bioengineering

Article
Evaluating Major Electrode Types for Idle Biological
Signal Measurements for Modern Medical Technology
Anas Albulbul
Department of Research and Development, Global Innovative Medical Technologies (GIMT), Ottawa,
ON K1G 5L1, Canada; a-albulbul@gimt.com; Tel.: +1-613-663-8611

Academic Editor: Gou-Jen Wang

Received: 10 June 2016; Accepted: 21 August 2016; Published: 24 August 2016

Abstract: Biological signals such as electrocardiogram (ECG) and electromyography (EMG) that
can be measured at home can reveal vital information about the patient’s health. In today modern
technology, the measured ECG or EMG signals at home can be monitored by medical staff from
long distance through the use of internet. Biopotential electrodes are crucial in monitoring ECG,
EMG, etc., signals. Applying the right type of electrode that lasts for a long time and assists in
recording high signal quality is desirable in medical devices industry. Three types of electrodes
(Silver/Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes, Orbital electrodes and Stainless steel electrodes) were
tested to identify the most appropriate one for recording biological signals. The evaluation was
based on determining the electrode circuit model components and having high capacitance value or
high capacitor value of electrode circuit model (Cd ) and low electrode-skin impedance value or low
resistor value of electrode circuit model (Rd ). The results revealed that Ag/AgCl is the best type of
electrodes, followed by Orbital electrodes. Stainless steel electrodes had performed poorly. However,
Orbital electrodes material can last longer than Ag/AgCl and hence perform similar to Ag/AgCl
electrodes, which can be idle for monitoring biological signals at home without the need for medical
staff to replace the electrodes in a short period of time.

Keywords: biological signals; electrodes; electrode-skin impedance; noise

1. Introduction
The implications of smart devices at home and the development of medical technologies have
improved the healthcare home devices. Monitoring the patient’s health condition at home has become
crucial in the current modern world.
Biological signals, such as electrocardiogram (ECG), electromyogram (EMG), and
electroencephalogram (EEG), are rich in medical information. Biopotential electrodes are
designed to assist in measuring and recording biological signals. Biopotential electrodes have the
ability to transduce bioelectric activity within the body (ionic current) into electrical current that can
be measured and recorded [1,2]. The performance of non-invasive electrodes in detecting biological
signals is highly dependent on electrode-skin impedance [3,4].
High electrode-skin impedance would result in poor biological signal quality, low signal
amplitude and low signal to noise ratio [2,5]. Selecting the proper type of electrodes that can
result in having low electrode-skin impedance and can last longer for recording is important for
bio-signal measurements.
The main problem of conducting bio-signal measurements at home is the choice of an appropriate
bioptential electrode that can last long time and need minimal preparation work for recording
bio-signal measurements.

Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20; doi:10.3390/bioengineering3030020 www.mdpi.com/journal/bioengineering

Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 2 of 10

The main objective of this research paper is to compare the performance of the most common
non-invasive biopotential electrodes to benefit the medical industry in choosing the most appropriate
type of electrodes for clinical measurements at home.

1.1. Biopotential Electrodes

Ideal non-polarizable electrodes permit the charges to pass through the electrode-skin interface
without hindrance [5]. In non-polarizable electrodes, reduction/oxidation reactions occur at the
electrode-skin interface, exchanging charge carriers from ions to electrons and vice versa [5–8]. These
reactions are electrochemically reversible in non-polarizable electrodes [5]. The electrolyte gel is used
with non-polarizable electrodes to facilitate the electrochemical reactions and to reduce electrode-skin
interface impedance [4,5,9].
Stainless steel electrodes are classified as polarizable electrodes [1]. They are one of the most
common polarizable electrodes used in modern wireless sensor technologies for monitoring biological
signals (e.g., chairs, shirts) [10,11].
Ag/AgCl electrodes are classified as non-polarizable electrodes and considered as the universal
electrodes in clinical measurements (e.g., ECG, EMG and EEG) [1]. They are associated with low
electrode-skin impedance, low noise and low motion artifact [12].

1.2. Electrode-Skin Impedance

Electrode-skin impedance plays a major role in biological signal quality. High electrode-skin
impedance influences negatively biological signal quality since it is associated with low signal-to-noise
ratio [13]. High electrode-skin impedance causes poor detection of biopotentials at the electrodes sites
because it forms a strong barrier for the biopotentials to cross it [1]. High electrode-skin impedance
could be linked with low mobility of ions across the highly resistant skin layer (stratum corneum)
that is in contact with electrodes and low electron/ion exchange at electrodes sites [2,5]. Thus, that
could cause weak conductivity between the electrodes and the skin and would reduce the biological
signal amplitude (low signal to noise ratio). A mismatch in impedance between the electrodes at the
skin surface during recording a biological signal would reduce the common mode rejection ratio of
the recording system, increase common mode interference (e.g., power line noise) and decrease the
signal-to-noise ratio [5].
Electrode-skin impedance varies from one person to another and from one part of the body to
another. For example, when Rosell et al. measured the electrode-skin impedance at different parts of
the body for ten subjects using Ag/AgCl electrodes, they found a high electrode-skin impedance of
around 1 MΩ at 1 Hz at the leg site, and around 100 kΩ at the forehead site [4].
Non-polarizable electrodes are likely to have lower electrode-skin impedances in comparison to
polarizable electrodes [14,15].

1.3. Properties of Ag/AgCl Electrodes

Surface Ag/AgCl electrodes are the most common and favoured electrodes in clinical
measurements for recording biological signals such as ECG, EMG and EEG [16]. One of the main
advantages of using Ag/AgCl electrodes is the low noise level it generates during biological signals
recording [16]. Ag/AgCl electrodes generate lower electrode-skin interface impedance and lower
electrode-skin interface impedance value than stainless steel electrodes [16–18]. They are also
considered as non-polarizable electrodes; the non-polarizable nature of Ag/AgCl electrodes allows the
charges to cross the electrode-electrolyte interface unlike stainless steel electrodes [7,17–19].

1.4. Properties of Orbital Electrodes

Dry polarizable Orbital electrodes are made to last longer than the common clinical wet electrodes
such as Ag/AgCl [20,21]. An orbital electrode’s coat is made of a mixture of metals: silver/silver
chloride, aluminum, gold/gold chloride, nickel and titanium [21]. The Orbital Research Inc. stated that
Bioengineering 2016, 3,
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20
20 33 of
of 10
10

stated that the main advantages of applying Orbital electrodes are the elimination for the need of skin
the main advantages of applying Orbital electrodes are the elimination for the need of skin preparation
preparation and for an electrolyte gel application during the biological signal recording period [21].
and for an electrolyte gel application during the biological signal recording period [21].
The shape of the Orbital electrode makes it more in contact with the skin than is the case with
The shape of the Orbital electrode makes it more in contact with the skin than is the case with
regular flat stainless steel or surface Ag/AgCl electrodes. This is due to the presence of pins (spikes)
regular flat stainless steel or surface Ag/AgCl electrodes. This is due to the presence of pins (spikes)
with a height of approximately 150 μm, which allow the Orbital electrode to penetrate deeper into
with a height of approximately 150 µm, which allow the Orbital electrode to penetrate deeper into
the stratum corneum layer that dominates the skin’s surface and thus facilitates the pathways for
the stratum corneum layer that dominates the skin’s surface and thus facilitates the pathways for
biopotential through the skin to the Orbital electrode (Figure 1) [20,21]. Stratum corneum has a high
biopotential through the skin to the Orbital electrode (Figure 1) [20,21]. Stratum corneum has a
resistance to biopotentials and to electrical current due to the presence of dead skin cells [2,16]. The
high resistance to biopotentials and to electrical current due to the presence of dead skin cells [2,16].
application of Orbital electrode can overcome this problem by the presence of pins [20,21].
The application of Orbital electrode can overcome this problem by the presence of pins [20,21].

Figure 1.
Figure Orbital electrode’s
1. Orbital electrode’s penetration
penetration into
into the
the skin
skin layers
layers during
during bio-signal
bio-signal recording.
recording.

1.5.
1.5. Properties
Properties of
of Stainless
Stainless Steel
Steel Electrodes
Electrodes
Dry
Dry electrodes
electrodes such
such asas stainless steel electrodes
stainless steel electrodes areare classified
classified as
as polarizable
polarizable electrodes
electrodes [7,22].
[7,22].
The
The research
research performed
performed by by Ragheb
Ragheb and
and Geddes
Geddes waswas based
based on on measuring
measuring thethe electrode-electrolyte
electrode-electrolyte
interface
interface impedance
impedance at at frequencies
frequencies range
range from
from 11 Hz
Hz to to 11 MHz
MHz [7].
[7]. The
The results
results showed
showed that
that stainless
stainless
steel electrode had high impedance in a range of 30–75 kΩ at low frequency range
steel electrode had high impedance in a range of 30–75 kΩ at low frequency range 100 Hz [7]. 100 Hz [7]. Stainless
steel electrodes
Stainless would generate
steel electrodes would higher
generate electrode-skin interface interface
higher electrode-skin impedance than the than
impedance otherthe
types of
other
electrodes [7]. Furthermore, polarizable electrodes such as surface stainless steel electrodes
types of electrodes [7]. Furthermore, polarizable electrodes such as surface stainless steel electrodes can be
reused due to their
can be reused resistance
due to to corrosion
their resistance [1].
to corrosion [1].

1.6.
1.6. Measuring
Measuring the
the Electrode-Skin
Electrode-Skin Impedance
Impedance
An
An equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit model
model cancan be
be used
used to
to better
better understand
understand thethe interactions
interactions between
between aa surface
surface
electrode and the skin. Warburg was known to be the first to propose an
electrode and the skin. Warburg was known to be the first to propose an equivalent equivalent electrode-electrolyte
interface circuit model
electrode-electrolyte [23]. Feates
interface et model
circuit al. had[23].
identified
Feates the components
et al. of the
had identified equivalent
the componentselectrode
of the
circuit model by analyzing the conductivity nature of biological tissues [24]. Their
equivalent electrode circuit model by analyzing the conductivity nature of biological tissues [24]. work helped in
estimating
Their workthe values
helped of capacitors
in estimating theand resistors
values in the electrode-skin
of capacitors and resistorsmodel. In addition, their
in the electrode-skin study
model. In
provided more details on the effect of skin capacitance, impedance and electrolyte
addition, their study provided more details on the effect of skin capacitance, impedance and gel or sweat on the
electrode-skin
electrolyte gel impedance.
or sweat on the electrode-skin impedance.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
A bioimpedance measurement system is used to measure the electrode-skin impedance in
A bioimpedance measurement system is used to measure the electrode-skin impedance in
response to different frequencies and to an applied alternating electrical current in accordance with the
response to different frequencies and to an applied alternating electrical current in accordance with
safety standards.
the safety standards.
2.1. Measurement Devices
2.1. Measurement Devices
The bioimpedance measurement system used in the study consists of a personal computer (PC)
(Dell The
390, bioimpedance measurement
Processor 3.0 GHz, system
Pentium 2, used
Win XP), in the study
frequency consists
response of a personal
analyzer computer
(FRA) (Model (PC)
# 1255B,
(Dell 390, Processor 3.0 GHz, Pentium 2, Win XP), frequency response analyzer (FRA) (Model #
1255B, Solartron Analytical, Farnborough, UK) and an impedance interface device (Model # 1294A,
Solartron Analytical, Farnborough, UK).
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 4 of 10

Solartron Analytical,
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 Farnborough, UK) and an impedance interface device (Model # 1294A, Solartron 4 of 10
Analytical, Farnborough, UK).
Impedance was measured from 1 Hz to 1 MHz (10 points per decade), averaging 20 cycles per
frequency,
frequency, withwithapplying
applyinganan alternating electrical
alternating current
electrical of 100
current 100root
of µA μAmeanroot square
mean supply
square current.
supply
The applied alternating electrical current 100 is in accordance with the safety standards.
current. The applied alternating electrical current 100 μA is in accordance with the safety standards.
µA A value of
100 µA isofa 100
A value lowμAACiscurrent value
a low AC that may
current valuenot harm
that maythe human
not harm body [5]. body [5].
the human

2.2. Measurements
2.2. Measurements
Each impedance measurement
Each impedance measurement took took approximately
approximately 66 minmin to
to complete.
complete. Two
Two electrodes
electrodes from
from the
the
same type were placed on the ventral side of the right forearm, spaced 7 cm apart,
same type were placed on the ventral side of the right forearm, spaced 7 cm apart, with the distal with the distal
electrode
electrode approximately
approximately11 11cmcmfrom
from thethe
wrist. The
wrist. measurements
The measurements were done
were without
done performing
without skin
performing
preparation at theat
skin preparation electrodes sites and
the electrodes sitesperformed immediately
and performed after placing
immediately the electrodes.
after placing Five human
the electrodes. Five
subjects were participated in the study (Table 1). This study was reviewed and approved
human subjects were participated in the study (Table 1). This study was reviewed and approved by by Carleton
University Research Research
Carleton University Ethics Committee, approval approval
Ethics Committee, # 12-0350#and it wasand
12-0350 carried
it wasout following
carried the rules
out following
of
thethe Declaration
rules of Helsinki
of the Declaration of 1975. of
of Helsinki All1975.
subjects gave their
All subjects informed
gave consentconsent
their informed for inclusion before
for inclusion
they participated in the study.
before they participated in the study.

Table 1.
Table Information of
1. Information of subjects
subjects participated
participated in
in the
the study.
study.

SubjectSubjectHeight
Height
(cm)(cm)Weight
Weight
(kg) (kg) Age
Age GenderGender
1 1 163 163 68 68 25
25 Male Male
2 2 174 174 78 78 28
28 Male Male
3 3 172 172 80 80 29
29 Male Male
4 4 168 168 65 65 29
29 Male Male
5 170 65 27 Male
5 170 65 27 Male

2.3. Electrodes
2.3. Electrodes
Different
Different surface
surface electrode types were
electrode types were applied
applied inin this
this study.
study. TheThe applied
applied electrodes
electrodes used
used were
were
pregelled wet surface silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes (Model # FT002,
pregelled wet surface silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes (Model # FT002, MVAP II, Medical MVAP II, Medical
Supplies Inc., Newbury
Supplies Inc., Newbury Park,Park, CA,
CA, USA);
USA); that
that have
have a a diameter
diameter of of 11 cm
cm (Figure
(Figure 2).
2). Both
Both dry
dry surface
surface
Orbital
Orbital electrodes (Model # ORI F6T, Orbital Research Inc., Cleveland, OH, USA), which have aa an
electrodes (Model # ORI F6T, Orbital Research Inc., Cleveland, OH, USA), which have an
effective
effective diameter
diameter ofof 1.6
1.6 cm
cm and
and pins
pins (spikes)
(spikes) ofof aa 150
150 μm
µm length
length (Figure
(Figure 3) 3) and
and dry
dry surface
surface stainless
stainless
steel
steel (ST)
(ST) electrodes
electrodes (Model
(Model # EL12, Liberating
# EL12, Liberating Technologies,
Technologies, Inc. (LTI), Holliston,
Inc. (LTI), Holliston, MA,
MA, USA)
USA) which
which
have
have a diameter of 1.42 cm and a height of 0.32 cm were applied (Figure 4). An adhesive tape was
a diameter of 1.42 cm and a height of 0.32 cm were applied (Figure 4). An adhesive tape was
attached
attached totoOrbital
OrbitalandandStainless SteelSteel
Stainless electrodes to be firmly
electrodes to be attached to the skin.
firmly attached to Ag/AgCl
the skin. electrodes
Ag/AgCl
had an adhesive
electrodes had antape by thetape
adhesive manufacture.
by the manufacture.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a)
(a) Ag/AgCl
Ag/AgClelectrode
electrode (electrode’s
(electrode’s snap
snap side);
side); (b)
(b) Ag/AgCl
Ag/AgClelectrode
electrode (electrode’s
(electrode’s skin
skin side).
side).
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 5 of 10
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 5 of 10
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 5 of 10

Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 5 of 10

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 3.
3. (a)
(a) Orbital
Orbital electrode
electrode (electrode’s
(electrode’s kin
kin side);
side); (b)
(b) Orbital
Orbital electrode (electrode’s snap
electrode (electrode’s snap side).
Figure 3. (a) Orbital electrode (electrode’s kin side); (b) Orbital electrode (electrode’s snap side).
side).
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Orbital electrode (electrode’s kin side); (b) Orbital electrode (electrode’s snap side).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Stainless steel electrode (electrode’s skin side); (b) Stainless steel electrode (electrode’s
Figure 4. (a) Stainless steel
steel electrode (a)
electrode (electrode’s
(electrode’s skin side); (b)
(b) Stainless
Stainless steel
steel electrode
electrode (electrode’s
(electrode’s
snap side).
Figure 4. (a) Stainless skin side); (b)
snap side).
snap Figure
side). 4. (a) Stainless steel electrode (electrode’s skin side); (b) Stainless steel electrode (electrode’s
snap side).
2.4. Equivalent Circuit Model for the Electrode-Skin Impedance
2.4. Equivalent Circuit Model for the Electrode-Skin Impedance
2.4. Equivalent Circuit Model for the Electrode-Skin Impedance
The bioimpedance
2.4. Equivalent Circuit measurements were performed
Model for the Electrode-Skin Impedanceby applying two electrodes on the ventral
The
side The
of thebioimpedance
right forearm measurements
spaced were
7 cmwereapart.performed by applying
The simplified twodiagram
schematic electrodes on
forthe the ventral
theventral
electrodes
bioimpedance
The bioimpedance measurements
measurements performed
were performedbybyapplying
applyingtwo
twoelectrodes
electrodes on
on the ventral side
side
systemof the
used right
in theforearm
study spaced
is 7
presented cmin apart.
FigureThe
5. simplified schematic diagram for the electrodes
of theside
right forearm spaced 7 cm apart. The simplified schematic diagram for the electrodes
of the right forearm spaced 7 cm apart. The simplified schematic diagram for the electrodes system
system used in the study is presented in Figure 5.
used system
in the study
used inisthe
presented in Figurein
study is presented 5.Figure 5.

Figure Figure 5. The

The
5. The simplified
simplified schematicdiagram
schematic diagram for for the
theelectrodes
electrodes system
system used in the
used study.
in the
the study.
Figure 5. simplified schematic diagram for the electrodes system used in study.
Figure 5. The simplified schematic diagram for the electrodes system used in the study.
In order to determine the impedance for a single electrode from two electrodes used in the
In order
order
study, thetoto determine
determine
total impedance the the impedance
impedance
value is divided forfor a single
a single
by two electrode
electrode
[19,22]. fromfrom
This approach two
twoiselectrodeselectrodes
considered used used
in
reasonable theifin the
study,
study,In order
the
the total total
impedance to determine
impedance
value the
value impedance
is divided for
by a single
twosize,[19,22].electrode
Thismaterial,from
approach two electrodes
is considered used
reasonablein the
if
the two electrodes are isthedivided
same by two
(e.g., [19,22].
identical This approach
identical is considered
produced reasonable
from the if the two
same
study,
the twotheelectrodes
electrodes total
are the
manufacture).
impedance
same
The thevalue
areelectrode
(e.g., same is(e.g.,
identical divided
circuit size, by twosize,
identical
identical
components
[19,22].
material,
values
This
identical
for the
approach
material,
produced
first
isproduced
from
electrode
considered
the
are same
assumedfromreasonable
thebesame
manufacture).
to
if
the two electrodes
identical with
manufacture).
The electrode Thethe
circuit are the
electrode
components same
second electrode (e.g.,
circuit identical
(Cd =forCd1the
components
values =C size,
values
first
d2
identical
, Relectrode
d = Rfor
d1 = the
material,
Rare
d2, first
and produced
Relectrode
assumeds = Rs1to= beRs2 from
).identical
are The the
half-cell
assumed with same
to the
be
manufacture).
potential
identical (E
with the(C The
) electrode
represents
second thecircuit
electrodepotential
= Cd2 , R(C components
d =difference
Cd1= =RC values
between
, ,and
Rd =RsR=for
the the
skin
= s1Rd2 first
or
=, Rand electrode
electrolyte (gelare or assumed
sweat) and to be)
second electrode d = Cd1 d = Rd1 d1 R s2 ). R s = half-cell
The Rs1 = Rs2).potential
The half-cell
(Ehc
hc
d2d2
identical with
the electrode
potential (Ethe theassecond
hc) potential
a result
represents electrode
theof potential
the ions (C d =reside
that Cd1 = between
difference Cd2, Rd the = Rthe
d1 = Rd2, and
electrode and Rs =[25].
skin Rs1 =The Rs2capacitance
). The half-cell
represents difference between the skinbetween
or electrolyte skin
(gelor orelectrolyte
sweat) and(gel theor sweat)
electrode and
as a
potential
the (E hc) represents
that accommodates
electrode as athat
result
thethe potential
charges
of the
that difference
ions that
are locatedbetweenbetween the the skin
electrodeor electrolyte
and skin double(gel or sweat)
layer is and
result of the ions reside between the reside
electrodebetween
and skin the [25].
electrode and skin [25].
The capacitance thatThe capacitance
accommodates
represented
the electrode as abyresult
Cd [25]. of The
the resistance
ions that that residemay occur tothe
between the electrode
charges transferand skin between
[25]. theTheskin and
capacitance
that accommodates
the charges the charges
that are located that the
between are electrode
located between
and skinthe electrode
double layer and skin double
is represented by layer is
Cd [25].
that accommodates
represented theThe
by Cd [25]. charges that are
resistance thatlocated between
may occur to thethe electrode
charges andbetween
transfer skin double layer
the skin is
and
represented by Cd [25]. The resistance that may occur to the charges transfer between the skin and
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 6 of 10
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 6 of 10

The resistance
electrode that may occur
is represented by toRdthe charges
[22]. The transfer between the
series resistance (Rsskin and electrode
) represents is represented
the resistance of theby
R [22].
electrolyte
d The series resistance
gel and sweat [22]. s (R ) represents the resistance of the electrolyte gel and sweat [22].
The
The tissues
tissues resistance
resistance toto the
theapplied
appliedcurrent
currentisisrepresented
representedbybyRtissues
Rtissues.. RRtissues value is
tissues value is generally
generally
small relative to the impedance value of the electrode-skin interface.
small relative to the impedance value of the electrode-skin interface. The impedance value The impedance value for healthy
for
human arm’s tissue is found to be less than 500 Ω [9]; in contrast the impedance
healthy human arm’s tissue is found to be less than 500 Ω [9]; in contrast the impedance value for value for electrode-skin
interface
electrode-skin can be larger than
interface can be1 MΩ
larger[21].
thanThus,
1 MΩin[21].thisThus,
study,inRthis is assumed
study,
tissues Rtissues istoassumed
be negligible
to be
(i.e., R
negligibletissues = 0). When estimating
(i.e., Rtissues = 0). When estimatingR s values, any contributions from
Rs values, any contributions from R tissuesRtissues are includedthe
are included in in
R s estimate.
the Rs estimate.
The
The following formula (1)
following formula (1) is
is the
the impedance
impedance for for electrode-skin
electrode-skin interface
interface for for aa single
single electrode.
electrode.
Figure 6 is a result of a simplification of the circuit
Figure 6 is a result of a simplification of the circuit of Figure 5. of Figure 5.

Rd
Ze Z=e =RR
s+
s + (1)
(1)
1 + j2πf Cd Rd
where f is the frequency (Hz).
where f is the frequency (Hz).

Figure 6. Equivalent circuit model for electrode-skin interface.

Figure 6. Equivalent circuit model for electrode-skin interface.

In this
thisstudy,
study, a least squares
a least nonlinear
squares curve curve
nonlinear fitting fitting
methodmethod
is appliedis using MATLAB
applied using (MATLAB
MATLAB
version
(MATLAB 7.7,version
R2008b,7.7, MathWorks Inc., Natick, Inc.,
R2008b, MathWorks MA, Natick,
USA, 2008)MA,toUSA,
estimate
2008)thetoelectrode
estimate circuit model
the electrode
components
circuit model(Rcomponents
d , Cd and Rs )(R values. The R
d, Cd and electrode
s) values. circuit model components
The electrode will be
circuit model determinedwill
components based
be
on Bode plotbased
determined that represents
on Bode impedance
plot that as a functionimpedance
represents of frequency as for electrode-skin
a function interface for
of frequency [1].
Least squares nonlinear
electrode-skin interface curve fitting
[1]. Least determines
squares the optimized
nonlinear bestdetermines
curve fitting fit for impedance model based
the optimized best on
fit
Bode plot, in terms
for impedance model of total
basedsquare
on Bodedifference from
plot, in the of
terms measured impedance
total square values.
difference from the measured
impedance values.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
The estimated average values for the electrode circuit model components (Rd , Cd , and Rs ) for
Ag/AgCl, Orbital and
The estimated Stainless
average Steelfor
values electrodes are available
the electrode in Tables
circuit model 2–4 respectively.
components (Rd, CThe electrode
d, and Rs) for
circuit model components values were estimated by applying least mean
Ag/AgCl, Orbital and Stainless Steel electrodes are available in Tables 2–4 respectively. squares curve fitting method
The
using MATLAB
electrode circuit program. The estimated
model components values electrode circuit model
were estimated values for
by applying leastsubject
mean 2squares
using orbital
curve
electrode is presented
fitting method in Figure 7program.
using MATLAB as an exemplary Bode plot.
The estimated electrode circuit model values for subject 2
The main trend for R
using orbital electrode is presented
d values of Ag/AgCl electrodes
in Figure 7 as an exemplary is lower
Bodevalues
plot. in comparison to Orbital
or Stainless
The main Steel
trendelectrodes. High of
for Rd values RdAg/AgCl
value implies that the
electrodes electrode-skin
is lower values in impedance
comparisonistohigh. High
Orbital or
biological signal quality requires
Stainless Steel electrodes. High Rd value low R d value; hence choosing the type of electrode that
implies that the electrode-skin impedance is high. High competes with
other typessignal
biological in having a low
quality Rd value
requires lowisRdesirable for medical
d value; hence devices
choosing the industry. The value
type of electrode of resistance
that competes
to ionic current that occur in the body for the biological signal can determine
with other types in having a low Rd value is desirable for medical devices industry. The value the quality of the signal
of
being recorded [14,17,26]. The existence of gel at the Ag/AgCl electrodes would
resistance to ionic current that occur in the body for the biological signal can determine the quality produce low R d and
of
R s values.
the The existence
signal being recorded of[14,17,26].
pins or spikes
The on Orbitalofelectrodes
existence gel at thewould
Ag/AgCl support the strong
electrodes would attachment
produce
of electrodes to skin and overcome the effect of highly resistant skin layer (stratum
low Rd and Rs values. The existence of pins or spikes on Orbital electrodes would support the strong corneum). Low
R values
attachment
d were obtained for Orbital electrodes that are lower than stainless steel
of electrodes to skin and overcome the effect of highly resistant skin layer (stratum electrodes but a bit
higher
corneum).thanLowAg/AgCl electrodes
Rd values were (Tables
obtained 2–4for
and Figureelectrodes
Orbital 8A). The materials that thethan
that are lower Orbital electrodes
stainless steel
are made from are considered more durable than Ag/AgCl electrodes [21,26].
electrodes but a bit higher than Ag/AgCl electrodes (Tables 2–4 and Figure 8A). The materials that Therefore, Orbital
electrodes
the Orbitalcan last for aare
electrodes longer
madeperiod
from areof time.
considered more durable than Ag/AgCl electrodes [21,26].
Therefore, Orbital electrodes can last for a longer period of time.
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 7 of 10
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 7 of 10
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 7 of 10

Figure 7. Experimental
Figure 7. Experimentalresults
results for
for Orbital electrode-skinimpedance
Orbital electrode-skin impedance frequency
frequency response
response (Subject,
(Subject,
Figure 7. Experimental results for Orbital electrode-skin impedance frequency response (Subject,
Orbital-S2) andand
Orbital-S2) thethe
model
modelplot.
plot.Estimated electrodecircuit
Estimated electrode circuit components
components values
values are located
are located at theat
topthe top
Orbital-S2) and the model plot. Estimated electrode circuit components values are located at the top of
of the
of Figure.
the Figure.
the Figure.

(A)
(A)

(B)

(B)

(C)
Figure 8. Pregelled Ag/AgCl, Orbital and Stainless Steel electrode’s circuit model components
average Log values with standard deviation for all the tested subjects; (A) Rd; (B) Cd and (C) Rs.
(C)
Figure 8.8.Pregelled
Figure Pregelled Ag/AgCl,
Ag/AgCl, Orbital
Orbital andand Stainless
Stainless Steel Steel electrode’s
electrode’s circuit components
circuit model model components
average
average Log values with standard deviation for all the tested subjects; (A) R d; (B) Cd and (C) Rs.
Log values with standard deviation for all the tested subjects; (A) Rd ; (B) Cd and (C) Rs .
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 8 of 10

The differences in electrodes’ areas were considered in reporting the electrode circuit model
components values (Rd , Cd and Rs ) for the three tested electrodes as reported in Tables 2–4. Rd
mean value (215.82 kΩ/cm2 ) of Ag/AgCl electrodes is somewhat close to Rd mean value of Orbital
electrodes (187.13 kΩ/cm2 ) with respect to surface area. However, it is much smaller than the Rd mean
value (2130.98 kΩ/cm2 ) of Stainless Steel electrodes.
The differences in Rd values of the same type of electrode among subjects are due to the
difference of skin type of subjects (dry or oily), sweat secretion level and concentration of skin’s
hair at electrodes sites.
Recording biological signals at high Cd values is translated to better biological signal quality [1].
The measurements made by Ag/AgCl electrodes resulted in having higher Cd values in comparison
to Orbital or Stainless Steel electrodes (Table 3 and Figure 7B). Orbital electrodes had reported high Cd
values. The measured Cd values for Stainless Steel electrodes are far lower than Ag/AgCl or Orbital
electrodes due to the nature of polarizable electrodes in accumulating charges at the electrode-skin sites.

Table 2. Ag/AgCl, Orbital and stainless steel electrodes’ circuit component Rd average values (kΩ) for
all the tested subjects.

Electrode Type Mean Values (kΩ) kΩ/cm2

Ag/AgCl 215.82 215.82
Orbital 299.4 187.13
Stainless Steel 3289.4 2130.98

Table 3. Ag/AgCl, Orbital and stainless steel electrodes’ circuit component Cd average values (nF) for
all the tested subjects.

Electrode Type Mean Values (nF) kΩ/cm2

Ag/AgCl 18.9 18.9
Orbital 9.3 5.2
Stainless Steel 4.9 3.45

Recording biological signals at low Rs values is translated to better biological signal quality [5].
The existence of gel at the Ag/AgCl electrodes generated low Rs values (Table 4 and Figure 8C) [27].
In addition, the existence of pins or spikes in Orbital electrodes and the formation of sweat generated
low Rs values that were close to Ag/AgCl electrodes’ Rs values. High Rs values for stainless steel
electrodes resulted from the absence of electrolyte gel and were related to sweat formation.

Table 4. Ag/AgCl, Orbital and stainless steel electrodes’ circuit component Rs average values (Ω) for
all the tested subjects.

Electrode Type Mean Values (Ω) Ω/cm2

Ag/AgCl 399.7 399.7
Orbital 626.8 391.8
Stainless Steel 856.4 121.1

4. Conclusions
It can be concluded that pregelled Ag/AgCl electrodes would perform better than Orbital or
stainless steel electrodes. Applying Ag/AgCl electrodes had resulted in having the lowest Rd or
electrode-skin impedance values with a mean value of 215.82 (kΩ). However, Orbital electrodes that
have pins in their structures had helped in generating compatible low electrode-skin impedance Rd
values with a mean value of 299.4 (kΩ). Applying Stainless Steel electrodes resulted in having the
highest Rd values with a mean value of 3289.4 (kΩ). Ag/AgCl electrodes had obtained the highest
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 9 of 10

capacitance value (Cd ) followed by Orbital electrodes and Stainless Steel electrodes. The effect of
differences in electrodes’ surface areas was considered. The existence of pins in Orbital electrodes
and the formation of sweat generated low Rs values that were close to Ag/AgCl electrodes’ Rs values
despite the existence of electrolyte gel on Ag/AgCl electrodes. This can be due to the existence of
pins that would assist in eliminating the skin’s hair effect and strengthen the attachment to the skin.
Stainless steel electrodes had resulted in high Rs values due to differences in material and shape.
Due to the deterioration material of Ag/AgCl electrodes with time as a result of interaction with
sweat, Orbital electrodes would be the most appropriate electrodes in our opinion for long time use
for monitoring biological signals at home.

Author Contributions: I would like to thank Prof. Adrian Chan for his advices and Carleton University for
assistance in doing this study. I am grateful to all the volunteers who participated in this study and offered their
services with patience and interest. Special thanks to GIMT for its support.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References
1. Grimnes, S.; Martinsen, Ø.G. Bioimpedance and Bioelectricity Basics, 2nd ed.; Elsevier Ltd.: San Diego, CA,
USA, 2008; pp. 40–270.
2. Yamamoto, Y.; Yamamoto, T. Dispersion and correlation of the parameters for skin impedance. Med. Biol.
Eng. Comput. 1978, 16, 592–594. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Mcadams, E.T.; Jossinet, J.; Lackermeier, A.; Risacher, F. Factors affecting electrode-gel-skin interface
impedance in electrical impedance tomography. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 1996, 34, 397–408. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
4. Rosell, J.; Colominas, J.; Riu, P.; Pallas-Areny, R.; Webster, J. Skin Impedance from 1 Hz to 1 MHz. IEEE Trans.
Biomed. Eng. 1988, 35, 649–651. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Webster, J.G. Medical Instrumentation Application and Design, 4th ed.; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA,
2010; pp. 189–235.
6. Godin, D.T.; Parker, P.A.; Scott, R.N. Noise characteristics of stainless-steel surface electrodes. Med. Biol.
Eng. Comput. 1991, 29, 585–590. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Ragheb, T.; Geddes, L.A. The polarization impedance of common electrode metals operated at low current
density. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 1991, 19, 151–163. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Mcadams, E. Biomedical electrodes for biopotential monitoring and electrostimulation. In Bio-Medical CMOS
ICs Integrated Circuits and Systems; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 31–124.
9. Grimnes, S. Impedance measurement of individual skin surface electrodes. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 1983, 21,
750–755. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Pacelli, M.; Loriga, G.; Taccini, N.; Paradiso, R. Sensing fabrics for monitoring physiological and
biomechanical variables: E-textile solutions. In Proceedings of the 3rd IEEE-EMBS International Summer
School and Symposium on Medical Devices and Biosensors, Cambridge, MA, USA, 4–6 September 2006;
MIT: Boston, MA, USA, 2006; pp. 1–4.
11. Bifulco, P.; Gargiulo, G.; Romano, M.; Fratini, A.; Cesarelli, M. Bluetooth portable device for continuous
ecg and patient motion monitoring during daily life. In Proceedings of the 11th Mediterranean Conference
on Medical and Biomedical Engineering and Computing, 2007 IFMBE Proceedings, Ljubljana, Slovenia,
26–30 June 2007; pp. 369–372.
12. Tallgren, P.; Vanhatalo, S.; Kaila, K.; Voipio, J. Evaluation of commercially available electrodes and gels for
recording of slow EEG potentials. Clin. Neurophysiol. 2005, 116, 799–806. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Tam, H.; Webster, J.G. Minimizing electrode motion artifact by skin abrasion. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1977,
BME-24, 134–139. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. O’connell, D.N.; Tursky, B. Silver-silver chloride sponge electrodes for skin potential recording. Am. J. Psychol.
1960, 73, 302–304. [CrossRef]
15. Searle, A.; Kirkup, L. A direct comparison of wet, dry and insulating bioelectric recording electrodes.
Physiol. Meas. 2000, 21, 271–283. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Bioengineering 2016, 3, 20 10 of 10

16. Mcadams, E. Bioelectrodes. In Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation; Wiley-Interscience:

Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2006; Volume 1, pp. 120–166.
17. Das, D.P.; Webster, J.G. Defibrillation recovery curves for different electrode materials. IEEE Trans.
Biomed. Eng. 1980, BME-27, 230–233. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Geddes, L.A.; Roeder, R. Measurement of the direct-current (Faradic) resistance of the electrode-electrolyte
interface for commonly used electrode materials. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 2001, 29, 181–186. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Mcadams, E.T.; Henry, P.; Anderson, J.M.; Jossinet, J. Optimal electrolytic chloriding of silver ink electrodes
for use in electrical impedance tomography. Clin. Phys. Physiol. Meas. 1992, 13, 19–23. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Griss, P.; EnokssGriss, P.; Enoksson, P.; Tolvanen-Laakso, H.; Merilainen, P.; Ollmar, S.; Stemme, G. Spiked
biopotential electrodes. In Proceedings of the IEEE Thirteenth Annual International Conference on Micro
Electro Mechanical Systems, Miyazaki, Japan, 23–27 Jaunary 2000; pp. 323–328.
21. Schmidt, R.N.; Lisy, F.J.; Skebe, G.G.; Prince, T.S. Dry Physiological Recording Electrode. U.S. Patent 6,785,569,
31 August 2004.
22. Geddes, L.A.; Valentinuzzi, M.E. Temporal changes in electrode impedance while recording the
electrocardiogram with “dry” electrodes. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 1973, 1, 356–367. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Warburg, E. About the behaviour of so-called “impolarizable electrodes” in the present of alternating current.
Ann. Phys. Chem. 1899, 67, 493–499. [CrossRef]
24. Feates, F.S.; Ives, D.J.G.; Pryor, J.H. Alternating current bridge for measurement of electrolytic conductance.
J. Electrochem. Soc. 1956, 103, 580–585. [CrossRef]
25. Eggins, B.R. Skin contact electrodes for medical applications. Analyst 1993, 118, 439–442. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
26. Meziane, N.; Webster, J.G.; Attari, M.; Nimunkar, A.J. Dry electrodes for electrocardiography. Physiol. Meas.
2013, 34, R47–R69. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Albulbul, A.; Chan, A.D.C. Electrode-skin impedance changes due to an externally applied force.
In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications
Proceedings, Budapest, Hungary, 18–19 May 2012.

© 2016 by the author; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).