IP Address

Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to be

used efficiently in various situations as per the requirement of hosts per
network. Broadly, the IPv4 Addressing system is divided into five classes of
IP Addresses. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of IP
Address.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is responsible for assigning IP
addresses.
OCTET
The 32-bit IP address is grouped 8 bits at a time, each group of 8 bits is an octet. Each of the
fouroctets are separated by a dot, and represented in decimal format, this is known as dotted
decimal notation. Each bit in an octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1).

The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets numbered as
follows depicting dotted decimal notation of IP Address:

The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived
by this formula:

When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because

they cannot be assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network
number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.

Class A Address
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet
ranges from 1 – 127, i.e.
Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only.
The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses.

The default subnet mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies
that Class A addressing can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts
(224-2).

Class A IP address format is

thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class B Address
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first
octet set to 10, i.e.

Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default

subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.

Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host
addresses.

Class B IP address format

is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class C Address
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is:

Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default

subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.

Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host
addresses.
Class C IP address format
is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH

Class D Address
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110,
giving a range of:

Class D has IP address rage from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is

reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined for a
particular host, that is why there is no need to extract host address from
the IP address, and Class D does not have any subnet mask.

Class E Address
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study.
IP addresses in this class ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like
Class D, this class too is not equipped with any subnet mask.

What is Network?
A Network in the world of computers is said to be a collection of
interconnected hosts, via some shared media which can be wired or
wireless. A computer network enables its hosts to share and exchange data
and information over the media. Network can be a Local Area Network
spanned across an office or Metro Area Network spanned across a city or
Wide Area Network which can be spanned across cities and provinces.

A computer network can be as simple as two PCs connected together via a

single copper cable or it can be grown up to the complexity where every
computer in this world is connected to every other, called the Internet. A
network then includes more and more components to reach its ultimate
goal of data exchange. Below is a brief description of the components
involved in computer network:

 Hosts - Hosts are said to be situated at ultimate end of the network, i.e. a host
is a source of information and another host will be the destination. Information
 flows end to end between hosts. A host can be a user’s PC, an internet Server,
a database server etc.

 Media - If wired, then it can be copper cable, fiber optic cable, and coaxial
cable. If wireless, it can be free-to-air radio frequency or some special wireless
band. Wireless frequencies can be used to interconnect remote sites too.

 Hub - A hub is a multiport repeater and it is used to connect hosts in a LAN

segment. Because of low throughputs hubs are now rarely used. Hub works on
Layer-1 (Physical Layer) of OSI Model.

 Switch - A Switch is a multiport bridge and is used to connect hosts in a LAN

segment. Switches are much faster than Hubs and operate on wire speed.
Switch works on Layer-2 (Data Link Layer), but Layer-3 (Network Layer)
switches are also available.

 Router - A router is Layer-3 (Network Layer) device which makes routing

decisions for the data/information sent for some remote destination. Routers
make the core of any interconnected network and the Internet.

 Gateways - A software or combination of software and hardware put together,

works for exchanging data among networks which are using different protocols
for sharing data.

 Firewall - Software or combination of software and hardware, used to protect

users data from unintended recipients on the network/internet.

Domain Name System Architecture

The Domain name system comprises of Domain Names, Domain Name
Space, Name Server that have been described below:

Domain Names
Domain Name is a symbolic string associated with an IP address. There are
several domain names available; some of them are generic such as com,
edu, gov, net etc, while some country level domain names such as au, in,
za, usetc.

The following table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

Com Commercial business

Edu Education

Gov U.S. government agency

Int International entity

Mil U.S. military

Net Networking organization

Org Non profit organization

The following table shows the Country top-level domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

au Australia

in India

cl Chile

fr France

us United States

za South Africa

uk United Kingdom

jp Japan
es Spain

de Germany

ca Canada

ee Estonia

hk Hong Kong

Domain Name Space

The domain name space refers a hierarchy in the internet naming structure.
This hierarchy has multiple levels (from 0 to 127), with a root at the top.
The following diagram shows the domain name space hierarchy:

In the above diagram each subtree represents a domain. Each domain can
be partitioned into sub domains and these can be further partitioned and so
on.
Computers use addresses Humans cannot remember IP addresses Þ Need names Example,
Liberia for 164.107.51.28 Simplest Solution: Each computer has a unique name and has a built
in table of name to address translation.
 Internet Tools

.Web Browsers
• Telnet - log in to a computer - text mode
• Electronic mail - elm
• Electronic mail - POP
• FTP - File transfer

What is a Browser?
• Netscape Navigator/MS Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google chrome.

• It is our view of the Web

• It is a program (netscape.exe)

Telnet - Connect Text Mode

Telnet is one of the classic applications

• It is a terminal emulator which works over a network connection.

Electronic Mail
• Largest use of Internet for many years

• Electronic Mail is very reliable –

Delivered off-line if necessary – If a connection is down, E-Mail will be stored and retried later

• E-Mail only works when it is read regularly.

E-Mail Addresses
E-Mail addresses consist of a account name and an Internet Domain Name

crs@egr.msu.edu

Account Name Domain Name

• E-Mail addresses are like phone numbers - on your business card.

Post Office Protocol (POP)

With PC’s people like “pointy-clicky”

• PC’s are not always ready to receive

• POP uses a server to accept mail

• When PC starts up, mail is downloaded from the server

• Ease of editing

• Attaching a binary file.

Software which Supports POP

• Eudora

• Netscape

• Microsoft Outlook

• Microsoft Outlook Express

• Many others

FTP - File Transfer Protocol

Used to transfer files

FTP is used to copy files from one host to another. FTP offers the
mechanism for the same in following manner:

 FTP creates two processes such as Control Process and Data Transfer Process at
both ends i.e. at client as well as at server.

 FTP establishes two different connections: one is for data transfer and other is
for control information.

 Control connection is made between control processes while Data

Connection is made between<="" b="" style="box-sizing: border-box;">

 FTP uses port 21 for the control connection and Port 20 for the data
connection.

WWW Tools

hat is WWW?
WWW stands for World Wide Web. A technical definition of the World Wide
Web is − All the resources and users on the Internet that are using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

A broader definition comes from the organization that Web inventor Tim
Berners-Lee helped found, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): The
World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an
embodiment of human knowledge.

In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging information

between computers on the Internet, tying them together into a vast
collection of interactive multimedia resources.

What is HTTP?
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. This is the protocol being used
to transfer hypertext documents that makes the World Wide Web possible.

A standard web address such as Yahoo.com is called a URL and here the
prefix http indicates its protocol

What is URL?
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, and is used to specify addresses
on the World Wide Web. A URL is the fundamental network identification for
any resource connected to the web (e.g., hypertext pages, images, and
sound files).

A URL will have the following format −

protocol://hostname/other_information

The protocol specifies how information is transferred from a link. The

protocol used for web resources is HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Other protocols compatible with most web browsers include FTP, telnet,
newsgroups, and Gopher.

The protocol is followed by a colon, two slashes, and then the domain
name. The domain name is the computer on which the resource is located.

Links to particular files or subdirectories may be further specified after the

domain name. The directory names are separated by single forward
slashes.

What is Website?
Currently you are on our website Tutorialspoint.com which is a collection of
various pages written in HTML markup language. This is a location on the
web where people can find tutorials on latest technologies. Similarly, there
are millions of websites available on the web.

Each page available on the website is called a web page and first page of
any website is called home page for that site.

What is Web Server?

Every Website sits on a computer known as a Web server. This server is
always connected to the internet. Every Web server that is connected to the
Internet is given a unique address made up of a series of four numbers
between 0 and 256 separated by periods. For example, 68.178.157.132 or
68.122.35.127.

When you register a Web address, also known as a domain name, such as
tutorialspoint.com you have to specify the IP address of the Web server that
will host the site.

We will see different type of Web servers in a separate chapter.

What is Web Browser?

Web Browsers are software installed on your PC. To access the Web you
need a web browsers, such as Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Internet
Explorer or Mozilla Firefox.

Currently you must be using any sort of Web browser while you are
navigating through my site tutorialspoint.com. On the Web, when you
navigate through pages of information this is commonly known as browsing
or surfing.

We will see different type of Web browsers in a separate chapter.

What is SMTP Server?

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Server. This server takes
care of delivering emails from one server to another server. When you send
an email to an email address, it is delivered to its recipient by a SMTP
Server.

What is ISP?
ISP stands for Internet Service Provider. They are the companies who
provide you service in terms of internet connection to connect to the
internet.

You will buy space on a Web Server from any Internet Service Provider.
This space will be used to host your Website.

What is HTML?
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. This is the language in
which we write web pages for any Website. Even the page you are reading
right now is written in HTML.

This is a subset of Standard Generalized Mark-Up Language (SGML) for

electronic publishing, the specific standard used for the World Wide Web.

What is Hyperlink?
A hyperlink or simply a link is a selectable element in an electronic
document that serves as an access point to other electronic resources.
Typically, you click the hyperlink to access the linked resource. Familiar
hyperlinks include buttons, icons, image maps, and clickable text links.

What is DNS?
DNS stands for Domain Name System. When someone types in your
domain name, www.example.com, your browser will ask the Domain Name
System to find the IP that hosts your site. When you register your domain
name, your IP address should be put in a DNS along with your domain
name. Without doing it your domain name will not be functioning properly.