Ae01 PDF

C O N TE N T S
Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Part 1. Nondestructive Testing . . . . 2 Part 1. Digital Signal
Part 2. Management of Acoustic Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Emission Testing . . . . . . . . 13 Part 2. Pattern Recognition and
Part 3. History of Acoustic Emission Signal Classification . . . . 157
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Part 3. Classification of Failure
Part 4. Measurement Units for Mechanism Data from
Acoustic Emission Fiberglass Epoxy Tensile
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Part 4. Neural Network Prediction
of Burst Pressure in
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Acoustic
Graphite Epoxy Pressure
Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Part 1. Introduction to Acoustic
Emission Technology . . . . 32
Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing . . . 181
Part 2. Acoustic Emission Noise . . 41
Part 1. Principles of Sonic and
Part 3. Acoustic Emission Signal
Ultrasonic Leak
Characterization . . . . . . . . 45
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Part 4. Acoustic Emission
Part 2. Instrumentation for
Transducers and Their
Ultrasound Leak
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Part 5. Macroscopic Origins of
Part 3. Ultrasound Leak Testing
Acoustic Emission . . . . . . 61
of Pressurized Industrial
Part 6. Microscopic Origins of and Transportation
Acoustic Emission . . . . . . 69 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Part 7. Wave Propagation . . . . . . . 79 Part 4. Ultrasound Leak Testing
of Evacuated Systems . . . 211
Chapter 3. Modeling of Acoustic Part 5. Ultrasound Leak Testing
Emission in Plates . . . . . . . . . . . 109 of Engines, Hydraulic
Part 1. Wave Propagation in Systems, Machinery and
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Part 2. Formal Analytic Part 6. Electrical Inspection . . . . 215
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Part 7. Ultrasound Leak Testing
of Pressurized Telephone
Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Chapter 4. Acoustic Emission Source
Part 8. Acoustic Emission
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Monitoring of Leakage
Part 1. Fundamentals of Acoustic from Vessels, Tanks and
Emission Source Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Part 2. Overdetermined Source
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Part 3. Waveform Based Source
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission Testing Chapter 10. Electric Power
for Process and Condition Applications of Acoustic
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Part 1. Acoustic Emission Testing Part 1. Acoustic Emission Location
in Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 of Incipient Faults in
Part 2. Acoustic Emission Testing Power Transformers . . . . 332
of Resistance Spot Part 2. Acoustic Emission Testing
Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 of High Energy Seam
Part 3. Acoustic Emission Weld Welded Piping . . . . . . . . 342
Monitoring of Aluminum Part 3. Acoustic Emission
Lithium Alloy . . . . . . . . . 235 Monitoring of Loose
Part 4. Acoustic Emission Testing Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
for Machinery Condition Part 4. Acoustic Emission Testing
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . 243 of Steam Turbines . . . . . . 354
Part 5. Acoustic Emission Testing
during Grinding . . . . . . . 251 Chapter 11. Aerospace Applications
Part 6. Crack Detection during of Acoustic Emission Testing . . 359
Straightening of Axles
and Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
of Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Part 2. Fatigue Crack Monitoring
Chapter 8. Acoustic Emission Testing of Aircraft Engine
of Pressure Vessels, Pipes and Cowling in Flight . . . . . . 367
Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Part 3. Acoustic Emission
Part 1. Acoustic Emission Testing Monitoring of Rocket
of Spheres and Other Motor Case during
Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . 272 Hydrostatic Testing . . . . 377
Part 2. Acoustic Emission Part 4. Acoustic Emission
Testing of Composite Prediction of Burst Pressure
Overwrapped Pressure in Fiberglass Epoxy
Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . 383
of Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Chapter 12. Special Applications of
Part 4. Acoustic Emission Testing Acoustic Emission Testing . . . . 391
of Delayed Coke Part 1. Acoustic Emission Testing
Drums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Using Moment Tensor
Part 5. Acoustic Emission Testing Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
of Tank Floors . . . . . . . . . 296 Part 2. Acoustic Emission Testing
for Structural Design of
Chapter 9. Acoustic Emission Testing Grand Prix Cars . . . . . . . 401
of Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Part 3. Acoustic Emission
Part 1. Acoustic Emission Testing Monitoring of Sand in
of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Petroleum Wells . . . . . . . 408
Part 2. Acoustic Emission Part 4. Active Corrosion
Monitoring of Crack Detection Using Acoustic
Growth in Steel Bridge Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Components . . . . . . . . . . 310
Part 3. Evaluation of Slope Chapter 13. Acoustic Emission
Stability by Acoustic Testing Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Emission Testing . . . . . . . 315
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Movie Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

M U LT I M E D I A C O N T E N T S
Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic

Emission Testing
Movie. Discontinuities in steel . . . . 6
Movie. Plastic deformation causes
cry of tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Acoustic

Emission Testing
Movie. Acoustic emission differs
from other methods . . . . . 32
Movie. Pencil break source . . . . . . 36
Movie. Guard transducers control
noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Processing
Movie. System with one
channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing

Movie. Vibration at ultrasonic
frequencies of gas molecules
escaping from orifice . . . 183
Sound. Audible analog of
ultrasonic signal . . . . . . . 194
Movie. Steam system leak test . . 202
Movie. Amplitude rise heard
through ultrasound
detector as rough and
raspy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission Testing

for Process and Condition
Monitoring
Movie. Discontinuities from
welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Chapter 13. Acoustic Emission

Testing Glossary
Movie. Pencil break source . . . . . 431

Figure Sources

Signal Processing
Figure 1 — Vallen-Systeme GmbH, Munich, Germany.

Testing for Process and Condition
Monitoring
Figures 19-26 — Holroyd Instruments, Bonsall Near
Matlock, Derbyshire, United Kingdom
Chapter 11. Aerospace

Applications for Acoustic Emission
Testing
Figures 1-11 — ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA.

Movie Sources
Chapter 1. Introduction to
Movie. Discontinuities in steel — Physical Acoustics
Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for the Federal Highway
Administration, United States Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC.
Movie. Plastic deformation causes cry of tin — Physical
Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for the
Federal Highway Administration, United States
Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Chapter 2. Fundamentals of
Movie. Acoustic emission differs from other methods —
Physical Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for
the Federal Highway Administration, United States
Movie. Pencil break source — Physical Acoustics
Corporation, Princeton, NJ.
Movie. Guard transducers control noise — Physical
Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ; for the
Federal Highway Administration, United States

Signal Processing
Movie. System with one channel — Physical Acoustics
Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing

Movie. Ultrasonic vibration of gas molecules escaping
orifice — UE Systems, Elmsford, NY.
Sound. Audible analog of ultrasonic signal — UE Systems,
Elmsford, NY.
Movie. Steam system leak test — UE Systems, Elmsford,
NY.
Movie. Amplitude rise heard through ultrasound detector
as rough and raspy — UE Systems, Elmsford, NY.

Testing for Process and
Condition Monitoring
Movie. Discontinuities from welds — Physical Acoustics

Testing Glossary
Movie. Pencil break source — Physical Acoustics
Index 447
C
1
H A P T E R
Introduction to Acoustic
Emission Testing
Marvin W. Trimm, Westinghouse Savannah River

Company, Aiken, South Carolina (Parts 1 and 2)
Thomas F. Drouillard, Golden, Colorado (Part 3)
Ronnie K. Miller, Loveland, Ohio (Part 2)
Holger H. Streckert, General Atomics, San Diego,
California (Part 4)
PART 1. Nondestructive Testing
the samples are poured down the drain

Definition after testing.
Nondestructive testing is not confined
Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been to crack detection. Other anomalies
defined as comprising those methods used include porosity, wall thinning from
to test a part or material or system corrosion and many sorts of disbonds.
without impairing its future usefulness.1 Nondestructive material characterization
The term is generally applied to is a field concerned with properties
nonmedical investigations of material including material identification and
integrity. microstructural characteristics — such as
Nondestructive testing is used to resin curing, case hardening and stress —
investigate specifically the material that have a direct influence on the service
integrity or properties of the test object. A life of the test object.
number of other technologies — for
instance, radio astronomy, voltage and
amperage measurement and rheometry
(flow measurement) — are nondestructive Methods and Techniques
but are not used specifically to evaluate
Nondestructive testing has also been
material properties. Radar and sonar are
defined by listing or classifying the
classified as nondestructive testing when
various techniques.1-3 This approach to
used to inspect dams, for instance, but
nondestructive testing is practical in that it
not when they are used to chart a river
typically highlights methods in use by
bottom.
industry.
Nondestructive testing asks “Is there
In the Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
something wrong with this material?” In
the word method is used for a group of test
contrast, performance and proof tests ask
techniques that share a form of probing
“Does this component work?” It is not
energy. The ultrasonic test method, for
considered nondestructive testing when
example, uses acoustic waves at a higher
an inspector checks a circuit by running
frequency than audible sound. Infrared
electric current through it. Hydrostatic
and thermal testing and radiographic
pressure testing is a form of proof testing
testing are two test methods that use
that sometimes destroys the test object.
electromagnetic radiation, each in a
A gray area in the definition of
defined wavelength range. The word
nondestructive testing is the phrase future
technique, in contrast, denotes a way of
usefulness. Some material investigations
adapting the method to the application.
involve taking a sample of the test object
Through-transmission immersion testing
for a test that is inherently destructive. A
is a technique of the ultrasonic method,
noncritical part of a pressure vessel may
for example.
be scraped or shaved to get a sample for
electron microscopy, for example.
Although future usefulness of the vessel is
not impaired by the loss of material, the Purposes of
procedure is inherently destructive and
the shaving itself — in one sense the true Nondestructive Testing
test object — has been removed from Since the 1920s, the art of testing without
service permanently. destroying the test object has developed
The idea of future usefulness is relevant from a laboratory curiosity to an
to the quality control practice of indispensable tool of fabrication,
sampling. Sampling (that is, less than construction, manufacturing and
100 percent testing to draw inferences maintenance processes. No longer is
about the unsampled lots) is visual testing of materials, parts and
nondestructive testing if the tested sample complete products the principal means of
is returned to service. If steel bolts are determining adequate quality.
tested to verify their alloy and are then Nondestructive tests in great variety are in
returned to service, then the test is worldwide use to detect variations in
nondestructive. In contrast, even if structure, minute changes in surface
spectroscopy used in the chemical testing finish, the presence of cracks or other
of many fluids is inherently physical discontinuities, to measure the
nondestructive, the testing is destructive if thickness of materials and coatings and to
2 Acoustic Emission Testing

determine other characteristics of and luggage are also lighter and more
industrial products. Scientists and heavily loaded than ever before. The stress
engineers of many countries have to be supported is seldom static. It often
contributed greatly to nondestructive test fluctuates and reverses at low or high
development and applications. frequencies. Frequency of stress reversals
How is nondestructive testing useful? increases with the speeds of modern
Why do thousands of industrial concerns machines, so components tend to fatigue
buy the test equipment, pay the and fail more rapidly.
subsequent operating costs of the testing Another cause of increased stress on
and even reshape manufacturing modern products is a reduction in the
processes to fit the needs and findings of safety factor. An engineer designs with
nondestructive testing? Modern certain known loads in mind. On the
nondestructive tests are used by supposition that materials and
manufacturers (1) to ensure product workmanship are never perfect, a safety
integrity and in turn reliability, (2) to factor of 2, 3, 5 or 10 is applied. However,
avoid failures, prevent accidents and save a lower factor is often used that depends
human life (see Figs. 1 and 2), (3) to make on considerations such as cost or weight.
a profit for the user, (4) to ensure New demands on machinery have also
customer satisfaction and maintain the stimulated the development and use of
manufacturer’s reputation, (5) to aid in new materials whose operating
better product design, (6) to control characteristics and performance are not
manufacturing processes, (7) to lower completely known. These new materials
manufacturing costs, (8) to maintain could create greater and potentially
uniform quality levels and (9) to ensure dangerous problems. For example, an
operational readiness. aircraft part was built from an alloy whose
These reasons for widespread and work hardening, notch resistance and
profitable nondestructive testing are fatigue life were not well known. After
sufficient in themselves but parallel relatively short periods of service, some of
developments have contributed to the the aircraft using these parts suffered
technology’s growth and acceptance. disastrous failures. Sufficient and proper
nondestructive tests could have saved
Increased Demand on Machines many lives.
As technology improves and as service
In the interest of greater performance and requirements increase, machines are
reduced cost for materials, the design subjected to greater variations and to
engineer is often under pressure to reduce wider extremes of all kinds of stress,
weight. This can sometimes be done by creating an increasing demand for
substituting aluminum alloys, magnesium stronger or more damage tolerant
alloys or composite materials for steel or materials.
iron but such light parts may not be the
same size or design as those they replace.
The tendency is also to reduce the size.
These pressures on the designer have FIGURE 2. Boilers operate with high internal steam pressure.
subjected parts of all sorts to increased Material discontinuities can lead to sudden, violent failure
stress levels. Even such commonplace with possible injury to people and property.
objects as sewing machines, sauce pans
FIGURE 1. Fatigue cracks contributed to damage to aircraft

fuselage in flight (April 1988).
Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 3

Engineering Demands for Sounder separate machines, the broken one could
Materials be bypassed until repaired. Today, one
machine is often tied into the production
Another justification for nondestructive of several others. Loss of such production
tests is the designer’s demand for sounder is one of the greatest losses resulting from
materials. As size and weight decrease and part failure.
the factor of safety is lowered, more
emphasis is placed on better raw material
control and higher quality of materials,
manufacturing processes and Applications of
workmanship.
An interesting fact is that a producer of
Nondestructive Testing
raw material or of a finished product Nondestructive testing is a branch of
sometimes does not improve quality or materials science that is concerned with
performance until that improvement is all aspects of the uniformity, quality and
demanded by the customer. The pressure serviceability of materials and structures.
of the customer is transferred to The science of nondestructive testing
implementation of improved design or incorporates all the technology for process
manufacturing. Nondestructive testing is monitoring and detection and
frequently called on to deliver this new measurement of significant properties,
quality level. including discontinuities, in items
ranging from research test objects to
finished hardware and products in service.
Public Demands for Greater Safety By definition, nondestructive test
The demands and expectations of the methods provide a means for examining
public for greater safety are apparent materials and structures without
everywhere. Review the record of the disruption or impairment of serviceability.
courts in granting high awards to injured Nondestructive testing makes it possible
persons. Consider the outcry for greater for internal properties or hidden
automobile safety as evidenced by the discontinuities to be revealed or inferred.
required automotive safety belts and the Nondestructive testing is becoming
demand for air bags, blowout proof tires increasingly vital in the effective conduct
and antilock braking systems. The of research, development, design and
publicly supported activities of the manufacturing programs. Only with
National Safety Council, Underwriters appropriate nondestructive testing
Laboratories, the Occupational Safety and methods can the benefits of advanced
Health Administration, the Federal materials science be fully realized. The
Aviation Administration and other information required for appreciating the
agencies around the world are only a few broad scope of nondestructive testing is
of the ways in which this demand for available in many publications and
safety is expressed. It has been expressed reports.
directly by passengers who cancel
reservations following a serious aircraft
accident. This demand for personal safety
has been another strong force in the Classification of Methods
development of nondestructive tests. The National Materials Advisory Board
(NMAB) Ad Hoc Committee on
Rising Costs of Failure Nondestructive Evaluation adopted a
system that classified techniques into six
Aside from awards to the injured or to
major method categories: visual,
estates of the deceased and aside from
penetrating radiation, magnetic-electrical,
costs to the public (because of evacuation
mechanical vibration, thermal and
occasioned by chemical leaks, for
chemical/electrochemical.3 A modified
example), there are other factors in the
version is presented in Table 1.1
rising costs of mechanical failure.
Each method can be completely
These costs are increasing for many
characterized in terms of five principal
reasons. Some important ones are
factors: (1) energy source or medium used
(1) greater costs of materials and labor,
to probe the object (such as X-rays,
(2) greater costs of complex parts,
ultrasonic waves or thermal radiation);
(3) greater costs because of the complexity
(2) nature of the signals, image or
of assemblies, (4) a greater probability that
signature resulting from interaction with
failure of one part will cause failure of
the object (attenuation of X-rays or
others because of overloads, (5) the
reflection of ultrasound, for example);
probability that the failure of one part
(3) means of detecting or sensing
will damage other parts of high value and
resultant signals (photoemulsion,
(6) part failure in an integrated automatic
piezoelectric crystal or inductance coil);
production machine, shutting down an
(4) means of indicating or recording
entire high speed production line. When
signals (meter deflection, oscilloscope
production was carried out on many

TABLE 1. Nondestructive test method categories.
Categories Detection Objectives
Basic Categories
Mechanical and optical color, cracks, dimensions, film thickness, gaging, reflectivity, strain distribution and magnitude, surface
finish, surface flaws, through-cracks
Penetrating radiation cracks; density and chemistry variations; elemental distribution; foreign objects; inclusions; microporosity;
misalignment; missing parts; segregation; service degradation; shrinkage; thickness; voids
Electromagnetic and electronic alloy content; anisotropy; cavities; cold work; local strain, hardness; composition; contamination;
corrosion; cracks; crack depth; crystal structure; electrical conductivities; flakes; heat treatment;
hot tears; inclusions; ion concentrations; laps; lattice strain; layer thickness; moisture content;
polarization; seams; segregation; shrinkage; state of cure; tensile strength; thickness; disbonds; voids
Sonic and ultrasonic crack initiation and propagation; cracks, voids; damping factor; degree of cure; degree of impregnation;
degree of sintering; delaminations; density; dimensions; elastic moduli; grain size; inclusions;
mechanical degradation; misalignment; porosity; radiation degradation; structure of composites;
surface stress; tensile, shear and compressive strength; disbonds; wear
Infrared and thermal anisotropy, bonding; composition; emissivity; heat contours; plating thickness; porosity; reflectivity;
stress; thermal conductivity; thickness; voids; cracks; delaminations; heat treatment; state of cure;
moisture; corrosion
Chemical and analytical alloy identification; composition; cracks; elemental analysis and distribution; grain size; inclusions;
macrostructure; porosity; segregation; surface anomalies
Auxiliary Categories
Image generation dimensional variations; dynamic performance; anomaly characterization and definition; anomaly
distribution; anomaly propagation; magnetic field configurations
Signal image analysis data selection, processing and display; anomaly mapping, correlation and identification; image
enhancement; separation of multiple variables; signature analysis
trace or radiograph); and (5) basis for the detection or characterization of

interpreting the results (direct or indirect discontinuities, properties and other
indication, qualitative or quantitative and attributes and limit interpretation of
pertinent dependencies). signals or images generated.
The objective of each method is to
provide information about one or more of Classification Relative to Test
the following material parameters:
(1) discontinuities and separations (cracks, Object
voids, inclusions, delaminations and Nondestructive testing techniques may be
others); (2) structure or malstructure classified according to how they detect
(crystalline structure, grain size, indications relative to the surface of a test
segregation, misalignment and others); object. Surface methods include liquid
(3) dimensions and metrology (thickness, penetrant testing, visual testing, grid
diameter, gap size, discontinuity size and testing and moiré testing.
others); (4) physical and mechanical Surface/near-surface methods include tap,
properties (reflectivity, conductivity, holographic, shearographic, magnetic
elastic modulus, sonic velocity and particle and electromagnetic testing.
others); (5) composition and chemical When surface or near-surface methods are
analysis (alloy identification, impurities, applied during intermediate
elemental distributions and others); manufacturing processes, they provide
(6) stress and dynamic response (residual preliminary assurance that volumetric
stress, crack growth, wear, vibration and methods performed on the completed
others); (7) signature analysis (image object or component will reveal few
content, frequency spectrum, field rejectable discontinuities. Volumetric
configuration and others); and methods include radiography, ultrasonic
(8) abnormal sources of heat. testing, acoustic emission testing and less
Material characteristics in Table 1 are widely used methods such as
further defined in Table 2 with respect to acoustoultrasonic testing and magnetic
specific objectives and specific attributes resonance imaging. Through-boundary
to be measured, detected and defined. techniques include leak testing, some
The limitations of a method include infrared thermographic techniques,
conditions to be met for method airborne ultrasonic testing and certain
application (access, physical contact, techniques of acoustic emission testing.
preparation and others) and requirements Other less easily classified methods are
to adapt the probe or probe medium to material identification, vibration analysis
the object examined. Other factors limit and strain gaging.

TABLE 2. Objectives of nondestructive test methods.
Objectives Attributes Measured or Detected
Discontinuities and Separations

Surface anomalies roughness, scratches, gouges, crazing, pitting, imbedded foreign material
Surface connected anomalies cracks, porosity, pinholes, laps, seams, folds, inclusions MOVIE.
Internal anomalies cracks, separations, hot tears, cold shuts, shrinkage, voids, lack of fusion, pores, cavities, delaminations, Discontinuities
disbonds, poor bonds, inclusions, segregations in steel.
Structure
Microstructure molecular structure; crystalline structure and/or strain; lattice structure; strain; dislocation; vacancy;
deformation
Matrix structure grain structure, size, orientation and phase; sinter and porosity; impregnation; filler and/or reinforcement
distribution; anisotropy; heterogeneity; segregation
Small structural anomalies leaks (lack of seal or through-holes), poor fit, poor contact, loose parts, loose particles, foreign objects
Gross structural anomalies assembly errors; misalignment; poor spacing or ordering; deformation; malformation; missing parts
Dimensions and Metrology
Displacement; position linear measurement; separation; gap size; discontinuity size, depth, location and orientation
Dimensional variations unevenness; nonuniformity; eccentricity; shape and contour; size and mass variations
Thickness; density film, coating, layer, plating, wall and sheet thickness; density or thickness variations
Physical and Mechanical Properties
Electrical properties resistivity; conductivity; dielectric constant and dissipation factor
Magnetic properties polarization; permeability; ferromagnetism; cohesive force, susceptibility
Thermal properties conductivity; thermal time constant and thermoelectric potential; diffusivity; effusivity; specific heat
Mechanical properties compressive, shear and tensile strength (and moduli); Poisson’s ratio; sonic velocity; hardness; temper
and embrittlement
Surface properties color, reflectivity, refraction index, emissivity
Chemical Composition and Analysis
Elemental analysis detection, identification, distribution and/or profile
Impurity concentrations contamination, depletion, doping and diffusants
Metallurgical content variation; alloy identification, verification and sorting
Physiochemical state moisture content; degree of cure; ion concentrations and corrosion; reaction products
Stress and Dynamic Response
Stress, strain, fatigue heat treatment, annealing and cold work effects; stress and strain; fatigue damage and residual life
Mechanical damage wear, spalling, erosion, friction effects
Chemical damage corrosion, stress corrosion, phase transformation
Other damage radiation damage and high frequency voltage breakdown
Dynamic performance crack initiation, crack propagation, plastic deformation, creep, excessive motion, vibration, damping,
timing of events, any anomalous behavior
Signature Analysis
Electromagnetic field potential; intensity; field distribution and pattern
Thermal field isotherms, heat contours, temperatures, heat flow, temperature distribution, heat leaks, hot spots, contrast
Acoustic signature noise, vibration characteristics, frequency amplitude, harmonic spectrum, harmonic analysis, sonic
emissions, ultrasonic emissions
Radioactive signature distribution and diffusion of isotopes and tracers
Signal or image analysis image enhancement and quantization; pattern recognition; densitometry; signal classification, separation
and correlation; discontinuity identification, definition (size and shape) and distribution analysis;
discontinuity mapping and display
No one nondestructive testing method must be detected and eliminated and if

is all revealing. In some cases, one the object or component is made of
method or technique may be adequate for ferromagnetic material, then magnetic
testing a specific object or component. particle testing would be the appropriate
However, in most cases, it takes a series of choice. If the material is aluminum or
test methods to do a complete titanium, then the choice would be liquid
nondestructive test of an object or penetrant or electromagnetic testing.
component. For example, if surface cracks However, if internal discontinuities are to

be detected, then ultrasonic testing or aerospace industries. However, in
radiography would be chosen. The exact industries such as heavy metals,
technique in each case would depend on nondestructive testing may be accepted
the thickness and nature of the material reluctantly because its contribution to
and the types of discontinuities that must profits may not be obvious to
be detected. management. Nondestructive testing is
sometimes thought of only as a cost item
and can be curtailed by industry
downsizing. When a company cuts costs,
Value of Nondestructive two vulnerable areas are quality and
Testing safety. When bidding contract work,
companies add profit margin to all cost
The contribution of nondestructive items, including nondestructive testing, so
testing to profits has been acknowledged a profit should be made on the
in the medical field and computer and nondestructive testing. The attitude
toward nondestructive testing is positive
when management understands its value.
Nondestructive testing should be used
FIGURE 3. Acoustic emission testing: (a) setup with eight as a control mechanism to ensure that
sensors to locate crack propagation; (b) floor beam manufacturing processes are within design
monitored on a suspension bridge. performance requirements. When used
(a) properly, nondestructive testing saves
money for the manufacturer. Rather than
Acoustic costing the manufacturer money,
emission nondestructive testing should add profits
event to the manufacturing process.
Preamplifier
Sensor
Other Nondestructive Test

Methods
To optimize the use of nondestructive
testing, it is necessary first to understand
the principles and applications of all the
methods. This volume features acoustic
emission testing (Fig. 3) — one of many
nondestructive test methods. The
following section briefly describes several
other methods and the applications
Computer
associated with them.
Visual Testing
Principles. Visual testing (Fig. 4) is the
Test observation of a test object, either directly
object with the eyes or indirectly using optical
Data
acquisition
(b) FIGURE 4. Visual test using a borescope to

view the interior of a cylinder.

instruments, by an inspector to evaluate wet the surface, cleanliness of the cavity
the presence of surface anomalies and the and size of the surface opening of the
object’s conformance to specification. cavity.
Visual testing should be the first Applications. The principal industrial uses
nondestructive test method applied to an of liquid penetrant testing include
item. The test procedure is to clean the postfabrication testing, receiving testing,
surface, provide adequate illumination in-process testing and quality control,
and observe. A prerequisite necessary for testing for maintenance and overhaul in
competent visual testing of an object is the transportation industries, in-plant and
knowledge of the manufacturing processes machinery maintenance testing and
by which it was made, of its service testing of large components. The
history and of its potential failure modes, following are some of the typically
as well as related industry experience. detected discontinuities: surface
Applications. Visual testing provides a discontinuities, seams, cracks, laps,
means of examining a variety of surfaces. porosity and leak paths.
It is the most widely used method for
detecting surface discontinuities Magnetic Particle Testing
associated with various structural failure
mechanisms. Even when other Principles. Magnetic particle testing
nondestructive tests are performed, visual (Fig. 6) is a method of locating surface
tests often provide a useful supplement. and near-surface discontinuities in
When the eddy current testing of process ferromagnetic materials. It depends on the
tubing is performed, for example, visual fact that when the test object is
testing is often performed to verify and magnetized, discontinuities that lie in a
more closely examine the surface direction generally transverse to the
condition. The following discontinuities direction of the magnetic field will cause a
may be detected by a simple visual test: magnetic flux leakage field to be formed
surface discontinuities, cracks, at and above the surface of the test object.
misalignment, warping, corrosion, wear The presence of this leakage field and
and physical damage. therefore the presence of the
discontinuity is detected with fine
ferromagnetic particles applied over the
Liquid Penetrant Testing surface, with some of the particles being
Principles. Liquid penetrant testing (Fig. 5) gathered and held to form an outline of
reveals discontinuities open to the the discontinuity. This generally indicates
surfaces of solid and nonporous materials. its location, size, shape and extent.
Indications of a wide variety of Magnetic particles are applied over a
discontinuity sizes can be found regardless surface as dry particles or as wet particles
of the configuration of the test object and in a liquid carrier such as water or oil.
regardless of discontinuity orientations. Applications. The principal industrial uses
Liquid penetrants seep into various types of magnetic particle testing include final,
of minute surface openings by capillary receiving and in-process testing; testing
action. The cavities of interest can be very for quality control; testing for
small, often invisible to the unaided eye. maintenance and overhaul in the
The ability of a given liquid to flow over a transportation industries; testing for plant
surface and enter surface cavities depends and machinery maintenance; and testing
principally on the following: cleanliness of large components. Some of the
of the surface, surface tension of the
liquid, configuration of the cavity, contact
angle of the liquid, ability of the liquid to
FIGURE 6. In magnetic particle testing, particles gather where
lines of magnetic flux leak from a discontinuity.
FIGURE 5. Liquid penetrant indication of

Magnetic particles
cracking.
S N
N S
Crack
Legend
N = north pole
S = south pole

typically detected discontinuities are based on indirect measurement and on
surface discontinuities, seams, cracks and correlation between the instrument
laps. reading and the structural characteristics
and serviceability of the test objects.
Eddy Current Testing With a basic system, the test object is
placed within or next to an electric coil in
Principles. Based on electromagnetic which high frequency alternating current
induction, eddy current testing (Fig. 7) is is flowing. This excitation current
perhaps the best known of the techniques establishes an electromagnetic field
in the electromagnetic test method. Eddy around the coil. This primary field causes
current testing is used to identify or eddy current to flow in the test object
differentiate among a wide variety of because of electromagnetic induction.
physical, structural and metallurgical Inversely, the eddy currents affected by all
conditions in electrically conductive characteristics (conductivity, permeability,
ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic thickness, discontinuities and geometry)
metals and metal parts. The method is of the test object create a secondary
magnetic field that opposes the primary
field. This interaction affects the coil
voltage and can be displayed in various
FIGURE 7. Electromagnetic testing: (a) representative setup ways.
for an eddy current test; (b) inservice detection of Eddy currents flow in closed loops in
discontinuities. the test object. Their two most important
characteristics, amplitude and phase, are
(a) influenced by the arrangement and
Primary electromagnetic field characteristics of the instrumentation and
Coil in eddy current probe test object. For example, during the test of
a tube, the eddy currents flow
symmetrically in the tube when
discontinuities are not present. However,
Direction of when a crack is present, then the eddy
primary current current flow is impeded and changed in
direction, causing significant changes in
the associated electromagnetic field.
Induced field Applications. An important industrial use
of eddy current testing is on heat
exchanger tubing. For example, eddy
current testing is often specified for thin
wall tubing in pressurized water reactors,
steam generators, turbine condensers and
Direction of eddy
currents
air conditioning heat exchangers. Eddy
Conducting specimen current testing is also used in aircraft
Eddy current strength maintenance. The following are some of
decreases with
increasing depth
the typical material characteristics that
can be evaluated by eddy current testing:
(b) cracks, inclusions, dents and holes; grain
size and hardness; coating and material
thickness; dimensions and geometry;
composition, conductivity or
permeability; and alloy composition.
Radiographic Testing
Principles. Radiographic testing (Fig. 8) is
based on the test object’s differential
absorption of penetrating radiation —
either electromagnetic radiation of very
short wavelength or particulate radiation
(X-rays, gamma rays and neutrons).
Different portions of an object absorb
different amounts of penetrating radiation
because of differences in density and
variations in thickness of the test object
or differences in absorption characteristics
caused by variation in composition. These
variations in the absorption of the
penetrating radiation can be monitored
by detecting the unabsorbed radiation
that passes through the object. This

monitoring may be in different forms. measurement and the detection of
The traditional form is through radiation discontinuities. This method can be used
sensitive film. Radioscopic sensors provide to detect internal discontinuities in most
digital images. engineering metals and alloys. Bonds
X-ray computed tomography is another produced by welding, brazing, soldering
radiographic technique. and adhesives can also be ultrasonically
Applications. The principal industrial uses tested. Inline techniques have been
of radiographic testing involve testing of developed for monitoring and classifying
castings and weldments, particularly materials as acceptable, salvageable or
where there is a critical need to ensure scrap and for process control. Other
freedom from internal discontinuities. applications include testing of piping and
Radiographic testing is often specified for pressure vessels, nuclear systems, motor
thick wall castings and for weldments in vehicles, machinery, railroad rolling stock
steam power equipment (boiler and and bridges.
turbine components and assemblies). The
method can also be used on forgings and
mechanical assemblies, although with
mechanical assemblies radiographic FIGURE 9. Classic setups for ultrasonic testing:
testing is usually limited to testing for (a) longitudinal wave technique; (b) shear wave technique.
conditions and proper placement of
components. Radiographic testing is used (a)
to detect inclusions, lack of fusion, cracks,
corrosion, porosity, leak paths, missing or
incomplete components and debris.
Ultrasonic Testing
Principles. Ultrasonic testing (Fig. 9) is a
Crack
nondestructive method in which beams of
acoustic waves at a frequency too high to
hear are introduced into a material for the
detection of surface and subsurface
discontinuities. These acoustic waves Time
travel through the material with some
attendant loss of energy (attenuation) and Bolt
are reflected at interfaces. The echoes are
then analyzed to define the presence and Back surface
locations of discontinuities.
Applications. Ultrasonic testing is widely
used in metals, principally for thickness
Transducer
Crack
FIGURE 8. Representative setup for radiographic testing.
(b)
Radiation source
Crack
Specimen
Void
Entry surface
Crack
Image plane Discontinuity images

Leak Testing Infrared and Thermal Testing
Principles. Leak testing is concerned with Principles. Conduction, convection and
the flow of liquids or gases from radiation are the primary mechanisms of
pressurized components or into evacuated heat transfer in an object or system.
components. The principles of leak testing Electromagnetic radiation is emitted from
involve the physics of fluid (liquids or all bodies to a degree that depends on
gases) flowing through a barrier where a their energy state.
pressure differential or capillary action Thermal testing involves the
exists. measurement or mapping of surface
Leak testing encompasses procedures temperatures when heat flows from, to or
that fall into these basic functions: leak through a test object. Temperature
location, leakage measurement and differentials on a surface, or changes in
leakage monitoring. There are several surface temperature with time, are related
subsidiary methods of leak testing, to heat flow patterns and can be used to
entailing tracer gas detection (Fig. 10), detect discontinuities or to determine the
pressure change measurement, heat transfer characteristics of an object.
observation of bubble formation, acoustic For example, during the operation of an
emission leak testing and other principles. electrical breaker, a hot spot detected at
Applications. Like other forms of an electrical termination may be caused
nondestructive testing, leak testing has an by a loose or corroded connection
impact on the safety and performance of (Fig. 11). The resistance to electrical flow
a product. Reliable leak testing decreases through the connection produces an
costs by reducing the number of reworked increase in surface temperature of the
products, warranty repairs and liability connection.
claims. The most common reasons for Applications. There are two basic
performing a leak test are to prevent the categories of infrared and thermal test
loss of costly materials or energy; to applications: electrical and mechanical.
prevent contamination of the The specific applications within these two
environment; to ensure component or categories are numerous.
system reliability; and to prevent an Electrical applications include
explosion or fire. transmission and distribution lines,
transformers, disconnects, switches, fuses,
relays, breakers, motor windings,
capacitor banks, cable trays, bus taps and
FIGURE 10. Leakage measurement dynamic leak testing using other components and subsystems.
vacuum pumping: (a) pressurized system mode for leak
testing of smaller components; (b) pressurized envelope
mode for leak testing of larger volume systems.
(a) FIGURE 11. Infrared thermography of
automatic transfer switches for an
Envelope emergency diesel generator. Hot spots
appear bright in thermogram (inset).
Leak detector
System
under
test
Source of tracer gas
(b)
Envelope
System
under
test
Leak detector
Source of tracer gas

Mechanical applications include
insulation (in boilers, furnaces, kilns,
piping, ducts, vessels, refrigerated trucks
and systems, tank cars and elsewhere),
friction in rotating equipment (bearings,
couplings, gears, gearboxes, conveyor
belts, pumps, compressors and other
components) and fluid flow (steam lines;
heat exchangers; tank fluid levels;
exothermic reactions; heating, ventilation
and air conditioning systems; leaks above
and below ground; cooling and heating;
tube blockages; environmental assessment
of thermal discharge; boiler or furnace air
leakage; condenser or turbine system
leakage; pumps; compressors; and other
system applications).
Other Methods
There are many other methods of
nondestructive testing, including optical
methods such as holography,
shearography and moiré imaging; material
identification methods such as chemical
spot testing, spark testing and
spectroscopy; strain gaging; and acoustic
methods such as vibration analysis and
tapping.

PART 2. Management of Acoustic Emission
Testing
object. Nearly every kind of material

Selection of Acoustic generates acoustic emission under load.
When properly instrumented, an entire
Emission Testing4 structure can be tested by applying loads
Acoustic emission testing is an important equal to or slightly greater than those
method within the broad field of experienced during normal operation. For
nondestructive materials testing. Acoustic this reason, acoustic emission testing is
emission test techniques usually fall into often used to test structures as they are
one of the following categories: pressure being operated. The test has minimal
(or acceptance) testing, diagnostics, impact on operations. The method also
condition monitoring and leak detection. lends itself to initial acceptance testing, as
Some techniques can be subdivided even in hydrostatic testing of new vessels.
further. Condition monitoring, for In some applications, multiple sensors
example, can be divided into machinery are used to distinguish different sources of
monitoring, process monitoring and emission. Triangulation techniques are
health monitoring. Proof testing is the available that allow the location of the
most widely used application as applied to source (or discontinuity) to be identified.
new and inservice pressure vessels as well Information about the source of the
as a variety of equipment used in various acoustic emission can be found within the
industries. signals detected and stored. Advances in
Acoustic emission instrumentation is signal processing allow the user to
designed to detect the structural or liquid determine whether acoustic emission
borne sound generated by a source within sources are caused by internal
a material, sound that can be caused by discontinuities or are irrelevant sources of
crack initiation, crack tip yielding, crack noise.
extension, certain phase changes,
turbulent flow or leakage, boiling, Limitations of Acoustic Emission
chemical reaction, friction or fretting,
impact, matrix cracking, delamination,
Testing
disbonding or fiber breakage. Acoustic emission is an irreversible
Many specific applications have been process. Once a material or discontinuity
developed using acoustic emission. generates acoustic emission under load,
Detection of discontinuities is the largest the discontinuity must either grow or be
class of applications. Specific applications subjected to a higher load to generate
include detecting discontinuities formed more acoustic emission. This
during welding; detecting tool wear and irreversability, called the kaiser effect, can
undesired tool contact during automated be to the user’s advantage but it is also a
machining; detecting wear and loss of limitation because most nondestructive
lubrication in rotating equipment; testing requires retesting to verify a
detecting loose parts inside operating discontinuity or indication.
equipment; detecting, locating and For example, if a crack is detected
assessing leaks; detecting when cavitation through acoustic emission testing and the
occurs; determining when fluid flow crack is in a stable growth stage, it cannot
becomes turbulent; acceptance testing of be detected by repeating the previous
new equipment; and pressure testing of loads. To verify its existence with acoustic
inservice equipment. emission, a second loading would have to
be applied that is greater than the first.
Background noise can have a major
Advantages of Acoustic Emission impact on acoustic emission testing and
Testing even prevent a test from being performed.
Modern acoustic emission test techniques Background noise can usually be isolated
offer an economical means for high to mechanical sources (friction, fretting,
speed, large scale testing of materials and high flow), electrical sources
structures such as those found in nearly (electromagnetic and radio frequency
every industry. In a typical test, a interference) and environmental sources
controlled mechanical load is used to such as rain, wind and sleet. If these
stimulate acoustic emission in the test sources of noise cannot be removed or
controlled by physical precautions,

filtering or detection threshold 4. If a scope of work is required, who is
adjustment, then a test should not be technically qualified to develop and
performed. approve it?
Acoustic emission propagates as a stress 5. What products or documents (test
wave. As such, its signal loses amplitude reports, trending, recommendations,
primarily because of geometric beam root cause analysis and others) will be
spreading, attenuation and damping. As a provided once the tests are completed?
result, the sensors must be kept within a 6. Who will evaluate and accept the
reasonable distance from the source and product (test reports, trending,
each other, especially if there is a need to recommendations, root cause analysis
locate the source. Source location requires and others) within the service
that multiple sensors detect an event and company?
are capable of providing accurate 7. Do the service company workers
time-of-arrival information. possess qualifications and
certifications required by contract and
by applicable regulations?
8. Do the service company workers
Management of Acoustic require site specific training (confined
Emission Testing Programs space entry, electrical safety, hazardous
materials and others) or clearance to
Management of an acoustic emission enter and work in the facility?
testing program requires consideration of 9. Does the service company retain any
many items before it can produce the liability for test results?
desired results. Six basic questions must
be answered before a true direction can be
charted. They are as follows. Consultants
1. Are regulatory requirements in place 1. Will the contract be for time and
that mandate program characteristics? materials or have a specific scope of
2. What is the magnitude of the program work?
that will provide desired results? 2. If a scope of work is required, who is
3. What provisions must be made for technically qualified to develop and
personnel safety and for compliance approve it?
with environmental regulations? 3. Who will identify the required
4. What is the performance date for a qualifications of the consultant?
program to be fully implemented? 4. Is the purpose of the consultant to
5. Is there a cost benefit of acoustic develop or update a program or is it to
emission testing? oversee and evaluate the performance
6. What are the available resources in of an existing program?
personnel and money? 5. Will the consultant have oversight
Once these questions are answered, responsibility for tests performed?
then a recommendation can be made to 6. What products (trending,
determine the type of inspection agency. recommendations, root cause analysis
Three primary types of agencies and others) are provided once the tests
responsible for inspection are (1) service are completed?
companies, (2) consultants and 7. Who will evaluate the consultant’s
(3) in-house programs. performance (test reports, trending,
Although these are the main agency recommendations, root cause analysis
types, some programs may, routinely or as and other functions) within the
needed, require support personnel from a sponsoring company?
combination of two or more of these 8. Does the consultant possess
sources. Before a final decision is made, qualifications and certifications
advantages and disadvantages of each required by contract and by applicable
agency type must be considered. regulations?
Therefore the following details must be 9. Does the consultant require site
considered. specific training (confined space entry,
electrical safety, hazardous materials
and others) or clearance to enter and
Service Companies work in the facility?
1. Who will identify the components 10. Does the consultant retain any
within the facility to be examined? liability for test results?
2. Will the contract be for time and
materials or have a specific scope of In-House Programs
work?
3. If a time and materials contract is 1. Who will determine the scope of the
awarded, who will monitor the time program, such as which techniques
and materials charged? will be used?

2. What are the regulatory requirements 6. Equipment characteristics, calibration
(codes and standards) associated with requirements and model numbers of
program development and qualified equipment must be specified.
implementation? 7. The test procedure provides a sequential
3. Who will develop a cost benefit process to be used to conduct test
analysis for the program? activities.
4. How much time and what resources 8. Acceptance criteria establish component
are available to establish the program? characteristics that will identify the
5. What are the qualification items suitable for service.
requirements (education, training, 9. Reports (records) provide the means to
experience and others) for personnel? document specific test techniques,
6. Do program personnel require equipment used, personnel, activity,
additional training (safety, confined date performed and test results.
space entry or others) or 10. Attachments may include (if required)
qualifications? items such as report forms, instrument
7. Are subject matter experts required to calibration forms, qualified equipment
provide technical guidance during matrix, schedules and others.
personnel development? Once the procedure is completed,
8. Are procedures required to perform typically an expert in the subject matter
work in the facility? evaluates it. If the procedure is judged to
9. If procedures are required, who will meet identified requirements, the expert
develop, review and approve them? will approve it for use. Some codes and
10. Who will determine the technical standards also require the procedure to be
specifications for test equipment? qualified — that is, demonstrated to the
satisfaction of a representative of a
regulatory body or jurisdictional
authority.
Test Procedures for
The conduct of test operations (in-house Test Specifications for
or contracted) should be performed in
accordance with specific instructions from Acoustic Emission Testing4
an expert. Specific instructions are An acoustic emission test specification
typically written in the form of a must anticipate a number of issues that
technical procedure. In many cases, codes arise during testing.
and specifications will require a technical
procedure be developed for each Means of Generating and
individual test. In other cases, the same
procedure is used repeatedly. Detecting Acoustic Emissions
The procedure can take many forms. A Acoustic emission test techniques use
procedure may comprise general either operational or applied loads to
instructions that address only major stimulate emissions from a variety of
aspects of test techniques. Or a procedure sources. Most loads are designed to exceed
may be written as a step-by-step process the previous maximum load that the
requiring a supervisor’s signature after material has seen unless the application is
each step. The following is a typical one of continuous monitoring. For these
format for an industrial procedure. cases, upsets in the operational loads or
1. The purpose identifies the intent of the fatigue may give rise to emissions. The
procedure. magnitudes, time lags and frequency
2. The scope establishes the latitude of content of the resulting acoustic emission
items, tests and techniques covered are taken into account during data
and not covered by the procedure. interpretation. The acoustic emission is
3. References are specific documents from sensed by using transducers such as
which criteria are extracted or are surface mounted, piezoelectric, resonant
documents satisfied by devices.
implementation of the procedure.
4. Definitions are needed for terms and Acoustic Emission Test Frequencies
abbreviations that are not common A single acoustic emission test system can
knowledge to people who will read the be used for many different measurements
procedure. through the selection of test frequencies.
5. Statements about personnel These frequencies are usually those that
requirements address specific correspond to bandwidths that match the
requirements to perform tasks in resonant frequency of the acoustic
accordance with the procedure — emission transducer designed for a specific
issues such as personnel qualification, application. Frequency is measured in
certification and access clearance. hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per

second. The range of audible frequencies parts that do not contain rejectable
for most adult humans is about 0.02 to discontinuities, with the result of
16 kHz. Most industrial acoustic emission unnecessary scrap and repair. Neither
tests are made in the frequency range scenario is desirable.
between 20 to 1200 kHz.
Most types of acoustic emission test
equipment provide either variable
frequency or several fixed frequency steps. Acoustic Emission Test
Thus, appropriate frequencies can be Standards
readily selected by the test expert to meet
special requirements. Low frequencies are Traditionally, the purpose of specifications
typically used in applications where it is and standards has been to define the
desirable to minimize the number of requirements that goods or services must
sensors and where the emission source is meet. As such, they are intended to be
undetectable at higher frequencies. High incorporated into contracts so that both
test frequencies can be used for the buyer and provider have a well
applications where low frequency defined description of what one will
background noise prevents detection of receive and the other will provide.
the desired acoustic emission. High Standards have undergone a process of
frequencies are also used for applications peer review in industry and can be
where the sensor is placed close enough invoked with the force of law by contract
to the source so that attenuation does not or by government regulation. In contrast,
affect detection. a specification represents an employer’s
instructions to employees and is specific
to a contract or work place. Many a
Interpretation specification originates as a detailed
Interpretation may be complex, especially description either as part of a purchaser’s
before a procedure has been established. requirements or as part of a vendor’s offer.
The interpreter must have a knowledge of Specifications may be incorporated into
the following: (1) the underlying physical standards through the normal review
process including wave propagation in the process. Standards and specifications exist
test item, (2) techniques and equipment in three basic areas: equipment, processes
used to obtain the data and displays, and personnel.
(3) details about the item being examined 1. Standards for acoustic emission
(configuration, material properties, equipment include criteria that
fabrication process, potential address transducers and other parts of
discontinuities and intended service a system.
conditions) and (4) possible sources of 2. ASTM International and other
noise that might be mistaken for organizations publish standards for
legitimate acoustic emission. test techniques. Some other standards
After interpretation, acceptance criteria are for quality assurance procedures
are applied in a phase called evaluation. and are not specific to a test method
or even to testing in general. Tables 3
Reliability of Test Results and 4 list some standards used in
acoustic emission testing. The United
When a test is performed, there are four States Department of Defense has
possible outcomes: (1) a rejectable replaced most military specifications
discontinuity can be found when one is and standards with industry consensus
present, (2) a rejectable discontinuity can specifications and standards. A source
be missed even when one is present, (3) a for nondestructive test standards is the
rejectable discontinuity can be indicated Annual Book of ASTM Standards.5
when none is present and (4) no 3. Qualification and certification of
rejectable discontinuity is found when testing personnel are discussed below
none is present. A reliable testing process with specific reference to
and a qualified inspector should find all recommendations of ASNT
discontinuities of concern with no Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.6
discontinuities missed (no errors as in
case 2 above) and no false calls (case 3
above).
To approach this goal, the probability
of finding a rejectable discontinuity must Personnel Qualification
be high and the inspector must be both and Certification
proficient in the testing process and One of the most critical aspects of the test
motivated to perform with maximum process is the qualification of testing
efficiency. An ineffective inspector may personnel. Nondestructive testing is
accept parts that contain discontinuities, sometimes referred to as a special process.
with the result of possible inservice part The term simply means that it is very
failure. The same inspector may reject difficult to determine the adequacy of a

TABLE 3. Some standards for acoustic emission testing.
Issuing Organization Representative Standards and Related Documents
American Gear Manufacturers Association AGMA 93FTM9, Gear Tooth Bending Fatigue Crack Detection by Acoustic Emissions and Tooth
Compliance Measurements.
American Petroleum Institute SPEC 16A, Specification for Drill through Equipment, first edition.
American Society for Nondestructive Testing ANSI/ASNT CP-189, ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel.
CARP Recommended Practice for Acoustic Emission Testing of Pressurized Highway Tankers
Made of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic with Balsa Cores.
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.
ASME International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 11, Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiber-
Reinforced Plastic Vessels.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 12, Acoustic Emission Examination of
Metallic Vessels during Pressure Testing.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 13, Continuous Acoustic Emission
Monitoring.
Association of American Railroads Procedure for Acoustic Emission Evaluation of Tank Cars and IM-101 Tanks, Issue 1, and
Annex Z thereto, “Test Method to Meet FRA Request for Draft Sill Inspection Program,
Docket T79.20-90 (BRW),” Preliminary 2.
Compressed Gas Association C-1, Methods for Acoustic Emission Requalification of Seamless Steel Compressed Gas Tubes.
European Committee for Standardization DIN EN 14584, Non-Destructive Testing — Acoustic Emission — Examination of Metallic
Pressure Equipment during Proof Testing; Planar Location of AE Sources.
EN 1330-9, Non-Destructive Testing — Terminology — Part 9, Terms Used in Acoustic
Emission Testing.
EN 13477-1, Non-Destructive Testing — Acoustic Emission — Equipment Characterization —
Part 1, Equipment Description.
EN 13477-2, Non-Destructive Testing — Acoustic Emission — Equipment Characterization —
Part 2, Verification of Operating Characteristics.
EN 13554, Non-Destructive Testing — Acoustic Emission — General Principles.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IEEE C57.127, Trial-Use Guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges
in Oil-Immersed Power Transformers.
International Organization for Standardization ISO 12713, Non-Destructive Testing — Acoustic Emission Inspection — Primary Calibration
of Transducers.
ISO 12714, Non-Destructive Testing — Acoustic Emission Inspection — Secondary Calibration
of Acoustic Emission Sensors.
ISO 12716, Non-Destructive Testing — Acoustic Emission Inspection — Vocabulary.
ISO/DIS 16148, Gas Cylinders — Refillable Seamless Steel Gas Cylinders — Acoustic Emission
Examination (AEE) for Periodic Inspection.
Japanese Institute for Standardization JIS Z 2342, Methods for Acoustic Testing of Pressure Vessels during Pressure Tests and
Classification of Test Results.
Japanese Society for Nondestructive Inspection NDIS 2106-79, Evaluation of Performance Characteristics of Acoustic Emission
Testing Equipment.
NDIS 2109-91, Methods for Absolute Calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by
Reciprocity Technique.
NDIS 2412-80, Acoustic Emission Testing of Spherical Pressure Vessel Made of High Tensile
Strength Steel and Classification of Test Results.
SAE International SAE J 1242, Acoustic Emission Test Methods.
Society of the Plastics Industry AF-103, Recommended Practice for Acoustic Emission Testing of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic
Resin (RP) Tanks/Vessels. Corresponds to ASTM E 1067.
Standards Australia AS 4748, Acoustic Emission Testing of Fibreglass-Insulated Booms on Elevating Work Platforms.
United States Department of Defense MIL-HDBK-732A, Nondestructive Testing Methods of Composite Materials Acoustic Emission.
MIL-HDBK-786, Field Assurance of Acoustic Emission System Operation Using Simulated
Acoustic Emission Events.
MIL-HDBK-788, Selection of Acoustic Emission Sensors.

TABLE 4. Acoustic emission testing standards published by ASTM International.
E 569 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structures during Controlled Stimulation.
E 650 Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Sensors.
E 749 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring during Continuous Welding.
E 750 Standard Practice for Characterizing Acoustic Emission Instrumentation.
E 751 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring during Resistance Spot-Welding.
E 976 Standard Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sensor Response.
E 1002 Standard Test Method for Leaks Using Ultrasonics.
E 1067 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels.
E 1106 Standard Method for Primary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors.
E 1118 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe (RTRP).
E 1139 Standard Practice for Continuous Monitoring of Acoustic Emission from Metal Pressure Boundaries.
E 1211 Standard Practice for Leak Detection and Location Using Surface-Mounted Acoustic Emission Sensors.
E 1316 Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations.
E 1419 Standard Test Method for Examination of Seamless, Gas-Filled, Pressure Vessels Using Acoustic Emission.
E 1495 Standard Guide for Acousto-Ultrasonic Assessment of Composites, Laminates, and Bonded Joints.
E 1736 Standard Practice for Acousto-Ultrasonic Assessment of Filament-Wound Pressure Vessels.
E 1781 Standard Practice for Secondary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors.
E 1888 Standard Test Method for Acoustic Emission Examination of Pressurized Containers Made of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic with Balsa
Wood Cores.
E 1930 Standard Test Method for Examination of Liquid-Filled Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Metal Storage Tanks Using Acoustic
Emission.
E 1932 Standard Guide for Acoustic Emission Examination of Small Parts.
E 2075 Standard Practice for Verifying the Consistency of AE-Sensor Response Using an Acrylic Rod.
E 2076 Standard Test Method for Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Fan Blades Using Acoustic Emission.
E 2191 Standard Test Method for Examination of Gas-Filled Filament-Wound Composite Pressure Vessels Using Acoustic Emission.
E 2374 Standard Guide for Acoustic Emission Performance Verification.
F 914 Standard Test Method for Acoustic Emission for Insulated and Non-Insulated Aerial Personnel Devices without Supplemental Load
Handling Attachments.
F 1430 Standard Test Method for Acoustic Emission Testing of Insulated and Non-Insulated Aerial Personnel Devices with Supplemental Load
Handling Attachments.
F 1797 Standard Test Method for Acoustic Emission Testing of Insulated Digger Derricks.
F 2174 Standard Practice for Verifying Acoustic Emission Sensor Response.
test by merely observing the process or 1. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A

the documentation generated at its provides guidelines for personnel
conclusion. The quality of the test is qualification and certification in
largely dependent on the skills and nondestructive testing. This
knowledge of the inspector. recommended practice identifies the
The American Society for specific attributes that should be
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) has been a considered when qualifying
world leader in the qualification and nondestructive testing personnel. It
certification of nondestructive testing requires the employer to develop and
personnel since the 1960s. (Qualification implement a written practice, a
demonstrates that an individual has the procedure that details the specific
required training, experience, knowledge process and any limitation in the
and abilities. Certification provides qualification and certification of
written testimony that an individual is nondestructive testing personnel.6
qualified.) By the twenty-first century, the 2. ANSI/ASNT CP-189, Standard for
American Society for Nondestructive Qualification and Certification of
Testing had instituted three major Nondestructive Testing Personnel
programs for the qualification and resembles SNT-TC-1A but also
certification of nondestructive testing establishes specific attributes for the
personnel. qualification and certification of
nondestructive testing personnel.
However, CP-189 is a consensus
standard as defined by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI). It
is recognized as the American standard
for nondestructive testing. It is not
considered a recommended practice; it
is a national standard.7

3. The ASNT Central Certification Program Training Programs ... Personnel being
(ACCP), unlike SNT-TC-1A and CP-189, considered for initial certification should
is a third party certification process complete sufficient organized training to
that identifies qualification and become thoroughly familiar with the
principles and practices of the specified
certification attributes for Level II and [nondestructive testing] method related to
Level III nondestructive testing the level of certification desired and
personnel. The American Society for applicable to the processes to be used and
Nondestructive Testing certifies that the products to be tested. …
the individual has the skills and Examinations … For Level I and II
knowledge for many nondestructive personnel, a composite grade should be
test method applications. It does not determined by simple averaging of the
remove the responsibility for the final results of the general, specific and practical
determination of personnel examinations described below. …
Examinations administered for
qualification from the employer. The qualification should result in a passing
employer evaluates an individual’s composite grade of at least 80 percent, with
skills and knowledge for application of no individual examination having a
company procedures using designated passing grade less than 70 percent. …
techniques and equipment identified Practical [Examination for NDT Level I
for specific tests.8 and II] … The candidate should
demonstrate … ability to operate the
necessary [nondestructive testing]
Excerpts from Recommended equipment [and to] record and analyze the
resultant information to the degree
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A required. ... At least one … specimen
To give a general idea of the contents of should be tested and the results of the
these documents, the following items are [nondestructive testing] analyzed by the
specified in the 2001 edition of candidate. …
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.6 The Certification … Certification of all levels of
[nondestructive testing] personnel is the
following text has been excerpted and responsibility of the employer. …
adapted. The original text is arranged in Certification of [nondestructive testing]
outline format and includes personnel shall be based on demonstration
recommendations that are not specific to of satisfactory qualification in accordance
acoustic emission testing. with [sections on education, training,
Scope … This Recommended Practice has experience and examinations] as described
been prepared to establish guidelines for in the employer’s written practice. …
the qualification and certification of Personnel certification records shall be
[nondestructive testing] personnel whose [retained] by the employer. …
specific jobs require appropriate knowledge Recertification … All levels of
of the technical principles underlying the [nondestructive testing] personnel shall be
nondestructive tests they perform, witness, recertified periodically in accordance with
monitor, or evaluate. … This document [one of the following:] continuing
provides guidelines for the establishment of satisfactory technical performance [and
a qualification and certification reexamination in] those portions of the
program. … examinations … deemed necessary by the
Written Practice ... The employer shall employer’s [NDT] Level III. …
establish a written practice for the control Recommended maximum recertification
and administration of [nondestructive intervals are [three years for Level I and II
testing] personnel training, examination and five years for Level III]. …
and certification. … The employer’s written
practice should describe the responsibility
of each level of certification for
determining the acceptability of materials TABLE 5. Recommended training and experience for
or components in accordance with the
acoustic emission testing personnel according to
applicable codes, standards, specifications
and procedures. … Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.6
Education, Training and Experience Level I Level II
Requirements for Initial Qualification ...
Candidates for certification in High school graduatea 40 h 40 h
[nondestructive testing] should have
sufficient education, training and Two years of collegeb 32 h 40 h
experience to ensure qualification in those Work experiencec 210 h 630 h
[nondestructive testing] methods in which a. Or equivalent.
they are being considered for certification.
b. Completion with a passing grade of at least two years of engineering or
… Table 6.3.1A [see Table 5 in this science study in a university, college or technical school.
Nondestructive Testing Handbook chapter, for
c. Minimum work experience per level. Note: For Level II certification, the
acoustic emission testing] lists the experience shall consist of time as Level I or equivalent. If a person is
recommended training and experience being qualified directly to Level II with no time at Level I, the required
factors to be considered by the employer in experience shall consist of the sum of the times required for Level I and
establishing written practices for initial Level II and the required training shall consist of the sum of the hours
qualification of Level I and II individuals … required for Level I and Level II.

The minimum number of questions 2. Provide proper safety equipment
that should be administered in the (protective barriers, hard hats, safety
written examination for acoustic emission harnesses, steel toed shoes, hearing
test personnel is as follows: 40 questions protection and others).
in the general examination and 3. Before the test, perform a thorough
20 questions in the specific examination. visual survey to determine all the
The number of questions is the same for hazards and to identify necessary
Level I and Level II personnel. safeguards to protect test personnel
These recommendations from the 2001 and equipment.
edition of Recommended Practice 4. Notify operative personnel to identify
No. SNT-TC-1A are cited only to provide the location and specific material,
an idea of the specific items that must be equipment or systems to be tested. In
considered in the development of an addition, it must be determined
in-house nondestructive testing program. whether signs or locks restrict access
Because the items are excerpted, those by personnel. Be aware of equipment
developing a personnel qualification that may be operated remotely or may
program should consult the complete text be started by time delay.
of SNT-TC-1A and other applicable 5. Be aware of any potentially explosive
procedures and practices. If an outside atmospheres. Determine whether it is
agency is contracted for acoustic emission safe to take test equipment into the
test services, then the contractor must area.
have a qualification and certification 6. Do not enter any roped off or no entry
program to satisfy most codes and areas without permission and
standards. approval.
7. When working on or around moving
Central Certification or electrical equipment, the inspector
should remove pens, watches, rings or
Another standard that may be a source for objects in pockets that may touch (or
compliance is published by the fall into) energized equipment.
International Organization for 8. Know interplant communication and
Standardization (ISO). The work of evacuation systems.
preparing international standards is 9. Never let unqualified personnel
normally carried out through technical operate equipment independently
committees of this worldwide federation from qualified supervision.
of national standards bodies. Each ISO 10. Keep a safe distance between the
member body interested in a subject for inspector and any energized
which a technical committee has been equipment. In the United States, these
established has the right to be represented distances can be found in documents
on that committee. International from the Occupational Safety and
organizations, governmental and Health Administration, the National
nongovernmental, in liaison with the Fire Prevention Association (National
International Organization for Electric Code),10 the Institute of
Standardization, also take part in the Electrical and Electronics Engineers
work. (National Electrical Safety Code)11 and
Technical Committee ISO/TC 135, other organizations.
Non-Destructive Testing Subcommittee 11. Be aware of the personnel
SC 7, Personnel Qualification, prepared responsibilities before entering a
international standard ISO 9712, confined space. All such areas must be
Nondestructive Testing – Qualification and tested satisfactorily for gas and oxygen
Certification of Personnel.9 Acoustic levels before entry and periodically
emission testing is mentioned in the thereafter. If odors are noticed or if
standard’s statement of scope. unusual sensations such as ear aches,
dizziness or difficulty in breathing are
experienced, leave the area
immediately.
Safety in Acoustic Emission
Most facilities in the United States are
Testing required by law to follow the
To manage an acoustic emission testing requirements in the applicable standard.
program, as with any testing program, the Two occupational safety and health
first obligation is to ensure safe working standards in the United States that should
conditions. The following are components be reviewed are Occupational Safety and
of a safety program that may be required Health Standards for general industry12 and
or at least deserve serious consideration. the Occupational Safety and Health
1. Before work is to begin, identify the Standards for the Construction Industry.13
safety and operational rules and codes Personnel safety is always the first
applicable to the areas, equipment and consideration for every job.
systems to be tested.

PART 3. History of Acoustic Emission Testing14
Early Observations of Recording Acoustic

Acoustic Emission Emission
Acoustic emission and microseismic The transition from the incidental
activity occur naturally. Although it is not observation of audible tin cry to the
known exactly when the first acoustic deliberate study of acoustic emission
emissions were heard, fracture processes phenomena consisted of four separate and
such as the snapping of twigs, the unrelated experiments in which
cracking of rocks and the breaking of instrumentation was used to detect,
bones were probably among the earliest amplify and record acoustic emission
occasions. The first acoustic emission used events occurring in the test objects.
by an artisan may well have been in The first of these experiments was
making pottery thousands of years before performed in Japan in 1933 by
recorded history. To assess the quality of seismologist Fuyuhiko Kishinouye. To
their products, potters traditionally relied study fracture of the earth’s crust as the
on the audible cracking sounds of clay cause of earthquakes, Kishinouye designed
vessels cooling in the kiln. These acoustic and performed a series of conceptual
emissions were accurate indications that experiments to amplify and record the
the ceramics were structurally failing. acoustic emission from the fracture of
The first observation of acoustic wood.16 The instrumentation he used
emission in metals may have been what is consisted of a three-tube amplifier from a
MOVIE. Plastic called tin cry, the audible emission seismograph and a phonograph pickup
deformation produced by mechanical twinning of pure with a steel needle inserted into the
causes cry of tin during plastic deformation. This tension side of a wooden board to which
tin. phenomenon could occur only after a bending stress was applied to cause
humans learned to smelt pure tin, because fracture. The oscillograms made by
tin is found in nature only in the oxide Kishinouye showing “many rapid
form. It has been established that inaudible vibrations and cracking sounds
smelting (of copper) began in Asia Minor from fracture of wooden board” were
as early as 3700 B.C. recordings of acoustic emission
The first documented observations of waveforms.17
acoustic emission may have been made by Another series of acoustic emission
the eighth century Arabian alchemist experiments was conducted in Germany
Geber. His book was published in a Latin and the results published in 1936 by
edition in 1545. In it, Geber writes that Friedrich Förster and Erich Scheil.18 Their
tin emits a harsh sound or crashing noise. experiments consisted of measuring
He also describes iron as sounding much extremely small voltage changes,
during forging. This sounding of iron was resistance variations produced by sudden,
most likely produced by the formation of jerky strain movements caused by
martensite during cooling.15 martensitic transformations in a wire
Since the time of the alchemists, shaped nickel steel test specimen. Förster
audible emissions have become known had built an electrodynamic transmitter
and recognized properties of cadmium and receiver system to transform
and zinc as well as tin. Tin cry is mechanical vibration and acoustic
commonly mentioned in books on emission into electrical voltages that
chemistry published in the last half of the could then be amplified and recorded.
nineteenth century. Around the turn of In the United States, Warren P. Mason,
the twentieth century, metals researchers Herbert J. McSkimin and William
began to develop modern metallurgy. A Shockley performed and published a series
great deal of study was done on twinning of instrumented acoustic emission
and martensitic phase transformation. Tin experiments in 1948.19 Shockley had
and zinc were historically well suggested that they perform the
documented and two of the best metals experiments to observe moving
for studying these phenomena. During dislocations by means of the stress waves
these studies, it was normal to hear the they generate. The experiment consisted
sounds emitted by metals such as tin, of pressing a specimen of pure tin directly
zinc, cadmium and some alloys of iron. against a quartz crystal transducer and

then applying sufficient stress to deform materials engineering. His initial research
the specimen and cause twinning was to verify the findings of Kaiser and
dislocations, which in turn produced the primary purpose of this early work
acoustic emission. Their instrumentation was to determine the source of acoustic
was capable of measuring displacements emissions. Schofield performed an
of about 0.1 nm occurring in episodes of extensive investigation into how surface
1 µs. The quartz crystal they used had a and volume effects related to acoustic
uniform sensitivity from a few kilohertz emission behavior. Experimental data
to 5 MHz. obtained from oriented single crystals of
A fourth instrumented experiment was aluminum (both with and without an
performed in the United Kingdom by oxide layer) and from oriented single
D.J. Millard in 1950 during research for crystals of gold helped him conclude that
his dissertation at the University of surface condition does have a measurable
Bristol.20 He conducted twinning influence on the acoustic emission
experiments on single crystal wires of spectrum. However, Schofield’s most
cadmium. Twinning was detected using a important conclusion was that acoustic
rochelle salt transducer. emission is mainly a volume effect and
not a surface effect. Schofield published
Kaiser’s Study of Sources this pioneering work in several reports
introducing the term acoustic emission.23,24
The early observations of audible sounds In 1956, Lawrence E. Malvern at
and the four instrumented experiments Michigan State University came across a
were not directed at a study of the one-page article on audible vibrations
acoustic emission phenomenon itself, nor during deformation by Wilhelm Späth.25
did the researchers carry on any further The article referenced the observations by
investigations in acoustic emission. The Kaiser and others about noises. Interested
genesis of today’s technology of acoustic in studying the asperity theory of friction,
emission was the work of Josef Kaiser at Malvern suggested to a new faculty
the Technische Hochschule München in member, Clement A. Tatro, that this
Germany.21 acoustic technique would be interesting to
In 1950, Kaiser published his investigate. Consequently, Tatro initiated
dissertation where he reported the first laboratory studies of acoustic emission
comprehensive investigation into the phenomena.
phenomenon of acoustic emission.22 In 1957, Tatro became aware of the
Kaiser used tensile tests of conventional work of Schofield and the two began
engineering materials to determine: collaborating. Tatro thought that research
(1) what noises are generated from within programs in acoustic emission could
the test object, (2) the acoustic processes follow one of two rather well defined
involved, (3) the frequency levels found branches: (1) to pursue studies concerned
and (4) the relation between the with the physical mechanisms that give
stress-strain curve and the frequencies rise to acoustic emission to completely
noted for the various stresses to which the understand the phenomenon; or (2) using
test objects were subjected. acoustic emission as a tool to study some
His most significant discovery was the of the vexing problems of behavior of
irreversibility phenomenon that now engineering materials.26 Tatro also foresaw
bears his name, the kaiser effect. He also the unique potential of acoustic emission
proposed a distinction between burst and as a nondestructive test procedure.27 His
continuous emission. Kaiser concluded enthusiasm for this new technology
that the occurrence of acoustic emission sparked the interest of a number of
arises from frictional rubbing of grains graduate students at Michigan State who
against each other in the polycrystalline chose acoustic emission as the subject of
materials he tested and also from their research projects. In 1966, Tatro
intergranular fracture. joined the staff at Lawrence Radiation
Kaiser continued his research in Laboratory, which later became Lawrence
Munich until his death in March 1958. Livermore National Laboratory.
His work provided the momentum for Schofield and Tatro encouraged others
continued activities at his institute and to become involved in research activity in
elsewhere in the world. the field of acoustic emission testing. That
encouragement, combined with the
Research in the United States impact of their published work (the first
publications in the English language),
The first extensive research into acoustic helped establish acoustic emission
emission phenomena following Kaiser’s research and application around the
work was performed in the United States country.
by Bradford H. Schofield. In December Julian R. Frederick at the University of
1954, Schofield initiated a research Michigan had been engaged in research in
program directed toward the application ultrasonics since he was a graduate
of acoustic emission to the field of student under Floyd A. Firestone in 1939.

FIGURE 12. Solid rocket motor fractured in hydrostatic proof test: (a) photograph; (b) acoustic
emission map of fracture paths, viewed as if looking at inside surface of unrolled cylinder.
(a)
(b)

His interest in acoustic emission, In the spring of 1967, a number of
particularly for studying dislocation researchers were investigating the
mechanisms, was excited in 1948 after phenomena of acoustic emission and
reading about Mason, McSkimin and publishing reports of their work but
Shockley’s experiment.19 Frederick visited without a means of centralized
both Schofield and Tatro in the late communication. There were differences in
1950s. In 1960, Frederick obtained a terminology and experimental
National Science Foundation grant to techniques, generally reflecting the
begin his research in acoustic emission. researchers’ educational background and
field of expertise. Jack C. Spanner
Aerospace Industry contacted a dozen people with interest or
experience in the field of acoustic
At a California based aerospace company, emission and invited them to participate
Allen T. Green, Charles S. Lockman and in the formation and organization of the
Richard K. Steele were trying to verify the Acoustic Emission Working Group. The
structural integrity of Polaris rocket motor first meeting was held, informally,
cases fabricated for the United States in 1967.
Navy. They noticed that audible sounds Acoustic emission working groups were
were consistently evident during also organized in Japan and Europe.
hydrostatic testing and decided to Through the forum provided by these
instrument the vessels to detect, record groups, an international exchange of
and then analyze the acoustic signals. information and cooperation developed
Their first acoustic emission test was for addressing specific areas. Information
conducted in 1961, using contact on the history of acoustic emission
microphones, a tape recorder and sound developments has been published in more
level analysis equipment.28 detail elsewhere.14,31
As part of the contract with the In the closing years of the twentieth
National Aeronautics and Space century, the publication of the acoustic
Administration, Green, Lockman and emission volume of the Nondestructive
Steele in 1965 instrumented a 6.6 m Testing Handbook in 1987 and the
(21.7 ft) diameter solid rocket motor case certification of inspectors together
to monitor the vessel during hydrostatic demonstrated that the technology was
proof testing (Fig. 12). Analysis of the tape mature and had found widespread
recorded acoustic emission data clearly acceptance by industry.4
showed crack initiation and propagation
prior to catastrophic failure at about
56 percent of pressure. From the recorded
test data and triangulation techniques,
they were able to locate the origin of
failure within 0.3 m (1 ft).29
Acoustic Emission Community

Harold L. Dunegan at Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory became interested in acoustic
emission after hearing a paper by Tatro
and Liptai at a symposium in San
Antonio, Texas, in 1962.27 Research at
Livermore began in 1963 as a result of
Dunegan’s internal report proposing the
application of acoustic emission
techniques to pressure vessel research.30
Activities by him and coworkers involved
a broad spectrum of acoustic emission
research and applications. In 1969,
Dunegan and Paul L. Knauss left the
laboratory and formed a company
devoted exclusively to the manufacture of
acoustic emission equipment.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s,
research and development in acoustic
emission testing was undertaken in the
United States by national laboratories and
in the aviation, nuclear and petroleum
industries. In the United Kingdom, the
method was developed at Imperial
College, London, and at the Atomic
Energy Research Establishment, Harwell.

PART 4. Measurement Units for Acoustic
Emission Testing
Origin and Use of the SI Multipliers

System In science and engineering, very large or
In 1960, the General Conference on very small numbers with units are
Weights and Measures established the expressed by using the SI multipliers,
International System of Units. Le Systéme prefixes of 103 intervals (Table 9). The
International d’Unités (SI) was designed so multiplier becomes a property of the SI
that a single set of measurement units unit. For example, a millimeter (mm) is
could be used by all branches of science, 0.001 meter (m). The volume unit cubic
engineering and the general public. centimeter (cm3) is (0.01 m)3 or 10–6 m3.
Without SI, the Nondestructive Testing Unit submultiples such as the centimeter,
Handbook series would contain a decimeter, dekameter and hectometer are
confusing mix of obsolete avoided in scientific and technical uses of
centimeter-gram-second (CGS) units, SI because of their variance from the
imperial units and the units preferred by convenient 103 or 10–3 intervals that
certain localities or scientific specialties. make equations easy to manipulate.
SI is the modern version of the metric In SI, the distinction between upper
system and ends the division between and lower case letters is meaningful and
metric units used by scientists and metric
units used by engineers and the public.
Scientists have given up their units based
on centimeter and gram and engineers TABLE 7. SI derived units with special names.a
have abandoned the kilogram-force in Relation
favor of the newton. Electrical engineers to Other
have retained the ampere, volt and ohm Quantity Units Symbol SI Unitsb
but changed all units related to
magnetism. Capacitance farad F C·V–1
Table 6 lists the seven SI base units. Catalytic activity katal kat s–1 ·mol
Table 7 lists derived units with special Conductance siemens S A·V–1
names. Table 8 gives examples of Energy joule J N·m
conversions to SI units. In SI, the unit of Frequency (periodic) hertz Hz 1·s–1
time is the second (s) but hour (h) is Force newton N kg·m·s–2
recognized for use with SI.
Inductance henry H Wb·A–1
For more information, the reader is
referred to the information available Illuminance lux lx lm·m–2
through national standards organizations Luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr
and specialized information compiled by Electric charge coulomb C A·s
technical organizations.32-35 Electric potentialc volt V W·A–1
Electric resistance ohm Ω V·A–1
Magnetic flux weber Wb V·s
Magnetic flux density tesla T Wb·m–2
TABLE 6. SI base units. Plane angle radian rad 1
Quantity Unit Symbol Power watt W J·s–1
Pressure (stress) pascal Pa N·m–2
Length meter m
Radiation absorbed dose gray Gy J·kg–1
Mass kilogram kg
Radiation dose equivalent sievert Sv J·kg–1
Time second s
Radioactivity becquerel Bq 1·s–1
Electric current ampere A
Solid angle steradian sr 1
Temperature kelvin K
Temperature, celsius degree celsius °C K
Amount of substance mole mol
Timea hour h 3600 s
Luminous intensity candela cd
Volumea liter L dm3
a. Hour and liter are not SI units but are accepted for use with the SI.
b. Number one (1) expresses a dimensionless relationship.
c. Electromotive force.

TABLE 8. Examples of conversions to SI units.
Quantity Measurement in Non-SI Unit Multiply by To Get Measurement in SI Unit
Angle minute (min) 2.908 882 × 10–4 radian (rad)

degree (deg) 1.745 329 × 10–2 radian (rad)
Area square inch (in.2) 645 square millimeter (mm2)
Distance angstrom (Å) 0.1 nanometer (nm)
inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)
Energy British thermal unit (BTU) 1.055 kilojoule (kJ)
calorie (cal), thermochemical 4.184 joule (J)
Power British thermal unit per hour (BTU·h–1) 0.293 watt (W)
Specific heat British thermal unit per pound 4.19 kilojoule per kilogram per kelvin (kJ·kg–1·K–1)
degree fahrenheit (BTU·lbm–1·°F–1)
Force (torque, couple) foot-pound (ft-lbf) 1.36 joule (J)
Pressure pound force per square inch (lbf·in.–2) 6.89 kilopascal (kPa)
Frequency (cycle) cycle per minute 60–1 hertz (Hz)
Illuminance footcandle (ftc) 10.76 lux (lx)
phot (ph) 10 000 lux (lx)
Luminance candela per square foot (cd·ft–2) 10.76 candela per square meter (cd·m–2)
candela per square inch (cd·in.–2) 1 550 candela per square meter (cd·m–2)
footlambert (ftl) 3.426 candela per square meter (cd·m–2)
lambert 3 183 (= 10 000 ÷ π) candela per square meter (cd·m–2)
nit (nt) 1 candela per square meter (cd·m–2)
stilb (sb) 10 000 candela per square meter (cd·m–2)
Radioactivity curie (Ci) 37 gigabecquerel (GBq)
Ionizing radiation exposure roentgen (R) 0.258 millicoulomb per kilogram (mC·kg–1)
Mass pound (lbm) 0.454 kilogram (kg)
Temperature (increment) degree fahrenheit (°F) 0.556 kelvin (K) or degree celsius (°C)
Temperature (scale) degree fahrenheit (°F) (°F – 32) ÷ 1.8 degree celsius (°C)
Temperature (scale) degree fahrenheit (°F) (°F – 32) ÷ 1.8 + 273.15 kelvin (K)
should be observed. For example, the processing may analyze and store data in
meanings of the prefix m (milli) and the terms of distance in meter (m), velocity in
prefix M (mega) differ by nine orders of meter per second (m·s–1), acceleration in
magnitude. meter per second per second (m·s–2),
signal strength in volt·second (V·S),
energy in joule (J), signal in volt (V) or
power in watt (W).
Units for Acoustics
Hertz
Pressure, Displacement and Frequencies usually correspond to
Related Quantities bandwidths for specific applications.
Acoustic emission is a shock wave inside a Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz),
stressed material, where a displacement where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.
(unit of distance) ripples through the
material and moves its surface. A Bel and Decibel
transducer on that surface undergoes this The term loudness refers to amplitude in
displacement as a pressure. The pressure is audible frequencies. Some acoustic waves
measured as force per unit area in pascal are audible; others have frequencies above
(Pa), equivalent to newton per square or below audible frequencies (ultrasonic
meter (N·m–2). The signal from the or subsonic, respectively). A signal at an
transducer is sometimes related to velocity inaudible frequency has measurable
(m·s–1), displacement (m) or acceleration amplitude but is not called loud or soft.
(m·s–2). A customary unit for measuring the
Properties of piezoelectric transducers amplitude of an acoustic signal is the
are related to electric charge: a pressure on decibel (dB), one tenth of a bel (B). The
the element creates a charge (measured in decibel is extensively used in acoustics
coulomb) on the electrodes. A rapidly and electronics. The decibel is not a fixed
changing pressure alters the charge fast measurement unit but rather expresses a
enough to allow the use of either voltage logarithmic ratio between two conditions
or charge amplifiers. After this, signal of the same dimension (such as voltage or

energy). In auditory acoustics, an arbitrary
sound pressure such as 20 µPa can be used
for the reference level of 0 dB. In acoustic
emission, the reference level 0 dBAE is
defined as a signal of 1 µV at the
transducer before any amplification.
The fundamental decibel is:
P
(1) N dB = 10 log10
P0
where P is the measured power and P0 is

the reference power in watts. In a sense,
the power is a square function of voltage:
2
⎛V⎞
(2) N dB = 10 log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ V0 ⎠
V
= 20 log10
V0
where V is the measured potential and V0

is the reference potential in volts.
Because they are ratios of reference
values, bel and decibel are not part of the
International System of Units. There are
often two definitions given for the
decibel, so voltage decibel is sometimes
written dB(V).
TABLE 9. SI prefixes and multipliers.

Prefix Symbol Multiplier
yotta Y 1024
zetta Z 1021
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hectoa h 102
dekaa da 10
decia d 10–1
centia c 10–2
milli m 10–3
micro μ 10–6
nano n 10–9
pico p 10–12
femto f 10–15
atto a 10–18
zepto z 10–21
yocto y 10–24
a. Avoid these prefixes (except in dm3 and cm3) for
science and engineering.

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C O N TE N T S

Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Acoustic Emission Testing

Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Movie Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 1. Introduction to Acoustic

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Acoustic

Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission Signal

Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing

Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 13. Acoustic Emission

Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 11. Aerospace

Acoustic Emission Testing

Chapter 5. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 6. Acoustic Leak Testing

Chapter 7. Acoustic Emission

Chapter 13. Acoustic Emission

Marvin W. Trimm, Westinghouse Savannah River

the samples are poured down the drain

2 Acoustic Emission Testing

FIGURE 1. Fatigue cracks contributed to damage to aircraft

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 3

4 Acoustic Emission Testing

trace or radiograph); and (5) basis for the detection or characterization of

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 5

Objectives Attributes Measured or Detected

Discontinuities and Separations

No one nondestructive testing method must be detected and eliminated and if

6 Acoustic Emission Testing

Other Nondestructive Test

(b) FIGURE 4. Visual test using a borescope to

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 7

FIGURE 5. Liquid penetrant indication of

8 Acoustic Emission Testing

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 9

Image plane Discontinuity images

10 Acoustic Emission Testing

Source of tracer gas

Source of tracer gas

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 11

12 Acoustic Emission Testing

object. Nearly every kind of material

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 13

14 Acoustic Emission Testing

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 15

16 Acoustic Emission Testing

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 17

test by merely observing the process or 1. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A

18 Acoustic Emission Testing

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 19

20 Acoustic Emission Testing

Early Observations of Recording Acoustic

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 21

22 Acoustic Emission Testing

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 23

Acoustic Emission Community

24 Acoustic Emission Testing

Origin and Use of the SI Multipliers

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing 25