
• = 1.4 𝑚 𝑠
 MINOR LOSSES
• For any pipe system, in addition to the Moody-type
friction loss computed for the length of pipe, there are
additional so-called minor losses due to
• 1. Pipe entrance or exit
• 2. Sudden expansion or contraction
• 3. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
• 4. Valves, open or partially closed
• 5. Gradual expansions or contractions
• The losses may not be so minor; e.g., a partially closed
valve can cause a greater pressure drop than a long pipe.
• The losses are commonly measured experimentally and
correlated with the pipe flow parameters.
• The measured minor loss is usually given as a ratio of the
∆𝑃
head loss, ℎ𝑚 = through the device to the velocity
𝜌𝑔
𝑣2
head of the associated piping system.
2𝑔
ℎ𝑚 ∆𝑃
• Loss coefficient 𝐾 = 𝑣2
=1
2𝑔 𝜌𝑣 2
2
• K is dimensionless.
• An alternate procedure is to report the minor loss as if it
were an equivalent length 𝐿𝑒𝑞 of pipe, satisfying the Darcy
friction-factor relation.
𝐿 𝑣 2 𝑣2
𝑒𝑞
• ℎ𝑚 = 𝑓′ = 𝐾
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝐾𝐷
• ∴ 𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝑓′

• A single pipe system may have many minor losses. Since all
𝑣2
are correlated with 2𝑔 , they can be summed into a single
total system loss if the pipe has constant diameter.
 𝑣 2 𝑓′ 𝐿
• ∆ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑚 = + 𝐾
2𝑔 𝐷
• Note, however, that we must sum the losses
separately if the pipe size changes so that 𝑣 2 changes.
• The length L is the total length of the pipe axis,
including any bends.
 ASSIGNMENT
1) Oil, with density of 900 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 and kinematic viscosity
of 0.00001 𝑚2 𝑠 , flows at 0.2 𝑚3 𝑠 through 500 𝑚 of
200 𝑚𝑚 diameter cast-iron pipe. Determine (a) the
head loss and (b) the pressure drop if the pipe slopes
down at 10° in the flow direction.
2) 0.015 𝑚3/𝑠 of acid is pumped through a 75 𝑚𝑚
diameter horizontal pipe 70 𝑚 long. What is the
pressure drop in the pipe? Assuming the viscosity of
acid = 2.5 𝑚𝑁𝑠/𝑚2, density of acid is 1060 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3,
and roughness of pipe surface = 6 𝑥 10−5 𝑚.
• 3) 1250 𝑐𝑚3/𝑠 of water is to be pumped through a
steel pipe, 25 𝑚𝑚 diameter and 30 𝑚 long, to a tank
12 𝑚 higher than its reservoir. Calculate the
approximate power required. Viscosity of water =
1.30 𝑚𝑁 𝑠/𝑚2. Density of water = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3.
• 4) Find the drop in pressure due to friction in a
commercial steel pipe 300 𝑚 long and
150 𝑚𝑚 diameter when water is flowing at the rate
of 0.05 𝑚3/𝑠.
• 5) Over a 30 m length of 150 mm vacuum line carrying
air at 293 K, the pressure falls from 1 kN/m2 to
0.1kN/m2. If the relative roughness e/d is 0.002, what
is approximate flowrate?
 FLOW METERS
• Because materials are transported in the form of fluids
wherever possible, it is important to measure the rate at
which a fluid is flowing through a pipe or another channel.
• Many different types of meters are used industrially.
• Selection of a meter is based on the applicability of the
instrument to the specific problem, its installed cost and cost
of operation, the range of flow rates it can accommodate,
and its inherent accuracy.
• A few types of flow meters measure the mass flow
rate directly, but the majority measures the
volumetric flow rate or the average fluid velocity, from
which the volumetric flow rate can be calculated.
• To convert the volumetric rate to the mass flow rate
requires that the fluid density under the operating
conditions be known.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
• Definition of Pressure Measurement Terms
• Fluid pressure is a measure of the force of the
bombardment of the fluid particles in a space on the
walls containing the fluid particles.
• The various terms in pressure measurement are listed
below:
• Absolute Vacuum: A space whose fluid has been
totally evacuated is called a vacuum. Such a space is
not capable of exerting any pressure and therefore it
is assigned zero pressure.
• Absolute Pressure: This is the pressure of a fluid
measured with reference to absolute zero vacuum.
• Gauge Pressure: This is the value of any given pressure
above that of the atmospheric pressure. Blood
pressure and automobile tyre pressure are examples
of gauge pressure.
• Gauge pressure = Absolute Pressure – Atmospheric
pressure
• Vacuum: This is negative gauge pressure or the value of
any given pressure below that of the atmosphere, i.e.
when pressure is below atmospheric pressure. Vacuum
pressure can either be measured as a negative gauge
pressure or as an absolute pressure.
• Vacuum Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Absolute
Pressure
• Differential pressure. Differential pressure is the
difference in pressure between two points. Differential
pressures are commonly used in the industry.
 MANOMETERS

• Manometers are devices which employ change in

elevation to determine pressures or pressure
differences.
• Simple manometers measure gauge pressures while
differential manometers measure pressure
differences.
 THE SIMPLE MANOMETER
• The simple manometer is a tube (usually a glass tube)
attached to the side of a pipe or a container to measure
the pressure of the fluid it contains.
• The fluid rises to a height which is proportional to its
pressure above atmospheric.
• This manometer is called piezometer. See figure below.
Figure 1: The simple manometer
• The gauge pressure at the centre of the pipe is given by:
• Pc = ρhg
• Where ρ is the density of the fluid.
• This is an accurate and simple device but has the
following disadvantages:
• It cannot measure pressures lower than atmospheric
because air will tend to suck into the pipe or container.
• It is not convenient for measuring large pressures
since the tube will have to be very long.
• It cannot be used to measure gas pressures since the
gas will diffuse or flow into the air.
• For the measurement of negative, large or gas
pressures, a u-tube is employed. A suitable liquid is
used to determine the difference between the
pressure in the pipe and the atmospheric.
Figure 2: u–tube manometer
• The pressure in the pipe is given by:
• Pc + ρHg = Pa + ρmΔhg
• Where Pc is the fluid pressure at point C, ρ is its density, Pa
is the atmospheric pressure and ρm is the manometer
liquid density.
• This equation is obtained by applying Bernoulli equation
to point C and point a, where point a is the point of
contact of the atmospheric air and the manometer liquid.
• Line AB is the datum for measuring the height.
• The equation can be rearranged to give:
𝜌
• Pc – Pa = 𝑔(𝛥ℎ − 𝐻)
𝜌𝑚 𝜌𝑚
𝜌
• Often ρ is very small compared to 𝜌 such that 𝐻 is
𝑚 𝜌𝑚
small compared to 𝛥ℎ. If this is so, the equation
becomes:
• Pc – Pa ≅ 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝛥ℎ or ΔP ≅ 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝛥ℎ
 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
• Differential manometers are used to measure
pressure difference between two points in a fluid
stream.
• Consider the figure below.
• A in the figure refers to point 1 while B refers to point
2.
Figure 3: Differential Manometer attached to a tube
• As the fluid flows from point 1 to point 2, it loses
energy as a result of the friction between the fluid and
the wall of the conduit.
• The energy loss is manifested as pressure loss and
therefore pressure at point 2 is less than at 1.
• The difference is a direct measure of the amount of
fluid energy loss between 1 and 2.
• If we apply Bernoulli equation to point 1 and 2 in the
conduit fluid, we have:
• P1 + ρh1g = P2+ ρh2g + ρm Δhg
• Rearranging the equation gives:
• P1- P2 = ρg (h2 – h1) + ρm Δhg
• Since h2 – h1 = -Δh i.e. h1 = h2 + Δh
• P1- P2 = ρg (-Δh) + ρm Δhg
𝜌
• P1 – P2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝛥ℎ𝑔(1 − )
𝜌𝑚
• Again if the density of fluid in the conduit is small
compared to that of the liquid in the u-tube, the
pressure difference between points 1 and 2 will be
measured by Δh, the difference in level between the
surfaces of the liquid in the u-tube.
• The equation then becomes:
• P1 – P2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝛥ℎ𝑔
 (DYNAMIC PRESSURE SYSTEM)
• In a dynamic system, pressure typically is defined using three
different terms.
• The first pressure we can measure is static pressure.
• This pressure is the same as static pressure that is measured
in a static system.
• Static pressure is independent of the fluid movement or flow.
• As with a static system, the static pressure acts equally in all
direction.
• The second type of pressure is what is referred to as
dynamic pressure.
• This pressure term is associated with the velocity or
the flow of the fluid.
• The third pressure is total pressure and is simply the
static pressure plus the dynamic pressure.
 STATIC PRESSURE
• For a dynamic system, accurate static pressures may
be measured by tapping into the fluid stream
perpendicular to the fluid flow.
• Figure 4 illustrates a dynamic system with a fluid
flowing through a pipe or duct.
• In this example a static pressure tap is located in the
duct wall at a point A.
• A device called static tube, may also be used to
measure the static pressure of a flowing fluid at a
point.
• The static tube is L-shaped with one end closed and the
other open. The open end is connected to a
manometer while the closed end which is rounded is
inserted into the fluid.
• A ring of small holes is perforated near the closed end.
 TOTAL PRESSURE
• The tube inserted into the probe is called Pitot tube.
• The Pitot tube, sometimes referred to as impact tube,
measures the total pressure at point B in the system.
• The total pressure measured at this point is referred to
as the stagnation (or impact) pressure.
• The stagnation pressure is the value obtained when a
flowing fluid is decelerated to zero velocity in an
isentropic (frictionless) process.
• This process converts all of the energy from the flowing fluid
into a pressure that can be measured.
• The stagnation or total pressure is the static pressure plus
the dynamic pressure.
• Figure. A crude pitot
tube.
Pitot tube - measuring instrument used to measure
the total pressure of a flowing fluid

The difference between the height of the fluid and

that of the tube is used to calculate the total
pressure
Figure 6: Instruments for pressure measurement in dynamic systems
 DYNAMIC PRESSURE
• It is very difficult to accurately measure dynamic pressures.
• When dynamic pressure measurement is desired, the total
and static pressures are measured and then subtracted to
obtain the dynamic pressure.
• The instrument is called Pitot-static tube.
• Dynamic pressure can be used to determine the fluid
velocities and flow rates in dynamic systems.
• Pitot-static tube consists of two concentric tubes bent into a
L-shape.
• The inner tube is open at the lower end while the outer tube
which is closed at that end has a ring of holes located in a
way similar to those of the static tube.
• The outside end of both tubes are connected to a u-tube
manometer.
• An example of pitot-static tube is shown in the figure below.
Sometimes pitot-tube is used to refer to both static, pitot
and pitot-static tube.
• Figure Below shows another form (improvised) of Pitot-Static
tube, it measures the difference between the total pressure and
the static pressure i.e. dynamic or kinetic pressure.
• In the figure below the first diagram is the static tube that
measures the static pressure.
• The second is pitot tube that measures the total or
stagnation pressure.
• While the third is the pitot-static tube that measures the
dynamic pressure (the difference between the total and
static pressure).
• Each tube is connected to a manometer that reads the
height level difference used in calculating the pressure.
 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT IN FLUID
• Bernoulli's equation
• Bernoulli found that the Total Pressure was a
constant.
• The total pressure is defined as the static pressure
plus the kinetic, or dynamic, pressure.
• This is really just another statement of the
conservation of energy.
Bernoulli's Law
• For an incompressible fluid, the Bernoulli equation
describes the relationship between the velocity and
pressure along a streamline,
𝑣2 𝑃
+𝑧+
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
• Evaluated at two different points along a streamline,
the Bernoulli equation yields,
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ 𝑍1 + = + 𝑍2 +
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
• If 𝒛𝟏 = 𝒛𝟐 and point 2 is a stagnation point, i.e., 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟎, the
above equation reduces to,

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑃2
+ =
2 𝜌 𝜌
1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 (A)
2
1 2
• This implies that total pressure at point 1, 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 , = total
2
pressure at point 2, 𝑃2 .
• Thus the total pressure at point 2 = the sum of the static
pressure and dynamic pressure at point 1.
 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑑 (B)
• 𝑃𝑡 = total pressure
• 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃2 )
• 𝑃 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
• 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
• Comparing equations (A) and (B) therefore, the
expression for dynamic pressure, 𝑃𝑑 implies:
1 2
𝑃𝑑 = 𝜌𝑣1
2
Thus, from (A),
1
• 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑑 = 𝜌𝑣 2
2
• Where 𝑃2 = total pressure 𝑃1 = static pressure
• Hence,

2𝑃𝑑 2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 2 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃
•𝑣 = = = (C )
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌

• 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃 may be obtained from manometer

readings
 FLOWRATE MEASUREMENT
• Differential pressure flow meters (in most cases) employ
the Bernoulli equation that describes the relationship
between pressure and velocity of a flow.
• These devices guide the flow into a section with different
cross section areas (different pipe diameters) that causes
variations in flow velocity and pressure.
• By measuring the changes in pressure, the flow velocity
can then be calculated.
• Many types of differential pressure flowmeters are used
in the industry:
• Orifice Plate: A flat plate with an opening is inserted into
the pipe and placed perpendicular to the flow stream.
• As the flowing fluid passes through the orifice plate
(hole), the restricted cross section area causes an
increase in velocity and decrease in pressure.
• The fluid contracts to reach the plate hole and the
contraction continues for some distance beyond the
plate to the vena contracta 𝑫𝟐 .
• vena contrata is the smallest jet area attained at a
distance equal to about half the orifice diameter from
the orifice.
• The pressure difference before and after the orifice
plate is used to calculate the flow velocity.
• This is a relatively cheap and easy to construct
instrument.
• The overall pressure drop however is high and cannot
be recovered because of the sudden constriction and
enlargement at the orifice.
• The accuracy of the measurement is relatively low.
• By applying Bernoulli’s equation to point 1 upstream of
the plate and point 2 at the vena contracta and
neglecting losses, we have:
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ = + (D)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
using the continuity equation for incompressible fluid:
𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2
𝐴2
∴ 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
𝐴1
• Where 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 are cross sectional area at upstream
position (1) and vena contracta (2) respectively.
𝜋𝐷2
• But 𝐴=
4
2
𝐷2
∴ 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 2
𝐷1
• Since the vena contracta area 𝐴2 cannot easily be
measured, it can be expressed in terms of the orifice
(hole) area 𝐴0 by using the definition of coefficient of
contraction, 𝐶𝑐 :
• The ratio of the area of the vena contratacta, 𝐴2 to that of
the orifice, 𝐴0 is called coefficient of contraction.
∴ 𝐴2 = 𝑐𝑐 𝐴0
𝜋𝐷2
• Where 𝐴 =
4
2 2
• Hence, 𝐷2 = 𝑐𝑐 𝐷0

𝑐𝑐 𝐷02
• ∴ 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 2
𝐷1
Substituting 𝑣1 into the Bernoulli’s equation (D) above gives:

2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 /𝜌
𝑣2 = 2
1 − 𝐶𝐶 𝐷0 /𝐷1 4
𝑣2 is theoretical velocity.
The actual velocity, 𝑣2,𝑎 , is less than this value due to viscous
and entrance losses and is obtained by multiplying this
velocity by the velocity coefficient, 𝑐𝑣 .
 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 /𝜌
𝑣2,𝑎 = 𝑐𝑣
1 − 𝐶𝐶2 𝐷0 /𝐷1 4
The area of the vena contracta, 𝐴2 = 𝑐𝑐 𝐴0
Therefore the discharge, (volume flow rate) through the
vena contracta Q, is: (velocity x cross sectional area).
𝑄 = 𝑣2,𝑎 ∙ 𝐴2 = 𝑣2,𝑎 ∙ 𝑐𝑐 𝐴0

2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 /𝜌
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑐 𝐴0
1 − 𝐶𝐶2 𝐷0 /𝐷1 4
• Let a single coefficient, coefficient of discharge,
𝐶𝑑 take care of 𝐶𝑣 and 𝐶𝑐 , i.e 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑐
2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 /𝜌
• ∴ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 . 𝐴𝑂
1− 𝐶𝐶2 𝐷0 /𝐷1 4

• It should be noted that 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 /𝜌𝑔 is the head

difference between points (1) and (2) and it can be
measured by a u-tube manometer.
• In order to avoid measuring the coefficient CC and Cd
separately, this can also be written as:
• 𝑄 = 𝐶 . 𝐴𝑂 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 /𝜌
𝐶𝑑
• Where 𝐶 =
2 𝐷0 4
1− 𝐶𝐶
𝐷1

• The value of coefficient C can be found by calibration in

actual experiment. On the other hand, design for which C
values are available can be adopted.
 VENTURI TUBE
• The venturi meter is a tube which gradually reduces in
diameter until the throat and thereafter diverges, (figure
below).
• It is installed in a pipeline with its axis collinear with that
of the line.
• As a result of its shape, eddy formation due to flow
separation does not occur and the coefficient of
contraction is unity.
• The changes in cross section area cause changes in
velocity and pressure of the flow.
• The pressure drop here is the least among the three
instruments.
• The accuracy of the measurement is also high.
• It is however expensive and bulky.
The flow in this system is from left to right
• The rate of fluid discharge from the venturi meter can
be found by applying the Bernoulli’s equation to
upstream section (1) and downstream section (2) while
assuming no losses.
• By this assumption theoretical values of the velocities
are used.
 𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
• + + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
• By applying continuity equation to eliminate 𝑣1 , as done for
orifice, 𝑣2 becomes:

2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
+ (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 )
𝜌
𝑣2 =
1 − 𝐷2 /𝐷1 4
The actual velocity is obtained by multiplying 𝑣2 by the
velocity coefficient 𝑐𝑣 .
𝑄 = 𝑣2,𝑎 ∙ 𝐴2 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑣2 ∙ 𝐴2
 𝑄 = 𝑣2,𝑎 ∙ 𝐴2 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑣2 ∙ 𝐴2

2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
+ (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 )
𝜌
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑣 ∙ 𝐴2
1 − 𝐷2 /𝐷1 4
 EXAMPLE
• A horizontal venturi meter having a throat diameter of 20mm is
set in a 75-mm internal diameter. Water at 15 0C is flowing
through the line. A manometer containing mercury under
water measures the pressure differential over the instrument.
When the manometer reading is 500 mm,
• i) what is the pressure drop between the upstream section and
the throat
• ii) what is the flow rate in m3/h? Take coefficient of meter to
be 0.6.
• Solution:
• For the horizontal venturi tube,

2 𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝜌
• 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑣 𝐴2 𝐷2 4
1−
𝐷1

• Where Q is the volume flow rate

• 𝐶𝑣 = 0.6
−3
• 𝐷2 = 20 𝑚𝑚 = 20 𝑥 10 𝑚
• 𝐷1 = 75 𝑚𝑚 = 75 𝑥 10−3 𝑚
 2
𝜋𝐷22 𝜋 20 𝑥 10−3 𝑚
• 𝐴2 = =
4 4
• = 3.14 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
• 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔∆ℎ𝑚 1 − 𝜌 𝜌𝑚
• 𝜌𝑚 = 13, 600 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑)
• 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
• ∆ℎ𝑚 = 500 𝑚𝑚 = 0.5 𝑚
1000
• ∴ 𝑃1 −𝑃2 = 13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 .05 1 −
13600
= 61803 𝑃𝑎
 −4 2 61803 1000
• ∴ 𝑄 = 0.6 𝑥 3.14 𝑥 10 20 4
1−
75

• = 2.1 𝑥 10−3 𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚3
• = 2.1 𝑥 10−3 1
ℎ𝑟
3600

• = 7.56 𝑚3 ℎ𝑟