The Influence of the Inverted Classroom on Student Achievement and Motivation for

Learning in Secondary Mathematics in the United Arab Emirates: A Quasi-Experimental

Study

Dissertation Manuscript

Submitted to Northcentral University

Graduate Faculty of the School of Education

in Partial Fulfillment of the

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Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
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by

NADINE TARAZI

Prescott Valley, Arizona

June 2016
 ProQuest Number: 10129090

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 Approval Page

The Influence of the Inverted Classroom on Student Achievement and Motivation for
Leaming in Secondary Mathematics in the United Arab Emirates: A Quasi-Experimental
Study

By

Nadine Tarazi

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Approved by:
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June 17, 2016

Chair: Linda Cummins, PhD Date
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Committee Member: Lorraine Cleeton, PhD

Committee Member: Nari Jeter, PhD

Certified by:

Dean of School: Rebecca Wardlow, Ed.D. Date

 Abstract

In the United States (US) and in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) students are still

attaining poorly in high school mathematics despite efforts from educational leaders to

improve the math curricula both in middle and high schools. Results of the Program for

International Student Assessment (PISA) revealed that 31 countries out of 65 had better

achievement in mathematics than the US. Results of the Trends International

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) indicated that the average mathematics

achievement of fourth and eighth grade students in the UAE was below the TIMSS scale

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center point of 500. A quasi-experimental non-equivalent comparison-group design was

used in this study to determine quantitatively whether, or not, the inverted classroom
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strategy influenced high school student achievement and motivation for learning Algebra

II at the secondary level in an urban proprietary school offering a US curriculum,

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established in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. The sample in this study consisted of

four groups (as the school segregates gender) of about 74 eleventh graders. Two groups
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of male and female students received the treatment to model the inverted classroom. The

other groups of male and female students served as the comparison group and studied in a

traditional classroom. Students in all four groups were taught by the same teacher and

were given the same lessons, worksheets, exercises, and assessment. What differed was

the inverted classroom treatment given to the treatment group. The ANOVA was used to

analyze the Algebra II post-test scores of the treatment and the comparison groups, to

determine student motivation for learning Algebra II, and to test for statistical differences

across gender treatment groups. The findings revealed a statistically significant

difference in student achievement but no significant difference in the motivation for

learning between students who learned in an inverted classroom and students who learned

in a traditional classroom. The findings also revealed that there was no significant

difference in student achievement between genders who learned in the inverted

classroom. In-depth research studies were recommended to explore further the impact of

the inverted classroom at the secondary level.

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 Acknowledgements

I thank God for His blessings for being my Strengthener and my Encourager,

giving me strength of mind and courage of spirit to have completed this doctoral journey.

I am also thankful to all who have enabled the accomplishment of this lifelong

goal and dream.

To Dr. Linda Cummins, thank you for chairing my dissertation and for guiding

me throughout these challenging milestones. You made them simple and reachable with

the right comments, annotations, and encouragements. Thank you for always being there

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and for helping me widen my knowledge and deepen my analytical skills. I would have

never been able to accomplish this dissertation without your assistance. Thank You!
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To my committee members, Dr. Lorraine Cleeton and Dr. Nari Jeter, thank you

for your support and encouragement.

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To my boys, Cyril and Cedric, you have been so supportive and loving. I have

watched you grow into independent young adults through these past 6 years. I love you
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and appreciate so much your love and patience.

To my husband, Raymond, for all the sacrifices you have done and for your

intense understanding and support.

To my parents, Nicolas and Nada, for believing in me and for teaching me to

achieve my goals. You taught me determination and hard work to persevere and

overcome obstacles. I thank you for everything you have done for me especially you,

mom, for your continuous inspirational messages and prayers. I love you!
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1

Background ................................................................................................................... 3
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 7
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 9
Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 11
Nature of the Study ..................................................................................................... 12
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 16
Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................................. 18
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 23

Documentation ............................................................................................................ 23
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 24
Students’ Low Achievement in Mathematics ............................................................. 26

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Learner-Centered Classrooms versus Teacher-Centered Classrooms ........................ 28
The Role of Technology in the Constructivist Classroom .......................................... 32
Effects of Technology on Student Outcomes in Mathematics.................................... 34
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Blended Learning: Its Benefits and Drawbacks.......................................................... 38
The Inverted Classroom .............................................................................................. 40
Drawbacks and Challenges of the Inverted Classroom .............................................. 50
Motivation for Learning .............................................................................................. 52
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Gender Differences in Mathematics Achievement ..................................................... 58
Effects and Challenges of Technology on Student Motivation for Learning ............. 60
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 63

Chapter 3: Research Method ............................................................................................. 68

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Research Methods and Design .................................................................................... 71

Population ................................................................................................................... 75
Sample......................................................................................................................... 76
Materials/Instruments ................................................................................................. 77
Operational Definition of Variables............................................................................ 81
Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis ................................................................. 83
Assumptions................................................................................................................ 85
Limitations .................................................................................................................. 85
Delimitations ............................................................................................................... 87
Ethical Assurances ...................................................................................................... 87
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 88

Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................... 91

Results ......................................................................................................................... 92
Evaluation of Findings .............................................................................................. 108
Summary ................................................................................................................... 115
Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions ...................................... 118
Implications............................................................................................................... 120
Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 124
Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 127

References ....................................................................................................................... 128

Appendix A: Pre-Test/Post-Test Algebra II ................................................................... 148

Appendix B: Permission Letter to Use the MSLQ ......................................................... 156

Appendix C: The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (short version)...... 157

Appendix D: Informed Assent Form .............................................................................. 159

Appendix E: Informed Consent Form............................................................................. 161

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 List of Tables

Table 1 Tests of Normality for Student Achievement Data ............................................... 93

Table 2 Algebra II Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores ........................................................... 95

Table 3 ANOVA Results for Algebra II Pre-test Scores Between Groups ........................ 96

Table 4 ANOVA Results for Algebra II Post-Test Scores Between Groups ..................... 97

Table 5 Tests of Normality for Student Motivation for Learning Algebra II .................... 98

Table 6 Pre-MSLQ and Post-MSLQ Scores ................................................................... 100

Table 7 ANOVA Results for Pre-MSLQ Scores Between Four Groups ......................... 101

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Table 8 ANOVA Results for Post-MSLQ Scores Between Four Groups ........................ 102

Table 9 ANOVA Results for Algebra II Pre-test Scores between Gender Across Four
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Groups............................................................................................................................. 103

Table 10 ANOVA Results for Algebra II Post-test Scores between Gender Across Four
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Groups............................................................................................................................. 104

Table 11 ANOVA Results for Algebra II Post-test Scores between the Gender Treatment
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Groups............................................................................................................................. 104
 List of Figures

Figure 1. Histogram of pre-test scores of the treatment group ......................................... 93

Figure 2. Histogram of pre-test scores of the comparison group ..................................... 94

Figure 3. Histogram of post-test scores of the treatment group ....................................... 94

Figure 4. Histogram of post-test scores of the comparison group .................................... 95

Figure 5. Histogram of pre-MSLQ scores of the treatment group ................................... 98

Figure 6. Histogram of pre-MSLQ scores of the comparison group ................................ 99

Figure 7. Histogram of post-MSLQ scores of the treatment group .................................. 99

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Figure 8. Histogram of post-MSLQ scores of the comparison group ............................ 100

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 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Nationwide educators and leaders are worried about schools inadequately

preparing students for the hard requirements of math courses in colleges and universities

and for careers necessitating critical thinking as well as high-level skills in mathematics

(Finkelstein, Fong, Tiffany-Morales, Shields, & Huang, 2012). Accordingly, leaders in

states and districts set forth procedures to improve the thoroughness of math curricula

both in the middle and high schools (Finkelstein et al., 2012). Despite these efforts,

many students are still failing Algebra. Results from the National Mathematics Advisory

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Panel revealed that only 23% of students in the United States were proficient at Grade 12

(National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Mastering the fundamentals of Algebra is

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essential to succeed high school mathematics, hence, developing and enhancing students’
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understanding and skills in Algebra is essential to improving student achievement in

mathematics at the secondary level (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008).

Many studies have indicated that technology can support mathematics learning
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and is especially useful in developing critical thinking and problem solving skills (Al-

Shammari, Aqeel, Faulkner, & Ansari, 2012; Guven, 2012). Lage, Platt, and Treglia

(2000) described a method that builds on blended learning (a combination of e-learning

and face-to-face instruction) to create a very specific and unique pedagogy. This method

is known as the inverted classroom, or reverse instruction, or flipping the classroom. In

the inverted classroom, teachers invert what is traditionally done at home and in class:

Students who usually attend lectures inside the classroom will view these lectures outside

the classroom through videos prior to attending class, and the homework, which occurred
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outside the classroom, will be solved inside the classroom with the help and support of

the teacher (Brunsell & Horejsi, 2013).

Many studies focused on students’ perceptions on the usefulness of the inverted

classroom and findings of these studies demonstrated that students and educators

perceived the inverted classroom as a motivational instructional strategy (Brunsell &

Horejsi, 2013; Hung, 2015; McDaniel & Caverly, 2010; Papadopoulos, Santiago, &

Portela, 2010, Touchton, 2015). At the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 67% of

students surveyed responded that lectures presented through videos were easier to

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understand than they would have been in the classroom and 78% of students valued the

fact that they can watch and review course lectures on their own timing (Foertsch, Moses,
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Strikwerda, & Litzkow, 2002). Additionally, 51% of students gave a response that

indicated high levels of engagement and motivation (Foertsch et al., 2002). Motivation
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for learning is, indeed, one of the most influential factors that affect performance in

school (Griffin, MacKewn, Moser, & VanVuren, 2012a), and much of the literature is
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focused on ways technology-enhanced learning environments can affect students’

motivation for learning (Genc Ilter, 2009; Rosen, 2009; Yasar Kazu & Demirkol, 2014).

Currently there is little quantitative evidence demonstrating that the inverted

classroom has a possible influence on student achievement and motivation for learning at

the secondary level in high schools (Gardner, 2012; Mason, 2012; Strayer, 2007). The

study explored whether the inverted classroom is a learning model that might have a

possible influence on high school student achievement and motivation for learning

Algebra II at the secondary level in an urban proprietary school established in Dubai in

the United Arab Emirates.

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Background

In Dubai, the largest city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), poor student

performance in high school mathematics in more than 30 US curriculum schools has

elicited concern among school communities and the nation's leaders (KHDA, 2013).

Only 5% of about 46,000 students had high mathematics achievement and 57% of

students had low achievement during the academic year 2012-2013 (KHDA, 2013). This

poor achievement had been revealed in 2008 when, for the first time, Dubai participated

in the international Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies (TIMSS), a

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worldwide assessment evaluating students’ performance in mathematics and science.

The results of the 2007 TIMSS indicated that fourth graders and eighth graders students
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in Dubai did not meet the international average in science or mathematics. Only 2% of

fourth graders attained the advanced international benchmark, in comparison with 41% of
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Singaporean students and 10% of students in the United States. Moreover, nationally,

results of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) test conducted in
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2012 revealed that the UAE ranked 48th among 65 participating countries in

mathematical literacy, with a mean score of 434, 36 points below the Organization for

Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) scaled average of 500. Consequently,

identifying a continuous need for improvement, the UAE leaders are instigating and

monitoring high quality education standards by starting new policies, programs, and

initiatives.

In fact, the rulers of Dubai and the United Arab Emirates have included education

reform as part of their official Vision 2021 strategy and National Agenda targets

(National Qualifications Authority, 2013). These reforms include enhancing the use of
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information technology (IT) in delivering the curriculum and identifying innovative

instructional approaches to improve students' performances (National Qualifications

Authority, 2013). It is within this background that the inverted classroom had been

evaluated as an innovative learning model that might have a possible influence on high

school student achievement and motivation for learning Algebra II at the secondary level

in an urban proprietary school established in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates.

The concept of the inverted classroom has existed since teachers required students

to read course material before coming to classes, in order to conduct informed

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discussions. Teachers who provided learning resources and used radio, educational

television or computer-assisted instruction were actually inverting their classrooms.

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Nonetheless, the current model of the inverted classroom is considered to be innovative

because of the consistency and the regular use of collaborative technologies in the
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development of learning (Strayer, 2012).

From a historical perspective, technology integration in schools and colleges

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started in 1954 when teachers delivered programmed lessons to their students using a

‘teaching machine,’ invented by Skinner (Hively, 1959). Skinner, a Harvard professor,

designed the teaching machine to improve instructional strategies for spelling, math, and

other topics. His beliefs were the basic tenets of the inverted classroom that students

learn at different pace and that learning is enhanced when there is an increased interaction

between the teacher and the student. His teaching machine was composed of a program

that transfers progressively the course content to the student through a response and

reward mechanism. However, the machine had no validity for its usage on students’

behavior (Carini, 1969).

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In the sixties, the first Computer Based Training (CBT) program was introduced

to the education field. This CBT program was used to deliver content to the students.

However, results of a study that examined the effectiveness of CBT versus the traditional

teaching revealed that there was no significant difference in the learning between students

who enrolled in the CBT program and students who attended the traditional classroom

(Williams & Zahed, 1996). Then, in the seventies, technology in the form of electronic

learning (e-learning) has been integrated in many universities and has been used to not

only deliver information but to interact with students. One example is the British Open

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University that proposed a variety of educational tools as audiotapes, videotapes, and TV

broadcasts (Hawkridge, 2003). These tools, however, were still used to transfer one-way
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information principally from professors to students. Moreover, many researchers

discussed the drawbacks of e-learning as lacking consistency, restricting creativity, and

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limiting student engagement (Journell, 2010; Welsh, Wanberg, Brown, & Simmering,

2003). Nonetheless, school leaders viewed e-learning as a low-cost way of educating

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huge numbers of students and the request for e-learning instruction at the secondary level

had progressed rapidly (Journell, 2010; Vilkonis & Barabanova, 2010). In the nineties,

with the increased accessibility of computer applications and web-based instructional

technologies, virtual classrooms have replaced traditional classrooms in many schools

and universities (MacKeogh & Fox, 2009). In the virtual classroom, students used IT to

access local area networks, World Wide Web sites and use remote computer applications.

These applications generally consisted of text documents, animations and videos (Popa &

Stănculea, 2012). Findings of studies, however, revealed that the level of learning in the
 6

virtual classroom and the traditional classroom was not significantly different (Arbaugh,

2000; Hadadnia, Hadadnia, & Shahidi, 2012).

More pertinent to this study, the National Assessment of Educational Progress

revealed that students' scores had not improved meaningfully in mathematics between

1990 and 2009 (NAEP, 2009). Similarly, the average mathematics scores on the PISA

tests conducted by the OECD have not progressed in a decade, despite educational

reforms and technology integration (OECD, 2011). This stagnating student achievement

in mathematics, in addition to the large number of students repeating Algebra courses,

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has elicited concerns about the effectiveness of the instructional methods used in schools

(National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008).

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Hence, educators continued to examine innovative ways to improve student

achievement. One innovative learning model consisted in professors providing students

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with the content of their courses in videos, PowerPoint presentations, and podcasts, so

that students can review the lectures outside the classrooms (Lage et al., 2000). This
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approach blended the advantages of the traditional instruction with the flexibility of

online learning and is known as 'blended learning' (Graham, 2005; Schaber, Wilcox,

Whiteside, Marsh, & Brooks, 2010). Results of some studies showed that in blended

courses, students’ motivation for learning and students’ achievement were enhanced

(Kose, 2010; Masalela, 2009; Yasar Kazu & Demirkol, 2014).

The inverted classroom model is a type of 'blended learning,' a blend of direct

instruction with constructivist learning, active learning, and interactive IT (Herreid &

Schiller, 2013; Hutchings & Quinney, 2015; Strayer, 2012; Touchton, 2015). Considered

as the pioneers of the inverted classroom, in 2007, two chemistry teachers Jonathan
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Bergmann and Aaron Sams working at Woodland Park high school in Colorado started

the concept of the inverted classroom. Four years later, the inverted classroom learning

model spread in many states as the Highland Village elementary school and Allen high

school in Texas, Clintondale high school in Michigan, Stonebridge elementary school in

Minnesota, Bullis school in Maryland, East Grand Rapids High School in Michigan,

Saint Thomas Aquinas Catholic school in Dallas, Waverly High School in Ohio, Willis

Junior High School in Arizona, and Discovery Canyon high school in Colorado (Dunn,

2011). However, there is little quantitative, empirical evidence demonstrating that the

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inverted classroom strategy has measurable effects upon students' achievement in

mathematics, or their motivation for learning mathematics at the secondary level

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(Gardner, 2012; Mason, 2012; Strayer, 2007).

Statement of the Problem

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The problem addressed in this study was students’ low mathematics achievement

and low motivation for learning mathematics in the United States (ACT, 2013;
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Finkelstein et al., 2012; Milner, Templin, & Czerniak, 2011; Sesen & Tarhan, 2011) and

more specifically in the United Arab Emirates (KHDA, 2013; KHDA, 2015; TIMSS,

2011). Results of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) revealed that

31 out of 65 countries had better achievement in mathematics than the United States

(Peterson, Woessmann, Hanushek, & Lastra-Anadón, 2011). Results of the Trends

International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) indicated that the average

mathematics achievement of fourth and eighth grade students in the UAE was below the

TIMSS scale center point of 500 (TIMSS, 2011). Moreover, there are still high failure

rates in Algebra II. Students are still attaining poorly in high school mathematics despite
 8

efforts from educational leaders to improve the math curricula both in middle and high

schools (Finkelstein et al., 2012; Herlihy & Kennelly, 2007). The consequence of this

problem is that students who graduate from high schools do not develop sufficient

mathematics skills to master university level courses (ACT, 2013; Scott-Clayton, Crosta,

& Belfield, 2014). As a result, students lacking basic skills in mathematics take remedial

courses costing universities approximately seven billion dollars every year (Scott-Clayton

et al., 2014). Furthermore, most students, about 75 per cent, do not graduate from college

and many drop out because they cannot complete the gateway mathematics courses

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(Complete College America, 2013). To address this problem, teachers in many countries

are changing their instructional strategies and implementing the inverted classroom
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model (Brunsell & Horejsi, 2013; Davies, Dean, & Ball, 2013; Dunn, 2011; Herreid &

Schiller, 2013; Kates, Byrd, & Rifat Haider, 2015; McDaniel & Caverly, 2010;
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Papadopoulos et al., 2010; Jungić, Kaur, Mulholland, & Xin, 2015; Strayer, 2012). At

universities, students learning in these inverted classrooms, through regular and

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systematic use of interactive technologies, are showing improved academic performance

and high levels of engagement and motivation (Davies et al., 2013; Gannod, Burge, &

Helmick, 2008; Papadopoulos et al., 2010).

Currently there is little quantitative evidence demonstrating that the inverted

classroom has any effects upon student achievement in high schools (Gardner, 2012;

Mason, 2012; Strayer, 2007). It is also not clear whether there is a correlation between

the inverted classroom model and students’ motivation for learning mathematics in high

schools (Demetry, 2010; Schullery, Reck, & Schullery, 2011). Demonstrating

measurable effects of the inverted classroom upon student achievement and students’
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motivation for learning Algebra II in high schools contributed to providing the literature

with empirical evidence and determining that the inverted classroom model has an

advantage over the traditional classroom in improving student achievement in

mathematics at the secondary level in the United Arab Emirates.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this quantitative quasi-experimental study was to explore the

influence of the inverted classroom as a learning model on high school student

achievement and motivation for learning Algebra II at the secondary level in an urban

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proprietary school based in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. At this school, students

in the Algebra II class have been struggling with the curriculum and many were not able
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to succeed the course with a sufficient grade for admission to American universities

(AUS, 2014). Approximately, 20% of the students failed the Algebra II course and 65%
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of students had low pass rates (KHDA, 2013). These scores are similar to other

American International schools in Dubai. Indeed, the annual report 2013 released from
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the Knowledge Human Development Authority (KHDA), the equivalent of the ministry

of education in Dubai, revealed that students’ investigative skills in mathematics are

insufficiently developed (KHDA, 2013). Out of 32 US schools (46,790 students) that

have been inspected throughout the academic year 2012/2013, 56% of students had a low

achievement in mathematics (less than 60%) and only 5% had a high achievement (more

than 90%) (KHDA, 2013). This poor student performance in Algebra II perhaps may be

due to the lack of time to practice and solve problems (Chickering & Gamson, 1987;

Meier, 2000).
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The study employed a pre-test and post-test comparison group design and was

conducted during the first trimester of the academic year 2015-2016. The participants in

the study were 39 male students, 16 or 17 years old, from two different sections of the

Algebra II course and 35 female students, 16 or 17 years old, from two different sections

of the Algebra II course. Three trimesters were needed to complete the Algebra II course

in the school where the study was based. During the first trimester, the sections were

randomly assigned as either treatment or comparison groups of 17 to 20 students each.

One section of male students (Group One M) with an existing group of participants

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received the treatment, the reverse instruction to model the inverted classroom, and the

other section of male students (Group Two M) with an existing group of participants
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served as the comparison group and studied in a traditional classroom (lecture in the class

and homework at home). Likewise, one section of female students (Group One F) with
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an existing group of participants received the treatment, the reverse instruction to model

the inverted classroom, and the other section of female students (Group Two F) with an
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existing group of participants served as the comparison group and studied in a traditional

classroom. The dependent variables were the student achievement and the motivation for

learning Algebra II scores. Both male and female groups were measured on the

dependent variables, the course student achievement and the motivation for learning

Algebra II scores, mutually before and after the treatment of the independent variable, the

reverse instruction intervention that modeled the inverted classroom (Creswell, 2009).

The student achievement and the motivation for learning Algebra II scores of the group

studying in the inverted classroom were compared to the student achievement and the

motivation for learning Algebra II scores of the group who studied in the traditional
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classroom to determine whether the inverted classroom influenced student achievement

and their motivation for learning Algebra II. The Motivated Strategies for Learning

Questionnaire (MSLQ) created by Pintrich and his colleagues (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, &

McKeachie, 1991) was used as the instrument for this study to determine students’

motivation for learning and help provide construct validity.

Research Questions

The research questions explored the effects of an intervention, the reverse

instruction implemented in the inverted classroom, on high school student achievement

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and motivation for learning Algebra II at the secondary level in an urban proprietary

school based in the United Arab Emirates in Dubai. The following research questions
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have been designed to support the main purpose of this study:

Q1. Is there a significant difference in student achievement between eleventh

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grade students learning Algebra II in an inverted classroom and eleventh grade students

learning Algebra II in a traditional classroom?

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Q2. Is there a significant difference in the motivation for learning Algebra II

score between eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in an inverted classroom and

eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in a traditional classroom?

Q3. Is there a significant difference in student achievement between eleventh

grade girls and eleventh grade boys learning Algebra II in an inverted classroom?

The study aimed to explore whether the inverted classroom is a learning model

that might have a possible influence on high school student achievement and motivation

for learning Algebra II at the secondary level in a high school based in the United Arab

Emirates in Dubai.
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Hypotheses

H10. There is no significant difference in student achievement between eleventh

grade students learning Algebra II in an inverted classroom and eleventh grade students

learning Algebra II in a traditional classroom.

H1a. There is a statistically significant difference in student achievement

between eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in an inverted classroom and

eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in a traditional classroom.

H20. There is no significant difference in the motivation for learning Algebra II

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score between eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in an inverted classroom and

eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in a traditional classroom.

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H2a. There is a statistically significant difference in the motivation for learning

Algebra II score between eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in an inverted

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classroom and eleventh grade students learning Algebra II in a traditional classroom.

H30. There is no significant difference in student achievement between eleventh

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grade girls and eleventh grade boys learning Algebra II in an inverted classroom.

H3a. There is a statistically significant difference in student achievement

between eleventh grade girls and eleventh grade boys learning Algebra II in an inverted

classroom.

Nature of the Study

Studies on the inverted classroom indicated that there is a lack of quantitative

studies and empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of the inverted classroom on

student academic performance in universities (Gardner, 2012) and in high schools

(Mason, 2012). Consequently, a quasi-experimental design using group comparison has

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been chosen for this study to determine quantitatively if the inverted classroom strategy

might have an influence on high school student achievement in the Algebra II class and

on students’ motivation for learning Algebra II at the secondary level. The quasi-

experimental design has been selected as the optimum choice for this research because

participants were not randomly assigned to groups (Cozby & Bates, 2012). Furthermore,

quasi-experimental designs have been revealed to be significant to validate the influence

of an instructional innovation approach in the education field (Creswell, 2009).

Additionally, while quasi-experimental designs have some weaknesses compared to true

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experiments, they also have strengths. Findings derived from quasi-experimental

research can and have added value to research based only on true experiments (Creswell,
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2009; Reichardt, 2009). For instance, research in the education and science fields have

developed because of a build-up of findings from quasi- as well as true experimental

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research (Mark & Reichardt, 2004).

The quasi-experimental research conducted in this study tested the effectiveness

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of the inverted classroom model by determining if the independent variable - inverted

instruction - caused an effect upon two dependent variables:

 students' achievement in Algebra II;

 students’ motivation for learning Algebra II (Campbell & Stanley, 1963).

The site for this research is an urban, proprietary school offering a US curriculum,

established in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. Using the previous achievements,

disciplinary records, and nationalities, the Vice Principal distributes the students to create

mixed ability and mixed culture groups. The exception to this is that the school

segregates genders. Boys and girls learn in separate divisions and in separate wings of
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the building. The study was conducted in both the boys’ and the girls’ secondary

divisions. A total of 74 eleventh grade students participated in the study. During the first

trimester (early September to the end of December), the two sections in both divisions of

the school, girls and boys, were assigned as either treatment or comparison groups by the

flip of a coin. One section of male students (Group One M) received the treatment, the

reverse instruction to model the inverted classroom, and the other section of male

students (Group Two M) served as the comparison group and studied in a traditional

classroom (lecture in the class and homework at home). Likewise, one section of female

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students (Group One F) received the treatment, the reverse instruction to model the

inverted classroom, and the other section of female students (Group Two F) served as the
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comparison group and studied in a traditional classroom. All four groups were measured

on the dependent variables using:

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 pre-treatment scores;

 post-treatment scores; and,

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 their motivation for learning Algebra II scores before and after the

implementation of the inverted classroom strategy.

Boys and girls were measured mutually before and after the treatment of the independent

variable of the inverted classroom instruction method (Creswell, 2009).

This quantitative method aligns with the purpose and research questions by

enabling the researcher to compare the outcomes between groups and the effectiveness of

the inverted classroom instruction upon students’ achievement and motivation for

learning. One strength of this method is that it allows the researcher to preserve

objectivity when observing students and analyzing grades, hence minimizing biased